Adp Segi SJ Veerappan: Academic Writing

ADP
SEGi SJ
Senior Project: Finance
Academic Writing
Veerappan
16th April 2011
Under Section 107 of the Copyright Act 1976, allowance is made for "fair use" for purposes such as criticism, comment, news reporting, teaching, scholarship, and research. Fair use is a use permitted by copyright statute that might otherwise be infringing. Non-profit, educational or personal use tips the balance in favor of fair use. I am using these materials to teach and am not claiming ownership or copyrights.
Compiled by P.R. Veerappan
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SEGi SJ
Academic Writing
Veerappan
16th April 2011
Coming up with your topic

You should write about something that you are interested in, Period. Selecting a topic you have no or little interest in, but which you feel would make a good topic is a deadly mistake. It is very likely that you will produce a weak paper if you are not committed and invested in your selected topic. Strangely, it appears normal practice in SEGi to hope for a good grade even if the work submitted is unworthy of said good grade. This is true across all campuses and not peculiar to SJ.
Constructing an Informed Argument

What You Know When you sit down to write an academic paper, you'll first want to consider what you know about your topic. Ask yourself these questions: What do I know about my topic?

Can I answer the questions who, what, when, where, why, how? What do I know about the context of my topic? What historical or cultural influences do I know about that might be important to my topic? Does my topic belong to any particular genre or category of topics? What do I know about this genre?
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Academic Writing What seems important to me about this topic?


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If I were to summarize what I know about this topic, what points would I focus on? What points seem less important? Why do I think so?
How does this topic relate to other things that I know?
What do I know about the topic that might help my reader to understand it in new ways?
What DON'T I know about my topic?

What do I need to know? How can I find out more?
What You Think You'll discover as you consider the questions listed above that you are moving beyond what you know about a topic and are beginning to consider what you think.
In the process of really thinking about your topic, your aim is to come up with a fresh observation.
After all, it's not enough to summarize in a paper what is already known and talked about.
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Academic Writing
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You must also add something of your own to the Paper.

The main reason I am giving you this talk is because to a very large degree, none of my candidates for the senior project finance May 2011, have shown any level of original thought. At a bare minimum, I really need you to write something that is original for your projects. This should be something that you have thought of yourselves regarding your selected topic. This is by no means adequate but it was what I was expecting. I was a little upset 2 weeks ago (Im sorry if I came off angry) when I realized that there was totally no original thinking. Understand, however, that "adding something of your own" does not mean you can simply write about your own personal associations, reactions, or experiences in your project paper. Assuming you continue your studies after SEGi, you will be held to a higher standard than just putting in original feelings/opinions about your topic. What will be expected of a high standard paper is that you will create an informed argument; In order to do this you must first recognize that your writing should be analytical rather than personal. In other words, your writing must show that your associations, reactions, and experiences of a text have been framed in a critical, rather than a personal, way. How does one move from personal response to analytical writing?
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Academic Writing
Veerappan
16th April 2011
Summarize. First, summarize what the primary texts are saying. You'll notice that you can construct several different summaries, depending on your agenda
Evaluate. The process of evaluation is an ongoing one. You evaluate a text/source the moment you encounter it, and - if you aren't lazy you continue to evaluate and to re-evaluate as you go along. Evaluating a text is different from simply reacting to a text. When you evaluate for an academic purpose, it is important to be able to clearly articulate and to support your own personal response. What in the text is leading you to respond a certain way? What's not in the text that might be contributing to your response? In asking these questions, you are straddling two intellectual processes: experiencing your own personal response, and analyzing the text.
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Analyze. This step in constructing an informed argument asks you first to consider the parts of your topic and then to examine how these parts relate to each other or to the whole. When you analyze, you break the whole into parts so that you might see the whole differently. In the process of analysis, you find things that you might say.
Synthesize. When you analyze, you break down a text into its parts. When you synthesize, you look for connections between ideas. This intellectual exercise requires that you create an umbrella argument - some larger argument under which several observations and perspectives might stand.
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Academic Writing
Veerappan
16th April 2011
The Focus of your Senior Project What sort of paper is it that you are doing? Is it a Report? Or is it a Paper? In other words, are you looking for information (Report) or argument (Paper)? Chances are itll about making an argument. It will be up to you to narrow your topic and to make sure that it's appropriately academic. As you think about a topic, ask yourself the following questions:

Have you formed an intellectual question? In other words, have you constructed a question that will require a complex, thoughtful answer? Is the question provocative? Startling? Controversial? Fresh? Will you be able to answer this question adequately in a few pages? Or is the question impossibly broad? If the question seems broad, how might you narrow it? Does your question address both text and context? In other words, have you considered the historical and cultural circumstances that influenced this text? Have you considered what other scholars have said about it? Will your reader care about this question? Or will she say, "So what?"
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Write a Literature Review

1. Introduction Not to be confused with a book review, a literature review surveys scholarly articles, books and other sources (e.g. dissertations, conference proceedings) relevant to a particular issue, area of research, or theory, providing a description, summary, and critical evaluation of each work. The purpose is to offer an overview of significant literature published on a topic. 2. Components Similar to primary research, development of the literature review requires four stages:

Problem formulationwhich topic or field is being examined and what are its component issues? Literature searchfinding materials relevant to the subject being explored Data evaluationdetermining which literature makes a significant contribution to the understanding of the topic Analysis and interpretationdiscussing the findings and conclusions of pertinent literature
Literature reviews should comprise the following elements:

An overview of the subject, issue or theory under consideration, along with the objectives of the literature review Division of works under review into categories (e.g. those in support of a particular position, those against, and those offering alternative theses entirely) Explanation of how each work is similar to and how it varies from the others Conclusions as to which pieces are best considered in their argument, are most convincing of their opinions, and make the greatest contribution to the understanding and development of their area of research
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In assessing each piece, consideration should be given to:
Provenancewhat are the author's credentials? Are the author's arguments supported by evidence (e.g. primary historical material, case studies, narratives, statistics, and recent scientific findings)? Objectivityis the author's perspective even-handed or prejudicial? Is contrary data considered or is certain pertinent information ignored to prove the author's point? Persuasivenesswhich of the author's theses are most/least convincing? Valueare the author's arguments and conclusions convincing? Does the work ultimately contribute in any significant way to an understanding of the subject?
3. Definition and Use/Purpose A literature review may constitute an essential chapter of a thesis or dissertation, or may be a self-contained review of writings on a subject. In either case, its purpose is to:

Place each work in the context of its contribution to the understanding of the subject under review Describe the relationship of each work to the others under consideration Identify new ways to interpret, and shed light on any gaps in, previous research Resolve conflicts amongst seemingly contradictory previous studies Identify areas of prior scholarship to prevent duplication of effort Point the way forward for further research Place one's original work (in the case of theses or dissertations) in the context of existing literature
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Academic Writing 16th April 2011 The literature review itself, however, does not present new primary scholarship.
SEGi SJ
Veerappan
For those of you who are just beginning your academic careers, here are some tips that might help you to survive:
Pay attention not only to what others are saying, but also to how they are saying it. Notice that sound arguments are never made without evidence.
Don't confuse evidence, assumption, and opinion. Evidence is something that you can prove. Assumption is something that one can safely infer from the evidence at hand. Opinion is your own particular interpretation of the evidence.
Pay attention to the requirements of an assignment. When asked for evidence, don't offer opinion. When asked for your opinion, don't simply present the facts. Too often students write summary when they are asked to write analysis. The assignment will cue you as to how to respond.
Familiarize yourself with new language. Every discipline has its own jargon. While you will want to avoid unnecessary use of jargon in your own writing, you will want to be sure before you write that you have a clear understanding of important concepts and terms.
Don't make the mistake of thinking that because something is in print it has cornered the market on truth. Your own interpretation of a text might be just as valid (or even more valid) than something you've found in the library or on the internet. Be critical of what you read, and have confidence that you might say as much.
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Pay attention to standards and rules. You will be expected you to write carefully and clearly. You are expected to ensure that your work is free of errors in grammar and style. You will be expected to follow the rules for citing sources and to turn in work that is indeed your own. If you have a question about my standards please ask me, I am contactable via e-mail at veera111@gmail.com.
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THE WRITING PROCESS - guidelines

I Collecting Information (also applies during Literature Review) Opinion is a fine thing, but in a college paper your opinions are only worthwhile if they are backed up by facts and arguments. You must collect information, and, since many topics will be new to you, it is worthwhile looking at the work and opinions of more than one author. You should certainly look at your textbook but also at other authors. Your professors will always be willing to give suggestions.
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II Recording Information (also applies during Literature Review)

It is no use to just read a book and then write. You must record what you read so that you can review it before and during the writing of the paper. There are a number of ways to do this: - You can mark the book - only if it is your own copy or a photocopy - with pencils or highlighting pens. You cannot use this method on Library books and it is of limited use as it can be difficult to locate what is really important if you have marked up half a book. It also reduces the resale value of books. - You can use 3"x5" index cards and note down one, or a series of connected facts, on a card. On the card, do not copy word for word or paraphrase too closely, it is best to simply write in your own words and note down the reference at the same time. (I
strongly recommend this method)
You then use the cards to organize the information in the way you want to use it in the paper. When you WRITE the paper, refer to your index cards and not the text. This will ensure that you will not quote the text too closely. After the paper is written, you can follow the reference to the text to check the accuracy of the citation. One problem is that you may get bogged down in detail. The other is that it can be difficult to review index cards at examination time. In general this is the method that is successful for most people. Make sure that you note down on each card the source of your information or you lose track of what each card means.
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III Thinking About the Topic

After you have read as much as you need, DO NOT just start to write. Think about what you have read, mull over it on a walk, or discuss it with friends. It is no use at all to just present your reading notes stuck between an introduction and a conclusion.
Thinking about it is the most important stage of writing a paper.
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IV The Plan
Sketch out on paper several ways of presenting your topic and your thoughts. You might think of doing this as a connected argument, or as a series of related headings organized in a way that makes sense of what you read. Another useful approach is to state, prove and defend a thesis. You must always write out a plan. It will help you to be clearer both in papers and in tests. It is in fact another way of thinking about your topic.
V Writing and Editing

You cannot expect to just write out a paper and hand it in. Typos alone will demand at least one re-type. So why not throw out the idea that what you write must be perfect first time? It is a good writing technique to just WRITE down your thoughts as they come into your head (always keeping an eye on your paper plan). Do not stop to edit or correct spelling and grammatical mistakes. WRITING and EDITING are different skills. Even though you may think what you are writing is bad or plain stupid, once you have got it down on paper you can go back and look at what you have written.
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At that stage you can begin to knock it into shape, correct spelling and grammar and improve your style. Almost everybody thinks that what they are writing is bad at the time they write it: your aim is to find a way around this mental block. You should note that in an exam, conditions force you to write and edit at the same time, however, the technique described here should help to improve your confidence in writing.
VI Finishing Touches
Before you hand a paper in make sure it looks good. Eliminate spelling and grammatical errors. Make sure all your references are noted. Add a booklist. Type the paper cleanly.
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Appendix 1 Styles of referencing
Preferred styles of referencing differ both between universities and between departments within universities. Even styles that are in wide use such as Harvard vary in how they are used in practice by different institutions. When this is combined with the reality that some lecturers apply an adopted style strictly, whilst others are more lenient, it emphasises the need for you to use the precise style prescribed in your assessment criteria. Within business and management, two referencing styles predominate, the Harvard style and the American Psychological Association (APA) style, both of which are author-date systems. The alternative, numeric systems, are used far less widely. Four points are important when referencing:
Credit must be given when quoting or citing others work. Adequate information must be provided in the reference to enable that work to be located. References must be consistent and complete. References must be recorded using precisely the style required by your university.
Author-date systems
The Harvard style
Referencing in the text
The Harvard style is an author-date system, a variation of which we use in this book. It appears to have its origins in a referencing practice developed by a professor of anatomy at Harvard University (Neville 2007) and usually uses the authors name and year of publication to identify cited documents within the text. All references are listed alphabetically at the end of the text. Common variations within the Harvard style which are applied consistently include (Neville 2007):
Name(s) of authors or organisations may or may not be in UPPER CASE. Where there are more than two authors, the names of the second and subsequent authors
may or may not be replaced by et al. in italics.
The year of publication may or may not be enclosed in (brackets). The title of the publication may be in italics or may be underlined.
The style for referencing work in the text is outlined in Table A1.1.
Referencing in the references or bibliography

In the references or bibliography the publications are listed alphabetically by authors name, and all authors surnames and initials are normally listed in full. If there is more than one work by the same author, these are listed chronologically. The style for referencing work in the references or bibliography is outlined in Table A1.2. While it would be impossible for us to include
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Table A1.1 Using the Harvard style to reference in the text To refer to A single author Dual authors More than two authors Work by different authors generally Different authors with the same surname Different works by the same author Different works by the same author from the same year An author referred to by another author where the original has not been read (secondary reference) A corporate author A newspaper article with no obvious author Another type of work with no obvious author An Internet site A television or radio programme A commercial DVD or video that is part of a series A commercial DVD or video that is not part of a series A work for which the year of publication cannot be identified A direct quotation Use the general format (Surname year) (Surname and Surname year) (Surname et al. year) (Surname year, Surname year) in alphabetical order (Surname Initial year) (Surname year, year) in ascending year order (Surname year letter), make sure the letter is consistent throughout (Surname year, cited by Surname year) For example (Saunders 2007) (Saunders and Thornhill 2006) (Lewis et al. 2004) (Cassell 2004, Dillman 2000, Robson 2002) (Smith J 2008) (Saunders 2004, 2005) (de Vita 2006a)
(Granovetter 1974, cited by Saunders 1993)
(Corporate name year) (Newspaper name year) (Publication title year) (Source organisation year) (Television or radio programme series title year) (DVD or video series title year) (DVD or video title year) (Surname or Corporate name nd), where nd means no year (Surname or Corporate name c. year) where c. means circa (Surname or Corporate name, year, p. ###) where p. means page and ### is the page in the original publication on which the quotation appears
(Harley-Davidson Inc. 2008) (The Guardian 2008) (Labour Market Trends 2005) (Financial Times 2008) (Today Programme 2008) (The Office Series 1 and 2 2005) (One Flew Over the Cuckoos Nest 2002) (Woollons nd) (Hattersley c. 2004) Whenever an employees job ceases to exist it is potentially fair to dismiss that person. (Lewis et al. 2003, p. 350)
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Styles of referencing
Table A1.2 Using the Harvard style to reference in the references or bibliography
To reference Books, chapters in books and brochures Book (first edition) Use the general format Surname, Initials. and Surname, Initials. (year). Title. Place of publication: Publisher. For example Berman Brown, R. and Saunders, M. (2008). Dealing with statistics: What you need to know. Maidenhead: Open University Press. Morris, C. (2003). Quantitative approaches to business studies. (6th edn). London: Financial Times Pitman Publishing. Mintel Marketing Intelligence. (1998). Designerwear: Mintel marketing intelligence report. London: Mintel International Group Ltd. Robson, C. (2002). Real World Research. (2nd edn). Oxford: Blackwell. Chapter 3.
Book (other than first edition)
Surname, Initials. and Surname, Initials. (year). Title. (# edn) Place of publication: Publisher. Corporate name or Publication name. (year). Title. Place of publication: Publisher.
Book (no obvious author)
Chapter in a book
Surname, Initials. and Surname, Initials. (year). Title. Place of publication: Publisher. Chapter #. Surname, Initials. (year). Chapter title. In Initials. Surname and Initials. Surname (eds) Title. Place of publication: Publisher. pp. ###-###. Surname, Initials. (year). Title. (# edn). Place of Publication: Publisher. pp. ######.
Chapter in an edited book containing a collection of articles (sometimes called a reader) Dictionary and other reference books where is an author or editor and referring to particular entry Dictionary and other reference books where no author or editor and referring to particular entry Brochure
King, N. (2004). Using templates in the thematic analysis of text. In C. Cassell and J. Symon (eds) Essential guide to qualitative methods in organizational research. London: Sage. pp. 256270. Vogt, W.P. (2005). Dictionary of statistics and methodology: a nontechnical guide for the social sciences. (3rd edn). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. pp. 1245.
Title. (year). (# edn). Place of Publication: Publisher. pp. ######.
The right word at the right time. (1985). Pleasantville, NY: Readers Digest Association. pp. 5634.
Corporate name or Publication name. (year). Title. Place of publication: as for author.
Harley-Davidson Europe. (2007). 2008 make every day count. Oxford: Harley-Davidson Europe.
Republished book
Surname, Initials. and Surname, Initials. (year). Title. Place of publication: Publisher (originally published by Publisher year). Surname, Initials. and Surname, Initials. (year). Title of article. Journal name. Vol. ##, No. ##, pp. #######.
Marshall, J.D. (1981). Furness and the industrial revolution. Beckermont: Michael Moon (originally published by Barrow Town Council 1958). Storey, J., Cressey, P., Morris, T. and Wilkinson, A. (1997). Changing employment practices in UK banking: case studies. Personnel Review. Vol. 26, No. 1, pp. 2442.
Journal and magazine articles
Journal article (originally printed but same as found online)
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Table A1.2 (continued)

To reference Journal article only published online Use the general format Surname, Initials. and Surname, Initials. (year). Title of article, Journal name, Vol. ##, No. ##, pp. ######. Available at http:// www. remainderoffullInternetaddress/ [Accessed day month year]. Surname, Initials. and Surname, Initials. (year). Title of article, Journal name. Available at http://www. fulldoiInternetaddress/ [Accessed day month year]. Corporate name or Publication name. (year). Title of article. Magazine name. Vol. ##, No. ## (or day month), p. ###. Country of origin. (year) Title. Place of publication: Publisher. As for books Department name or Committee name. (year). Title. Place of publication: Publisher. Surname, Initials. and Surname, Initials. Title of article. Newspaper name, day month year, p. ## (where known). Newspaper name. Title of article, day month year, p. ## (where known). Newspaper name. Title of article, day month year, [CDROM]. p. ## (where known). For example Illingworth, N. (2001). The Internet matters: exploring the use of the Internet as a research tool. Sociological Research Online, Vol. 6, No. 2. Available at http://www.socresonline.org.uk/6/2/ illingworth.html [Accessed 20 Mar. 2002]. Yang, D. (2008). Pendency and grant ratios on invention patents: A Comparative Study of the US and China, Research Policy. Available at http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.respol.2008. 03.008 [Accessed 14 May 2008]. Quality World. (2007). Immigration abuse. Quality World. Vol. 33, No 12, p. 6. United Kingdom. (2005). The Prevention of Terrorism Act. London: The Stationery Office. As for books Department of Trade and Industry. (1992). The Single Market: Europe Open for Professions, UK Implementation. London: HMSO. Hawkes, S. Umbro slashes England shirt production. The Times. 24 Nov. 2007, p. 63.
Journal article for which corrected proofs are available online but which is still to be published Magazine article (no obvious author)
Government publications
Parliamentary papers including acts and bills Others (with authors) Others (no obvious authors)
Newspapers, including CD-ROM databases
Newspaper article
Newspaper article (no obvious author)
The Times. Business big shot Steve Mankin, 24 Nov. 2007, p. 63.
Newspaper article (from CD-ROM database, no obvious author)
Financial Times. Recruitment: lessons in leadership: moral issues are increasingly pertinent to the military and top corporate ranks, 11 Mar. 1998. [CD-ROM]. p. 32. Friedman, M., Friedman, R. and Adams, J. (2007). Free to chase. [CD-ROM]. Ashland, OR: Blackstone Audiobooks.
Other CD-ROM publications
CD-ROM
Surname, Initials. and surname, initials. (year). Title of CD-ROM. [CD-ROM]. Place of publication: Publisher.
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To reference CD-ROM, no obvious author Unpublished conference papers Use the general format Title of CD-ROM. (year). [CD-ROM]. Place of publication: Publisher. Surname, Initials. and Surname, Initials. (year). Title of paper. Unpublished paper presented at Conference name. Location of conference, day month year. For example Encarta 2006 Encyclopaedia. (2005). [CD-ROM]. Redmond, WA: Microsoft. Saunders, M.N.K., Thornhill, A. and Evans, C. (2007). Conceptualising trust and distrust and the role of boundaries: an organisationally based exploration. Unpublished paper presented at EIASM 4th Workshop on Trust Within and Between Organisations. Amsterdam, 2526 Oct. 2007. Saunders, J. (2008). Unpublished letter to M.N.K. Saunders re. French Revolution, 10 Sept. 2008.
Letters, personal emails and electronic conferences/ bulletin boards
Letter
Senders Surname, Senders Initials. (year). Unpublished letter to Recipients Initials. Recipients Surname re. Subject matter, day, month, year Senders surname, Senders initials. (year). Email to recipients initials. recipients surname re. Subject matter, day month year. Owners Surname, Owners Initials. (year of posting). Specific subject. Title of Blog. Day Month Year (of posting). Avalable at http://www. remainderoffullInternetaddress/ [Accessed day month year]. Senders Surname, Senders Initials. (year of posting). Re. Subject of discussion. Posted day month year. Senders email address. [Accessed day month year]. Source organisation. (year). Title of site or page within site. Available at http://www. remainderoffullInternetaddress/ [Accessed day month year].
Personal email
McPartlin, A. (2008). Email to M.N.K. Saunders re. Reviewers feedback, 23 Nov. 2008.
Blog
Bonham-Carter, D. (2007) Career Change Questionnaire. Davids life coaching blog. 10 Dec 2007. Available at http://www.davidbonham-carter.com/ 2007/12/career-change-questionnaire .html [Accessed 11 Dec. 2007]. Manno, D.F. (2007). Re. I got an email solicitation. Posted 6 Dec 2007. Survey Pro or Con? dfma...@mail.com [Accessed 10 Dec. 2007].
Discussion list email (where emailer known)
Internet site/specific site pages
European Commission. (2007). Eurostat structural indicators. Available at http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/ portal/page?_pageid=1133,47800773, 1133_47802558&_dad=portal&_ schema=PORTAL [Accessed 27 Nov. 2007]. Browne, L. and Alstrup, P. (eds.) (2006). What exactly is the Labour Force Survey? Available at http://www.statistics.gov.uk/ downloads/theme_labour/ What_exactly_is_LFS1.pdf [Accessed 25 Dec. 2007].
Internet reports and guides
Surname, Initials. and Surname, Initials. (year). Title of report. Available at http://www. remainderoffullInternetaddress/ [Accessed day month year].
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To reference Internet reports and guides (no author) Use the general format Organisation name. (year). Title of report. Available at http://www .remainderoffullInternetaddress/ [Accessed day month year]. For example Department for Transport. (2007). Adding capacity at Heathrow airport: consultation document. Available at http://www.dft.gov.uk/consultations/ open/heathrowconsultation/ consultationdocument/ [Accessed 25 Dec. 2007]. The Today Programme. (2008). British Broadcasting Corporation Radio broadcast, 6 Apr. 2008.
Audio-visual material
Television or radio programme
Programme title. (year of production). Transmitting organisation and nature of transmission, day month year of transmission. Series title. (year of production). Episode. episode title. Transmitting organisation and nature of transmission, day month year of transmission. DVD title. (Year of production). [DVD]. Place of publication: Publisher. DVD series title (Year of production) Episode. Episode title. [DVD]. Place of publication: Publisher.
Television or radio programme that is part of a series
The Money Programme. (2007). Episode. Last orders for Guinness. British Broadcasting Corporation Television broadcast, 11 Dec. 2007.
Commercial DVD
Bruce Springsteen Live in New York City (2003). [DVD]. New York: Sony.
Commercial DVD that is part of a series
The Office Complete Series 1 and 2 and the Christmas Specials. (2005). Episode. Series 1 Christmas Special. [DVD]. London: British Broadcasting Corporation. Goldratt, E.M. (2005). Beyond the goal. [Audio CD]. Buffalo NY: Goldratts Marketing Group.
Audio CD
Surname, Initials. or Artist. or Group. (year). Title of CD. [Audio CD]. Place of Publication: Publisher.
Notes: Where date is not known or unclear, follow conventions outlined towards the end of Table A1.1.
Email addresses should not be included except when they are in the public domain. Even where this is the case, permission should be obtained or the email address replaced by . . . after the fourth character, for example: abcd...@isp.ac.uk.
an example of every type of reference you might need to include, the information contained in this table should enable you to work out the required format for all your references. If there are any about which you are unsure, Colin Nevilles (2007) book The Complete Guide to Referencing and Avoiding Plagiarism is one of the most comprehensive sources we have found. For copies of journal articles from printed journals that you have obtained electronically via the Internet it is usually acceptable to reference these using exactly the same format as printed journal articles (Table A1.2), provided that you have obtained and read a facsimile (exact) copy of the article. Exact copies of journal articles have precisely the same format as the printed version, including page numbering, tables and diagrams. They are usually obtained by downloading the article via the Internet as a .pdf file that can be read on the screen and printed using Adobe Acrobat Reader. The Adobe Acrobat Reader can be downloaded free of charge from: http://www.adobe.com/
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Finally, remember to include a, b, c etc. immediately after the year when you are referencing different publications by the same author from the same year. Do not forget to ensure that these are consistent with the letters used for the references in the main text.
The American Psychological Association (APA) style

The American Psychological Association style or APA style is a variation on the authordate system. Like the Harvard style it dates from the 1930s and 1940s, and has been updated subsequently. The latest updates are outlined in the latest edition of the American Psychological Associations (2005) Concise rules of the APA style, which is likely to be available for reference in your universitys library. Relatively small but significant differences exist between the Harvard and APA styles, and many authors adopt a combination of the two styles. The key differences are outlined in Table A1.3.
Table A1.3 Key differences between Harvard and APA styles of referencing Harvard style Referencing in the text (Lewis 2001) (Williams and Saunders 2006) (Saunders et al. 2005) (Saunders et al. 2005) (Saunders et al. 2005) (Lewis, 2001) (Williams & Saunders, 2006) (Saunders, Skinner & Beresford, 2005) (Saunders et al., 2005) (Saunders et al., 2005) Note punctuation & not and For first occurrence if three to five authors For first occurrence if six or more authors For subsequent occurrences; note punctuation APA style Comment
Referencing in the references or bibliography Berman Brown, R. and Saunders, M. (2008). Dealing with statistics: What you need to know. Maidenhead: Open University Press. Berman Brown, R. & Saunders, M. (2008). Dealing with statistics: What you need to know. Maidenhead: Open University Press. Note use of and and &
Numeric systems
Referencing in the text
When using a Numeric system such as the Vancouver style, references within the project report are shown by a number that is either bracketed or in superscript. This number refers directly to the list of references at the end of the text, and it means it is not necessary for you to include the authors names or year of publication: Research1 indicates that . . .
1
Ritzer, G. The McDonaldization of Society. (revised edn). Thousand Oaks, CA, Pine Forge Press; 1996.
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Appendix
Referencing in the references

The references list sequentially the referenced items in the order they are referred to in your project report. This means that they are unlikely to be in alphabetical order. When using the Numeric system you need to ensure that:
The layout of individual references is that prescribed by the style you have adopted.
This is likely to differ from both the Harvard and APA styles (Table A1.3) and will be dependent upon precisely which style has been adopted. The reference to Ritzers book in the previous sub-section follows the Vancouver style. Further details of this and other numeric styles can be found in Nevilles (2007) book. The items referred to include only those you have cited in your report. They, therefore, should be headed References rather than Bibliography. Only one number is used for each item, except where you refer to the same item more than once but need to refer to different pages. In such instances you use standard bibliographic abbreviations to save repeating the reference in full (Table A1.4).
Table A1.4 Bibliographic Abbreviations Abbreviation Op. cit. (opere citato) Explanation Meaning in the work cited. This refers to a work previously referenced, and so you must give the author and year and, if necessary, the page number. Meaning in the place cited. This refers to the same page of a work previously referenced, and so you must give the author and year. For example Robson (2002) op. cit. pp. 234.
Loc. cit. (loco citato) Ibid. (ibidem)
Robson (2002) loc. cit.
Meaning the same work given immediately before. Ibid. p. 59. This refers to the work referenced immediately before, and replaces all details of the previous reference other than a page number if necessary.
References
American Psychological Association (2005) Concise Rules of the APA Style. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Neville, C. (2007) The Complete Guide to Referencing and Avoiding Plagiarism. Maidenhead: Open University Press.
Further Reading
American Psychological Association (2005) Concise Rules of the APA Style. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. The most recent version of this manual contains full details of how to use this form of the authordate system of referencing as well as how to lay out tables, figures, equations and other statistical data. It also provides guidance on grammar and writing. Neville, C. (2007) The Complete Guide to Referencing and Avoiding Plagiarism. Maidenhead: Open University Press. This book provides a comprehensive, up-to-date discussion of the layout required for a multitude of information sources including those from the Internet. It includes guidance on the Harvard, American Psychological Association, numerical and other referencing styles as well as a chapter on plagiarism.
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Paraphrase and Summary

When should I paraphrase, and when should I summarize?
To paraphrase means to express someone elses ideas in your own language. To summarize means to distill only the most essential points of someone elses work. Paraphrase and summary are indispensable tools in essay writing because they allow you to include other peoples ideas without cluttering up your essay with quotations. They help you take greater control of your essay. Consider relying on either tool when an idea from one of your sources is important to your essay but the wording is not. You should be guided in your choice of which tool to use by considerations of space. But above all, think about how much of the detail from your source is relevant to your argument. If all your reader needs to know is the bare bones, then summarize. Ultimately, be sure not to rely too heavily on either paraphrase or summary. Your ideas are what matter most. Allow yourself the space to develop those ideas.
How do I paraphrase?
Whenever you paraphrase, remember these two points: 1. You must provide a reference. 2. The paraphrase must be entirely in your own words. You must do more than merely substitute phrases here and there. You must also completely alter the sentence structure. It can be difficult to find new words for an idea that is already well expressed. The following strategy will make the job of paraphrasing a lot easier: 1. When you are at the note-taking stage, and you come across a passage that may be useful for your essay, do not copy the passage verbatim unless you think you will want to quote it. 2. If you think you will want to paraphrase the passage, make a note only of the author's basic point. You dont even need to use full sentences. 3. In your note, you should already be translating the language of the original into your own words. What matters is that you capture the original idea. 4. Make sure to include the page number of the original passage so that you can make a proper reference later on. When it comes time to write the paper, rely on your notes rather than on the author's work. You will find it much easier to avoid borrowing from the original passage because you will not have recently seen it. Follow this simple sequence: 1. Convert the ideas from your notes into full sentences. 2. Provide a reference. 3. Go back to the original to ensure that (a) your paraphrase is accurate and (b) you have truly said things in your own words. Lets look at examples of illegitimate and legitimate paraphrase. The original passage is from Oliver Sacks essay An Anthropologist on Mars:
The cause of autism has also been a matter of dispute. Its incidence is about one in a thousand, and it occurs throughout the world, its features remarkably consistent even in extremely different cultures. It is often not recognized in the first year of life, but tends to become obvious in the second or third year. Though Asperger regarded it as a biological defect of affective contact innate, inborn, analogous to a physical or intellectual defect Kanner tended to view it as a psychogenic disorder, a reflection of bad parenting, and most especially of a chillingly remote, often professional, refrigerator mother. At this time, autism was often regarded as defensive in nature, or confused with childhood schizophrenia. A whole generation of parents mothers, particularly were made to feel guilty for the autism of their children.
What follows is an example of illegitimate paraphrase:

The cause of the condition autism has been disputed. It occurs in approximately one in a thousand children, and it exists in all parts of the world, its characteristics strikingly similar in vastly
differing cultures. The condition is often not noticeable in the childs first year, yet it becomes more apparent as the child reaches the ages of two or three. Although Asperger saw the condition as a biological defect of the emotions that was inborn and therefore similar to a physical defect, Kanner saw it as psychological in origin, as reflecting poor parenting and particularly a frigidly distant mother. During this period, autism was often seen as a defense mechanism, or it was misdiagnosed as childhood schizophrenia. An entire generation of mothers and fathers (but especially mothers) were made to feel responsible for their offsprings autism (Sacks 247-48).
Most of these sentences do little more than substitute one phrase for another. An additional problem with this passage is that the only citation occurs at the very end of the last sentence in the paragraph. The reader might be misled into thinking that the earlier sentences were not also indebted to Sacks essay. The following represents a legitimate paraphrase of the original passage:
In An Anthropologist on Mars, Sacks lists some of the known facts about autism. We know, for example, that the condition occurs in roughly one out of every thousand children. We also know that the characteristics of autism do not vary from one culture to the next. And we know that the condition is difficult to diagnose until the child has entered its second or third year of life. As Sacks points out, often a child who goes on to develop autism will still appear perfectly normal at the age of one (247). Sacks observes, however, that researchers have had a hard time agreeing on the causes of autism. He sketches the diametrically opposed positions of Asperger and Kanner. On the one hand, Asperger saw the condition as representing a constitutional defect in the childs ability to make meaningful emotional contact with the external world. On the other hand, Kanner regarded autism as a consequence of harmful childrearing practices. For many years confusion about this condition reigned. One unfortunate consequence of this confusion, Sacks suggests, was the burden of guilt imposed on so many parents for their childs condition (247-48).
Notice that this passage makes explicit right from the beginning that the ideas belong to Sacks, and the passages indebtedness to him is signaled in more than one place. The single parenthetical note at the end of each paragraph is therefore all the citation that is needed. The inclusion of explicit references to Sacks not only makes the job of providing citations easier. It also strengthens the passage by clarifying the source of its facts and ideas. And it adds an analytical dimension to the paragraph: the passage doesnt just reiterate the points in Sacks passage but lays out the structure of his argument. Note that the paraphrase splits the original into two separate paragraphs to accentuate the two-part structure of Sacks argument. Finally, notice that not all the details from the original passage are included in the paraphrase.
How do I summarize?
Summary moves much farther than paraphrase away from point-by-point translation. When you summarize a passage, you need first to absorb the meaning of the passage and then to capture in your own words the most important elements from the original passage. A summary is necessarily shorter than a paraphrase. Here is a summary of the passage from An Anthropologist on Mars:
In An Anthropologist on Mars, Sacks notes that although there is little disagreement on the chief characteristics of autism, researchers have differed considerably on its causes. As he points out, Asperger saw the condition as an innate defect in the childs ability to connect with the external world, whereas Kanner regarded it as a consequence of harmful childrearing practices (247-48).
Prepared by Jerry Plotnick, Director of the University College Writing Centre Over 50 other files offering advice about university writing are available at www.writing.utoronto.ca
TAKING NOTES FROM RESEARCH READING

Taking notes efficiently is essential to your sanity in facing the wealth of information available in print and electronic form. It is also a key part of writing well-focussed and coherently argued papers. Good note-taking strategies will help you read with more understanding and also save time and frustration when you write your paper. These are three main principles: Know what kind of ideas you need to record
Focus your approach to the topic before you start detailed research. Then you will read with a purpose in mind, and you will be able to sort out relevant ideas. Analyse the assignment sheet to be clear about just what you are going to do with your topic, and what your topic consists of. (See the file on Understanding Essay Topics). Then review the commonly known facts about your topic, and also become aware of the range of thinking and opinions on it. As well as your class notes and textbook, browse in an encyclopedia or other reference work. Try making a preliminary list of the subtopics you would expect to find in your reading. These will guide your attention and may come in handy as search terms and labels for notes. Choose a component or angle that interests you, perhaps one on which there is already some controversy. Now formulate your research question. It should allow for reasoning as well as gathering of information--not just what the proto-Iroquoians ate, for instance, but how valid the evidence is for early introduction of corn. You may even want to jot down a tentative thesis statement as a preliminary answer to your question. (See the file Using Thesis Statements for the defining characteristics of a good thesis statement.) Then you will know what to look for in your research reading: facts and theories that help answer your question, and other people's opinions about the value of specific answers.
Don't write down too much

Your essay must be an expression of your own thinking, not a patchwork of borrowed ideas. Plan therefore to invest your research time in understanding your sources and integrating them into your own thinking. Use your note cards or note sheets to record only ideas that are relevant to your focus on the topic, and summarize rather than copy out or paraphrase. Copy out exact words only when the ideas are memorably phrased or surprisingly expressed--on the few occasions when you might use them as actual quotations. Otherwise, compress ideas in your own words. Paraphrasing word by word is a waste of time. Choose the most important ideas and write them down as labels or headings. Then fill in with a few subpoints that explain or exemplify. Don't depend on underlining and highlighting. Find your own words for notes in the margin (or on "sticky" notes).
Label your notes intelligently

Whether you use cards or pages for note-taking, take notes in a way that allows for later use. Save bother later by recording bibliographic information in a master list or computer file when you begin looking at each source (don't forget to note book and journal information for photocopies). Then you can quickly identify each note by the author's name and page number; when you refer to sources in the essay you can fill in details of publication easily from your master list. Keep a format guide handy so you get details right from the start (see the file on Documentation Formats). Try as far as possible to put notes on separate cards or sheets. This will let you label the topic of each note. Not only will that keep your notetaking focussed, but it will also allow for grouping and synthesizing of ideas later. It is especially satisfying to shuffle notes and see how the conjunctions create new ideas in your own thinking. Leave lots of space in your notes for comments of your own questions and reactions as you read, second thoughts and cross-references when you look back at what you've written. These comments can become a virtual first draft of your paper. Prepared by Dr. Margaret Procter, University of Toronto Coordinator, Writing Support Over 50 other files giving advice on university writing are available at www.writing.utoronto.ca

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Senior Project: Finance

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Senior Project: Finance

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Coming up with your topic

Constructing an Informed Argument

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Academic Writing What seems important to me about this topic?

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How does this topic relate to other things that I know?

What DON'T I know about my topic?

What do I need to know? How can I find out more?

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You must also add something of your own to the Paper.

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Write a Literature Review

Literature reviews should comprise the following elements:

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In assessing each piece, consideration should be given to:

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THE WRITING PROCESS - guidelines

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II Recording Information (also applies during Literature Review)

strongly recommend this method)

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III Thinking About the Topic

Thinking about it is the most important stage of writing a paper.

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V Writing and Editing

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Appendix 1 Styles of referencing