Power Systems Elements Lines

ECE4334
Dr. C.Y. Evrenosoglu

ECE4334
MODELS OF POWER SYSTEM ELEMENTS
PART B: TRANSMISSION LINES
Dr. E
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Outline
Power Transformers
Transmission Lines
Generators
Loads
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Outline
Power Transformers
Transmission Lines
Generators
Loads
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Development of Line Models
Goals of this section are
1) develop simple models for transmission
lines
2) gain an intuitive feel for how the geometry
of the transmission line affects the model
parameters
Thanks to Dr. Tom Overbye, University of Illinois for the content
ECE4334
Transmission Lines
ACSR Aluminum conductor steel-reinforced
AAC all-aluminum conductor
AAAC all-aluminum-alloy conductor
ACAR aluminum-clad steel conductor

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ACSR
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Line Parameters
Resistance
Inductance
Capacitance
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Resistance
Conductor resistance depends on
Spiraling
Temperature
Frequency (skin effect)
Current magnitude (magnetic conductors)
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Resistance

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Resistance
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Inductance
The inductance of a magnetic circuit that has a
constant permeability, can be obtained by
determining
Magnetic field density, H from Amperes law
Magnetic flux density, B (B = H)
Flux linkages
Inductance from flux linkages per ampere ( = L i L
= /i )
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Inductance
Thanks to Dr. Thomas Baldwin, FAMU/FSU for slide content
=
r

0
r
= relative permeability 1
0
= permeability of free space=4 10
-7
[H/m]
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Inductance
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Inductance of a single conductor
Infinite straight wire is an approximation of a
reasonable long wire (in order to use
superposition)
infinite assumption is similar to a one-turn coil
with the return path at infinity
non-magnetic with radius r
Uniform current density in the wire (skin effect is
ignored)
Flux lines form concentric (having a common
center) circles
Angular symmetry
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Amperes law in general:
Case 1: Flux linkages inside the conductor (x < r ):
[H/m]
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Case 2: Flux linkages outside the conductor (x > r ):
[H/m]
The flux linkage caused by the conductor
at an external point at distances D
1
and
D
2
from the conductor
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Inductance of a single-phase circuit
Conductors of same radius, r and separated by a distance D;
D
1
= r and D
2
= D
[H/m] per conductor
L
total
(Loop inductance) = 2L =
4 [H/m] per circuit
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Self & mutual inductance in single-phase circuit
If the conductors are identical L
11
= L
22
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Inductance of three-phase lines
Asymmetrical spacing
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Inductance of three-phase lines
Symmetrical spacing
L
a
= L
b
=L
c
=
[H/m] per phase
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Important points
Although there is magnetic coupling between phases, for
balanced system with equilateral spacing , we can model the
magnetic effect using only self-inductances and the self
inductances are equal. We can then use per-phase analysis.
To reduce the inductance per meter we can try to reduce the
spacing between the conductors and increase their radii.
Reducing the spacing, D, can only go so far because of
considerations of voltage flashover
There are cost and weight problems associated with
increasing the radii, r, of solid conductors
Hollow conductors have problems with flexibility and ease of
handling
What is the practical approach?
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Conductor bundling
Suppose that instead of one conductor per phase there are b
conductors in close proximity as compared with the spacing
between the phases. Such a conductor is said to be made up of
bundled conductors. (b=4 in the following example)
These conductors are effectively in parallel. All the conductors
have the same radius r.
D
D
D
Phase a
Phase b
Phase c
1 2
4 3
9 10
12 11
5 6
8 7
Conducting frame
supporting the conductors
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Conductor bundling
Consider the flux linkages of conductor 1 in phase a bundle.
Assumption: The current in each phase splits equally among the
four parallel branches.
d
ij
= the distance between conductors i and j.
D
D
D
Phase a
Phase b
Phase c
1 2
4 3
9 10
12 11
5 6
8 7
18
12 13 14
0
1
15 16 17
19 1,10 1,11 1,12
1 1 1 1
ln ln ln ln
4 '
1 1 1 1
ln ln ln ln
2 4
1 1 1 1
ln ln ln ln
4
a
b
c
i
r d d d
i
d d d d
i
d d d d
(
| |
+ + + +
(
|
\
(
(
| |
(
= + + + +
|
|
(
\
(
| | (
+ + +
| (
(
\
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Conductor bundling
D
D
D
Phase a
Phase b
Phase c
1 2
4 3
9 10
12 11
5 6
8 7
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Conductor bundling
D
D
D
Phase a
Phase b
Phase c
1 2
4 3
9 10
12 11
5 6
8 7
geometric mean radius (GMR) of bundle
geometric mean distance (GMD) from

conductor 1 to phase b
GMD from conductor 1 to phase c

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Conductor bundling
geometric mean radius (GMR) of

bundle
geometric mean distance (GMD)

from conductor 1 to phase b
GMD from conductor 1 to

phase c
Note that
D
1b
D
2b
D
3b
D
4b
D
ab
D
1c
D
2c
D
3c
D
4c
D
ac
D
ab
D
ac
D
bc
D
and assume that i
a
+ i
b
+ i
c
= 0
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Conductor bundling
geometric mean radius (GMR) of bundle
geometric mean distance (GMD) from conductor 1 to

phase b
GMD from conductor 1 to phase c

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Conductor bundling
Remember that each bundle has b conductors and
in our example b = 4
L
1
= L
2
= L
3
= L
4
2 10
[H/m]
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Example
Calculate the reactance for a balanced three-phase,
60 Hz transmission line with a conductor
geometry of an equilateral triangle with D = 5m, r
=1.24 cm (Rook conductor) and a length of 5
miles.
0
1 1 1
ln( ) ln( ) ln( )
2 '
a a b c
i i i
r D D
(
= + +
(

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Example
a
0
a
0
7
0
3
6
Substituting
i
Hence
1 1
ln ln
2 '
ln
2 '
4 10 5
ln ln
2 ' 2
9.67 10
1.25 10 H/m
b c
a a
a
a
i i
i i
r D
D
i
r
D
L
r
=
(
| | | |
=
| |
(
\ \

| |
=
|
\
| | | |
= =
| |
\ \
=
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Example
6
6
a
4
Total for 5 mile line
1.25 10 H/m
Converting to reactance
2 60 1.25 10
4.71 10 /m
0.768 /mile
X 3.79
(this is the total per phase)
The reason we did NOT have mutual inductance
was because
a
L
X
=
=
=
=
=
of the symmetric conductor spacing
0.758
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Example
Consider the same example but now assume that
each phase has 4 conductors in a square bundle
spaced 0.25m apart. What is the new inductance
per meter?
0.25 M 0.25 M
0.25 M
( )
2 3
1
3
4
b
7
0
a
1.24 10 m ' 9.67 10 m
R 9.67 10 0.25 0.25 2 0.25
0.12 m (ten times bigger!)
5
L ln 7.46 10 H/m
2 0.12
r r
= =
=
=
= =
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More about bundling
If we view the bundle as an approximation of a hollow conductor, the
reason for the increased radius is clear.
The larger radius helps in another respect. At high voltages, above
approximately 230 kV, the electric field strength near conductors is
sufficiently high to ionize the air nearby. This phenomenon is called
Corona and has an undesirable effect since it is associated with
Line losses
Radio interference
Audible noise
All other things being equal, the lager the conductor radius, the less
electric field strength at the surface of the conductor. Bundling is
beneficial since it effectively increases the conductor radius
Compared with a single conductor of the same cross-sectional area,
bundled conductors, having a larger surface area exposed to the air,
are better cooled. Higher currents may be carried without exceeding
the thermal limits.
Bergen & Vittal, Power System Analysis 2
nd
edition, 2000
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Transposition
The practice of equilateral arrangement is not convenient
Horizontal or vertical configurations are most popular
Symmetry is lost D
ab
D
ac
D
bc
unbalance
Symmetry is regained by the method of transposition
Average inductance of each phase will be the same
We can think of this as a top view of three conductors in the
same horizontal plane. It could also be a side view of three
conductors in the same vertical plane.
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Transposition
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Facility4508_Pylon206.JPG
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Transposition
Assumptions
Each phase occupies each position for the same fraction of the total
length of line
Each phase is a single (nonbundled) conductor of radius r
Balanced operation i
a
+ i
b
+ i
c
= 0
Section 1 Section 2 Section 3
2 10
2 10
2 10
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Transposition
Section 1 Section 2 Section 3
2 10
2 10
2 10
The average of the above flux linkages for phase a is:
/3
/3
/3
3
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Transposition
/3
/3
/3
2 10
2 10
3
3
Use i
a
+ i
b
+ i
c
= 0 i
a
= -(i
b
+ i
c
)
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Transposition

2 10
3
3
2 10
3
3
2 10
2 10
(GMD between the phases)

For solid conductors use
For stranded conductors use GMR of the phase

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Transposition
If the conductors in each phase are bundled and the phases are
uniformly transposed:
If the conductors are NOT solid but stranded, replace r with the
conductor GMR.
2 10
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Example
Calculate the per phase inductance and reactance of a
balanced three-phase, 60 Hz line with horizontal spacing of
10m using three conductor bundling with a spacing between
the conductors in the bundle of 0.3m. Assume that the line is
uniformly transposed, the conductors are solid and each has
a 1cm radius.
10 m
10 m
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Impedance of three-phase lines including
the ground return
In some cases we cannot assume balanced operation
due to lack of transposition or lack of load balance.
In faulted conditions there might be a neutral current
also.
The effect of earth and neutral return on the
impedance of a transmission line have to be modeled.
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the ground return

phasor voltage drop of phase i, i = a, b, c, n

phasor current flowing in phase i

self-impedance of conductor i including the

effect of ground return

length of transmission line in meters

2 10
[/m]

resistance of phase i in [/m]

9.869 10
is the earth resistance in

[/m] 1.59 10
[/mile]
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the ground return
operating frequency in hertz

658.368

[m] 2160

[ft]
= resistivity of the earth in -m

geometric mean radius of conductor i in meters

is the mutual impedance between conductor

i and conductor j including the effect of the ground return

2 10
[/m]

distance between conductors i and j in meters

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the ground return
J. R. Carson determined in 1923 that the earth
resistance r
d
is a function of the frequency and
derived the given empirical formula.
In the formula for D
earth
, if the actual earth
resistance is unknown, it is common to assume
to be 100 -m.
D
earth
, GMR
i
and d
ij
are only involved as ratios in
the formulas for Z
ii
and Z
ij
. As long as the units are
consistent, either feet or meters can be used.
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the ground return
If I
n
= 0 (neutral conductor is open circuited) OR
If V
n
= 0 (neutral conductor impedance is zero) we
can further simplify the matrix equation.
If I
n
= 0 eliminate the right hand column and
bottom row of the Z matrix and solve for V
a
, V
b
, V
c
in terms of I
a
, I
b
, I
c
alone.
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the ground return
If V
n
= 0, then
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the ground return
In scalar terms:
, ,
, , ,
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the ground return
If the line is completely transposed with equal section distances;

an approximation is to average the diagonal and off-diagonal
elements to obtain the impedance matrix:
3
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Example
Compute the phase self- and mutual impedances of the 161 kV line
shown in the following figure. The conductors are Hawk ACSR
26/7, with a resistance of 0.196 /mi and a conductor GMR of
0.0290 ft. Assume that the frequency is 60 Hz, that the neutral
current is zero (i.e. ground wires are open-circuited), and that phase
wires have the following configuration for the entire length of the
line. Assume that the earth resistivity is 100 -m and the line is 60-
mile long.
a
b
c
186 in 186 in
38 ft
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the ground return

phasor voltage drop of phase i, i = a, b, c, n

phasor current flowing in phase i

self-impedance of conductor i including the

effect of ground return

length of transmission line in meters

2 10
/m

resistance of phase i in /m

9.869 10
is the earth resistance in /m

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the ground return
operating frequency in hertz

658.368

m
= resistivity of the earth in -m

geometric mean radius of conductor i in meters

is the mutual impedance between conductor

i and conductor j including the effect of the ground return

2 10
/m

distance between conductors i and j in meters

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Capacitance
The capacitance of between conductors in a
medium with constant permittivity, can be
obtained by determining
Electric flux density, D (Cuolomb/m
2
), from Gausss
law
Electric field strength E (V/m) from D = E
Voltage between conductors
Capacitance from charge per unit volt (C = q/V)
permittivity in farads/m (F/m)

o
o
permittivity of free space (8.85410
-12
F/m)
r
relative permittivity or the dielectric constant
(1 for dry air, 2 to 6 for most dielectrics)
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Capacitance
Voltage difference
=
r

0
r
= relative permittivity 1 (for dry air)
0
= permittivity in free space=8.854 10
-12
[F/m]
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Electric field and voltage
a solid infinite straight wire
D = 0 in the wire (x < r)
D = q / (2x) (x r)
The voltage drop V
12
between two points
with radial distances as D
1
and D
2
from
the wire due to a charge (q):
Voltage is defined as the energy (in Joules)
required to move a 1-Coulomb charge against an
electric field.
Voltage drop between two points can be + or
due to the sign of the charge or whether D
2
> D
1
or not.
D
1
D
2
P
1
P
2
+q
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Capacitance of a two-wire line
For two-wire line q
a
= - q
b
D
r
a r
b
q
a
q
b
due to q
a
due to q
b
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D
r
a r
b
q
a
-q
a
if r
a
= r
b
= r
[F/m] line-to-line
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D
r r
q
-q
a
b
Representation of a line-to-line capacitance
Representation of a line-to-neutral capacitance
a
b
C
an
C
bn
[F/m] to neutral
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Capacitance of three-phase lines
Consider equilateral spacing and q
a
+ q
b
+ q
c
= 0
a
b
c

1
3

1
3
2
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Consider equilateral spacing and q
a
+ q
b
+ q
c
= 0
a
b
c

1
3
2
1
3
2
[F/m] to neutral
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Consider unequal spacing and q
a
+ q
b
+ q
c
= 0
If the conductors are bundled; replace r with the bundle GMR
b
, R
b
.
Note that we use r (outside radius) instead of r which is in the

case of inductors.
We are neglecting the effect of the earth!
a
b
c
[F/m] to neutral
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Example
Calculate the phase line-to-neutral capacitance and capacitive
reactance (or shunt admittance) of a balanced three-phase, 60 Hz,
220 kV transmission line with horizontal spacing between
conductors in bundles of 4 of 0.5m bundle spacing. Assume that the
line is uniformly transposed and the solid conductors have a 2cm
radius. If the line length is 175 mi find the charging current per
mile, charging current for the entire length and total 3 charging
reactive power.
10 m 10 m
0.5m
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Using the ACSR tables
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Inductive reactance
2 2 2 10

410
410
1609
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Inductive reactance
410
1609
2.02 10
2.02 10
X
a
from table inductive
reactance at 1ft spacing
X
d
inductive reactance
spacing factor to be
calculated
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Capacitive reactance

1
2

1
2
2
1
4
8.85410
1
4
8.85410
1609
-m to neutral
-mile to neutral
M-mile to neutral
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Capacitive reactance
M-mile to neutral
X
a
from table
capacitive reactance at 1ft
spacing; r being the outside
diameter
X
d
capacitive reactance
spacing factor to be
calculated
ECE4334
Example
Find the inductive reactance per phase in ohms per mile and the
capacitive reactance to neutral in ohm-miles for a three phase line
that has three equilaterally spaced conductors of ACSR Dove. The
conductors are 10 ft apart and the operating frequency is 60 Hz.
Dove GMR = 0.0313ft, D=10ft, r=(0.927/2)1/12=0.0386 ft
X
L
=2.02 10
2.02 10
60

.
X
L
= 0.699 /mile
From the table X
a
=0.420 /mile ,
X
d
=2.02 10
2.02 10
60 10= 0.279 /mile

X
L
=X
a
+X
d
=0.420+0.279=0.699 /mile
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Example
Find the inductive reactance per phase in ohms per mile and the
capacitive reactance to neutral in ohm-miles for a three phase line
that has three equilaterally spaced conductors of ACSR Dove. The
conductors are 10 ft apart and the operating frequency is 60 Hz.
Dove GMR = 0.0313, D=10ft, r=(0.927/2)1/12=0.0386 ft
X
C
=
.

.
0.1648 M-mile to neutral
From the table X
a
= 0.0965 M-mile,
X
d
=
.
10= 0.0683 M-mile

X
C
=X
a
+X
d
= 0.0965+0.0683 = 0.1648 M-mile
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More
Multi-circuit lines: Multiple lines often share a common
transmission right-of-way. This DOES cause mutual
inductance and capacitance, but is often ignored in
system analysis.
Cables: There are a few thousand miles of underground
AC cables in the U.S. Cables are primarily used in urban
areas. In a cable the conductors are tightly spaced, (< 1ft)
with oil impregnated paper commonly used to provide
insulation
inductance is lower
capacitance is higher, limiting cable length
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More
Ground wires: Transmission lines are usually
protected from lightning strikes with a ground
wire. This topmost wire (or wires) helps to
attenuate the transient voltages/currents that
arise during a lighting strike. The ground wire
is typically grounded at each pole.
Corona discharge: Due to high electric fields
around lines, the air molecules become
ionized. This causes a crackling sound and
may cause the line to glow!
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Additional Transmission topics
Shunt conductance: Usually ignored. A small
current may flow through contaminants on
insulators.
DC Transmission: Because of the large fixed
cost necessary to convert AC to DC and then back
to AC; DC transmission is only practical for
several specialized applications such as
long distance overhead power transfer (> 400 miles)
long cable power transfer such as underwater
providing an asynchronous means of joining different
power systems (such as the Eastern and Western grids).
ECE4334
Bonus HW1 Assigned on Thursday, Sep. 29
th
Due: Thursday, October 13
th
Develop a MATLAB program to determine the per phase series impedance matrix and the
shunt capacitance (line-neutral) of a given transmission line configuration in an
appropriate set of units. Assume that the program input will consist of the following:
Are the conductors stranded or solid?
Are the conductors bundled or not?
Bundle information if needed in appropriate units.
Radius or diameter of the conductor in appropriate units.
GMR of the conductor if needed.
Conductor configuration in terms of distances D
ab
, D
ac
and D
ba
Conductor resistance per unit length
Your program should have a proper help file which explains the inputs and the outputs
when prompted by help filename in MATLAB.
You program can prompt the user that the earth resistivity is assumed to be 100 -m.
Your program can ask the user to input certain variables in certain units. Such as
Please enter the radius of solid conductor in cm
The name of your file should be ECE4334_BHW1_lastname.m
If you develop a GUI in MATLAB, your submission will be worth 2 homework
assignments.
ECE4334
Homework 4.1 (due next week)
Calculate the per phase inductance (per meter) of 765-kV line below.
Note the flat horizontal spacing of 45 ft between the phases. Assume
that4 (four) conductors per bundle are placed at the corners of a square
(with 18 in on a aside). Use the conductor GMR value in place of r.
ECE4334
Homework 4.2 (due next week
A. Calculate the phase-neutral capacitance per meter of the 765-kV
line in HW 4.1.
B. Calculate the product of inductance and capacitance values found
or the 765-kV line in 4.1 and 4.2A and compare with the value of
0.
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Compute the phase impedance matrix Z
abc
for the line shown below.
Assume that the line is 30 miles long. The conductors used are
Grosbeak and the parameters for the conductor can be found in Table
A4 (or on Slide 61).
ECE4334
Compute the phase impedance matrix Z
abc
for the line shown below.
Assume that the line is 40 miles long. The conductors used are Ostrich
and the parameters for the conductor can be found in Table A4 (or on
Slide 61).
ECE4334
Short Exam I Statistics
26 students
Average = 37.1
Standard deviation = 23.58
0
10
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ECE4334

Dr. C.Y. Evrenosoglu

geometric mean radius (GMR) of bundle

geometric mean distance (GMD) from

GMD from conductor 1 to phase c

geometric mean radius (GMR) of

geometric mean distance (GMD)

GMD from conductor 1 to

geometric mean radius (GMR) of bundle

geometric mean distance (GMD) from conductor 1 to

GMD from conductor 1 to phase c

The average of the above flux linkages for phase a is:

(GMD between the phases)

For stranded conductors use GMR of the phase

phasor voltage drop of phase i, i = a, b, c, n

phasor current flowing in phase i

self-impedance of conductor i including the

resistance of phase i in [/m]

is the earth resistance in

geometric mean radius of conductor i in meters

is the mutual impedance between conductor

distance between conductors i and j in meters

If the line is completely transposed with equal section distances;

phasor voltage drop of phase i, i = a, b, c, n

phasor current flowing in phase i

self-impedance of conductor i including the

is the earth resistance in /m

geometric mean radius of conductor i in meters

is the mutual impedance between conductor

distance between conductors i and j in meters

Note that we use r (outside radius) instead of r which is in the

60 10= 0.279 /mile

10= 0.0683 M-mile

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