CHAPTER (5)

Analog Controllers and Actuators

Objectives: This chapter will consider the analog controllers and different actuators in an analog control loop. After you have read this chapter, you should be able to
Recognize the essential elements of an analog control loop Select the PID controller parameter using practical tables Describe analog actuators types

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Analog controllers and Actuators 5.1 Analog control system The analog control exists when all variables in the system are analog representations signals as shown in the following figure. Controller i + Gc Gp Process o

H
Figure 5.1 Analog control loop

In this loop, main components are: Process transfer function to be controlled (Some examples are given in chapter 2), Gp Analog controller that manipulates the process to carry out the required performance, Gc Measurement transfer function of transducers, H An analog controller is a device which implements the controller modes described in this chapter, using analog signals to represents the loop parameters. The analog signal may be in the form of an electric current or a pneumatic air pressure. The controller accepts a measurement expressed in terms of one of these signals, calculates an output for the mode being used, and outputs an analog signal of the same type. Sins the controller does solve equations, we think of it as an analog computer. The controller must be able to add, subtract, multiply, integrate, and find derivatives. It does this working with analog voltages or pressures. Analog controller features Analog controllers are usually designed to fit into a panel assembly as a slide in/out module. The front panel of an analog controller displays information for operators such as: measuring variables, error signals, output controller signal, and controller modes and parameters. It allows the adjustment of many parameters as the operator desires. The display is typically expressed in percentage of span (4-20 mA or 3-15 psi). There often is a switch on the front panel by which the controller can be placed in a manual control mode, which means that the output can be adjusted independently of the input, using the operator settings. In automatic mode the controller is a function of the input using the presetting controller parameters. The controller often has the capability for the operator to select between different modes such as: Manual mode Automatic-ON/OFF Automatic P-action Automatic PI action Automatic PID action

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Analog controllers and Actuators

Figure 5.2 Typical analog controller

Error detector The detection of an error signal as accomplished in electronic controllers by taking the difference between voltages. One voltage is generated by the process signal current (measurement) passed through a resistor. The second voltage represents the set point. This is usually generated by a voltage divider using a constant voltage as a source. An example is shown in figure 5.3 Power supply + I Process R VE=Vsp-IR Vs Rsp

Figure 5.3 Electronic error detector

We assume a two-wire system is in use so that the current drawn from the power supply is the 4 to 20 mA signal current. The signal current is used to generate a voltage, IR, across the resistor R. This is placed in series opposition to a voltage Vsp tapped from a variable resistor Rsp connected to a constant source Vs. The result is an error voltage VE=Vsp- IR. This is then used in the process controller to calculate the controller output.

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Analog controllers and Actuators 5.2 Two-positions controller (ON/OFF) The on-off controller has the following characteristics: If the error signal is positive, then switch on (100% output) If the analog signal is negative, then switch off (0% output) The characteristic as above shows that when the measure value is lower than the set point, full controller output results. When it is greater than the set point, the controller output is zero. A space heater is a common example. If temperature drops below a set point, the heater is turned ON. If above the set point, it turns OFF. In practice, the implementation of the two-position controller requires an overlap as the error increases through zero or decreases through zero (hystersis). In this zone, no change in controller output occurs to avoid high frequency switching due to measurement noise around the zero error (see figure 5.4).
Controller output

100 % Error 0%
0

Figure 5.4 Two-positions controller with hysteresis

Many household air conditioning and heating systems employ a two position controller constructed from a bimetal strip and mercury switch as shown in figure.
Mercury Glass bulb

Switch contacs Switch OFF Bimetal strip (a) Set point (b) Higher temperature (c) lower temperature Switch ON

Figure 5.5 Two position controller (Bimetal strip and mercury switch)

The bimetal strip bends due to a temperature decrease; it reaches a point at which the mercury slides down to close an electric contact. The inertia of the mercury tends to keep the system in that position until the temperature increases to a value above the set point temperature. This provides the required neutral zone (hysteresis) to prevent excessive cycling of the system.

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Analog controllers and Actuators 5.3 Proportional Control (P Mode) Proportional control is a pure gain adjustment acting on the error signal to provide the driving input to the process. Implementation of this mode requires a circuit which has a response given by 100 % U = K p E p + Po ; kp = PB % (5.1) Where: U =controller output (0 100%) Kp = Proportional gain (controller transfer function) PB = proportional band in percentage Ep = error in percent of variable range Po = controller output with no error (bias)

If we consider both the controller output and error to be expressed in terms of voltage, we see that the above equation is simply a summing amplifier. The op-amp circuit is given in the following figure. R2 Vo VE R1 + R R2 R

Vout

Summing amplifier

Inverter

Figure 5.6 Proportional controller

In this case, the analog electronic equation for the output voltage is
R2 Vout = VE + Vo R 1

(5.2) Where: Vo = output voltage Kp = R2/R1 = Proportional gain VE = error in percent of variable range Vo = controller output with no error (bias)

The amplifier input and output voltages are conveniently scaled such that a (0Vmax) amplifier output corresponds to a (0 100%) or 4-20 mA controller signal. In a similar fashion, the input error voltage is scaled to match the full range of error signal. We define the controller gain as 100% divided by the proportional band in percentage %. The proportional band is adjusted through the gain R2/R1 so that the given band of error saturates the amplifier output when the error exceeds the adjusted range.

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Analog controllers and Actuators Example:

A proportional controller as shown in figure 5.6 has the scale 0-10 volts corresponds to a 0100% output. If R2 = 10 K, and full scale error is 10 volt, find the value of Vo and R1 to support a 20% proportional band about a 50% zero-error controller output.
Solution

The value of Vo is a 50% of 10 volts; that means Vo= 5 volts to provide the zero-error controller output. 20% proportional band means that an increase of error by 10 % must cause the controller output to go to 100% from 50% (see figure 5.7). Thus, from the controller equation, we now that when the error has changed 10% of 10 volts or 1 volt, we must have full controller output. Thus,
Vout - Vo 10 - 5 = VE 1 so that if R2 = 10 K, then R1=R2/Kp = 2 K and the range of error signal is (-1 +1 volt) Kp =
5 volts = 50 % output 10 volts = 100 % output

1 volt = 0 % output

Error signal zero error

Proportional Band = 20%

Figure 5.7 Controller Input-output relationship (P mode)

Example: A proportional controller is used to control the height of water in tank where the water level can vary from 0-9m. The controller is to fully close a valve when the water rises to 5.5 m and fully open when the water falls to 4.5m. If the required level is 5 m, compute the proportional band and the controller gain (transfer function). Solution When the error is -0.5 m the controller output is 100% open and when the error is +0.5 m, the controller output will be 0% open. PB must therefore extend from a height error of -0.5 m to + 0.5 m and expressed as a percentage. PB extends [from (-0.5/9) to (+0.5/9)]% = [-5.6 % to +5.6%], that means PB =11.2%. The controller gain is

Kp =100%/PB % = 100 % / 11.2 % =8.9

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Analog controllers and Actuators 5.4 Integral Control (I Mode)

Integral control is implemented through the introduction of an integrator. Implementation of this mode requires a circuit which has a response given by

U(t) = K I E p (t) dt + P(0) (5.3) Where: U =controller output (0 100%) KI = Integration gain (s-1) Ep = error in percent of variable range P(0) = controller output at time t=0

If we consider both the controller output and error to be expressed in terms of voltage, we see that the above equation is simply an integrator and an inverted-summing amplifier. The opamp circuit is given in the following figure.
C -V (0) R1 R1

VE R

+ R1

Vout

Integrator

Inverted summing amplifier

Figure 5.8 Integral controller

In this case, the analog electronic equation for the output voltage is
Vout = K I VE dt + V(0) (5.4) Where: Vo = output voltage KI = 1/RC = Integration gain (s-1) RC = integration time in seconds VE = error in percent of full scale range V(0) = Initial output voltage

If KI is too large, the output rises so fast that overshoots of the optimum setting occur and cycling is produced. The integration time constant RC determines the rate at which controller output increases when the error is constant. The initial controller output V(0) is relatively unimportant because the integration output floats at values determined by error history.

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Analog controllers and Actuators Example:

Suppose that V(0)=0 in equation (5.4) for an integral controller. It is required that the controller output should saturate 15 seconds after a constant 5% error is applied. The input range is 0-5 volts and the output range is 0-10 volts. Calculate the integration gain and the suitable values of R and C.
Solution

An error of 5% is then 0.25 volts of the full scale variable. The controller output saturates at 10 volts, so Vout = K I VE dt + V(0) With VE=0.25 V, V(0)=0
10 = K I 0.25 t ;

t=15 seconds

Thus, KI= 2.67s-1

If we assume C = 50 F, and KI= 1/RC ; then R= 7.49 K

5.5 Derivative Control (D Mode)

The derivative mode is never used alone because it cannot provide a controller output when the error is zero. Implementation of this mode requires a circuit which has a response given by dVE Vout = K D + Vo dt (5.5) Where: Vout =controller output (0 100%) KD = Derivative time constant in seconds =R2C VE = error in percent of full scale range Vo = the controller output when the error is constant (set point value) This function is implemented by op-amps in configuration shown in figure 5.9 R2 C R1 + R

VE

Vout

Differentiator

Inverter

Figure 5.9 Derivative controller

The value of R1 is selected so that the circuit will be stable for high frequencies by setting 2fR1C<<1 where f is the frequency in Hz.

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Analog controllers and Actuators Remark: Each mode has its advantages and drawbacks individually: P mode Advantage: Fast response action Drawback: Produces steady state error (offset) I mode Advantage: Steady state error is null Drawback: Increases the response time D Mode Advantage: increases the damping of the system Drawback: Amplifies the noise which can cause problems including instability

Therefore, the pure controller mode (P or I or D) is seldom used in process control because of the advantage of composite modes in providing good control.
5.6 Proportional- Integral Control (PI Mode)

Implementation of this mode requires a circuit which has a response given by

1 R2 Vout = V + E VE (t)dt + V(0) R C R 1 1

(5.6) Where: Vout =controller output (0 100%) VE = Controller input (0 100 %) ; KI = 1/R2C Kp = R2/R1

This function is implemented by op-amps in configuration shown in figure 5.10 R2 R1 VE C -V(0) R R

Vout

Figure 5.10 Proportional-Integral Controller (PI mode)

Example: PI controller has a proportional band of 30% and an integration time =10 seconds. The 4-20 mA input volts coverts to a 0-2 volt error signal and the controller output range is 0-10 volts. Calculate values of Kp, KI, R1, and R2. Solution A proportional band of 30% means that when the input changes by by 30% of full scale or 0.6 volts, the output must change by 100 % or 10 volts. This gives a gain of Kp = R2/R1 =10 V/0.6 V = 16.67 The integration time of 10 seconds implies that KI=0.1 s-1 = 1/R2C. Assume C =100F which requires R2=100K. From the equation of proportional gain R1 can be calculated, it is equal to 6 k.

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Analog controllers and Actuators 5.7 Proportional-Derivative Control (PD Mode)

Implementation of this mode requires a circuit which has a response given by

R2 R1 dVout R 2 dVE Vout + R 3C dt + V0 R +R VE + R +R R 3C dt = R +R 3 3 3 1 1 1

(5.7) Where: Vout =controller output (0 100%) VE = Controller input (0 100 %) R3C = derivative time (s) ; KD = R3C Kp = R2/(R1+R3)

We make the derivative coefficient on the left small to eliminate instability. One chose is:
R1 0.1 R 3 C = 2 T R +R 3 1

(5.8) T is the fastest variable time change to be expected in the process. Then the equation will be
R2 R2 dVE Vout = R 3C dt + V0 R +R VE + R +R 3 3 1 1

(5.9) Of course, this mode still has the offset error of a proportional controller because the derivative term cannot provide reset action. This function is implemented by op-amps in configuration shown in figure 5.11 C R1 VE R3 + R2 -V0 R R R

Vout

Figure 5.11 Proportional-Derivative Controller (PD mode)

Example: PD controller has a proportional band of 20% and a derivative time =18 seconds. Input and output are both scaled to 0-10 volts and the fastest expected time is 1 second. Calculate values of Kp, R1, R2, and R3.

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Analog controllers and Actuators Solution

First select the capacitor as 50F because it is easier to assemble odd valued resistors. Then, from KD =R3C, we get R3 = 18/ (50 x 10-6) = 0.36 M Now, since the input and output share the same scale, we can set 100 % =5 20 % So that for the proportional gain we have Kp =
5= R2 R 1 + 0.36 M

To get R1 we use equation (5.8) R1 0.1(1s) (18s) = R 1 + 0.36 M 2 which gives R1 = 318 then we can find R2 = 1.8 M ; Putting this all together we get Vout = 5 VE + 90 dVE dt

5.8 Three term Controller (PID Mode)

Implementation of this mode requires a circuit which has a response given by

R2 R2 1 R2 dVE Vout = R D C D dt + V(0) R R C VE dt + R VE + R 1 1 I I 1

(5.10) Where: Vout =controller output (0 100%) VE = Controller input (0 100 %) Kp = R2/R1 KI =1/(RICI) KD = RDCD

R3 in the following figure has been chosen from 2 R3CD<<T for stability.

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Analog controllers and Actuators

R2 VE R1 + R +

R R -V0 CI RI R + R + R + Vout R R

RD CD R3 +
Figure 5.12 Three Term Controller (PID mode)

Example:

A three-mode controller is to have a 50% proportional band with a 0.2 min integral time and 0.5 derivative time. Input and output are equally scaled voltages. Find the circuit values.
Solution

A 50 % proportional band implies Kp=2 so that we can pick R1 = 1 k and R2= 2 K. The 0.2 minute integration time implies KI = (1/12) s-1. So that if CI=50F, then RI= 240 K. Finally, for 0.5 minute derivation time, we have RDCD= 30 s, If we use CD=50F, RD=0.6M. The value of R3 has to pick up for stability.
Remark:

These circuits have shown that the direct implementation of controller modes can be provided by standard op-amp circuits. It is necessary, of course, to scale the measurement as a voltage within the range of operation selected by the circuit. Furthermore, the outputs of the circuits shown have been voltages which may be converted to currents for use in an actual process control loop.

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Analog controllers and Actuators 5.9 System response using PID controller

The PID Controller is the most widely used control strategy in industry. It is used for various control problems such as automated systems or plants. A PID-Controller consists of three different elements, which is why it is sometimes called a three term controller. PID stands for:

P I D

Proportional control Integral control Derivative control.

PID control can be implemented to meet various design specifications for the system. These can include the rise and settling time as well as the overshoot and accuracy of the system step response. To understand the operation of a PID feedback controller, the three terms should be considered separately.
Proportional Control Proportional control is a pure gain adjustment acting on the error signal to provide the driving input to the process. The P term in the PID controller is used to adjust the speed of the system. Integral Control Integral control is implemented through the introduction of an integrator. Integral control is used to provide the required accuracy for the control system. Derivative Control Derivative action is normally introduced to increase the damping in the system. The derivative term also amplifies the existing noise which can cause problems including instability. PID Transfer Function If we now look at the general equation of a PID-controller, the three terms can be recognized as follows: dVE 1 Vout = K p VE + T VE dt + Td dt i (5.11) Where: Vout = Controller output (0 100%) VE = Controller input (0 100 %) Kp = proportional gain Ti =Integration time Td = Derivative time

Such a controller has three different adjustments (Kp, Ti, Td) which interact with each other. For this reason, it can be very difficult and time consuming to tune these three values in order to get the best performance according to the design specifications of the system. The next example illustrates the effect of implementing P, PI, and PID control to a system in turn. We will consider how the controller constants are selected later.

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Analog controllers and Actuators Example:

Consider the control loop in figure 5.1 and H=1 unity feedback. The process is given by a 3rd order differential equation.

&y && + 6& & + 11y & + 16 y = 10 u y

Where y is the process output u is the process input

The design specifications are:

Zero steady state error Settling time within 5 seconds Rise time within 2 seconds Only some overshoot permitted

The feedback path: H=1 Three controllers are designed for this process and their parameters are given by:
P-mode PI-mode PID-mode

Kp=3 Kp=2.7 and Ti=1.5 Kp=2, Ti=0.9 , and Td=0.6

The step response The above controllers give the step responses below

Figure 5.13 Step response of PID control system

Proportional control By only employing proportional control, a steady state error occurs (offset = 0.2). Proportional and integral control The response becomes more oscillatory and needs longer to settle, the error disappears.

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Analog controllers and Actuators Proportional, integral and derivative control Now the design specifications are reached. Summary (PID control):

Three different parameters (KP, Ti, Td) Difficult to adjust according to the specifications P term is used to adjust the speed. I term provides zero error. D term introduces damping.

Tuning methods As mentioned before, the set up procedure or tuning of a controller can be tedious. One approach is to use a technique which was developed in the 1950's but which has stood the test of time and is still used today. This is known as the Ziegler Nichols tuning method. Ziegler Nichols Tuning Method The procedure is as follows:

1. Select proportional control alone 2. Increase the value of the proportional gain until the point of instability is reached (sustained oscillations), the critical value of gain, Kc, is reached. 3. Measure the period of oscillation to obtain the critical time constant, Tc. Once the values for Kc and Tc are obtained, the PID parameters can be calculated, according to the design specifications, from the following table.
Table 5.1 PID parameters (Ziegler Nichols)

Control P only PI PID tight control PID some overshoot PID no overshoot

Kp 0.5 Kc

Ti

Td

0.45 Kc 0.833 Tc 0.6 Kc 0.33 Kc 0.2 Kc 0.5 Tc 0.5 Tc 0.3 Tc 0.125 Tc 0.33 Tc 0.5 Tc

These values are not the optimal values and additional fine tuning may be required to obtain the best performance from the system. The selection of the type of PID-control to be applied depends on the application of the system. i.e. a control system for a pressure vessel strongly requires PID-control with no overshoot. Now work through the following example.

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Analog controllers and Actuators Example:

Consider the input-output differential equation of the process is given by:

&& + 10& & + 82y & + 10 y = 40 u 2&y y

; H=1

Start with proportional gain K and increase the gain up to the point of instability. From this, the response KC and TC are obtained which enables the calculation of the PID parameters (Table 5.1). Apply these to the closed loop transfer function. Finally obtain the response and compare it with the design specification. Gradually increase the gain until the point of sustained oscillations is reached (instability). We obtain the step response as below with k=7.

Figure 5.14 Step response using P controller

This is not sustained oscillation so increase the gain until the point of instability is reached.
Solution KC=10 gives the step response below.

Figure 5.15 Step response of P controller (oscillation)

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Analog controllers and Actuators

This is obviously the point of sustained oscillation. Therefore; KC = 10 and TC = 1 ( time of one period ) Obtain PID parameters using Table 5.1 (some overshoot): KP = 3.3 Ti = 0.5 Td = 0.33 Now, Apply the PID controller in the closed loop with a unity feedback (H=1) and obtain the following step response

Figure 5.16 Step response using PID controller

This approach is not the final solution. Additional fine tuning can be done in order to get a better performance from the system. However this can be used as an initial tuning and it more or less fulfils the design specifications. Note that, PID controllers can be found in different practical forms: Analog controllers as electronic cards Digital controllers as software implementation using computers

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Analog controllers and Actuators 5.10 Final control

Final control element operations involve the steps necessary to convert the control signal (generated by a controller) into proportional action on the process itself. Thus, to use a typical 4-20 mA control signal to vary a large flow rate, certainly requires some intermediate operations. It needs a power enough to actuate or to change the process state and also signal conversion operations as shown in figure.
Controller output

Signal conversion

Actuator

Final control element

Process input

Figure 5.17 Elements of the final control operation

Signal conversions This step refers to modifications that must be made to the control signal to properly interface with the next stage of control, that is, the actuator. Thus, if a valve control element is to be operated by an electric motor actuator, then a 4-20 mA signal must be modified to operate the motor. Many modifications can be made such as current to pressure, current to voltage. The devices that perform such signal conversion are often called transducers because they convert control signals from one form to another. Actuators The results of signal conversions provide an amplified and/or converted signal which is designed to operate (actuate) a mechanism to change a controlling variable in the process. The direct effect is usually implemented by something in the process such as a valve or heater which must be operated by some device. The actuator is a power amplifier to convert control signal into action on the control element. Thus, if a valve is to be operated, then the actuator is a device that converts the control signal into physical action of opening or closing the valve. Final control element This device has direct influence on the process variable and is designed as an integral part of the process itself. Thus, if flow is to be controlled, the control element, a valve, must be built directly into the flow system. Similarly, if temperature is to be controlled, then some mechanism or control element which has a direct influence on temperature must be involved in the process. This could be a heater/cooler combination that is electrically actuated by relays or a pneumatic valve. 5.10.1 Signal conversions

Many of methods of analog signal conditioning discussed in chapter 3 are used in conversions necessary for final control such as: Amplification Current to voltage conversion Current to pneumatic pressure conversion Digital to analog conversion

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Analog controllers and Actuators Example: A common conversion is to use the controller signal to activate a relay when simple ON/OFF is sufficient. In some cases, the low current signal is insufficient to derive a heavy industrial relay, and an amplifier is used to boost the control signal to a level sufficient to do the job.

In the next section, we will focus on the electrical actuators in some details.
5.10.2 Actuators

It involves: Electrical actuators (Solenoid, Relays, AC motors, DC motors, Stepper motors) Pneumatic actuators Hydraulic actuators
Electrical actuators Solenoid A solenoid is an elementary device which converts an electrical signal into a motion, usually rectilinear, that is in a straight line. The solenoid consists of a coil and plunger. The plunger may be free standing or spring loaded. The coil will have some voltage or current rating and may be a DC or AC type. Solenoid specifications include the electrical rating and the plunger pull or push force when excited by the specified voltage. Control Relays Relays are widely used in control circuits. They are used for switching multiple control circuits and for controlling light loads such as starting coils, pilot lights, and audible alarms. The operation of a control relay is similar to a contactor. In the following example, relay with a set of normally open (NO) contacts is used. When power is applied from the control circuit, an electromagnetic coil is energized. The resultant electromagnetic field pulls the armature and movable contacts toward the electromagnet closing the contacts. When power is removed, spring tension pushes the armature and movable contacts away from the electromagnet opening the contacts.

Figure 5.18 Control relay

A relay can contain normally open, normally closed, or both types of contacts. The main difference between a control relay and a contactor is the size and number of contacts. The contacts in a control relay are relatively small because they need to handle only the small currents used in control circuits. There are no power contacts. Also, unlike a contactor, each contact in a control relay controls a different circuit. In a contactor, they all control the starting and stopping of the motor. Some relays have a greater number of contacts than are

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Analog controllers and Actuators

found in the typical contactor. The use of contacts in relays can be complex. There are three words which must be understood when dealing with relays (pole, throw, and break).

Figure 5.19 Control relay poles

Pole describes the number of isolated circuits that can pass through the relay at one time. A single-pole circuit can carry current through one circuit. A double-pole circuit can carry current through two circuits simultaneously. The two circuits are mechanically connected so that they open or close at the same time.

Figure 5.20 Control relay throw

Throw is the number of different closed-contact positions per pole. This is the total number of different circuits each pole controls.

Figure 5.21 Control relay break

Break is the number of separate contacts the switch contacts use to open or close individual circuits. If the switch breaks the circuit in one place, it is a single-break. If the relay breaks the circuit in two places, it is a double-break.

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Analog controllers and Actuators AC Motors There are many types of ac motors. A synchronous ac motor's speed of rotation is determined by the frequency of the ac voltage which drives it. Its primary application is in timing because of the high stability of the power-line frequency. The rotor is a PM, and the field is provided by coils driven from the ac line.

Figure 5.22 Synchronous motor

Due to the inertia of the PM, the starting torque is not very high but once rotation is started, the PM will rotate in phase with the field reversals caused by the oscillations of the ac line voltage. It is clear then that the rate of rotation is determined by the ac line frequency.

Figure 5.23 AC induction motor

An induction motor replaces the PM with a very heavy wire coil into which is induced a current from the changing field of the ac excited field coils as shown in the above figure. Once rotation is started the rotor will continue rotation in phase with the line frequency induced changes of field coil excitation. The difficulty with these motors is that they are not self starting and special modifications are necessary to get them to begin rotation. Cleary then, the starting torque is very low. One method of providing self starting is to drive the motor with two or more phases of ac excitation. In general, however, ac motors do not have a high starting torque or convenient methods of speed control.

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Analog controllers and Actuators DC Motors In its simplest form, a dc motor uses a permanent magnet (PM) to produce a static magnetic field a cross two pole pieces. Between the pole is connected a coil of wire which is free to rotate (the armature) and which is connected to a source of dc current through a switch mounted on the shaft (a commutator) as shown in figure.

Figure 5.24 Permanent magnet dc motor

For the condition shown, the current in the coil will produce a magnetic field with a north/south orientation like that shown in figure. The repulsion of the PM south and the coil south (and the norths) will cause a torque which will rotate the coil. If the commutator were not split, the coil would simply rotate until the PM and coil north and south poles were lined up and then stop. But, the use of a commutator makes the armature continues to rotate. The speed will depend on the current. Actually, the armature current is not determined by the coil resistance because of a back emf produced by the rotating wire in a magnetic field. Thus, the effective voltage which determines the current from the wire resistance and ohm's law, is the difference between the applied voltage and the back emf produced by the rotation. Many dc motors use an electromagnet instead of a PM to provide the static field. The coil used to produce this field is called the field coil. The current for this field coil can be provided by placing the coil in series with the armature or in parallel (shunt). In some cases the field is composed of two windings, one of each type (compound) as shown in figure.

Figure 5.25 DC motor configurations

a) Series field. This motor has a large starting torque but is difficult to speed control. Good in applications of starting heavy, non-mobile loads and, where speed control is not very important, such as quick-opening valves. b) Shunt field. This motor has a smaller starting torque but very good speed control characteristics by varying armature excitation current. Good in applications where speed is to be controlled, such as conveyor systems. - 118 -

Analog controllers and Actuators

c) Compound field. This motor attempts to obtain the best features of both of the two previous types. Generally, starting torque and speed control capability fall predictably between the two pure cases.
DC motor drive It would be useful to be able to run a motor in either direction. Reverse the DC power connections on such a motor and its shaft will rotate in the opposite direction. One way to control direction is to use switches arranged in the following manner:

Figure 5.26 H-bridge of DC motor control

This configuration is called an H-Bridge due to its shape. Let's say that the motor runs forward when its + terminal is connected to Motor V+ and its - terminal is connected to ground. It will run in reverse when the opposite is true. Turn on switch A and switch D and the motor will run forward. Turn on switch B and switch C and it will run in reverse. The following table shows all of the possibilities. A 1 means a switch is on, and a 0 means it's off:
Table 5.2 H-bridge states

A B C D State 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1
Off Off Off Brake Off

A B C D State 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1
Off Forward SHORT!! SHORT!! Brake SHORT!! SHORT!! SHORT!!

SHORT!! 1 Reverse

SHORT!! 1

Only a few of the possibilities are needed. In fact, seven of the combinations must be avoided because they short out the power supply. We can use the forward, reverse, one for offs, and optionally one for brakes. There are a variety of devices that can be used for switches, including common mechanical switches, transistors and relays.

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Analog controllers and Actuators Stepper motors The stepper motor operates using the basic principle of magnetic attraction and repulsion. It has increased in importance in recent years because of the ease with which this rotating machine can be interfaced with digital circuits. Steppers convert digital pulses into mechanical shaft rotation. The amount of rotation is directly proportional to the number of input pulses generated and speed is relative to pulse frequency. There are three types of stepper motors: Permanent magnet, Variable reluctance, and hybrid synchronous.

Figure 5.27 Permanent magnet stepper motor

a) Permanent Magnet. Permanent magnet motors have a permanent magnet armature magnetized perpendicular to the rotation axis. By energizing four phases in sequence, the rotor will rotate as it follows the changing magnetic field. For the motor in figure the step is 90o. Typical step angles for PM motors are 45o and 90o. They step at relatively low rates but have high torques and good damping characteristics.
Example:

A stepper motor has 10o per step and must rotate at 250 rpm. What input pulse rate , in pulses per second, is required?
Solution

A full revolution has 360o, so with 10o per step it will take 36 steps to complete one revolution. Thus, (250 rev/min)(36 pulses/rev) = 9000 pulses/min Therefore, (9000 pulses/min)(1min/60sec) = 150 pulses/sec

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b) Variable Reluctance. This type of motors differs from PM motors by having a multi-tooth armature, each tooth being individual magnet as shown in the following figure.

Figure 5.28 Variable reluctance stepper motor

At rest, these magnets align themselves in a natural detent position providing larger holding torque. In the example shown, by alternately de-energizing pole 1 and energizing pole 2, the armature rotates 15o. Motion is accomplished through coordinated energizing of the stator poles from step 1 through 4. c) Hybrid Synchronous. The hybrid synchronous stepper motor combines the advantages of variable reluctance and permanent magnet stepper motors. The hybrid has multi-toothed stator poles and a multi-toothed armature as shown in figure.

Figure 5.29 Hybrid synchronous stepper motor

These types of motors exhibit high detent torque, excellent dynamic and static torque, and can achieve high stepping rates. Hybrids usually have two windings on each stator pole so that the pole cans either a magnetic north or south depending on the direction of current flow. Hybrid motors are manufactured in a large torque range by varying both length and diameter.

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Table 5.3 Advantages and disadvantages of stepper and brushed DC motors.

Stepper motor drivers The stepper motor drive delivers electrical power to the motor in response to low-level signals from the control system. The motor is a torque producing device, and this torque is generated by the interaction of magnetic fields. The driving force behind the stator field is magnetomotive force (MMF), which is proportional to current and the number of turns in winding. This I soften referred to as the amp-turns product. Essentially, the drive must act as a source of current. The applied voltage is only significant as a means of controlling the current. Input signals to stepper motor drive consist of step pulses and a direction signal. One step pulse is required for every step the motor is to take. The most commonly used stepping mode in industrial applications is the half step mode in which the motor performs 400 steps per revolution. At a shaft speed of 1800 rpm, this requires a pulse frequency of 20 KHz.

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Figure 5.30 Stepper drive elements

The logic section of stepper drive is often referred to as a translator. Its function is to translate the step and direction signals into control waveforms for the switch set. The design of the switch set is the prime factor in determining drive performance.
Pneumatic actuators

The actuator often translates a control signal into a large force or torque as required to manipulate some control element. The pneumatic actuator is most useful for such translation. The principle is based on the concept of pressure as force per unit area. If we imagine that a net pressure difference is applied to a diaphragm of surface area A, then the net force acts on the diaphragm given by: F = (P1- P2) A Where: P1-P2 = pressure difference (Pa) A = diaphragm area (m2) F = force (N) (5.12)

If we need to double the available force for a given pressure, it is necessary to double the diaphragm area. Very large forces can be developed by standard signal pressure ranges 3-15 psi (20 100 kPa). Many types of pneumatic actuators are available, but perhaps the most common are those associated with control valves. The action of a direct pneumatic actuator is shown in figure.

(a) low pressure state

(b) high pressure state

Figure 5.31 Direct pneumatic actuator

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In low signal pressure state, the spring S maintains the diaphragm and connected control shaft in a position as shown in figure. The pressure on the opposite (spring) side of the diaphragm is maintained at atmospheric pressure by the open of hole H. Increasing the control pressure (gauge pressure) applies a force on the diaphragm, this action forces diaphragm and connected shaft down against the spring force. Note that, the pressure and force are linearly related, and that the compression of a spring is linearly related to forces. Then, we see that shaft position is linearly related to the applied control pressure. x = Where A P S (5.13) x = shaft travel (m) P = applied gauge pressure, (Pa) pascals A = diaphragm area (m2) ; S= spring constant (N/m)

Example Suppose a force of 400 N must be applied to open a valve. Find the diaphragm area if a control gauge pressure of 70 kPa (10 psi) must provide this force. Solution We calculate the area from F=A(P1-P2) where our applied pressure is P1-P2 because a gauge pressure is specified. A=F/P = 400 N/ (7x104 Pa) = 0.00571 m2 = 8.5 cm in diameter Pressure switch

Pressure switches are control devices that respond to changes in pressure of liquid or air. The liquid or air is referred to as fluid pressure. They open or close electrical contacts in response to pressure changes by either turning on or off a motor, opening or closing louvers, or signaling a warning light or horn. For loads up to 5 HP the pressure switches may handle the current directly. For larger loads the pressure switch is used to energize relays, contactors, or motor starters, which then energize the load. The basic components of a pressure switch are illustrated in the figure. Electrical contacts are operated by the movement of a diaphragm against the force of a spring. The contacts may be normally open (NO) or normally closed (NC). The spring setting determines how much fluid pressure is required to operate the contacts.

Figure 5.32 Pressure switch

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Pressure switches are frequently used to maintain a specified pressure range in a storage tank. Storage tanks can be used to hold a liquid, such as water, or a gas, such as air.

Figure 5.33 Pressure switch control application

In this example a normally closed pressure switch is used. The pump starts as soon as power is applied to the circuit. When the pressure in the storage tank has reached a predetermined level, the contacts in the pressure switch open and removing power from the pump motor. As the contents of the storage tank are used, the pressure in the tank decreases. At a predetermined level the pressure switch will close its contacts, applying power to the pump motor.

Figure 5.34 Pressure control response

Hydraulic actuators

In some cases where very large forces are required, the area of a required pneumatic diaphragm for the standard control signals may be too large for practical consideration. In such cases, hydraulic actuator may be employed. The basic principle is shown in the following figure.

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F1

Fw

A1

A2

Hydraulic fluid
Figure 5.35 Hydraulic actuator

The basic idea is the same as pneumatic actuator except that an incompressible fluid is used to provide the pressure like oil. The hydraulic pressure is given by PH= F1/A1 PH = hydraulic pressure (Pa) F1 = applied piston force (N) ; A1 = forcing piston area (m2) The resulting force on the working piston is Where Fw = PH A2 Where Fw = force of working piston (N) A2 = working piston area (m2) (5.15) (5.14)

Thus, the working force is given in terms of the applied force by Fw = (A2/A1) F1 (5.16)

Example Find the working force and the hydraulic pressure resulting from 200 N applied to a 1 cm radius forcing piston if the working piston has a radius of 6 cm. Solution We can find the working force from equation (5.16)

Fw= (R2/R1)2 F = (6 cm/1 cm)2 (200 N) = 7200 N Thus, the 200 N force provides 7200 N of force. The hydraulic pressure is PH = Fw/A2 = 7200 N/(0.06 )2 = 6.4 x 105 Pa = 92 psi
5.10.3 Final control elements

It involves: Mechanical (hopper valves) Electrical (motors, heaters) Fluid valves

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Analog controllers and Actuators Mechanical final control elements

Control element that performs some mechanical operation in a process is called mechanical control element. An example could be a hopper valve that is actuated to open or close a bottom outlet of a silo to control the required flow rate of grain on a conveyor. Another example could be in paper industry, the paper thickness is regulated by the movement of a movable roller (final control element). The actuator could be electrical, pneumatic, or hydraulic and adjusts roller separation based on a thickness measurement.
Electrical final control elements

There are numerous cases where a direct electrical effect is impressed in some-control situation. The following examples illustrate some typical cases of electrical control elements.
Example: Motor speed control The speed of large electrical motors depends on many factors, including supply voltage level, load, and others, A process control loop regulates this speed through direct change of operating voltage or current, as shown in figure for a dc motor. Here, voltage measurements of engine speed from a tachometer (small dc generator) are used in a process control loop to determine the power supplied to the motor brushes. In some cases motor speed control is an intermediate operation in a process control application.
Comparator Amplifier Set point

Amplifier

DC Motor

Field

Tachometer Figure 5.36 DC-motor speed control

Example: Temperature control Temperature often is controlled by using electrical heaters in some application of industrial control. Thus, if heat can be supplied through heaters electrically in an endothermic reaction, then the process control signal can be used to ON/OFF cycle heater or set the heater within a continuous span of operating voltages, as in the following figure.

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Reaction vessel Amplifier Heater

Temperature measurement Set point Signal converter Controller

Power input
Figure 5.37 Temperature control

In this example, a reaction vessel is maintained at some constant temperature using an electrical heater. The process control loop provides this by smoothly varying excitation to the heater.
Fluid valves The chemical and petroleum industries have many applications requiring control of fluid processes. Many other industries also depend in part on operations that involve fluid and regulation of fluid parameters. A regulation of flow rate emerges as the regulatory parameter for reaction rate, temperature, composition, or a host of other fluid properties. Flow rate in process control is usually expressed as volume per unit time. If a mass flow rate is desired, it can be calculated from the particular fluid density. If a given fluid is delivered through a pipe, the the volume flow rate is

Q=Av Where Q = flow rate (m3/s) A = pipe area (m2) V = flow velocity (m/s)

(5.17)

A control valve regulates the flow rate in a fluid delivery system. In general, a close relation exists between the pressure along a pipe and its flow rate so that if the pressure is changed, then the flow rate is also changed. A control valve changes flow rate by changing the pressure in a flow system because it introduces a constriction in the delivery system as shown in figure.

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Restriction

Input flow at pressure P1

Input flow at pressure P2

Figure 5.38 Flow across a restriction in a pipe

We can show that the flow rate through the constriction is given by

Q = K P Where K = proportionality constant (m /s/Pa ) P = P1-P2 = pressure difference (Pa)

3 1/2

(5.18)

Example A pressure difference of 1.1 psi occurs across a constriction in a 5cm diameter pipe. The constriction constant is 0.009 m3/s/k Pa1/2. Find the flow rate and velocity. Solution First we note that 1.1 psi can be P= (1.1 psi)(6.895 kPa/psi) = 7.5845 kPa

The flow rate is calculated using equation (5.18) Q= (0.009)(7.5485)1/2 = 0.05 m3/s The velocity is found from V =Q/A = 0.25 /(0.025)2 = 12.7 m/s

Control valves are classified by the relationship between the valve stem position and the flow rate through the valve. In the following figure, a typical control valve using a pneumatic actuator attached to derive the stem and, hence open or close the valve.

Figure 5.39 Control valve derived by pneumatic actuator

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There are three basic types of control valves: 1- Quick opening. This type of valve is used predominantly for fill ON/full OFF control applications. Such a valve, for example, may allow 90% of maximum flow rate with only a 30 % travel of the stem. 2- Linear valve. This type of valve, has a flow rate that varies linearly with the stem position. It represents the ideal situation where the valve alone determines the pressure drop. The relationship is Q = Qmax (S/Smax) Where Q = flow rate (m3/s) ; Qmax = maximum flow rate (m3/s) S = stem position (m) ; Smax = maximum stem position (m) (5.19)

3- Equal percentage valve. A very important type of valve employed in flow control has a characteristic such that a given percentage change in stem position produces an equivalent change in flow, that is, an equal percentage. Generally, this type of valve does not shut off the flow completely in its limit of stem travel. Thus, Qmin represents the minimum flow when the stem is at one limit of its travel. At the other extreme, the valve allows a flow Qmax as its maximum, open valve, flow rate. For this type, we define the rangeability R as the ratio R = Qmax/Qmin The flow relationship is given by Q = Qmin Rs/smax
Flow as Q/Qmax

(5.20)

(5.21)

3
Stem position as S/Smax

Figure 5.40 Control valve characteristics

Example

An equal percentage valve has a maximum flow of 50 m3/s and a minimum of 2 m3/s. If the full travel is 3 cm, find the flow at 1 cm opening
Solution The rangeability is

R=Qmax /Qmin= (50 m3/s) /(2 m3/s )=25

Then the flow at 1 cm opening is Q= (2 m3/s) 251/3 = 5.85 m3/s

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Analog controllers and Actuators 5.11 Basic concepts (MCQ)

Place the later of the statement that best completes the sentence in space provided. 1] Two positions controller requires __________ to avoid switching due to measurement noise around zero error A) Bias (constant value) B) Hyeteresis characteristic C) Bimetal strip 2] Proportional controller provides__________ response action A) Fast B) Slow C) Overshoot 3] The integral control action provides a response with __________ steady state error A) Large B) Zero C) Offset 4] Derivative control action cannot used only, because it could lead to an __________ system A) Instable B) Slow response C) Overshoot 5] Controller tuning method of Ziegler and Nichols requires__________ A) Process parameters B) Measure of critical gain and oscillation period C) PID controller 6] The actuator is a __________ amplifier A) Signal B) Inverted C) Power 7] __________ describes the number of isolated circuits that can pass through the relay at one time. A) Pole B) Throw C) Break

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Analog controllers and Actuators

8] DC motor provide __________ starting torque rather than AC motors A) High B) Low C) No 9] __________ is used to provide a good speed control using a DC motor A) Series field B) Shunt field C) Compound field 10] __________ motors can be interfaced directly to a digital controller A) AC motors B) DC motors C) Stepper motors 11] Hydraulic actuators use __________ fluid in a piston A) Compressible B) Incompressible C) Air pressure 12] __________ is an electric actuator A) Valve B) Heater C) Relay 13] The valve changes __________ across the constriction of the fluid pipe A) Pressure B) Flow C) Area 14] A __________ can be in a number of different states ranging from 0% open to 100 % A. Pneumatic controller B. Pressure switch C. Proportional controller 15] Pneumatic control systems generally use __________ to transmit controlling signal A. series of electric pressure switches B. Pressurized air or fluids C. Feedback loop controls

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16] Electronic control systems in oil and gas industry, generally use __________ to transmit controlling signals A. series of electric pressure switches B. Pressurized air or fluids C. Feedback loop controls 17] __________ are translators, changing one kind of signal into another in a proportional manner A. pressure switches B. Relays C. Transducers 18] __________ devices that control directly the value of process variables are known as A. final control element B. Controllers C. Transmitting elements

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Analog controllers and Actuators 5.12 Problems

1] A sensor converts position from 0 to 2 m into 4-20 mA current. An error detector such as in figure 5.3 is used with R=100 , Vo=5 v, and Rsp=1 k. Compute Vsp if the set point is 0.5 m? 2] Explain what is meant by proportional action in a process controller and the term offset. 3] A proportional controller is used to control the height of water in a tank where the water level can vary from zero to 4 m. The required height of water is 3.5 m and the controller is to fully close a valve when the water rises to 3.9 m and fully open it when the water falls to 3.1. Compute the proportional band PB and write the controller equation. 4] A PI controller with an 80% PB and 0.03 min integral (reset) time. Compute the controller parameters and draw the circuit. 5] A PD controller with 14% PB and 0.2 min derivative time. The fastest signal speed is 1 minute. Measurement range is 0.4 to 2 volts, and the output range is 0 to 10 volts. Compute the controller parameters and draw the circuit. 6] A liquid level system converts a 4-10 m level into a 4-20mA current. Compute the parameters of three mode controller (PID) that outputs 0-5 volts with 50% PB, 0.03 min integration time, and 0.05 min derivative time. Fastest expected change time is 0.8 minutes. 7] A proportional controller is used with a process in a unity feed back system. The gain that sustained oscillation in the loop is 15 and the corresponding period is 0.8 seconds. Compute the three mode controller parameters using Ziegler Nichols to obtain overdamped response. 8] A 4-20 mA control signal is loaded by a 100 resistor and must produce a 20-40 volt motor derive signal. Find an equation relating the input current to the output voltage. 9] A stepper motor has 130 steps per revolution. Find the digital input rate that produces 10.5 revolutions per second? 10] A stepper motor has 7.5o per step. Find the rpm produced by a pulse rate of 2000 pps on the input? 11] What force is generated by 90 Ka acting on a 30 cm2 diaphragm area? 12] A hydraulic system uses pistons of diameter 2 cm and 40 cm. What force on the small piston will raise a 500 kg mass? 13] What is the pneumatic pressure in the previous problem? 14] Design a system by which a control signal of 4-20mA is converted into a force of 200 to 1000 N. Use a pneumatic actuator and specify the required diaphragm area if the pressure output is to be in the range of 20 to 100 kpa. An IP (current to pneumatic) converter is available that converts 0-5 volts into 20 to 100kpa.

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15] A feed hopper requires 30 Ib of force to open. Find the pneumatic actuator area to provide this force from a 9 psi input signal. 16] An equal percentage control valve has a rangeability of 32. If the maximum flow rate is 100 ms3/hr, find the flow at 2/3 and 4/5 open settings. 17] A quick opening valve moves from closed to maximum open with five turns of a shaft. The shaft is driven through a 10:1 reducer (gear ratio) from a stepper motor of 3.6o per step. If the maximum input pulse rate to the motor is 250 steps per second, find the fastest time for the valve to move from closed to open.

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