Development of Full-Toroidal Traction Drives in Flywheel Based Mechanical Hybrids

Chris Brockbank, BSc (Hons)

Abstract Flywheel based mechanical hybrid systems comprising a Torotrak full-toroidal traction drive transmission and a high speed flywheel are being developed for mainstream automotive, commercial vehicle and off-highway applications. Originally developed for Formula 1 motorsport as a KERS, the CVT / flywheel system provides a highly efficient hybrid in a lightweight and compact package at a fraction of the cost of the conventional battery based hybrid systems. The paper describes the full-toroidal traction drive system employed in the mechanical hybrid system together with the measured efficiency and power capacity of the CVT hardware. In addition, the benefits of the various CVT / IVT architecture options and the current vehicle application projects are described and discussed.

I. INTRODUCTION

ybridisation of the powertrain is a proven and accepted CO2 reduction solution and a critical enabler to producing low carbon vehicles. Battery-based electric hybrids systems are most prevalent, with a range of serial, parallel, mild and full hybrid applications. However, these systems are expensive, complex and heavy. Battery life is limited and hence battery purchase and replacement costs are significant and a critical factor in achieving a ROI. The environmental impact of the disposal of high numbers of chemical batteries is also problematical. Other hybrid systems such as capacitor or hydraulic based systems are available / under development and each comes with its own application issues such as weight, efficiency, package or cost. A viable alternative is a mechanical hybrid system using a flywheel as the energy storage medium, controlled by a variable speed drive. Flywheel based mechanical hybrids are specifically cited in the NAIGT Common Research Agenda Summary and are demonstrating significant CO2 benefits in Automotive applications from a simple cost-effective design. A flywheel-based mechanical hybrid is not a new concept systems have previously been developed by the Technical University of Eindhoven and Leyland Trucks amongst others. Torotrak has its roots in Leyland Trucks and a flywheel hybrid bus with a glass reinforced plastic flywheel from BP together with a main drive full-toroidal traction drive IVT was developed in the 1980s see Fig. 1.

Fig. 1. GRP flywheel rotor from the Leyland National bus. Storage capacity: 1.4MJ at 16,000rpm, power capacity: 160kW, flywheel mass: 28kg, total mass (including three stage containment): 100kg

Manuscript received September 30, 2010. C Brockbank is Business Director at Torotrak (Development) Ltd, 1 Aston Way, Leyland, Lancashire, PR26 7UX (phone: +44 1772 427863; fax: +44 1772 900929; e-mail: chris.brockbank@torotrak.com).

Although it is possible to ride on a flywheel powered tram from Stourbridge Junction in England, mass series production application of flywheel systems has not been achieved. This is partially due to the embryonic stage of development of both flywheel and variable drive technology, resulting in low speed / low energy dense / low power dense systems with high mass. Recent technical advances have dramatically reduced weight and package, significantly increasing the energy and power density of the flywheel hybrid system, resulting in a hybrid with significantly lower weight, smaller package and, with batteries not required, dramatically lower cost than conventional hybrid systems. Flywheel hybrid systems also do not have the degradation problems of batteries and hence do not suffer from disposal issues. In addition, as energy is recovered, stored and reapplied to the vehicle without changing the 'state' of the energy (i.e. from mechanical to electrical to chemical and vice versa), a highly efficiency hybrid results with in excess of 70% of the recovered energy returned to the wheels - approximately twice that of a battery electric hybrids. Recently, Formula 1 introduced hybrid systems with relatively low levels of power and energy recovery, storage and reapplication. For the 2009 season, 400kJ of energy could be recovered from and reapplied to the vehicle at a rate of 60kW. The regulations were specifically written to encourage a technical developments and a variety of systems resulted including flywheel based mechanical systems. Although flywheel hybrids were cheaper, lighter and more efficient than electrical systems, changes to the

aerodynamic package for 2009 (namely the relative sizes of the front and rear wings) precluded their use due to the high level of front-end grip the mechanical system is located on the powertrain at the rear of the vehicle whereas the electrical system could be split up with components such as the batteries located towards the front.

flywheel hybrid system to a city bus via an innovative installation through the Power Take Off (PTO) facility of the standard fit automatic transmission.

Fig. 3. FHSPV system as developed in the Jaguar XF Fig. 2. Formula 1 flywheel hybrid system designed and developed by Flybrid Systems LLP

KERS remains in the 2010 regulations but in order to reduce costs, the teams have unilaterally agreed not to use it this year. KERS returns next year and for the 2013 season, radical changes are planned including reducing the engine size and increasing the KERS power and energy to 112kW and 3.3MJ a specification that significantly favours mechanical systems over battery electric systems. Mechanical kinetic energy recovery systems may have not made it to the grid in Formula 1 in 2009 but the developments were by no means wasted as flywheel based mechanical hybrid systems are now being engineered for a range of Automotive and Commercial Vehicle applications. Flybrid Systems LLP and Ricardo are developing highspeed, carbon filament wrapped flywheel hybrid systems utilising a Torotrak full-toroidal traction drive CVT. Weighing in at circa 5kg, with a diameter of 200mm and a length of 100mm, the Flybrid flywheel spins at high speeds with an operating speed of circa 64,000 rpm, and hence operates in a vacuum. Safety is of course a primary concern and therefore the flywheel is enclosed in a metal housing that has already been successfully performance and crash tested. Torotrak is involved in three UK Government part-funded projects developing flywheel hybrid systems namely: 1. Flywheel Hybrid System from Premium Vehicles (FHSPV) led by Jaguar Land Rover applying the system to a rwd Jaguar XF, 2. KINERSTOR project led by Ricardo which is developing cost reduced systems for mass market and Off-Highway applications and 3. FLYBUS project led by Torotrak which is applying a

Fig. 4. FLYBUS system as developed in the Optare bus

II. FLYWHEEL HYBRID FUNDAMENTALS A flywheel hybrid system comprises a flywheel as the energy storage device with the CVT controlling both the direction and rate of energy flow (i.e. power).

Step-up Drive Clutch

Input Drive

Flywheel

Fig. 5. Typical flywheel hybrid system architecture

Kinetic energy is recovered from the vehicle and transferred to the flywheel causing the vehicle slow and the flywheel to speed up. Energy is later returned to the vehicle

causing the vehicle to drive / accelerate and the flywheel to slow. Hence, the speed relationship between the vehicle and the flywheel is completely and continuously variable, requiring a variable drive to connect the two. Figure 6 describes the typical range of vehicle and flywheel speeds over the NEDC and FTP75 drive cycles.
120 100 Vehicle Speed (kph) 80 60 40 20 0 0 10000 20000 30000 40000 50000 Flywheel Speed (rpm) NEDC FTP 75

Fig. 7. Full-toroidal variator schematic

The power source (normally an engine or driveline) drives the input discs (1) and power is transmitted via the rollers (2) to the output discs (3). When the rotational velocities of the input and/or output discs change, the rollers automatically alter their inclination in order to adjust to the new operating conditions (4). Power transmission is achieved by traction, i.e. by shearing an extremely thin, elasto-hydrodynamic fluid film (traction fluid [1]) and not through metal-to-metal friction. Hence the name 'traction drive', which is defined in [2] as: a power transmission device which utilizes hardened, metallic, rolling bodies for transmission of power through an elasto-hydrodynamic fluid film. The discs / rollers force balance in the is shown below:
Castor Angle Tangential Force

Fig. 6. Vehicle and flywheel speeds over the NEDC and FTP75

A critical requirement of the flywheel hybrid system is complete control over the rate of energy flow. The Torotrak CVT offers a control advantage over conventional ratio controlled variators in that it can deliver torque as its natural output. The hydraulic force applied to the variator pistons determines the torque applied to the flywheel (and to the driveline), regardless of the flywheel and driveline speeds. This is in stark contrast to a ratio controlled device, which must deliver a rate of ratio change in order to regulate the torque imparted to flywheel and driveline not an easy task, as the requested rate of ratio change is a function of the requested torque, speed and acceleration input to the CVT. Torque control, however, offers a simple solution to flywheel control, with the direction and quantity of power flow to or from the flywheel and driveline simply being determined by the direction and quantity of hydraulic pressure applied to the variator pistons. III. THE TOROTRAK FULL-TOROIDAL TRACTION DRIVE VARIATOR The heart of the Torotrak variable drive system is the fulltoroidal traction drive variator.
1 1. The ou ter d isc(s) Connected to the po wertrain 2. The variator roller(s) Transfer power and match disc spe eds 3. The inn er disc(s) Transmit pow er to / from the flywheel 4. Ratio C hang e Rollers steer like a castor to reflect the ratio change. 4 4 2 3 3 2 1

Endload

Endload

Reaction Force

Fig. 8.Variator force balance

The application of a castor angle to the roller carriages enables the rollers to steer to a new angle of inclination and hence variator ratio. The Torotrak variator is torque controlled in that the required system torque is set by applying pressure to the pistons connected to the rollers and the variator follows the ratio automatically [3]. Figure 9 explains this approach using a simplified single roller model. Applying a reaction force F to the roller causes a reaction torque (Ta and Tb) at the variator discs and consequently an acceleration of the two inertias (vehicle / driveline side inertia A and flywheel side inertia B). This may change the speed of the vehicle / driveline and / or flywheel resulting in a change of variator ratio. Due to application of the castor angle, this ratio change happens automatically. In the Torotrak variator design described above, reaction force is applied hydraulically to individual roller carriage pistons.

ratio) and the variator reaction pressure was controlled to achieve the required test parameters. To monitor the condition of the transmission, thermocouples were fixed to each of the roller carriers with the tip of the thermocouple positioned to touch the spinning roller. The Xtrac P662 variator assembly on the Torotrak Full Load Rig (FLR) can be seen below:

Fig. 9. Principle of torque control

Previously, Torotrak have demonstrated and reported a 20% fuel economy benefit from a twin regime Geared Neutral Infinitely Variable Transmission (IVT) arrangement in a fleet of V8 powered Sport Utility Vehicles (SUVs) [4]. In addition, the disc and roller durability [4] and traction fluid developments [5] have been reported. For F1 and mainstream KERS applications, Xtrac Ltd have designed manufactured and developed a compact Torotrak full-toroidal variable drive unit utilising a twin cavity variator with 3 x 55mm roller diameter rollers per cavity.

Fig. 11. KERS CVT module testing

A. Variator Module Efficiency Testing A key parameter for the efficiency of the variator module is the cooling requirement which partially defines the pump flow requirements. Hence the efficiency testing was conducted with 8.75 l/min of total lubrication flow, giving a 6.8 l/min supply to the six rollers with the remainder of the lubrication flow used to lubricate the central disc needle roller bearing, the output disc gear mesh, and to feed the end-load compensation reservoir. Throughout the testing the oil out temperature from the cooler to the transmission was maintained at 95C and the roller temperatures typically remained between 100 and 105C. Efficiency results at 45kW and 60kW are shown in Figure 12.
92 91 90 89 88 87 86 45kW 85 84 0.40 60kW

Fig. 10. Xtrac Ltds full-toroidal variator unit

IV. HARDWARE TEST RESULTS The Xtrac P662 KERS CVT variator hardware has been tested with the power capacity, efficiency, durability, contact pressure and temperature performance measured. In order to achieve the test conditions, the variator module was placed between two Xtrac gearboxes before (4:1) and after (5:1) the variator. An input torque sensor was positioned immediately before the variator (directly connected to the variator input shaft) with an output torque sensor separated from the variator by the gear mesh (47:35 from the central disc of the variator) and shaft (with two deep-groove ball bearings and one lip-seal). The front and rear motors were set to give the correct input and output speeds (and therefore the correct variator

(including gears, bearings, seals, etc)

Module Efficiency (%)

0.60

0.80

1.00

1.20

1.40

1.60

1.80

2.00

2.20

Variator Ratio

Fig. 12. KERS CVT module efficiency data

Hence at 45kW input power, the variator module efficiency is between 86.4% and 89.2% and at 60kW the module efficiency is between 88.0% and 89.5%. Given the inclusion of the 47:35 step-off gear together with the bearings and seal on the shaft that carries the gear, the efficiency of the variator alone at 60kW input power is close

to the 92% predicted target. B. Variator Module Power Capacity Testing During the efficiency testing described above, the variator was seen to easily carry the 60kW required by the F1 KERS application across a range of ratios. Hence the input power to the module was increased to explore the limits of the unit. Over the module ratio spread, the input power was increased at a range of test points with 90 to 100kW capability proven over the range of ratio and a resulting peak power capacity of 111.0kW at Rv = 1.08.
120

energy-efficient control solution which is ideal for torque control of the full-toroidal variator.

Fig. 14. Hydraulic block

110 Power Capacity (kW)

100

VI. VARIABLE DRIVE HARDWARE OPTIONS Various options exist for layout and location options for the flywheel hybrid and its variable drive system. Fig 15 shows the possible points for connection to a rear wheel drive powertrain.

90

80

70

60 0.40

0.60

0.80

1.00

1.20

1.40

1.60

1.80

2.00

2.20

Variator Ratio

Fig. 13. KERS CVT module power capacity data

V. HYDRAULIC SYSTEM Critical requirements for the hydraulic system for the KERS CVT are a small package, high efficiency and a low cost. Hence, the hydraulic architecture is based around either two pressure control valves or a single proportional valve plus a directional control device. A simple geroter pump supplies through a pump pressure regulator valve, from where it spills into the low pressure variator cooling circuit. The pump pressure regulator valve is piloted from the output of the variator pressure control valve, so that the pump pressure is maintained just 2 bar above the actual pressure requirement at all times. In this way, the pump operates at the lowest pressure possible, thereby minimising hydraulic power consumption. The valve block itself is constructed according to commonly adopted high volume design standards, featuring spools which slide in the valve body (no cartridges), with simple ball and spring devices as relief valves. The solenoid valve serves as a first stage low pressure valve, supplying a proportional pilot pressure to the second stage pressure control spool. Circuit leakage and flow from all tank ports drain directly into the sump. Designed to be readily manufactured using pressure die casting to achieve the labyrinth layout, initial estimates indicate a total hydraulic system costs of circa 50. The resultant compact valve block design measures just 15cm x 8cm x 2.5cm, and weighs approximately 700g. It is a simple and cost effective automotive design, delivering an

Fig. 15. Potential locations for flywheel hybrid system

Location A represents connections on the engine side of the torque converter. If the hybrid system is mounted on the front of the engine, flywheel propulsion without the engine rotating is clearly not possible. If the system is mounted behind the engine, and separated by an additional clutch, this can be achieved. Location B represents a connection to the transmission input shaft, downstream of the torque converter. C refers to a generic connection onto the propshaft, which may be at the back of the transmission or at the final drive. D represents a connection to individual drive-shafts, and will require a pair of variable transmissions and potentially, though not necessarily, a pair of flywheels. The final option E represents a connection to the previously undriven front axle. In addition, five variable drive transmission layouts have been considered: A. Continuously Variable Transmission: A direct drive CVT with all power passing directly through the variator, similar to the F1 KERS system. This provides a ratio spread of 6.

Powertrain

R2

R1

Plain CVT

Variator

B. Extended Range CVT (EXT CVT): A direct drive CVT plus a two speed gearbox with a ratio difference of 5, giving an overall ratio spread of 30 (6x5).
Flywheel

Powertrain

R2

R1

R3

Variator

Range Extended CVT

C. Infinitely Variable Transmission: Placing the variator within an input coupled shunt, with the flywheel defined as the input, to provide a geared neutral condition.
Flywheel

Powertrain

R2

EPI

R1

IVT Shunt

Variator

D. Increased Efficiency Shunted CVT (Inc. Eff Shunt) An output coupled shunt providing increased efficiency through a power-split. Ratio spread is reduced to 4. An output coupled shunt was chosen to provide best efficiency at low flywheel speeds; an input coupled shunt will provide best efficiency at high flywheel speeds.
Flywheel

Powertrain

R2

EPI

R1

CVT Shunt

Variator

E. Increased Ratio Shunted CVT (Inc. Ratio Shunt) An output coupled shunt (of the same arrangement as above but using a different epicyclic ratio) to provide an increased ratio spread of 15. Efficiency is reduced due to power recirculation. The output coupled arrangement was chosen for the reasons covered in option 4

F. Modelling The inverse fuel economy model within the Torotrak System Design Tool (SDT) has been used for the simulations with additional flywheel hybrid models introduced to provide additional torque at different points within the drivetrain. The SDT model was validated over the NEDC drive cycle providing good correlation to the base vehicle. For the purposes of fuel economy prediction, locations D and E will be little different to C and therefore were not simulated. Whilst there may be some differences in gear efficiencies for final solutions, these will be of significantly lower impact than the other variables being considered. It has been assumed that the system is fully integrated with the service brakes, using the brakes only when the FHS is unable to provide sufficient braking. For the light duty of the test cycles considered, tyre traction is well within limits and hence significant braking energy can be recovered. Given the wide variety of hardware options, the control decisions over when to charge and discharge were kept simple; when the system is asked to remove kinetic energy from the vehicle, the flywheel will always be charged (provided the flywheel is below its maximum flywheel speed and within variator ratio and power limits) and similarly the flywheel will be discharged whenever possible. The benefits of this simple control strategy are twofold; it maintains consistency between different architectures without specific calibration and also maintains maximum storage capacity in the flywheel prior to any braking event. Modifying the flywheel discharge timing for a specific system may improve fuel economy. The transmission shift and torque converter lockup strategy have been retained from the baseline test. The only override is to lock the torque converter when the engine is in fuel cut and being driven by the flywheel hybrid system from location B or C. Keeping this the same provides consistency between hardware options and ensures vehicle performance has not been compromised. A mechanical hybrid, however, has the ability to provide rapid, high power, response to transient torque demands. This could enable a more aggressive lockup and up-shift strategy. Modifying the main transmission ratio may also benefit locations A and B by keeping the flywheel hybrid system within ratio limits. Parasitic losses in the additional components are an important consideration for all hybrid systems as they may increase fuel consumption whilst the hybrid system is inactive. Typically these will be from pumps and electric machines and frictional losses in gears and bearings. For this mechanical system the main consideration is the pump for the variator and clutch control hydraulics. To provide a single consistent and practical solution for all layouts, an electric pump was assumed. Whilst the mechanicalelectrical-mechanical conversion is less efficient than a direct drive pump it ensures pressure is available whatever

Flywheel

the shaft speeds. The engine load from the alternator was increased proportionally to represent the increase in current. Use of Start-Stop systems are becoming more widespread and has been fitted to the test vehicle. Although some of the transmission layouts arrangements may also offer engine start whilst the vehicle is moving an electric starter will still be required for engine starts when the flywheel is not charged. VII. SIMULATION RESULTS Figure 16 shows the increase in fuel economy achieved for the different hardware variations over the NEDC and the EPA combined cycles.
Fuel Economy Benefit - NEDC Cycle Fuel Economy Improvement As % of target 150
Location A Location B Location C

The wide ratio spread of the range extended CVT layouts provides the best result but the impact of the step change in ratio with respect to driveability needs to be understood. Hence the basic CVT arrangement is potentially the best system to apply when including component package and cost. VIII. CONCLUSION AND SUMMARY The Torotrak full-toroidal traction drive variable drive technology has been developed as a compact, variable speed drive for flywheel based mechanical hybrid systems. In a package of 275 x 230 x 210mm with a weight of circa 16.5kg, efficiencies for the KERS CVT module of up to 89 to 90% have been measured together with power capacities up to 110kW. A simple, low cost hydraulic circuit has been developed and tested providing a highly efficient circuit in a compact package. Supply of KERS CVT units based upon the Xtrac Ltd P622 CVT is now underway.

100

50

0 CVT EXT CVT IVT Inc. Eff Shunt Inc. Ratio Shunt

Fuel Economy Benefit - EPA Combined Cycle Fuel Economy Improvement As % of Target 150

Location A Location B Location C

100

50

Fig. 17. Torotrak / Xtrac KERS CVT

0 CVT EXT CVT IVT Inc. Eff Shunt

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT Chris Brockbank wishes to acknowledge the contribution of Xtrac Ltd and thank Ian Foster and Richard Billyeald in particular for the generation and report of the module test data for the Xtracs P662 CVT and use of the data here. REFERENCES
[1] Newall J, Nicolson D, Lee A, Evans S; Development and Assessment of Traction Fluids for Use in Toroidal IVT Transmissions; SAE 2002 World Congress; Detroit; Michigan; USA. Number 2002-01-0587 Hewko L. O; Automotive traction drive CVTs An overview; SAE paper 861355; Brockbank C, Heumann H; Delivery of IVT for a 5 litre SUV: Addressing the concerns of Geared Neutral; IIR conference Innovative Fahrzeuggetriebe; C1143; March 2002 Lee A, Newall J; Durability of a compact Dual-Cavity Full-Toroidal IVT variator. SAE 2004 World Congress, Detroit, USA. Number 2004-10-0353 Burke M, Briffet G, Fuller J, Heumann H, Newall J; Powertrain efficiency optimization of the Torotrak Infinitely Variable Transmission (IVT). SAE 2002 World Congress, Detroit, USA. Number 2002-03AC-75

Fig. 16. Comparison of % fuel economy benefit for the transmission layouts at locations A, B & C

The most surprising outcome from the study is the lack of one location or layout that achieves considerably better (or worse) fuel economy benefit than the others. Locations B and C provided better fuel economy results than A due to the losses in the torque converter and the difference between locations B & C for each of the layouts over each cycle is relatively small. Hence, the flywheel hybrid system is free to be located where installation is the most simple a rare situation in Automotive. Similarly, the actual layout provides less difference in fuel economy result than would be expected. Overall, use of a CVT provides higher fuel economy gains than an IVT or shunted CVT arrangement. However the overall gains are still significant enough to enable an IVT to be considered if other factors favour an IVT, such as to provide engine start or vehicle launch from the flywheel.

[2] [3]

[4]

[5]