The black oceans of the deep web,

and the crystal clear databases

by Alejandro Ochoa G.

Guadalajara, State of Jalisco, Mexico

Wednesday, June 24, 2009

The web is opaque.

Currently –June, 2009– we are still sailing "our" black oceans. Or, we
are surfing somewhat blindly the waters of the web.

We accept and rely on what search engines like yahoo.com,

bing.com, ask.com, google.com, kosmix.com, hakia.com, lexxe.com,
answers.com/bb, wolframalpha.com, cuil.com, deeppeep.org,
clusty.com, http://blindsearch.fejus.com, duckduckgo.com, yauba,
hunch.com, oneriot, scoopler, powerset, et cetera, retrieve from the
internet by using their web crawlers, bots or robots, ants, automatic
indexers, worms, spiders, or Web scutters, and then delivering the
results of their searches to us through the links their software creates.

I think the time has come for someone to tell the Internet
Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN) that soon
there will be a need to create at least three new top-level domains
(TLDs): .odb, .sdb, and .fdb (open databases, shareable databases,
and free databases).

There are several well-known TLDs:

.aero, .asia, .biz, .cat, .com, .coop, .gov, .gob [in Spanish],
.info, .int, .jobs, .mil, .mobi, .museum, .name, .net, .org, .pro, .tel,
.travel, .tv, et cetera.

I believe it would be ideal, “perfect” or good for many of us

internet surfers to stop being surfers, and become internet divers or
crew members of a submarine or a bathyscaphe.
 We would be better if we could leave the surfboard or the
clipper or the yacht, and enter a submarine or a bathyscaphe in
order to see directly what the deep oceans of the web conceal.

The sunlight cannot light the Coca-Cola-colored or sewage-

like-colored deep waters, so perhaps we need:

(a) a bathyscaphe, or several or many bathyscaphes (id est,

hardware, computers, laptops and desktops).

(b) the powerful lights of submarines or bathyscaphes (id est,

NEW or modified database software).

(c) to pour Clorox (or Cloralex [a brand not related to Clorox],

in Mexico) into the deep seas (id est, the collaboration or
cooperation of web divers –the creators, fillers, and users of
REALLY open databases– who from time to time will type data
[Wikipedia-wise], and will be filling in the fields at the databases they
will be interested in).

(d) to use our “own human phosphorus” (maybe the one inside
our brains) in order to shed some light and watch the environment,
the dangerous places, the pros and cons, et cetera, as deep-sea
creatures do (id est, the possibility of using our rational faculties
such as discernment, thought, memory, understanding, for which we
need to use our mother tongue [English, Spanish, German,
Japanese...] certainly not by speaking, but by reading and
CREATING new ways, by generating new ideas, new thoughts, and,
as American futurologist Alvin Toffler says, “by continually shift, add,
subtract, combine and rearrange numbers, symbols, words, images,
and memories, combining them with emotions to form new
thoughts.")

–“... bioluminescent characteristics that allow deep sea fish to produce

light, the only source of light in the deep sea...”.

Then, maybe we shall see thousands of NEW species... like a

red octopus that steers itself with wings on its head, a carnivorous
sponge, a giant spider crab, et cetera, as reported by Nature
Magazine, May 17, 2007 (“Anctartic Biodiversity”).

How can we enter “our” bathyscaphe in order to explore the

deep web?
 By creating many and multiple SHAREABLE, OPEN, and
FREE databases (better if some or many of these are relational
and/or interchangeable and/or interrelatable databases) in websites
where the ACTUAL databases would be visible, not concealed by a
dark veil or by the ink of octopuses.

[SQL... —or should I write MySQL— HSQLDB, CodeBase,R

Language, Visio Professional 2007...]

[Reverse-engineer database models and software solutions.]

[Maybe it will be necessary to modify the nowadays database

software, or to CREATE NEW database software.]

–Let us take the case of IMDb, for example.

You can type the name of an actress/actor, so you get some

information (or a lot of information) about her/him, but you cannot
see the REAL database.

Now, please do not think I am against the Internet Movie

Database (IMDb), or against the free enterprise system or the
profitable corporations. No. I have just chosen that company to
illustrate the matter.

Neither I would want people reveal their credit card numbers,

personal and private info, nor that the CIA, FBI, NSA, SBIs, reveal
data out of their files or archives or databases.

No.

—The COLLABORATIVE databases I am speaking of, would

be built up freely by the users, by the people, by the web divers, out
of a sort of combination of Wikipedia and Youtube roads, wikipedia-
wise.

— —

Imagine these open, shareable, collaborative and free

databases.

For example,
 (1). A company which makes and sells wood vertical sash
windows, would be quick in adding its data (name, street address,
telephone numbers, websites, e-mail addresses, products, prices,
links to photos et cetera), INTO THE lines and columns of the
database, into the open and free databases...
(2). The fans of Guns n’ Roses would type data about this rock
group, would create links to videos, photos, et cetera.
(3). A geometer would type the names and perhaps the
descriptions of different types of lines: straight, curved, dotted,
broken, mixed, conchoid, asymptote, et cetera.

The people, the web surfers or WEB DIVERS, the users,

actually could open, see, watch, read, search into and manipulate
the real databases in order to retrieve data OR to visit a website: by
clicking with the mouse on a certain line and/or column of a specific
database, they will be able to go directly to a specific website.

Maybe they also could do (by means of using MySQL or some

other 21st century software) the equivalent of (in dBASE III Plus):

[INITIAL COMMANDS] append, average, browse, change,

continue, copy, count, create, dir, display, do, edit, export, find, go,
GoTo, import, index, label, list, locate, modify command/file,
create/modify query, quit, recall, release, rename, replace, report,
create/modify screen, seek, set, skip, sort to, store, sum, total, type,
use...
BUT perhaps not: delete, delete all, delete file, erase, pack.

(Right now I am using terminology of a software program

called dBASE III Plus, devised by the Ashton-Tate company,
Torrance, California [1985-1987].

Also:
[ADVANCED COMMANDS] accept, cancel, call, close, copy
file, display, display files, display history, display memory, display
status, display structure, do case, do while, exit, if, input, insert, join,
join with, load, list, list files, list history, list memory, list status, list
structure, loop, macro, modify, modify command/file, modify label
form, modify query file, modify report form, modify screen file, modify
database structure, modify view file, note, on, parameters, private,
procedure, public, read, reindex, restore, resume, retry, return,
run / !, save, select, suspend, text, update, modify view, wait,
BUT perhaps not: zap.
 Making the web bigger and greater by typing and/or uploading
and/or copying & pasting data and information in databases... just
like any wordcaster/web surfer/web diver can type words, express
his/her ideas and concepts about just any subject in the Wikipedia
websites, or like almost anyone can upload or broadcast a video in
Youtube.

American futurologist Alvin Toffler (1928- ) says we should recombine

knowledge.

Toffler states in a book written by him and his wife Heidi Toffler,
Revolutionary Wealth (Alfred A. Knopf, Inc., New York, 2006), that some of the
deep fundamentals of wealth are: work, time, space, and knowledge (happily or
strangely, he does not mention money, platinum, gold, silver, diamonds, oil... as
being deep fundamentals).

We are not merely expanding the ASK [Aggregate Supply of Knowledge],

but altering the way in which it is organized, achieved, and distributed. Search
engines in the Web let more and more immediate and sophisticated questions,
and more and more ways of combining and manipulating contents...

In a previous book, The Third Wave (William Morrow and Company, Inc.,
New York, 1980), Toffler wrote that in the world, knowledge was worse
distributed than arms and riches.

Also, about knowledge:

“In each of us there is a crowded, invisible warehouse full of knowledge and its
precursor data and information. But unlike a warehouse, it is also a workshop in
which we —or, more accurately, the electrochemicals in our brains— continually
shift, add, subtract, combine and rearrange numbers, symbols, words, images,
and memories, combining them with emotions to form new thoughts.”

Maybe in the not-so-distant future it will be necessary a form of

classification for certain databases, of for certain lines or columns of
some databases. For example, the UNESCO has a six-digit
classification system to be used mainly by scholars...

... but it is a poor one, or can become a poor one in the future.

Perhaps we shall need a new classification system.

http://enc.slider.com/Enc/UNESCO_Nomenclature
 True, the UNESCO system is limited to research papers and
doctoral dissertations, but we could create wider or “universal”
classifications of disciplines, sciences, fields, areas, activities, et
cetera.

The creation of classification systems is a work which should

be approached by interdisciplinary transsectorial teams.

The classification systems could be arranged according

to a specific scheme / design / methodology, or under a
combination of two or more choices, in a flexible, elastic,
adaptable, changeable, modifiable, ad-hoc-able, updateable
way, with multiple variables / inputs / outputs:

(a). By following, but not copying, the Dewey Decimal

Classifications system, the idea of Melvil Dewey (1851-1931), for
libraries and librarians:

http://www.questionpoint.org/crs/html/help/en/ask/ask_map_lcctoddc
.html

(b). One similar to the Library of Congress Class headings

(which I do not like).

(c). With the least possible use of numbers; instead, by letting

the alphabet be the guide, up to certain point.

(d) Other ways which I have not thought about. Hope some
readers bring their ideas. The “forum” will always be open.

I have added, as Appendix “A”, a draft, a preliminary, very

poor, unfinished and incomplete list, towards the creation of a
classification system.

... Also, maybe false databases (lighter, with less weight

measured in megabytes or gigabytes) could be created (as “fuzzy”
or “coarse” copies of the real databases), out of the real operable
and functional databases which would be slower to be opened or
downloaded.

A false database could contain or have the same data almost

as they are saved in the “COMPLETE” database (its “parent”
database), also it would have functional links, but the false or
fictitious database would not be as manipulatable as the real, GIANT
database. A false or fictitious database would be lighter, “slim” (it
would have less megabytes or gigabytes) and more easily viewed
(or downloaded). It would be a “bad” copy of the original database.
This copy would be used only to throw a look and reach a specific
website faster.

If the use of one or several or many search algorithms were

necessary in order to perform some searches outside or inside the
databases, these algorithms should be posted and made visible or
readable for all, so, anyone could copy and/or modify them.

I consider that in the area of databases, we need to follow the

way inaugurated in the software field by Swedish-speaking Finnish
programmer Linus Torvalds (1969- ) –open source, et cetera–,
almost copycatted or combined with the initial work of American
philosopher Larry Sanger (1968- ), co-founder of Wikipedia, and
also follow some signs and several ideas of American poet,
essayist, retired Wyoming cattle rancher, political activist, former
lyricist for the Grateful Dead rock group, AND cyberlibertarian John
Perry Barlow (1947- ); also, he was one of the founding members of
the Electronic Frontier Foundation.

Related to this, you can follow some links:

http://groups.csail.mit.edu/mac/classes/6.805/articles/int-prop/barlow-
economy-of-ideas.html

The above link leads us to an article written by John Perry Barlow,

with a long quote by U.S. founding father Thomas Jefferson as epigraph.

http://www.infoworld.com/t/business/fair-use-under-assault-046

http://www.law.suffolk.edu/highlights/stuorgs/jhtl/book_reviews/2006_200
7/Betsy%20VanderVoort_Book%20Review.pdf
1

Who Controls the Internet?

Illusions of a Borderless World

By Jack Goldsmith and Tim Wu

New York, NY; Oxford University Press, 2006, ISBN 0-19-515266-2
(Price $28.00), pp. 184.

Reviewed by Betsy Vander Voort

Journal of High Technology Law
Suffolk University Law School

“In 1990, John Perry Barlow1 described the Internet as the “electronic
frontier”, a new world “unspoiled, self-governing and best left to
inhabitants to run as they pleas[e].” Utopian visions of the Internet,
like Barlow’s, saw this new technology as a way to connect people
like never before, and the potential to start new societies beyond the
control of government and the confines of territorial borders...”.

http://www.amazon.com/Who-Controls-Internet-Illusions-
Borderless/dp/B001GNC2UG

— —

–[Linux distributions such as Ubuntu, openSUSE, Fedora, Mandriva.]

–[Debian Project.]

Sure, there would arise many problems and questions.

One problem could be this one: A number of guys could

DELETE or “edit” some lines, several columns, or even ENTIRE
databases. But there should be several ways to prevent or remedy
these calamities:
By allowing the possibility to write and add information, but not
to erase/delete it; “pre-editing” by the generators or creators of
databases; setting of software padlocks; creation of some barriers;
instant automated copying toward mirror websites, and other ways
that at this time do not come to my mind.

But, I think anyone should be enabled to search, organize or

reorganize, arrange or rearrange, and retrieve data.

1. Besides, the possibility of creating databases in which the

different columns include not only synonyms, and antonyms like
“long”, “short”, but ALSO (or SIMPLY) words related to each other,
exempli gratia, “sweet”, “bitter”, “sour”, “salty”; another example:
“variable(s)”, “constant(s)”, could lead us to have online
manipulatable dictionaries arranged in the form of databases.

2. In addition, there could be TRANSPARENT dictionaries of

synonyms and antonyms PLUS dictionaries of related words and
ideas (not necessarily synonyms [“sweet”, “bitter”, “sour”, “salty”]),
and like terms.
 3. Furthermore, I think there is a need for creating a
TRANSPARENT, see-thru database containing a reverse, inverted
or backwards dictionary.

Imagine, in the first line of the right column of your database

you have written the word abecedary... well, in the first line of the left
column you will have to write the word yradeceba.... et cetera, and
you will have to arrange the lines according to the common
alphabetical order, IN the LEFT column.

Rome, Emor; Rio de Janeiro, Orienaj ed Oir; Canada, Adanac;

silver, revlis; gold, dlog; god, dog; dog, god; civic, civic; level, level;
rotator, rotator; kayak, kayak; racecar, racecar.

The last five words (id est, the last five pairs of words) are
called palindromes.

Adanac Canada
Aikon Nokia
civic civic
dlog gold
dog god
draw ward
drow word
Emor Rome
evird drive
evird t’nac can’t drive
Evird Tnak Kant Drive
god dog
hapztuhc chutzpah
karona anorak
kayak kayak
lacismihw whimsical
larenim mineral
level level
murd drum
murdnunoc conundrum
naginanehs shenanigan
Nokuy Yukon
Nosscire Ericsson
Orienaj ed Oir Rio de Janeiro
revlis silver
racecar racecar
rotator rotator
tebahpla alphabet
ward draw
yksihw whisky
yradeceba abecedary
yrreb berry
yrrebduolc cloudberry
yrrebekohc chokeberry
yrrebeldnac candleberry
yrrebelkcuh huckleberry
yrrebeulb blueberry
yrrebhcnub bunchberry
yrrebkcah hackberry
yrrebkcalb blackberry
yrreblaroc coralberry
yrreblib bilberry
yrrebnarc cranberry
yrrebnawor rowanberry
yrrebnesyob boysenberry
yrrebnognil lingonberry
yrreb olaffub buffalo berry
yrrebpsar raspberry
yrrebrab barberry
yrrebragus sugarberry
yrrebredle elderberry
yrrebrekcehc checkerberry
yrrebwarts strawberry
yrrebwed dewberry
yrrebwoc cowberry
yrrebworc crowberry
yrrebyab bayberry
yrrehc cherry
yrrem merry
yrret terry

Please note that some pairs, as:

dog / god,
god / dog,

draw / ward,
ward / draw,
while are not palindromes, their respective inversions result in other EXISTENT
or CORRECT words in English.

According to the Webster dictionary, a palindrome is:

Etymology:
Greek palindromos running back again, from palin back, again + dramein to run;
akin to Greek polos axis, pole.

Date: circa 1629

a word, verse, or sentence (as “Able was I ere I saw Elba”) or a number (as
1881) that reads the same backward or forward.

Palindromes often consist of a phrase or sentence ("Was it a rat I saw?", "Step

on no pets", "Sit on a potato pan, Otis", "Lisa Bonet ate no basil", "Satan,
oscillate my metallic sonatas".

In Spanish, there are a number of inverted dictionaries. In

English... no. It seems that there are only a few.

I think this is due to phonetic reasons. In Spanish, most of the

letters of the abecedary have only one way to be uttered, one
sound, while in English... consider the “w”, for example, in “wrangler”
is silent; in “water”, not. What about the “i”? We know there are
many ways it can be spoken.

4. How about another dictionary... but this time not about

inverted or reversed words, but a dictionary of anagrams?

Old West Action – Clint Eastwood

Mr. Mojo Risin – Jim Morrison

http://www.anagramgenius.com/archive/clint.html

5. Also, the creation of bilingual, trilingual... multilingual

databases could lead us to choose easier roads in order to
approximate ourselves to better, more accurate machine
translations... through crystal clear databases, and with
equal importance, through special and precise classifications of
disciplines, sciences, fields, areas, activities, and parcels of human
knowledge.
— — — — ....................................................................

The juxtaposed ideas shown above were inspired in part:

— (a) After having read four of the many books written by Alvin
Toffler: The Future Shock, The Third Wave, Powershift, and
Revolutionary Wealth.

— (b) By the lyrics and the music of the song “Wonderworld”

Written by: Ken Hensley

Arranged and performed by: Uriah Heep, a British rock group
Recorded at: Musicland, Munich, Germany, January-March 1974
Produced by: Gerry Bron
Engineered by: Peter Gallen
Musicland engineers: Hans Menzel & Macki
Cutting engineers: Harry Moss, E.M.I. Studios, Abbey Road, London
Published by: Sydney Bron Music Company, Limited.

We freely speak of dreams

We marvel at what they conceal
But in my wonderworld
Each sleeping vision is so real
So I believe and hope
That all the things I see
May one day bring
Such truth and peace
As we can feel

Free from this waking world,

Deep in sleep's mystery,
My will is free to wander
Free to wander carelessly
At times it's not so far
From what we call reality
And at times I know I wonder
If it all could come true

Oh, Mr. Wonderworld

Don't be afraid
'Cause dreams were made
Were made to dim the light
The torment day can bring
And leave you free
To laugh aloud and hear
Your heart bells ring
Oh, oh, Mr. Wonderworld
Wonderworld
Oh, Mr. Wonderworld
Don't be afraid
'Cause your dreams were made
They were made to dim the light
The torment day can bring
And leave you free
To laugh aloud and hear
Your heart bells ring
Oh, oh, Mr. Wonderworld
Mr. Wonderworld
Mr. Wonderworld

— (c) After having read “Truthfully Speaking”, an interview with Mr.

Guy Kawasaki (by Amanda C. Kooser) in pages 118-125 of the
November 2007 issue of Entrepreneur Magazine.

http://entrepreneur.com/magazine/entrepreneur/2007/november/185
628.html

Here is an excerpt:

”I'm into democratization —of information, in this case. Information was [once]
owned by royalty and the religious elite —they had scribes. Then Gutenberg
made it possible to print Bibles. Then Apple/Adobe/Aldus created desktop
publishing. Then people could create websites, then blogs. It's getting easier,
cheaper and more democratized to publish information, but even at the
website/blog stage, you still need to own/operate a website or blog. I wanted to
go even further: to enable anyone to "tell the world." [With Truemors.com,] they
can publish information. They don't have to wait for editorial approval, the next
print run, whatever.

[...]

“What does the fact that you were able to create a web startup so quickly and
inexpensively tell us about the state of web entrepreneurship in general?

“Now more than ever, people should give it a shot to create the next Google,
You-Tube, Facebook, eBay, whatever. You can get things done so much
cheaper, faster and better* because of tools like MySQL and WordPress as well
as the willingness of the crowds. There are many tech businesses that take
millions to start, but there are many that can be done on credit cards. I hope I've
proven that.”

* I would add: easier.

............................................................

Now, maybe it is time to climb another step of the ladder, by

creating visible, reorganizable, rearrangeable, manipulatable,
interchangeable, interrelatable, CRYSTAL CLEAR, SEE-THRU and
free databases FOR EVERYONE...

... in such a way that the people can

take the place of yahoo, bing, google,
ask.com, et cetera.
— (d) after having read the following paragraph:

“One of the central concepts in Complex Systems is Emergence. It is this

automagical process through which elements of a system give rise to a higher
order system. Emergence is how physics becomes chemistry and chemistry
becomes biology. It is how web 1.0 evolved into web 2.0, and how that, in turn,
will become the next web.”

in the web article: “Yahoo! Pipes and The Web As Database”

http://www.readwriteweb.com/archives/yahoo_pipes_web_database.
php

I think that, strictly speaking, the internet IS NOT a

database, but search engines companies have organized
some web information in the form of databases.
I have discovered warm water!

— (e) after having read the following (about the importance of the
words and the language):

(e1).

In an interview with the at that time –August 8, 1997– president of the Royal
Spanish Academy (Real Academia Española, www.rae.es , Fernando Lazaro-
Carreter [1923-2004], by journalist Florinda Salinas, in Madrid, Spain.

Salinas – Is the language the framework of the thought?

Lazaro-Carreter – Yes, the language is the only framework of the thought.
Science is nothing but a well-constructed language. We all think by means of
words, no matter if we want it that way or not. If there is not a verbal analysis of
the world, there is no way of knowing it.

(e2).
“The [Spanish] language was always the companion of the [Spanish] Empire.”

“Siempre fue la lengua compañera del imperio.”

Antonio de Nebrija (Lebrija, Sevilla, Spain, 1441 — Alcala de Henares, Spain,

July 5, 1522), a Spanish scholar, humanist and grammarian who penned a
grammar of the Castilian language (Gramática castellana, 1492), credited as
the first published grammar of any Romance language.

(e3).

Politicians work mainly by speaking and debating and by writing and approving
bills, that is, by the use of language, as well as teachers use language in order
to educate their disciples, and a boy wins the affection of a girl by the word, et
cetera...

(e4).

Once, German philosopher Martin Heidegger (1889 —1976) said that “the
problem of philosophy is not the truth, but the language”.

(e5).

In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God, and the Word was
God. The same was in the beginning with God. — (John, 1, 1-2, The Gideons
International, 1960.)

Before the world was created, the Word already existed; he was with God, and
he was the same as God. From the very beginning, the Word was with God. —
(John, 1, 1-2, American Bible Society, 1966.)

In fact, the Word is so important, that he is the Second Person of the

Trinity, and he is God, according to Saint John.

(e6).

[God our Saviour...] Who will have all men to be saved, and to come unto the
knowledge of the truth. — (I Timothy, 2, 4.)

Apostle Paul uses words in order to convince his readers.

(e7).

(For all the Athenians and strangers which were there spent their time in
nothing else, but either to tell, or to hear some new thing.) — (Acts,
17, 21.)

—————
 The by now hypothetical websites and web pages displaying
databases could also show web widgets, and tickers similar to those
you can see at the bottom of the screen in channels such as those
of CNN.
I consider this of PARAMOUNT importance, due to the implied
possibilities and potentialities of web divers interacting... to enrich
the internet.

As for the financial issues, the sustenance or the economic

viability of the .fdb, .odb, and/or .sdb database websites, there could
be at least two kinds of these:

(a) Some database websites could carry advertising.

(b) Some could follow the model of Jimmy Wales’ Wikipedia (which I
do not like), by not taking advertisements, but accepting donations.

— “Wikipedia chief considers taking ads”

That was the heading of a newspaper article, December 30, 2005:

http://business.timesonline.co.uk/tol/business/industry_sectors/medi
a/article783408.ece

————

Praise to:

(a) The dBASE III Plus software, from Ashton-Tate, Torrance,

California [1985-1987], Clipper C, C+, C++, PHP, MySQL, Apache,
Oracle, et cetera.

(b) John George Kemeny (Budapest, May 31, 1926 – New

Hampshire, December 26, 1992) a Hungarian-American
mathematician, computer scientist, and educator, and Thomas
Eugene Kurtz (February 22, 1928 – ), an American computer
scientist. They developed the BASIC programming language
(Beginner's All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code), and authored
the book Basic Programming (John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1971).

(c) The fathers of the internet: Leonard Kleinrock (1934 – ),

Vinton Cerf (1943 – ), Robert E. Kahn (1938 – ); and others: J.C.R.
Licklider, Robert Taylor; Ray Tomlinson, who invented the internet-
based e-mail in late 1971.

(d) Dennis C. Hayes, who invented the PC modem in 1977.

(e) File Transfer Protocol (FTP), TCP/IP, Internet Relay Chat

(IRC), Mosaic, Gopher, Apache, Bulletin Board System (BBS),
Majordomo, Eudora...

(f) Marc Andreessen (1971 – ) and James H. Clark (1944 – )

creators/founders of Netscape Navigator and developers of Secure
Sockets Layer Protocol (SSL), which is still widely used.

(g) In today’s brave, fast-paced, web-based world, praise to

Tim Berners-Lee (London, 1955 – ), of the CERN, Centre Européen
pour la Recherche Nucléaire, near Geneva, Switzerland, for having
created the world wide web (www, an important part of the internet,
but not to be confused with this one) in 1990, and for having simply
given it all away for free to the world, only promoting its wider use.

Alejandro Ochoa G.

Guadalajara, State of Jalisco, Mexico

Wednesday, June 24, 2009.

Appendix “A”
abbreviations
accidents
acronyms
acting
action
administration
advertising
aeronautics
Africa
agriculture
alcoholism
anatomy
America
animal husbandry
Antarctica
Antilles
antiques
appraisement
architecture
art

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immediately at the right side of the Unicode characters (numbers and/or letters).
This system has the particularity that it is reversible, id est, if you type
directly, for example, the letter f and you place the cursor immediately at the
right side of that letter and then press ALT plus x (the letter “x”) in your
keyboard, you will get the Unicode for the letter f, which is 0066.
If you type, for example, the following four characters: 0067 and without
moving the cursor you press ALT plus x, you will get a letter: g.
Press again ALT plus x, and you will get: 0067...
Press again ALT plus x, and you will get a letter: g... and so on.

This list is not comprehensive. It includes some codes only.

Letter
or ASCII
symbol code Unicode

a 97 0061
á 160 00E1 00e1
à 133 00E0 00e0
ä 132 00E4 00e4
â 131 00E2 00e2
ã 198 00E3 00e3
å 134 00E5 00e5
ā 257 0101
ă 259 0103
A 65 0041
Á 181 00C1 00c1
À 183 00C0 00c0
Ä 142 00C4 00c4
 182 00C2 00c2
à 199 00C3 00c3
Å 143 00C5 00c5
Ā 256 0100
Ă 258 0102

ç 135 00E7 00e7

Ç 128 00C7 00c7

e 101 0065 0065

é 130 00E9 00e9
è 138 00E8 00e8
ë 137 00EB 00eb
ê 136 00EA 00ea

E 69 0045
É 144 00C9 00c9
È 212 00C8 00c8
Ë 211 00CB 00cb
Ê 210 00CA 00ca

i 105 0069
í 161 00ED 00ed
ì 141 00EC 00ec
ï 139 00EF 00ef
î 140 00EE 00ee

I 73 0049
Í 214 00CD 00cd
Ì 222 00CC 00cc
Ï 216 00CF 00cf
Î 215 00CE 00ce

ñ 164 00F1 00f1

Ñ 165 00D1 00d1

o 111 006F 006f

ó 162 00F3 00f3
ò 149 00F2 00f2
ö 148 00F6 00f6
ô 147 00F4 00f4
õ 228 00F5 00f5

O 79 004F 004f
Ò 227 00D2 00d2
Ö 153 00D6 00d6
Ô 226 00D4 00d4
Õ 229 00D5 00d5

ß 225 00DF 00df

u 117 0075
ú 163 00FA 00fa
ù 151 00F9 00f9
ü 129 00FC 00fc
û 150 00FB 00fb

U 85 0055
Ú 233 00DA 00da
Ù 235 00D9 00d9
Ü 154 00DC 00dc
Û 234 00DB 00db

y 121 0079
ý 236 00FD 00fd
ÿ 152 00FF 00ff

Y 89 0059
Ý 237 00DD 00dd

~ 126 007E 007e

£ 156 00A3 00a3
Ø 157 00D8 00d8
× 158 00D7 00d7
ƒ 159 0192
® 169 00AE 00ae
½ 171 00BD 00bd
¼ 172 00BC 00bc
¾ 243 00BE 00be
µ 230 00B5 00b5
± 241 00B1 00b1
§ 245 00A7 00a7
© 184 00A9 00a9

☺ 1 0031
☻ 2 0032
♥ 3 0033
♦ 4 etc.
♣ 5
♠ 6
• 7
◘ 8
○ 9
◙ 10
♂ 11
♀ 12
♪ 13
♫ 14
☼ 15
► 16
◄ 17
↕ 18
‼ 19
¶ 20
§ 21
▬ 22
↨ 23
↑ 24
↓ 25
→ 26
← 27
∟ 28
↔ 29
▲ 30
▼ 31
space 32
¡ 33
” 34
# 35
$ 36
% 37
& 38
’ 39
( 40
) 41
* 42
+ 43
, 44
- 45
. 46
/ 47
0 48
1 49
2 50
3 51
4 52
5 53
6 54
7 55
8 56
9 57
: 58
; 59
< 60
= 61
> 62
? 63
@ 64
A 65
B 66
C 67
D 68
E 69
F 70
G 71
H 72
I 73
J 74
K 75
L 76
M 77
N 78
O 79
P 80
Q 81
R 82
S 83
T 84
U 85
V 86
W 87
X 88
Y 89
Z 90
[ 91
\ 92
] 93
^ 94
_ 95
` 96
a 97
b 98
c 99
d 100
e 101
f 102 0066
g 103 0067
h 104
i 105
j 106
k 107
l 108
m 109
n 110
o 111
p 112
q 113
r 114
s 115
t 116
u 117
v 118
w 119
x 120
y 121
z 122
{ 123
| 124
} 125
~ 126
⌂ 127
Ç 128
ü 129
é 130
â 131
ä 132
à 133
å 134
ç 135
ê 136
ë 137
è 138
ï 139
î 140
ì 141
Ä 142
Å 143
É 144
æ 145
Æ 146
ô 147
ö 148
ò 149
û 150
ù 151
ÿ 152
Ö 153
Ü 154
ø 155
£ 156
Ø 157
× 158
ƒ 159
á 160
í 161
ó 162
ú 163
ñ 164
Ñ 165
ª 166
º 167
¿ 168
® 169
¬ 170
½ 171
¼ 172
¡ 173
« 174
» 175
© 184
· 250
¹ 251
³ 252
² 253
■ 254

Asia
astronomy
astronomical unit
Big Bang
black holes
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88 constellations
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et cetera

dark energy
dark matter
eclipses
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meteors, meteoroids, and meteorites
quasars
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Sun
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apogee and perigee
four phases
orbit
ozone layer
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Ceres (as of August 24, 2006, a dwarf planet)
many more asteroids
Jupiter
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59 more satellites
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2005 S1
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 many more natural satellites
Uranus
rings
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plus 22 small satellites
Neptune
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11 more satellites
Pluto (as of August 24, 2006, a dwarf planet; it has at
least three natural satellites:)
Charon
Nix
Hydra
Eris (formerly known as UB313, as of August 24, 2006, a
dwarf planet)
Eris has one known satellite. Officially called
S/2005 (2003 UB313). Unofficially, it is referred to
as Gabrielle.
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Friedrich August Kekulé (1829 – 1896)
Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier (1743 – 1794)
etc.

chemical elements

By name

Name, Symbol, Atomic number, Atomic mass, Group, Period

Actinium Ac 89 [227][1] 7
Aluminium (Aluminum) Al 13 26.9815386(8) 13 3
Americium Am 95 [243][1] 7
Antimony (Stibium) Sb 51 121.760(1)[2] 15 5
Argon Ar 18 39.948(1)[2][3] 18 3
Arsenic As 33 74.92160(2) 15 4
Astatine At 85 [210][1] 17 6
Barium Ba 56 137.327(7) 2 6
Berkelium Bk 97 [247][1] 7
Beryllium Be 4 9.012182(3) 2 2
Bismuth Bi 83 208.98040(1)[1] 15 6
Bohrium Bh 107 [264][1] 7 7
Boron B 5 10.811(7)[2][4][3] 13 2
Bromine Br 35 79.904(1) 17 4
Cadmium Cd 48 112.411(8)[2] 12 5
Caesium (Cesium) Cs 55 132.9054519(2) 1 6
Calcium Ca 20 40.078(4)[2] 2 4
Californium Cf 98 [251][1] 7
Carbon C 6 12.0107(8)[2][3] 14 2
Cerium Ce 58 140.116(1)[2] 6
Chlorine Cl 17 35.453(2)[2][4][3] 17 3
Chromium Cr 24 51.9961(6) 6 4
Cobalt Co 27 58.933195(5) 9 4
Copper (Cuprum) Cu 29 63.546(3)[3] 11 4
Curium Cm 96 [247][1] 7
Darmstadtium Ds 110 [271][1] 10 7
Dubnium Db 105 [262][1] 5 7
Dysprosium Dy 66 162.500(1)[2] 6
Einsteinium Es 99 [252][1] 7
Erbium Er 68 167.259(3)[2] 6
Europium Eu 63 151.964(1)[2] 6
Fermium Fm 100 [257][1] 7
Fluorine F 9 18.9984032(5) 17 2
Francium Fr 87 [223][1] 1 7
Gadolinium Gd 64 157.25(3)[2] 6
Gallium Ga 31 69.723(1) 13 4
Germanium Ge 32 72.64(1) 14 4
Gold (Aurum) Au 79 196.966569(4) 11 6
Hafnium Hf 72 178.49(2) 4 6
Hassium Hs 108 [277][1] 8 7
Helium He 2 4.002602(2)[2][3] 18 1
Holmium Ho 67 164.93032(2) 6
Hydrogen H 1 1.00794(7)[2][4][3] 1 1
Indium In 49 114.818(3) 13 5
Iodine I 53 126.90447(3) 17 5
Iridium Ir 77 192.217(3) 9 6
Iron (Ferrum) Fe 26 55.845(2) 8 4
Krypton Kr 36 83.798(2)[2][4] 18 4
Lanthanum La 57 138.90547(7)[2] 6
Lawrencium Lr 103 [262][1] 3 7
Lead (Plumbum) Pb 82 207.2(1)[2][3] 14 6
Lithium Li 3 6.941(2)[2][4][3][5] 1 2
Lutetium Lu 71 174.967(1)[2] 3 6
Magnesium Mg 12 24.3050(6) 2 3
Manganese Mn 25 54.938045(5) 7 4
Meitnerium Mt 109 [268][1] 9 7
Mendelevium Md 101 [258][1] 7
Mercury (Hydrargyrum) Hg 80 200.59(2) 12 6
Molybdenum Mo 42 95.94(2)[2] 6 5
Neodymium Nd 60 144.242(3)[2] 6
Neon Ne 10 20.1797(6)[2][4] 18 2
Neptunium Np 93 [237][1] 7
Nickel Ni 28 58.6934(2) 10 4
Niobium Nb 41 92.906 38(2) 5 5
Nitrogen N 7 14.0067(2)[2][3] 15 2
Nobelium No 102 [259][1] 7
Osmium Os 76 190.23(3)[2] 8 6
Oxygen O 8 15.9994(3)[2][3] 16 2
Palladium Pd 46 106.42(1)[2] 10 5
Phosphorus P 15 30.973762(2) 15 3
Platinum Pt 78 195.084(9) 10 6
Plutonium Pu 94 [244][1] 7
Polonium Po 84 [210][1] 16 6
Potassium (Kalium) K 19 39.0983(1) 1 4
Praseodymium Pr 59 140.90765(2) 6
Promethium Pm 61 [145][1] 6
Protactinium Pa 91 231.03588(2)[1] 7
Radium Ra 88 [226][1] 2 7
Radon Rn 86 [220][1] 18 6
Rhenium Re 75 186.207(1) 7 6
Rhodium Rh 45 102.905 50(2) 9 5
Roentgenium Rg 111 [272][1] 11 7
Rubidium Rb 37 85.4678(3)[2] 1 5
Ruthenium Ru 44 101.07(2)[2] 8 5
Rutherfordium Rf 104 261[1] 4 7
Samarium Sm 62 150.36(2)[2] 6
Scandium Sc 21 44.955912(6) 3 4
Seaborgium Sg 106 [266][1] 6 7
Selenium Se 34 78.96(3)[3] 16 4
Silicon Si 14 28.0855(3)[3] 14 3
Silver (Argentum) Ag 47 107.8682(2)[2] 11 5
Sodium (Natrium) Na 11 22.98976928(2) 1 3
Strontium Sr 38 87.62(1)[2][3] 2 5
Sulfur (Sulphur) S 16 32.065(5)[2][3] 16 3
Tantalum Ta 73 180.94788(2) 5 6
Technetium Tc 43 [98][1] 7 5
Tellurium Te 52 127.60(3)[2] 16 5
Terbium Tb 65 158.92535(2) 6
Thallium Tl 81 204.3833(2) 13 6
Thorium Th 90 232.03806(2)[1][2] 7
Thulium Tm 69 168.93421(2) 6
Tin (Stannum) Sn 50 118.710(7)[2] 14 5
Titanium Ti 22 47.867(1) 4 4
Tungsten (Wolfram) W 74 183.84(1) 6 6
Ununbium Uub 112 [285][1] 12 7
Ununhexium Uuh 116 [292][1] 16 7
Ununoctium Uuo 118 [294][1] 18 7
Ununpentium Uup 115 [288][1] 15 7
Ununquadium Uuq 114 [289][1] 14 7
Ununseptium Uus 117 [293][1] 17 7
Ununtrium Uut 113 [284][1] 13 7
Uranium U 92 238.02891(3)[1][2][4] 7
Vanadium V 23 50.9415(1) 5 4
Xenon Xe 54 131.293(6)[2][4] 18 5
Ytterbium Yb 70 173.04(3)[2] 6
Yttrium Y 39 88.90585(2) 3 5
Zinc Zn 30 65.409(4) 12 4
Zirconium Zr 40 91.224(2)[2] 4 5

Notes

1. The element does not have any stable nuclides, and a value in brackets,
e.g. [209], indicates the mass number of the longest-lived isotope of the
element. However, three elements, Thorium, Protactinium, and Uranium,
have a characteristic terrestrial isotopic composition, and thus their
atomic mass given.
2. The isotopic composition of this element varies in some geological
specimens, and the variation may exceed the uncertainty stated in the
table.
3. The isotopic composition varies in terrestrial material such that a more
precise atomic weight can not be given.
4. The isotopic composition of the element can vary in commercial
materials, which can cause the atomic weight to deviate significantly from
the given value.
5. The atomic weight of commercial Lithium can vary between 6.939 and
6.996—analysis of the specific material is necessary to find a less and
more accurate value.

By symbol

Symbol, Name, Etymol. of symb., Atomic No., Rel. atom. mass, Group Period

Ac Actinium from Greek aktinos 89 [227][1] 7

Ag Silver Latin argentum 47 107.8682(2)[2] 11 5
Al Aluminium (Aluminum) Latin alumen 13 26.9815386(8) 13 3
Am Americium the Americas 95 [243][1] 7
Ar Argon Greek argon 18 39.948(1)[2][3] 18 3
As Arsenic Greek arsenikos 33 74.92160(2) 15 4
At Astatine Greek astatos 85 [210][1] 17 6
Au Gold Latin aurum 79 196.966569(4) 11 6
B Boron borax 5 10.811(7)[2][3][4] 13 2
Ba Barium Greek barys 56 137.327(7) 2 6
Be Beryllium beryl 4 9.012182(3) 2 2
Bh Bohrium Niels Bohr 107 [264][1] 7 7
Bi Bismuth from German wissmuth 83 208.98040(1) 15 6
Bk Berkelium Berkeley, California 97 [247][1] 7
Br Bromine Greek bromos 35 79.904(1) 17 4
C Carbon Latin carbo 6 12.0107(8)[2][3] 14 2
Ca Calcium Latin calx 20 40.078(4)[2] 2 4
Cd Cadmium from Greek kadmia 48 112.411(8)[2] 12 5
Ce Cerium Ceres 58 140.116(1)[2] 6
Cf Californium State and University of California 98 [251][1] 7
Cl Chlorine Greek chloros 17 35.453(2)[2][3][4] 17 3
Cm Curium Pierre and Marie Curie and the traditional -um ending 96 [247][1] 7
Co Cobalt from German kobold 27 58.933195(5) 9 4
Cr Chromium Greek chroma 24 51.9961(6) 6 4
Cs Caesium (Cesium) Latin caesius 55 132.9054519(2) 1 6
Cu Copper Latin Cuprum 29 63.546(3)[3] 11 4
Db Dubnium Dubna, Russia 105 [262][1] 5 7
Ds Darmstadtium Darmstadt, Germany 110 [271][1] 10 7
Dy Dysprosium Greek dysprositos 66 162.500(1)[2] 6
Er Erbium Ytterby, Sweden 68 167.259(3)[2] 6
Es Einsteinium Albert Einstein 99 [252][1] 7
Eu Europium Europe 63 151.964(1)[2] 6
F Fluorine Latin fluo 9 18.9984032(5) 17 2
Fe Iron Latin ferrum 26 55.845(2) 8 4
Fm Fermium Enrico Fermi 100 [257][1] 7
Fr Francium France 87 [223][1] 1 7
Ga Gallium Latin Gallia 31 69.723(1) 13 4
Gd Gadolinium gadolinite 64 157.25(3)[2] 6
Ge Germanium Germany 32 72.64(1) 14 4
H Hydrogen Greek hydror 1 1.00794(7)[2][3][4] 1 1
He Helium Greek helios 2 4.002602(2)[2][3] 18 1
Hf Hafnium Latin Hafnia 72 178.49(2) 4 6
Hg Mercury Latin hydrargyrum 80 200.59(2) 12 6
Ho Holmium Latin Holmia 67 164.930 32(2) 6
Hs Hassium Hesse, Germany 108 [277][1] 8 7
I Iodine Greek ioeides 53 126.904 47(3) 17 5
In Indium indigo blue 49 114.818(3) 13 5
Ir Iridium Greek iris 77 192.217(3) 9 6
K Potassium (Kalium) Latin kalium 19 39.0983(1) 1 4
Kr Krypton Greek kryptos 36 83.798(2)[2][4] 18 4
La Lanthanum Greek lanthanien 57 138.90547(7)[2] 6
Li Lithium Greek lithos 3 6.941(2)[2][3][4][5] 1 2
Lr Lawrencium Ernest O. Lawrence 103 [262][1] 3 7
Lu Lutetium Latin Lutetia 71 174.967(1)[2] 3 6
Md Mendelevium Dmitri Mendeleyev 101 [258][1] 7
Mg Magnesium Magnesia, Greece 12 24.3050(6) 2 3
Mn Manganese Latin magnes 25 54.938045(5) 7 4
Mo Molybdenum Greek molybdos 42 95.94(2)[2] 6 5
Mt Meitnerium Lise Meitner 109 [268][1] 9 7
N Nitrogen Greek nitron 7 14.0067(2)[2][3] 15 2
Na Sodium Latin natrium 11 22.98976928(2) 1 3
Nb Niobium Niobe 41 92.906 38(2) 5 5
Nd Neodymium Greek neos didymos 60 144.242(3)[2] 6
Ne Neon Greek neos 10 20.1797(6)[2][4] 18 2
Ni Nickel German kupfernickel 28 58.6934(2) 10 4
No Nobelium Alfred Nobel 102 [259][1] 7
Np Neptunium Neptune 93 [237][1] 7
O Oxygen Greek oxys 8 15.9994(3)[2][3] 16 2
Os Osmium Greek osme 76 190.23(3)[2] 8 6
P Phosphorus Greek phosphoros 15 30.973762(2) 15 3
Pa Protactinium Greek protos and actinium 91 231.03588(2)[1] 7
Pb Lead Latin plumbum 82 207.2(1)[2][3] 14 6
Pd Palladium Pallas and the traditional -dium ending 46 106.42(1)[2] 10 5
Pm Promethium Prometheus 61 [145][1] 6
Po Polonium Poland 84 [210][1] 16 6
Pr Praseodymium Greek prasios 59 140.90765(2) 6
Pt Platinum Greek platina 78 195.084(9) 10 6
Pu Plutonium Pluto 94 [244][1] 7
Ra Radium Latin radius 88 [226][1] 2 7
Rb Rubidium Latin rubidus 37 85.4678(3)[2] 1 5
Re Rhenium German Rheinprovinz 75 186.207(1) 7 6
Rf Rutherfordium Ernest Rutherford 104 261[1] 4 7
Rg Roentgenium Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen 111 [272][1] 11 7
Rh Rhodium Greek rhodon 45 102.905 50(2) 9 5
Rn Radon radium and emanation 86 [220][1] 18 6
Ru Ruthenium Latin Ruthenia 44 101.07(2)[2] 8 5
S Sulfur (Sulphur) Latin sulfur 16 32.065(5)[2][3] 16 3
Sb Antimony Latin stibium 51 121.760(1)[2] 15 5
Sc Scandium Scandinavia 21 44.955912(6) 3 4
Se Selenium Greek selene 34 78.96(3)[3] 16 4
Sg Seaborgium Glenn T. Seaborg 106 [266][1] 6 7
Si Silicon Latin silex 14 28.0855(3)[3] 14 3
Sm Samarium samarskite 62 150.36(2)[2] 6
Sn Tin Latin stannum 50 118.710(7)[2] 14 5
Sr Strontium Latin Strontian 38 87.62(1)[2][3] 2 5
Ta Tantalum King Tantalus 73 180.94788(2) 5 6
Tb Terbium Ytterby, Sweden 65 158.92535(2) 6
Tc Technetium Greek technetos 43 [98][1] 7 5
Te Tellurium Greek tellus 52 127.60(3)[2] 16 5
Th Thorium Thor 90 232.03806(2)[1][2] 7
Ti Titanium the Titans 22 47.867(1) 4 4
Tl Thallium Greek thallos 81 204.3833(2) 13 6
Tm Thulium Thule and the traditional -ium ending 69 168.93421(2) 6
U Uranium Uranus 92 238.02891(3)[1][2][4] 7
Uub Ununbium Latin uni, uni, and bi 112 [285][1] 12 7
Uuh Ununhexium Latin uni, uni, and Greek hex 116 [292][1] 16 7
Uuo Ununoctium Latin uni, uni, and oct 118 [294][1] 18 7
Uup Ununpentium Latin uni, uni, and Greek pent 115 [288][1] 15 7
Uuq Ununquadium Latin uni, uni, and quadr 114 [289][1] 14 7
Uus Ununseptium Latin uni, uni, and sept 117 [293][1] 17 7
Uut Ununtrium Latin uni, uni, and Greek tri 113 [284][1] 13 7
V Vanadium Vanadis 23 50.9415(1) 5 4
W Tungsten German wolfram 74 183.84(1) 6 6
Xe Xenon Greek xenos 54 131.293(6)[2][4] 18 5
Y Yttrium Ytterby, Sweden 39 88.90585(2) 3 5
Yb Ytterbium Ytterby, Sweden 70 173.04(3)[2] 6
Zn Zinc German zink 30 65.409(4) 12 4
Zr Zirconium zircon 40 91.224(2)[2] 4 5
Notes

1. The element does not have any stable nuclides, and a value in brackets,
e.g. [209], indicates the mass number of the longest-lived isotope of the
element. However, three elements, Thorium, Protactinium, and Uranium,
have a characteristic terrestrial isotopic composition, and thus their
atomic mass given.
2. The isotopic composition of this element varies in some geological
specimens, and the variation may exceed the uncertainty stated in the
table.
3. The isotopic composition varies in terrestrial material such that a more
precise atomic weight can not be given.
4. The isotopic composition of the element can vary in commercial
materials, which can cause the atomic weight to deviate significantly from
the given value.
5. The atomic weight of commercial Lithium can vary between 6.939 and
6.996—analysis of the specific material is necessary to find a more
accurate value.
6. Name changed due to a standardization of, modernization of, or update
to older formerly-used symbol.
7. Name designated by discredited/disputed claimant.
8. Name proposed prior to discovery/creation of element or prior to official
re-naming of a placeholder name.
9. Temporary placeholder name.

By atomic number

Atomic number, Name, Symbol, Period, Group, Chemical series, Mass (g/mol)

1 Hydrogen H 1 1 Nonmetal 1.00794(7)[1] [2] [3]

2 Helium He 1 18 Noble gas 4.002602(2)[1] [3]
3 Lithium Li 2 1 Alkali metal 6.941(2)[1] [2] [3] [4]
4 Beryllium Be 2 2 Alkaline earth metal 9.012182(3)
5 Boron B 2 13 Metalloid 10.811(7)[1] [2] [3]
6 Carbon C 2 14 Nonmetal 12.0107(8)[1] [3]
7 Nitrogen N 2 15 Nonmetal 14.0067(2)[1] [3]
8 Oxygen O 2 16 Nonmetal 15.9994(3)[1] [3]
9 Fluorine F 2 17 Halogen 18.9984032(5)
10 Neon Ne 2 18 Noble gas 20.1797(6)[1] [2]
11 Sodium Na 3 1 Alkali metal 22.98976928(2)
12 Magnesium Mg 3 2 Alkaline earth metal 24.3050(6)
13 Aluminium Al 3 13 Poor metal 26.9815386(8)
14 Silicon Si 3 14 Metalloid 28.0855(3)[3]
15 Phosphorus P 3 15 Nonmetal 30.973762(2)
16 Sulfur S 3 16 Nonmetal 32.065(5)[1] [3]
17 Chlorine Cl 3 17 Halogen 35.453(2)[1] [2] [3]
18 Argon Ar 3 18 Noble gas 39.948(1)[1] [3]
19 Potassium K 4 1 Alkali metal 39.0983(1)
20 Calcium Ca 4 2 Alkaline earth metal 40.078(4)[1]
21 Scandium Sc 4 3 Transition metal 44.955912(6)
22 Titanium Ti 4 4 Transition metal 47.867(1)
23 Vanadium V 4 5 Transition metal 50.9415(1)
24 Chromium Cr 4 6 Transition metal 51.9961(6)
25 Manganese Mn 4 7 Transition metal 54.938045(5)
26 Iron Fe 4 8 Transition metal 55.845(2)
27 Cobalt Co 4 9 Transition metal 58.933195(5)
28 Nickel Ni 4 10 Transition metal 58.6934(4)
29 Copper Cu 4 11 Transition metal 63.546(3)[3]
30 Zinc Zn 4 12 Transition metal 65.38(2)
31 Gallium Ga 4 13 Poor metal 69.723(1)
32 Germanium Ge 4 14 Metalloid 72.64(1)
33 Arsenic As 4 15 Metalloid 74.92160(2)
34 Selenium Se 4 16 Nonmetal 78.96(3)[3]
35 Bromine Br 4 17 Halogen 79.904(1)
36 Krypton Kr 4 18 Noble gas 83.798(2)[1] [2]
37 Rubidium Rb 5 1 Alkali metal 85.4678(3)[1]
38 Strontium Sr 5 2 Alkaline earth metal 87.62(1)[1] [3]
39 Yttrium Y 5 3 Transition metal 88.90585(2)
40 Zirconium Zr 5 4 Transition metal 91.224(2)[1]
41 Niobium Nb 5 5 Transition metal 92.90638(2)
42 Molybdenum Mo 5 6 Transition metal 95.96(2)[1]
43 Technetium Tc 5 7 Transition metal [98.9063][5]
44 Ruthenium Ru 5 8 Transition metal 101.07(2)[1]
45 Rhodium Rh 5 9 Transition metal 102.90550(2)
46 Palladium Pd 5 10 Transition metal 106.42(1)[1]
47 Silver Ag 5 11 Transition metal 107.8682(2)[1]
48 Cadmium Cd 5 12 Transition metal 112.411(8)[1]
49 Indium In 5 13 Poor metal 114.818(3)
50 Tin Sn 5 14 Poor metal 118.710(7)[1]
51 Antimony Sb 5 15 Metalloid 121.760(1)[1]
52 Tellurium Te 5 16 Metalloid 127.60(3)[1]
53 Iodine I 5 17 Halogen 126.90447(3)
54 Xenon Xe 5 18 Noble gas 131.293(6)[1] [2]
55 Caesium Cs 6 1 Alkali metal 132.9054519(2)
56 Barium Ba 6 2 Alkaline earth metal 137.327(7)
57 Lanthanum La 6 Lanthanide 138.90547(7)[1]
58 Cerium Ce 6 Lanthanide 140.116(1)[1]
59 Praseodymium Pr 6 Lanthanide 140.90765(2)
60 Neodymium Nd 6 Lanthanide 144.242(3)[1]
61 Promethium Pm 6 Lanthanide [146.9151][5]
62 Samarium Sm 6 Lanthanide 150.36(2)[1]
63 Europium Eu 6 Lanthanide 151.964(1)[1]
64 Gadolinium Gd 6 Lanthanide 157.25(3)[1]
65 Terbium Tb 6 Lanthanide 158.92535(2)
66 Dysprosium Dy 6 Lanthanide 162.500(1)[1]
67 Holmium Ho 6 Lanthanide 164.93032(2)
68 Erbium Er 6 Lanthanide 167.259(3)[1]
69 Thulium Tm 6 Lanthanide 168.93421(2)
70 Ytterbium Yb 6 Lanthanide 173.054(5)[1]
71 Lutetium Lu 6 3 Lanthanide 174.9668(1)[1]
72 Hafnium Hf 6 4 Transition metal 178.49(2)
73 Tantalum Ta 6 5 Transition metal 180.9479(1)
74 Tungsten W 6 6 Transition metal 183.84(1)
75 Rhenium Re 6 7 Transition metal 186.207(1)
76 Osmium Os 6 8 Transition metal 190.23(3)[1]
77 Iridium Ir 6 9 Transition metal 192.217(3)
78 Platinum Pt 6 10 Transition metal 195.084(9)
79 Gold Au 6 11 Transition metal 196.966569(4)
80 Mercury Hg 6 12 Transition metal 200.59(2)
81 Thallium Tl 6 13 Poor metal 204.3833(2)
82 Lead Pb 6 14 Poor metal 207.2(1)[1] [3]
83 Bismuth Bi 6 15 Poor metal 208.98040(1)
84 Polonium Po 6 16 Metalloid [208.9824][5]
85 Astatine At 6 17 Halogen [209.9871][5]
86 Radon Rn 6 18 Noble gas [222.0176][5]
87 Francium Fr 7 1 Alkali metal [223.0197][5]
88 Radium Ra 7 2 Alkaline earth metal [226.0254][5]
89 Actinium Ac 7 Actinide [227.0278][5]
90 Thorium Th 7 Actinide 232.03806(2)[5] [1]
91 Protactinium Pa 7 Actinide 231.03588(2)[5]
92 Uranium U 7 Actinide 238.02891(3)[5] [1] [2]
93 Neptunium Np 7 Actinide [237.0482][5]
94 Plutonium Pu 7 Actinide [244.0642][5]
95 Americium Am 7 Actinide [243.0614][5]
96 Curium Cm 7 Actinide [247.0704][5]
97 Berkelium Bk 7 Actinide [247.0703][5]
98 Californium Cf 7 Actinide [251.0796][5]
99 Einsteinium Es 7 Actinide [252.0829][5]
100 Fermium Fm 7 Actinide [257.0951][5]
101 Mendelevium Md 7 Actinide [258.0986][5]
102 Nobelium No 7 Actinide [259.1009][5]
103 Lawrencium Lr 7 3 Actinide [264][5]
104 Rutherfordium Rf 7 4 Transition metal [265][5]
105 Dubnium Db 7 5 Transition metal [268][5]
106 Seaborgium Sg 7 6 Transition metal [272][5]
107 Bohrium Bh 7 7 Transition metal [273][5]
108 Hassium Hs 7 8 Transition metal [276][5]
109 Meitnerium Mt 7 9 Transition metal [279][5]
110 Darmstadtium Ds 7 10 Transition metal [278][5]
111 Roentgenium Rg 7 11 Transition metal [283][5]
112 Ununbium Uub 7 12 Transition metal [285][5]
113 Ununtrium Uut 7 13 Poor metal [287][5]
114 Ununquadium Uuq 7 14 Poor metal [289][5]
115 Ununpentium Uup 7 15 Poor metal [291][5]
116 Ununhexium Uuh 7 16 Poor metal [293][5]
117 Ununseptium Uus 7 17 Halogen [295] [6]
118 Ununoctium Uuo 7 18 Noble gas [294][5]
Notes

1. The isotopic composition of this element varies in some geological

specimens, and the variation may exceed the uncertainty stated in the
table.
2. The isotopic composition of the element can vary in commercial
materials, which can cause the atomic weight to deviate significantly from
the given value.
3. The isotopic composition varies in terrestrial material such that a more
precise atomic weight can not be given.
4. The atomic weight of commercial lithium can vary between 6.939 and
6.996—analysis of the specific material is necessary to find a more
accurate value.
5. The element does not have any stable nuclides, and a value in brackets,
e.g. [209], indicates the mass number of the longest-lived isotope of the
element or characteristic isotopic composition.
6. This element has not been discovered/synthesized.

chess
cigarette use
cinematography
citizens band
civil engineering
commerce
communication of ideas and feelings
communications
computers
conservation
couture
craps
crime
cuisine
custom
customs

dancing
death penalty
disasters
drugs
drug use

earthquake engineering
ecology
economics
employment
prices of consumer goods
unemployment
edition
education
electric engineering
electronic engineering
energy
biomass
coal
crude oil
avgas (aviation gasoline)
diesel, fuel oil, and gasoil
gasolines
jet fuel
paraffin
geothermal energy
nuclear electric power
hydroelectric power
natural gas
solar
wind
engineering
environment sciences
epistemology
Europe
evaluation
existence and change

famine
fast food
feeling
finance
currency
mint
bills
coins
fine arts
foreign and special characters
foreign exchange
form
gaming
gemology
geography
geology
geometry
government
grammar
analogy
syntax
prosody
orthography

graphic design
greyhound racing

habit
happening
haute couture
health
aging
AIDS
allergies
Alzheimer’s disease
amyotrophic lateral sclerosis
arthritis
asthma
autism
blindness
burns
blood disorders
cancer
breast cancer
leukemia
prostate cancer
skin cancer
cerebral palsy
chronic fatigue syndrome
cystic fibrosis
depression
diabetes
digestive diseases
Down syndrome
drug abuse
 dyslexia
eating disorders
endometriosis
epilepsy
erectile dysfunction
headaches
heart and blood vessel disease
Huntington’s disease
irritable bowel disease
kidney disease
lead exposure
liver diseases
lung diseases
lupus
Lyme disease
mental health
multiple sclerosis
muscular distrophy
osteoporosis
pain
Parkinson’s disease
plastic surgery
polio
prostate problems
scleroderma
sexually transmitted diseases
Sjogren’s syndrome
skin problems
speech and hearing
spinal injuries
stroke
Tourette syndrome
urinary incontinence
women’s health

hippieness
historical personalities
history
horsemanship
housing
human rights

industrial design
industrial engineering
industry
informatics
information technology
innovation
intelligence
internet
search engines
websites

jet set
jobs
journalism
justice

knowledge

language
languages
English, German, Spanish, French, Russian, Chinese,
Japanese, Latin, Greek, Old Greek, Portuguese, Swedish,
Sanskrit, et cetera
law
location
locomotion
lottery

Madison Avenue
mathematics

Euclid
Pythagoras
Mersenne
Fibonacci
Leonhard Euler
Newton
Leibniz
Georg Cantor

Hodge conjecture
Riemann hypothesis
Yang-Mills existence and mass gap
Navier-Stokes existence and smoothness
Birch and Swinnerton-Dyer conjecture
 algebra
monomial
binomial
trinomial
polynomial
binomial theorem

General formula to solve quadratic equations: completing the perfect square

ax2 + bx + c = 0 where a cannot be 0

Subtract c from both sides of the equation:

ax2 + bx = –c

Divide both sides by the coefficient of x2

x2 + (b/a)x = –c/a

Divide the coefficient of x by 2, square it, then add to both sides

Note: This makes a perfect square on the left side

x2 + (b/a)x + b2/4a2 = –c/a + b2/4a2

Simplify the left side into a square

(x + b/2a)2 = –c/a + b2/4a2

Simplify the right side by finding the lowest common denominator

(x + b/2a)2 = –4ac/4a2 + b2/4a2

Add the fractions on the right

(x + b/2a)2 = (b2 – 4ac)/4a2

Take the square root of both sides

x + b/2a = ± √(b² – 4ac)/2a

Subtract b/2a from both sides

x = –b/2a ± √(b² – 4ac)/2a

Simplify

x = [–b ± √(b² – 4ac)]/2a

arithmetic, computation, calculation
sum (addition)
summand/addend
subtraction
minuend
subtrahend
multiplication
multiplicands
products
division
dividend
divisor
quotient
remainder

square root
cubic root
roots
matrices
determinants
constants
variables
ratio
radian
stereo radian

numerator
greatest common divisor
lowest common denominator

integers
negative integers
positive integers
rational numbers
irrational numbers
real numbers
imaginary numbers

perfect numbers
friendly numbers
amicable numbers
 calculus
differential calculus
integral calculus

geometry
sets (Georg Cantor)
trigonometry

odds (chances, probabilities)

even numbers (such as –4,–2, 0, 2, 4)
odd numbers (such as –5, –3 –1, 1, 3)

et cetera

mechanical engineering
medicine
Allergology
Andrology
Anesthesia
Angiology
Athletic Training
Aviation medicine
Cardiology
Dentistry
Dermatology
Disaster medicine
Emergency medicine
Endocrinology
Family medicine
Gastroenterology
General practice
Medical genetics
Geriatrics
Gerontology
Gynecology
Hematology
Hematology
Hepatology
Immunology
Infectious diseases
Intensive care medicine
Military medicine
Nephrology
Neurology
Nuclear medicine
Obstetrics
Oncology
Ophthalmology
 Oral and maxillofacial surgery
Orthopedics and Traumatology
Otolaryngology
Paleopathology
Palliative medicine
Pathology
Pediatrics
Podiatry
Psychiatry
Pulmonology
Radiology
Rehabilitation medicine
Rheumatology
Serology
Sexual health
Sleep medicine
Sports medicine
Surgery
Toxicology
Transplantation medicine
Urology
Wilderness medicine

meteorology
military affairs
mineralogy
mining
militia
movement
motion
motoring
movies
music
African
Andean
Arab
bachata
blues
bossa nova
charleston
classic
country
cumbia
disco
easy listening
folk
 foxtrot
huapango
huayno
lambada
mambo
moroccan
pop
ranchera
rap
reggae
rhythm and blues
rock
rock and roll
salsa
samba
soul
tango
tex-mex
waltz
world beat
zamba

Musical instruments

Electronic instruments
computer
continuum
denis d'or
Dubreq stylophone
drum machine
electric guitar
electronic organ
electronic organ - synthesizer hybrid
electric piano
electric violin
fingerboard synthesizer
Hammond organ
laser harp
mellotron
octapad
ondes martenot
turntables (record player/phonograph)
Rhodes piano
sampler
synclavier
synthesizer
teleharmonium
tenori-on
theremin
vocoder

Keyboard instruments
accordion
bandoneón
calliope
carillon
celesta
clavichord
clavinet
glasschord
harpsichord
katzenklavier
keytar
MIDI keyboard
organ
electronic organ
Hammond organ
pipe organ

Pianos

baby grand piano

electric piano
grand piano
janko piano
mechanical Piano
honky tonk
synthesizer
thumb piano
toy piano
upright piano
upright grand piano
viola organista

Other

crystallophones
hardart
hydraulophone
plasmaphone
pyrophone
quintephone
sea organ
shishi odoshi (Japanese)
suikinkutsu (Japanese water zither)
wobble board (Australian)

Percussion instruments
bass drum
bongo drum
chico
djembe (West Africa)
drum kit
goblet drum
kettle drum
octaban
repique
snare
steel drum
surdo (Brazil)
tabla (Pakistan,India)
tan-tan
talking drum
tamboril (Uruguay)
teponaxtli (Mexico)
timpani (kettledrums)
tom-tom

Other percussion instruments

bell
bones
boomwhackers
cajón
carillon
castanets
caxixi (Brazil)
chime
ching
clapper
claves
cowbell
crotales
crash cymbal
hi-hat cymbal
ride cymbal
splash cymbal
zil (finger cymbal)
cymbalum
fangxiang (China)
gamelan (Indonesia)
American gamelan
glass marimba
glass harmonica
glockenspiel
gong
guban
guiro
hands
clapping
handbells
hang
kalimba (Africa}
man-lé
maracas
marimba
marimbaphone
mbira
metallophone
musical saw
rainstick
ratchet
rattle
riq
shekere
singing bowl
slit drum
spoons
steelpan
tambourine
triangle
trychel
timpani
tubular bells
udu
vibraphone
vibraslap
washboard
whip
xylophone
xylorimba

String instruments
aeolian harp
Appalachian dulcimer (United States)
arpeggione
balalaika (Russia)
bandura
banjo
biwa (Japan)
cello (violoncello)
Chapman stick
charango (Peru)
cimbalom
cithara (cither) see zither
electric cymbalum
clavichord
cuatro
double-neck guitjo
double bass
fiddle
fortepiano or pianoforte

Guitars

acoustic bass guitar

acoustic guitar
bass guitar
chitarra battente (Italy)
cigar box guitar
classical guitar or Spanish guitar
electric guitar
flamenco guitar
harp guitar
seven-string guitar
slide guitar
Spanish guitar or classical guitar
steel guitar
guitarrón (Mexico)

hammered dulcimer
harmonico
harp
harpsichord
lyra (Cretan) (Greece)
lyra (Byzantine) (Byzantine Empire)
lyre
mando-bass
mandocello
mandola
mandolin
musical bow
octave mandolin (octave mandola)
octobass
oud
piano
pianoforte or fortepiano
piccolo violin
piccolo 'cello/violoncello piccolo
pipa (China)
psaltery
quatro
quena
rebab (Afghanistan)
rebec
rudra vina (India)
sitar (India)
Stroh violin
sopranino mandolin
tea chest bass
tenor viola
timple
tres
trumpet marine/tromba marina
ukulele
vertical viola (and other members of the violin octet family)
vielle
vihuela (Spain)
viol (also called as viola da gamba)
viola da gamba
viola
viola d'amore
violin
violotta
washtub bass
zither
overtone zither

Wind instruments
didgeridoo
flageolet (France)
Irish flute
nose flute
ocarina (Italy)
organ pipe
Pan pipes
piano horn
quena (South America)
recorder (Germany)
samponia (Peru)
slide whistle
tin whistle
vertical flute

Western concert flutes:

piccolo
flute
alto flute
bass flute
contra-alto flute
contrabass flute
subcontrabass flute
double contrabass flute
hyperbass flute
whistle
willow flute (Scandinavia)

Single reed instruments

clarinets

clarinet
piccolo clarinet
sopranino clarinet
soprano clarinet
saxonette
basset clarinet
clarinette d'amour
basset horn
alto clarinet
bass clarinet
contra-alto clarinet
contrabass clarinet
octocontra-alto clarinet
octocontrabass clarinet

octavin

saxophones
saxophone
soprillo
sopranino saxophone
C soprano saxophone
soprano saxophone
mezzo-soprano saxophone
alto saxophone
C melody saxophone
tenor saxophone
baritone saxophone
bass saxophone
contrabass saxophone
subcontrabass saxophone
tubax
tarogato (modern single-reed)
folgerphone

Double reed instruments

bassoon
contrabassoon/double bassoon
tenoroon
dulzaina (Spain)

Oboes
piccolo oboe
oboe
oboe d'amore
cor anglais/English horn
Oboe da caccia
bass/baritone oboe
contrabass oboe
rackett
contrabass á anche /reed contrabass

tarogato (original two-reed variety)

trompeta china (Cuba)
tromboon
[
bagpipes
bagpipe
uilleann pipes

Free aerophones

bullroarer
harmonica
lasso d'amore
whip
siren

Voice

soprano
mezzo-soprano
alto/contralto
countertenor
tenor
baritone
basso/bass
castrato
falsetto
kazoo
death growl
overtone/throat singing
microphone

Brass instruments
air horn
alphorn
baritone horn
bass Trombone
bazooka
bugle (instrument)
bugler
keyed bugle
cimbasso
conch
cornet
cornett
didgeridoo
doulophone/cuprophone
ear trumpet
euphonium
flugelhorn
horn/French horn
jug
mellophone
Roman tuba
saxhorn
subcontrabass tuba
serpent
shofar
sousaphone
tenor horn/alto horn
trombone
trumpet
tuba
Wagner tuba
quinticlave

Free reed instruments

accordion
chromatic accordion
button accordion
free bass accordion
bandoneon
comb
concertina
electric thumb piano
harmonica
harmonium
hulusi
Jew's harp
kalimba
melodica
melodeon
musical box
pipe organ
recorder
thumb piano
tom (instrument)
yu
nation
North America
nutrition

obituaries
Oceania

pending tasks

Please let me a “digression”: a pending task, by the way, is the

standardization of:

http://publib.boulder.ibm.com/infocenter/forms/v3r0m0/index.jsp?
topic=/com.ibm.help.forms.doc/locale_spec/i_xfdl_r_format_datatyp
e_styles.html

Date and time styles

Data type styles affect how various data types are displayed in the form. Different
locales may have different styles for displaying information related to dates and time,
such as dates, days of month, days of week, and years.

The following table shows how the style affects the presentation of various data types in
the en_US locale. For other locales, refer to the locale in the Locale Specification for
XFDL. The symbols used to define each format are explained in Date patterns.

Data Type Style Format Example

Date numeric yyyyMMdd 20041123
short yyyy-MM-dd 2004-11-23
medium d MMM yyyy 23 Nov 2004
long MMMM d, yyyy November 23, 2004
full EEEE, MMMM d, yyyy Tuesday, November 23,
2004
day_of_month numeric D 3
short D 3
medium D 3
long D 3
full D 3
day_of_week numeric E 3
short e 3
 Data Type Style Format Example
medium EEE Wed
long EEEE Wednesday
full EEEE Wednesday
date_time numeric yyyyMMdd H:mm 20041123 08:15
short yyyy-MM-dd H:mm 2004-11-23 08:15
medium d MMM yyyy h:mm a 23 Nov 2004 8:15 AM
long MMMM d, yyyy h:mm a November 23, 2004 8:15
AM
Month numeric M 9
short M 9
medium MMM Sep
long MMMM September
full MMMM September
Time numeric H.mm 17.30
short H:mm 17:30
medium h:mm a 5:30 PM
long h:mm a 5:30 PM
Year numeric yyyy 2004
short yy 04
medium yyyy 2004
long yyyy 2004
full yyyy G 2004 AD

philology

philosophy:

1. theory of science
(or theory of scientific knowledge)

1.1 formal theory of science; theory of the formal

principles of reasoning; theory of the right thought
(LOGIC)
1.2. theory of knowledge; material theory of science;
theory of the true thought (EPISTEMOLOGY)
 2. theory of values

2.1. theory of ethic values (ETHIC)

2.2. theory of aesthetic values (AESTHETIC)
2.3. theory of religious values (PHILOSOPHY OF
RELIGION)

3. theory of the conception of the universe

3.1. METAPHYSICS
3.1.1. metaphysics of nature
3.1.2. metaphysics of the spirit
3.2. conception or theory of the universe.

physics
Bohr atomic model
Bose-Einstein condensate
Boltzmann constant = 1.3806503 × 10-23 m2 kg s-2 K-1
E = mc2
ƒ
Heisenberg uncertainty principle
Planck constant = 6.626068 × 10-34 m2 kg / s
∑
speed of light
et cetera

physiology
poker
pollution
poultry
poverty
printing
property
psychology
publishing

quality
quality control
quantity

radio
refrigeration engineering
relationships
relationship, order, and causality
religion
rights
roulette

satellites
science
sensitivity
services
situation
software
software engineering
South America
space
special and foreign characters
specialties
sports
athletics
badminton
baseball
basketball
boxing
car racing
cycling
equestrian sports
football
golf
gymnastics
hap ki do
jai alai
jiu jitsu
jogging
judo
karate
kendo
moo duk kwan
padding
rugby
soccer
spinning
swimming and diving
tae kwon do
tennis
 thoroughbred racing
volleyball
water polo

stage
start
statistics
stock exchange
symbols
systematics

tailoring
taxonomy
technology
telephones
television
theater
time
tourism
translations, metaphrases, machine translations
transportation
travel

Unicode
Please see “ASCII code, and Unicode” (above)

Unter den Linden

valuation
vices
videos

war
will
work

zoology
zoos
zootechnics