Chapter 3: Basic Elements Section 3 1: Preliminaries (Review of Section 3.1: Preliminaries (Review of Solid Mechanics)

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Chapter 3: BASIC ELEMENTS Section 3.1: 3 1: Preliminaries (review of solid mechanics)
R.T. Haftka
EML5526 Finite Element Analysis
University of Florida
Outline
Most structural analysis y FE codes are displacement p based In this chapter we discuss interpolation methods and elements l t based b d on di displacement l ti interpolations t l ti Stiffness matrix formulations will be presented Shortcomings and restrictions of the elements due to the interpolations used will be discussed We will review the governing equations (for solids elastic bodies) to help us understand the solution methods and accuracy
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Review of Solid Mechanics

The analysis y of any y solid elastic body y has to define and develop the following quantities and/or relations
Stress St Strain (strain-displacement relations) Constitutive Properties (Stress-Strain (Stress Strain relations) Compatibility Equilibrium Equations Boundary Conditions
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Stress
Stresses are distributed internal forces that result from externally applied forces
F1 B1 F2 F1 F
F3 F5 F4 F5
Note: There are two types of forces: Surface forces that act on an area of external surface and body force that acts on the volume of the body
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Stress/Force acting on a surface

A force acting on a surface can be resolved into two components: One tangential to the surface (shear force) and the other normal to the surface
Force is a 1st order tensor (vector) Stress is a 2nd order tensor. Why is it a tensor?
Needs two vectors to specify it it. One is the vector of the internal force and the other is the outward normal of the defining g area
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Representation of stress at a point

In 3 3-D D space the stress at a point is denoted by the stresses acting on three mutually perpendicular planes at that point Often we use a simple infinitesimal rectangular solid and indicate the stresses on the faces of that solid Stress terms have two indices.
The first indicating the plane on which it acts The second indicating the direction in which it acts
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Stress at a point
State of stress at a point in 3-D Cartesian Coordinates
yy
Matrix representation of state of stress y x
yz zy
yx
xy xx
zx xz zz
xx xy zx xy yy yz xz yz zz
Sign Conventions: Normal stresses are positive when acting outward from a surface (tension) Shear stresses are positive when they act in the +ve direction on a positive face and ve direction on a ve face
Stress on an arbitrary plane (2-D)

We often need to enforce stress boundary conditions on surfaces that are not always rectangular Let cos() = l and sin()= m If length of side BC = A, then length of sides OC=Al OC Al and OB= OB Am If we write the force equilibrium q in X and Y-directions, we have
C Y N
xy
/2
O
XA = x ( Al ) + xy ( Am)
Which simplifies to
xy y y
X = x l + xy m Y = y m + xy l
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Stress on an arbitrary plane (3-D) (3 D)

The forces (per unit area) in X, Y and Z-directions on an arbitrary bit plane l defined d fi d by b its it normal l vector t N is i given by
X = l x + m xy + n zx
y B N
Y = l xy + m y + n yz Z = l xz + m yz + n z
Where l, m and n are the direction cosines of the normal vector of the x arbitrary plane
O C z
l = cos Nx, m = cos Ny, n = cos Nz
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Stress transformations in 3D
Stress transformation in 3D space can be defined using the directions cosines as follows. follows
x ' = l12 x + m12 y + n12 z + 2m1l1 xy + 2m1n1 yz + 2n1l1 zx

2 2 y ' = l22 x + m2 y + n2 z + 2m2l2 xz + 2m2 n2 yz + 2n2l2 zx 2 2 z ' = l32 x + m3 y + n3 z + 2m3l3 xy + 2m3n3 yz + 2n3l3 zx
x ' y ' = l1l2 x + m1m2 y + n1n2 z + (l1m2 m1l2 ) xy

+ (m1n2 n1m2 ) yz + (n1l2 l1n2 ) zx
y ' z ' = l2l3 x + m2 m3 y + n2 n3 z + (l2 m3 m2l3 ) xy y

+ (m2 n3 n2 m3 ) yz + (n2l3 l2 n3 ) zx
x ' z ' = l3l1 x + m3 m1 y + n3n1 z + (l3m1 m3l1 ) xy

+ (m3 n1 n3m1 ) yz + (n3l1 l3 n1 ) zx
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Direction cosines in 3D
The direction cosines l.m and n between the new coordinate axes x, , y and z and the original coordinate system x, y and z are defined as follows
x x y' z l1 l2 l3
y m1 m2 m2
z n1 n2 n3
Since the transformation is orthogonal, the direction cosines must satisfy the following properties
l12 + m12 + n12 = 1

2 l12 + l2 + l32 = 1
l1l2 + m1m2 + n1n2 = 0 l1m1 + l2 m2 + l3m3 = 0
Where l1 =cos xx, Where, m2= cos yy

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Equilibrium Equations (2-D) (2 D)

The 2-D stresses are shown on a volume given of length dx and dy in Xand Y-directions and unit thickness in the Z Zdirection
y yx + d yx
xy
dy
FX
x
Summation of forces in X-direction
x + d x
dx
FY
yx
=0
( x + d x )dy y x dy y + ( xy + d xy )dx xy dx + FX
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Equilibrium of forces in X-direction X direction

( x + d x )dy x dy + ( xy + d xy )dx xy dx + FX dxdy = 0 ( x + d x )dy d x dy d + ( xy + d xy )dx d xy dx d + FX dxdy d d =0
d x =
d xy
1 1 2 2
x dx x xy = dy y y
d xy d x dxdy + dxdy + FX dxdy = 0 dx dy
x xy x + y + FX
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dxdy = 0
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2-D 2 D Equilibrium Equations

The force equilibrium provide the relations shown below referred to as differential equation of equilibrium
x xy + +X=0 x y xy x + y y +Y =0
Establishing moment equilibrium by the same method will provide the condition for symmetry p y y of the stress tensor
xy y =y yx
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Strain
Why do we need the strain measures? Will displacement not suffice? Strain better q quantifies the deformation of the body and eliminates rigid body motion/ rotation y general g terms is a measure of Strain in very relative deformation
Relative to what?
Undeformed body : Lagrangian strain Deformed body: Eulerian strain
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Strain-Displacement Strain Displacement Relations

For uniaxial (1-D) case: l l
y
P Q
dy
l = l
P dx Q
P, P
du dv
u
P
P=P(x+u,y+v,z+w)
u =ui + vj + wk P P(x y z) P=P(x,y,z

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Strain 2-D 2 D : Normal strain

y
P Q
dy
P P P,
du dv
du =
dv =
P dx Q
u dx x
v dx x
x =
2
dx dx dx
2 2
Q 1 u u v x = 1+ 2 + + x x x 2
2
u v 2 dx + dx + dx dx x x x = dx
x = 1+ 2
u u v + + 1 x x x
2 2
2 2 u 1 u v x = + + x 2 x x
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STRAIN: Shear Strain

O O
dy dx dx
dx
u dx Q x
B v dx x Q
O
P
dx
dy
Q P
1
dy
= 1 + 2
x v P dy y A
u dy y
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Shear strain
With a bit of trigonometry (see for example, Allen and Haisler, Introduction to Aerospace Structural Analysis, p.60)
v u u v u u + + + x y x x y y
xy y =
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For small displacements

The normal and shear strains are expressed as
x =
u x
y =
v y
xy =
1 v
v u + x y
Engineering Strains
+ xy = x y 2

Tensor strains
Shear strain definitions are of two forms. The above form is referred to as engineering strains. The alternate form referred as tensorial strains have a factor of applied to engineering strains. To apply coordinate transformations need the tensor form.
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Compatibility
Deformation must be such that the pieces fit together without any gaps or overlap. overlap Why is this an issue? In 2-D we require only 2 displacements u, and v to describe deformation, but have three strain quantities x,y, and xy. This implies only two of the three strain terms are independent.
x =
u x
y =
v y
xy =
v u + x y
2 2 x y 2 2 u 2 v ( xy ) = 2 + 2 y 2 + x 2 xy y x x y
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Stress-Strain Stress Strain Relations

The stress-strain relations in solid mechanics is often referred to as the Hookes Hooke s Law Hookes law of proportionality stated as extension is proportional to the force refers to the axial extension of a bar under an axial force This can be extended to 3-D stress/strain state referred to as the G Generalized li d H Hookes k L Law relates l t the th components t of f the th 3-D 3 D stress t state to 3-D strains as follows.
x c11 c y 21 c31 z = xy c41 yz c51 zx c61

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c12 c22 c32 c42 c52 c62
c13 c23 c33 c43 c53 c63
c14 c24 c34 c44 c54 c64
c15 c25 c35 c45 c55 c65
c16 x c26 y c36 z c46 xy c56 yz c66 zx

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Generalized Hookes Law

In the most general form the generalized Hookes Law requires 36 constants to relate the terms of a 3-D Stress state to its corresponding 3-D 3 D strain state for an elastic material However, from symmetry of the strain energy terms, it can be shown that cij = cji This reduces the number of unknown constants to 21
x c11 c y 12 c13 z = xy c14 yz c15 zx c16

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c12 c22 c23 c24 c25 c26
c13 c23 c33 c34 c35 c36
c14 c24 c34 c44 c45 c46
c15 c25 c35 c45 c55 c56
c16 x c26 y c36 z c46 xy c56 yz c66 zx

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Hookes Hooke s Law: Orthotropy and Isotropy

If we assume the x, y and x coordinates provide the planes of symmetry we can further reduce the number of constants to 9 9.
x c11 c y 12 z c13 = xy 0 yz 0 0 zx c12 c22 c23 0 0 0 c13 c23 c33 0 0 0 0 0 0 c44 0 0 0 0 0 0 c55 0 0 x 0 y 0 z 0 xy 0 yz c66 zx
This corresponds to an fully orthotropic material
Isotropy assumes that there is no directional variation on property. Using this argument we can obtain
c11 = c 22 = c33 c12 = c13 = c 23 c 44 = c55 = c66

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Hookes law : Engineering Elastic Constants

The two engineering elastic constants used to relate stress to strain for isotropic materials are the Elastic modulus, E and the Poissons ration . For uniaxial loading, strain in the loading direction obtained from Hookes law, states
x =
x
E
Transverse to loading direction y = z = x =
x
E
The relation between the shear stress component and its corresponding shear-strain shear strain component is called the modulus of rigidity or modulus of elasticity in shear and is denoted by the letter G. E G= = G= 2(1 + )
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Generalized Hookes Law from Isotropic M t i l Materials

The generalized Hookes law expressed in engineering elastic constants
1 x ( y + z ) E 1 y = y ( x + z ) E 1 z = z ( x + y ) E
x =
] ]
xy = yz zx
2(1 + ) xy G E yz 2(1 + ) yz = = G E 2(1 + ) = zx = zx G E
xy
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Plane state of stress

There are a large class of problems for which the stresses normal lt to th the plane l of f the th solid lid are absent b t or negligibly li ibl small. If we assume that the stresses are restricted to the xy plane, then
z = xz = yz = 0
This simplifies p the stress strain relationship p to the form as shown below.
1 x y E 1 y = y x E ( x + y ) z = E
x =
x =
E x + y 1 2 E y = y + x 1 2
] ]
xy = xy
xy
G = G xy
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Plane strain
Strains that deform the body normal to the reference plane are absent or are negligible
z = xz = yz = 0
This indicates that the stress normal to the p plane of strain is dependent on the stresses in the plane of the 1 strain z = z ( x + y ) = 0 z = ( x + y ) E Substituting z into other strain expressions we obtain
x =
1 + (1 ) x y E 1 + (1 ) y x y = E
] ]
E (1 ) x + y (1 + )(1 2 ) E (1 ) y + x y = (1 + )(1 2 ) E z = + (1 + )(1 2 ) x y
x =
] ]
xy =
xy
G
xy = G xy
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Conversion from plane strain to plane stress and d vice-versa i

The solution obtained for the stress and strains in plane stress and plane strain states are qualitatively similar. To use a p plane strain solution for a p plane stress or vice versa, we simply interchange the appropriate constants as shown below For plane stress the expressions in E, For plane stress the expressions in E*,
E* * E= , = 1 * 1 *
or E * = E
1 + 2 (1 + )2
and =
1 +
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Solution of 3D Elasticity Problems

3 6 6 ---- x , y , z , xy , yz , zx 15 Equilibrium equations Strain-displacement equations Hookes law equations
x , y , z , xy , yz , zx
u,v, w
3 Equilibrium equations p y 3 Compatibility 6 Hookes law equations ----12 x , y , z , xy , yz , zx x , y , z , xy , yz , zx

3 Equilibrium equations in displacements ----u , v, w 3 3 3 Equilibrium equations Compatibility equations expressed in stress
3 6
---- x , y , z , xy , yz , zx 9
Equilibrium equations Strain displacement equations
u , v, w
---- x , y , z , xy , yz , zx 6
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Principle of superposition
Effects of several forces acting together are equal to the combined effect of the forces acting separately separately. This is valid only when
The stresses and displacements are directly proportional to the load The geometry and loading of the deformed object does not differ significantly from the undeformed configuration g
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Energy Principles
Strain Energy Density: When an elastic body is under the action of external forces, the body deforms and work ork is done b by these forces forces. The work ork done b by the forces is stored internally by the body and is called the strain energy. Let us consider the unit element of volume dxdydz with only the normal stress x acting on it it. The work done done, or work stored in the element is
z D C D C
x = x
x
A
B B A
B x
u d u + dx dydz x x x =0 =
x = x x =0
x = x
x =0
d (u )dydz
x
u dxdydz x
y
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Strain Energy
Using Hookes law
x = x x =0
u = x = x x E x
1 x d x dxdydz = dxdydz E 2 E
2
Work done =
For shear stresses, stresses it can be similarly shown that the work done is
The h strain energy stored d in an element l dxdydz under d a general three dimensional stress system is calculated as
12 dxdydz 2G
dU =
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1 ( x x + y y + z z + xy xy + yz yz + zx zx )dxdydz 2
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Strain Energy Density

The strain energy gy density y refers to strain energy gy per p unit volume
dU 0 =
1 ( x x + y y + z z + xy xy + yz yz + zx zx ) 2
dU 0 =
Using principal stresses and strains, this can be expressed as
1 ( 11 + 2 2 + 3 3 ) 2 1 2 dU 0 = I1 2(1 + ) I 2 2E I1 = 1 + 2 + 3
I 2 = 1 2 + 2 3 + 1 3
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3 2 Interpolation Functions 3.2
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Introduction to Interpolation Functions

Interpolation is to devise a continuous function that satisfies prescribed conditions at a finite number of points points. In FEM, the points are the nodes of the elements & the prescribed conditions are the nodal values of the field variable Polynomials P l i l are th the usual l choice h i f for FEM
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Polynomial interpolation
The polynomial function (x) is used to interpolate a field variable based on its values at n n-points points
( x) = ai xi
or
X = 1 x x
i =0
= X {a}
... x n and
{a} = a0
a1
a2
... a n
The number of terms in the polynomial is chosen to match the number of given quantities at the nodes. With one quantity per node node, we calculate ais s using the n n-equations equations resulting from the expressions for i at each of the n-known points
( x j ) = ai x ij
i =0
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{e } = [A ]{a}
{a} = [A]1 {e }
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Shape Functions or Basis Functions

Traditional interpolation takes the following steps 1. Choose a interpolation function 2. Evaluate interpolation function at known points 3. Solve equations to determine unknown constants
= X{a}
{e } = [A ]{a}
{a} = [A]1 {e }
= X{a}
In FEM we are more interested in writing in terms of the nodal values
= X{a}
{e } = [A ]{a}
= X [ A]
1
{a} = [A]1 {e }
= N {e }
N = X [ A]
{e }
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Degree of Continuity
In FEM field quantities are interpolated in piecewise fashion over each element This implies that is continuous and smooth within the element However, may not be smooth between elements m An interpolation function with C continuity provides a continuous variation of the function and up to the mm derivatives at the nodes
For example in a 1-D interpolation of f(x) C continuity indicates that f is continuous at the nodes and f f,x is not continuous. continuous 0 If the displacement u(x) is C then displacements are continuous between elements, but the strains are not (bar elements)
0
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Degree of Continuity
Function 1 is C0 continuous while 2 is C1 continuous
d dx
(x)
1 2
d1 dx
C0
d 2 dx
C1 x1 x2 x x0
C0 x1
C1 x2 x
x0
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Example: Deriving a 1D linear interpolation shape h f function ti

N {e } each interpolation From = function is zero at all the dofs except one. This can allow us to derive interpolation functions one at a time. For F linear li i interpolation t l ti b between t x1 and d x 2, N1(x1)=1, N1(x2)=0, N1=a1x+a2. So obviously, b i l N1=1-(x-x 1 ( 1)/L, )/L L L=x2-x1.
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C0 Interpolation -1D Element

1
x1
1
x2
1
x3
N1 =
(x2 x )(x3 x ) (x2 x1 )(x3 x1 ) (x1 x )(x3 x ) (x1 x2 )(x3 x2 ) (x1 x )(x2 x ) (x1 x3 )(x2 x3 )
N1 =
1
x2 x x 2 x1 x x1 x 2 x1
x1
N2 =
x2
x3
1
N2 =
1 x1 1
2 = N 1 2 x2 2
N3 =
x1
x2
x3
1
x1 1
2
x2 2
3
x3 3
1 = N 2 3
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Lagrange Interpolation Formula

Shape functions shown for the C0 interpolations are special forms of the Lagrangian interpolation functions
f ( x) = N k f k
k =1 n
Nk =
( x1 x )( x2 x ) ...[ xk x ]... ( xn x ) ( x1 xk )( x2 xk ) ...[ xk xk ]... ( xn xk )
In above expressions for Nk the terms in square brackets are omitted

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Properties of C0 Interpolation Shape F Functions ti All shape functions Ni, along with function are polynomials of the same degree For any shape function Ni, Ni = 1 at node i ( (x=x d zero at t all ll other th nodes d j j, ( (xj xi) i) and C0 shape functions sum to one
N
k =1
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=1
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C1 Interpolation p
Also called Hermitian interpolation (Hermite polynomials) Use the ordinate and slope information at the nodes to interpolate
,x2 ,x1
C0 interpolation curve
C1 interpolation curve
1 x
2 x
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Hermitian interpolation used for beam elements l t
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2-D 2 D and 3-D 3 D Interpolation

The 2-D and 3-D shape p functions follow the same procedure as for 1-D We now have to start with shape functions that have two or more independent terms terms. For example a linear interpolation in 2-D from 3 nodes will require an interpolation function
f ( x, y ) = 1 x
y a1
a2
a3
If there are two or more components (e (e.g., g u, v and w displacements) then the same interpolation function is used for all components
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Principle of Virtual Work

The principle of virtual work states that at equilibrium q the strain energy gy change g due to a small virtual displacement is equal to the work done by the forces in moving through the virtual displacement. A virtual displacement is a small imaginary change in configuration that is also a admissible displacement An admissible displacement satisfies kinematic boundary y conditions Note: Neither loads nor stresses are altered by the virtual displacement.
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Principle of Virtual Work

The principle of virtual work can be written as follows T T T { } { }dV = {u} {F }dV + {u} {}dS The same can be obtained by the Principle of Stationary Potential Energy The total potential energy of a system is given by
= U W = U + V = 0
U is strain energy, W is work done, or V is potential of the forces
= U W
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Element and load derivation

{u} = Interpolation {u} = [ N ]{d} u v w Strain displacement { } = [ B ]{d} [ B ] = [ ][ N ] Vi t l {u} = {d} [ N ] and { } = {d} [ B ] Virtual Constitutive law { } = [ E ]{ } Altogether
T T T T T T
{d} ( [ B ] [ E ][ B ] dV {d} [ B ] [ E ]{ 0 } dV + [ B ] { 0 } dV T T [ N ] {F} dV [ N ] { } dS ) = 0

T T T T
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Stiffness matrix and load vector

Equations of equilibrium [ k ]{d} = {re } Element stiffness matrix
[ k ] = [ B ] [ E ][ B ] dV
T
Element El tl load d vector t
{re} =[ B] [ E]{0} dV[ B] {0} dV+ [ N] {F} dV+ [ N] {} dS ) Loads due to initial strain, initial stress, y forces and surface tractions body
T T T T
Plane Problems: Constitutive Equations
Constitutive C tit ti equations ti for f a linearly li l elastic l ti and d isotropic material in plane stress (i.e., z=xz=yz=0):
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Initial thermal strains
x 0 = y 0 = T , xy0 = 0
In matrix form, form
where
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Plane Problems: Strain-Displacement Relations

.
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Plane Problems: Displacement Field Interpolated
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From the previous two equations,

where B is the strain-displacement strain displacement matrix.
Constant Strain Triangle (CST)
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The node numbers sequence must go counter clockwise p field so strains are constant! Linear displacement
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Constant Strain Triangular Element
CST ELEMENT
Decompose two-dimensional domain by a set of triangles. Each triangular element is composed by three corner nodes. Each element shares its edge g and two corner nodes with an adjacent j element Counter-clockwise or clockwise node numbering Each node has two DOFs: u and v displacements interpolation using the shape functions and nodal displacements. Displacement is linear because three nodal data are available available. Stress & strain are constant. y v3 3 v1 1 u1 v2 2 u2 x
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u3
CST ELEMENT cont.

Displacement Interpolation
Since two-coordinates are perpendicular, u(x,y) and v(x,y) are separated. u(x,y) needs d t to be b i interpolated t l t di in t terms of f u1, u2, and d u3, and v(x,y) in terms of v1, v2, and v3. interpolation function must be a three term polynomial in x and y. Since we must have rigid body displacements and constant strain terms in the interpolation function, the displacement interpolation must be of the form
u( x, y ) = 1 + 2 x + 3 y v ( x, y ) = 1 + 2 x + 3 y
The goal is how to calculate unknown coefficients i and i, i = 1, 2, 3, in terms of nodal displacements.
u( x, y ) = N1( x, y )u1 + N2 ( x, y )u2 + N3 ( x, y )u3

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CST ELEMENT cont.

x-displacement: Evaluate displacement at each node
u( x1, y1 ) u1 = 1 + 2 x1 + 3 y1 u( x , y ) u = + x + y 2 2 2 1 2 2 3 2 u( x3 , y 3 ) u3 = 1 + 2 x3 + 3 y 3
In matrix notation
u1 u2 = u 3 1 x1 1 x2 1 x3 1 y1 y 2 2 y 3 3
Is the coefficient matrix singular?
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CST ELEMENT cont.

1 2 = 3 1 x1 1 x2 1 x3
1 u1 f1 f2 y1 1 b1 b2 y 2 u2 = 2 A c1 c2 y 3 u3
u1 f3 b3 u2 c3 u3
where f1 = x2 y 3 x3 y 2 , b1 = y 2 y 3 , c1 = x3 x2 f = x y x y , b = y y , c = x x 2 3 1 1 3 2 3 1 2 1 3 f3 = x1y 2 x2 y1, b3 = y1 y 2 , c3 = x2 x1 Area:

1 x1 1 A = det 1 x2 2 1 x3 y1 y2 y3
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CST ELEMENT cont.

1 (f u + f u + f3u3 ) 2A 1 1 2 2 1 2 = (b u + b2u2 + b3u3 ) 2A 1 1 1 3 = (c u + c2u2 + c3u3 ) 2A 1 1 1 =
Insert to the interpolation equation

u( x, y ) = 1 + 2 x + 3 y 1 [ (f u + f u + f3u3 ) + (b1u1 + b2u2 + b3u3 )x + (c1u1 + c2u2 + c3u3 )y ] 2A 1 1 2 2 1 (f + b1x + c1y )u1 = N1(x,y) (x y) 2A 1 1 + (f + b2 x + c2 y )u2 N2(x,y) 2A 2 1 + (f + b3 x + c3 y )u3 2A 3 N (x,y) =
3
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CST ELEMENT cont.

A similar procedure can be applied for y-displacement v(x, y).
u( x, y ) = [N1 N2 u1 N3 ] u2 u 3 v1 N3 ] v 2 v3
v ( x, y ) = [N1 N2
1 N1( x, y ) = (f + b1x + c1y ) 2A 1 N ( x, y ) = 1 (f + b x + c y ) 2 2 2 2A 2 1 N3 ( x, y ) = (f + b3 x + c3 y ) 2A 3 Shape Function
N1, N2, and N3 are linear functions of x- and y-coordinates. Interpolated displacement changes linearly along the each coordinate direction.
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CST ELEMENT cont.

Matrix Notation
u = {u} v N1 0 N2 0 N1 0 0 N2 N3 0 u1 v 1 0 u 2 N3 v2 u3 v3
{u( x, y )} = [N( x, y )]{q} [N]: 26 matrix, {q}: 61 vector. For a given point (x,y) within element, calculate [N] and multiply it with {q} to evaluate displacement at the point (x,y).
62
CST ELEMENT cont.

Strain Interpolation
differentiating the displacement in x- and y-directions. differentiating shape function [N] because {q} is constant.
xx yy
3 u = = N x y u ( , ) i i x x i =1 3 v = = ( , ) N x y v i i y y i =1
N xi ui = i =1 N yi v i = i =1
3
i ui 2A i =1 3 i vi 2A i =1
b c
xy
u v + = y x
ci b ui + i v i 2A i =1 i =1 2 A
63
CST ELEMENT cont.

Strain Interpolation
u x b1 0 b2 v 1 0 c1 0 { } = = y 2 A c1 b1 c2 u v + y x u1 v 1 0 u2 c3 [B]{q} v 2 b3 u 3 v 3
0 c2 b2
b3 0 c3
[B] matrix t i is i a constant t t matrix t i and d depends d d only l on th the coordinates di t of f the three nodes of the triangular element. the strains will be constant over a given element
64
65
Constant Strain Triangle (CST): Stiffness Matrix Strain-displacement relation, =Bd
A is the area of the triangle and xij=xi- xj. (textbook has results for a coordinate system with x aligned with side 1-2
From the general formula
k = BT EBtA
where t: element thickness (constant)

CST ELEMENT cont.

Strain Energy: U (e ) = h {}T [C]{} dA(e )
2
A
h (e ) T (e ) {q } [B]T 63 [C]33 [B]36 dA {q } 2

A
1 (e ) T (e ) {q } [k ]66 {q( e ) } 2
Element Stiffness Matrix: [k( e ) ] = hA[B]T [C][B] Different from the truss and beam elements elements, transformation matrix [T] is not required in the two-dimensional element because [k] is constructed in the global coordinates.
The strain energy of the entire solid is simply the sum of the element strain energies
U=
U (e ) =
e=1
NE
NE assembly 1 1 (e ) T (e ) (e ) U = {Q s }T [K s ]{Q s } { q } [ k ]{ q } 2 2 e=1
66
BEAM BENDING EXAMPLE

-F 2 1 4 6 5 5m 7 8 9 F 10 1m
along l th the x-axis i and d linear along y-axis Exact Solution: xx = 60 MPa Max deflection vmax = 0.0075 0 0075 m
xx is constant
Max v = 0.0018
xx
x
67
Linear Strain Triangle (LST)
68
The element has six nodes and 12 dof.

69
Linear Strain Triangle (LST)

The quadratic displacement field in terms of generalized coordinates:
The linear strain field:
R.T. Haftka
Bilinear Quadrilateral (Q4): CQUAD4 in NASTRAN

Q4 element has four
nodes and eight dof. dof Can be quadrilateral; but for now rectangle g .
70
Displacement field:
So, u and v are bilinear in x and y. Because of form, sides id are stiffer tiff th than di diagonals-artificial l tifi i l anisotropy! i t !
71
Q4: The strain fields

Strain field:
Observation 1: x f(x) Q4 cannot exactly model the beam where x x
R.T. Haftka
Q4: Behavior in Pure Bending of a Beam

Observation 2: When 4 0, 0 x varies linearly in y desirable characteristic for a beam in pure bending because normal strain varies linearly y along g the depth coordinate. But xy0 is undesirable because there is no shear strain.
72
Fig. Fig (a) is the correct deformation in pure bending while (b)
is the deformation of Q4 (sides remain straight). Physical y interpretation: p applied pp moment is resisted by ya spurious shear stress as well as flexural (normal) stresses.
73
Q4: Interpolation functions

Easy E to t obtain bt i interpolation i t l ti f functions ti
where matrix N is 2x8 and the shape functions are
R.T. Haftka
74
Q4: The Shape (Interpolation) Functions

N1=1, N2=N3=N4=0 at node 1, x=-a, y=-b, so u= N1 u1= u1
at that node. Similarly Ni=1 while all other Ns are zero at node i i.
Fig 3.6-2
See Eqn. 3.6-6 for strain-displacement matrix (= Nd=Bd). All in all all, Q4 converges properly with mesh refinement and works better than CST in most problems.
75
Coarse mesh results

Q4 element is over-stiff in bending. For the following
problem, deflections and flexural stresses are smaller than the exact values and the shear stresses are g greatly y in error:
R.T. Haftka
BEAM BENDING PROBLEM cont.

Sxx Plot
Max v = 0.0051
Stress is constant along the x x-axis axis (pure bending) linear through the height of the beam Deflection is much higher than CST element element. In fact fact, CST element is too stiff. However, stress is inaccurate.
76

Caution:
In numerical integration, we did not calculate stress at node points. Instead, we calculate stress at integration points. Lets L t calculate l l t stress t at t th the b bottom tt surface f for f 3(1,1) 4(0,1) element 1 in the beam bending problem. Nodal Coordinates:1(0,0), 2(1,0), 3(1,1), 4(0,1) Nodal Displacements: u = [0, 0.0002022, -0.0002022, 0] [0, , 0.0002022, , 0.0002022, , 0] ] v=[ 2(1 0) 2(1,0) 1(0 0) 1(0,0) Shape functions and derivatives
N1 = ( x 1)( y 1) N 2 = x( y 1) N 3 = xy N 4 = ( x 1) y
N1 / x = ( y 1) N 2 / x = ( y 1) N 3 / x = y N 4 / x = y
N1 / y = ( x 1) N 2 / y = x N 3 / y = x N 4 / y = ( x 1)
77

At bottom surface, surface y = 0
N1 / x = 1 N 2 / x = 1 N 3 / x = 0 N 4 / x = 0
x
4 3
N1 / y = x 1 N 2 / y = x N 3 / y = x N 4 / y = ( x 1)
1 2
Strain 4 N I xx = u I = 1 0.0002022
I =1 4
u = [0, 0.0002022, -0.0002022, 0] v = [0, 0.0002022, 0.0002022, 0]
yy =
4
N I vI = 0.0002022 x + 0.0002022 x = 0 I =1 y
xy =
N I N vI + I u I = 0.0002022 0.0004044 x y I =1 x
Stress:
{ } = [C]{ } = {4.44, 1.33, 1.55} 107

78
RECTANGULAR ELEMENT
y-normal y normal stress and shear stress are supposed to be zero zero.
yy Plot
xx is a linear function of y alone yy if a linear function of x alone xy is a linear function of x and y
xy Plot
N1 / x = ( y 1)
N1 / y = ( x 1)
N 2 / x = ( y 1) N 2 / y = x N 3 / x = y N 3 / y = x N 4 / x = y N 4 / y = ( x 1) )
79
xx
4 N NI = uI yy = I v I I =1 y I =1 x
RECTANGULAR ELEMENT
Discussions
Cant represent constant shear force problem because xx must be a linear function of x. Even E if xx can represent t linear li strain t i i in y-direction, di ti the th rectangular t l element cant represent pure bending problem accurately. Spurious shear strain makes the element too stiff.
u = 1 + 2 x + 3 y + 4 xy v = 1 + 2 x + 3 y + 4 xy
Exact
xx = 2 + 4 y yy = 3 + 4 x xy = ( 3 + 2 ) + 4 x + 4 y
4 0
Rectangular element
80
RECTANGULAR ELEMENT
Two-Layer Two Layer Model
xx = 3.48107 vmax = 0.0053
81

Distorted Element
Max v = 0.004
As element is distorted distorted, the solution is not accurate any more more.
82

Constant Shear Force Problem
Max v = 0.0035
Sxx is supposed to change linearly along x x-axis. axis But But, the element is unable to represent linear change of stress along x-axis. Why? Exact solution: v = 0.005 m and xx = 6e7 Pa.
83

Higher-Order Higher Order Element?
8-Node Rectangular Element
4 8 7 3 6
u ( x, y ) = a0 + a1 x + a2 y + a3 x + a4 xy
2
+ a5 y 2 + a6 x 2 y + a7 xy 2
Strain
u ( x, y ) = a1 + 2a3 x + a4 y + 2a6 xy + a7 y 2 x
Can this element accurately represent pure bending and constant shear force problem?
84

8-Node 8 Node Rectangular Elements
Tip Displacement = 0.0075 m, Exact!
85

If the stress at the bottom surface is calculated, calculated it will be the exact stress value.
Sxx
Syy
86
Q6: Additional Bending Shape Functions

Q4: Artificial shear deformation under pure bending Additional shape functions to solve the issue
u = Ni (s, t )ui + (1 s 2 )a1 + (1 t 2 )a2 v = Ni (s, t )v i + (1 s 2 )a3 + (1 t 2 )a4
i =1 i =1 4 4
Bubble modes
Strain xx can vary linear along x-dir. Shear strain xy can vanish for pure bending Nodeless DOFs, a1, a2, a3, and a4, are condensed in the element level ( (total 12 DOFs) )
87
88
Modeling Bending with the Q6 Element

K dd Kad fd Kda d = Kaa a fa
1 { a } = K aa { fa K ad d} 1 1 [Kdd KdaK aaK ad ]{d} = { fd K daK aa fa }
Modeling the previous bending problem with Q6 elements gives the following stresses:
R.T. Haftka
Quadratic Quadrilateral (Q8)
89
3.7-1
4 corner nodes and 4 side nodes and 16 nodal dof.

Quadratic Quadrilateral (Q8): Displacement

The displacement field, which is quadratic in x and y:
90
Two types of shape functions (=x/a, =y/b) :
The edges x=a deform into a parabola (i.e., quadratic displacement in y) (same for y=b)
R.T. Haftka
Quadratic Quadrilateral (Q8): Strains

The strain field:
91
Strains have linear and quadratic terms. Hence, Q8 can
represent many strain states exactly. For example, p states of constant strain, bending g strain, etc.
92
3.11 Nodal loads

Consistent (work-equivalent) (work equivalent) loads
W = d Tre = u T FdV + u TdS
Mechanical loads: concentrated loads surface traction loads, traction, body forces.
R.T. Haftka
93
Example: Beam under uniform loads

Normal forces are obvious. For moments
M 11 = 2 x 2 x3 qN N 21dx d = q( x + 2 )d dx L L 0 0 1 2 1 qL2 = qL ( + ) = 2 3 4 12
2 L L
R.T. Haftka
Work equivalent (consistent) normal loads

Normal surface traction on a side of a plane element whose sides remain straight (q is force/length):
94
95
Loads on Quadratic sides

*
R.T. Haftka
96
Distributed Shear Traction

Shear traction on a side of a plane element whose sides remain straight (q is force/length):
In (b), a Q4 element and two LSTs share the top midnode so that the nodal loads from Q4 and the right LST are combined.
Uniform Body Force

W Work-equivalent k i l t nodal d lf forces corresponding di t to weight i ht as a body force:
97
LST has no vertex loads and vertex loads of Q8 are upwards! The resultant in all cases is W, the weight of the element.
Since the p previous p plane elements have translational dof only, y

no moment can be applied to their nodes. The connection (a) of a beam and plane elements cannot t transmit it a moment t and d the th beam b can f freely l rotate. t t (Singular (Si l K!)
Connecting beam and plane elements
98
. the beam is extended. Rotational dof at A, B and C are In (b) associated with the beam elements only only. A plane element with drilling dof would also work but is not recommended.
99
Elements with Drilling DOF

Drilling dof: rotational dof about axis normal to the plane.
A CST with these added to each node has 9 dof. This dof allows twisting and bending rotations of shells under some loads to be represented. See Section 3.10
R.T. Haftka
10 0
Stress calculation
Combining g Hookes law with strain-displacement p equation q
= E ( Bd 0 ) e.g. x E y = 2 1 xy 0 1 T 1 0 Bd T 0 0 0 (1 ) / 2
Stresses are most accurate inside elements
R.T. Haftka
Improving stresses at nodes and b boundaries d i

One common technique q is averaging, g g, but
10 1
There are interpolation and extrapolation techniques that we will study y later
10 2
Examples of poor meshing

Do not create unnecessary y discontinuities!
R.T. Haftka
Example of discontinuities in unaveraged d stresses t
10 3
R.T. Haftka

Chapter 3: Basic Elements Section 3 1: Preliminaries (Review of Section 3.1: Preliminaries (Review of Solid Mechanics)

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Chapter 3: Basic Elements Section 3 1: Preliminaries (Review of Section 3.1: Preliminaries (Review of Solid Mechanics)

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Chapter 3: BASIC ELEMENTS Section 3.1: 3 1: Preliminaries (review of solid mechanics)

EML5526 Finite Element Analysis

EML5526 Finite Element Analysis

Review of Solid Mechanics

EML5526 Finite Element Analysis

Stress/Force acting on a surface

EML5526 Finite Element Analysis

Representation of stress at a point

EML5526 Finite Element Analysis

Stress on an arbitrary plane (2-D)

Stress on an arbitrary plane (3-D) (3 D)

l = cos Nx, m = cos Ny, n = cos Nz

EML5526 Finite Element Analysis

x ' = l12 x + m12 y + n12 z + 2m1l1 xy + 2m1n1 yz + 2n1l1 zx

x ' y ' = l1l2 x + m1m2 y + n1n2 z + (l1m2 m1l2 ) xy

y ' z ' = l2l3 x + m2 m3 y + n2 n3 z + (l2 m3 m2l3 ) xy y

x ' z ' = l3l1 x + m3 m1 y + n3n1 z + (l3m1 m3l1 ) xy

l12 + m12 + n12 = 1

l1l2 + m1m2 + n1n2 = 0 l1m1 + l2 m2 + l3m3 = 0

Where l1 =cos xx, Where, m2= cos yy

Equilibrium Equations (2-D) (2 D)

Equilibrium of forces in X-direction X direction

d xy d x dxdy + dxdy + FX dxdy = 0 dx dy

EML5526 Finite Element Analysis

2-D 2 D Equilibrium Equations

EML5526 Finite Element Analysis

Strain-Displacement Strain Displacement Relations

u =ui + vj + wk P P(x y z) P=P(x,y,z

Strain 2-D 2 D : Normal strain

EML5526 Finite Element Analysis

STRAIN: Shear Strain

EML5526 Finite Element Analysis

EML5526 Finite Element Analysis

For small displacements

EML5526 Finite Element Analysis

EML5526 Finite Element Analysis

Stress-Strain Stress Strain Relations

x c11 c y 21 c31 z = xy c41 yz c51 zx c61

c12 c22 c32 c42 c52 c62

c13 c23 c33 c43 c53 c63

c14 c24 c34 c44 c54 c64

c15 c25 c35 c45 c55 c65

c16 x c26 y c36 z c46 xy c56 yz c66 zx

EML5526 Finite Element Analysis

Generalized Hookes Law

x c11 c y 12 c13 z = xy c14 yz c15 zx c16

c12 c22 c23 c24 c25 c26

c13 c23 c33 c34 c35 c36

c14 c24 c34 c44 c45 c46

c15 c25 c35 c45 c55 c56

c16 x c26 y c36 z c46 xy c56 yz c66 zx

EML5526 Finite Element Analysis

Hookes Hooke s Law: Orthotropy and Isotropy

This corresponds to an fully orthotropic material

c11 = c 22 = c33 c12 = c13 = c 23 c 44 = c55 = c66

Hookes law : Engineering Elastic Constants

Transverse to loading direction y = z = x =

Generalized Hookes Law from Isotropic M t i l Materials

2(1 + ) xy G E yz 2(1 + ) yz = = G E 2(1 + ) = zx = zx G E

EML5526 Finite Element Analysis

Plane state of stress