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THESIS FOR THE DEGREE OF LICENTIATE OF ENGINEERING

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TRANSIENT STEERING OF TRACKED VEHICLES ON HARD GROUND

DAG THUVESEN

MACHINE AND VEHICLE DESIGN CHALMERS UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY S-412 96 GTEBORG, SWEDEN REPORT NO. 1997-06-09

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CH

TRANSIENT STEERING OF TRACKED VEHICLES ON HARD GROUND

DAG THUVESEN

MACHINE AND VEHICLE DESIGN CHALMERS UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY S-412 96 GTEBORG, SWEDEN

TRANSIENT STEERING OF TRACKED VEHICLES ON HARD GROUND

ABSTRACT
A track module has been developed for analysis of steering of tracked vehicles on hard ground. The track module is especially developed to interact with an MBS (Multi Body System) program such as ADAMS or DADS. The track module is based on sound constitutive relationships. The track is regarded as a basic machine component which can be attached to a vehicle model. This module is developed for running on at hard ground, which gives rise to a planar motion in the ground plane. The model does not consider the width of the track, however this will not in general affect the steering analysis noticeably, at least not for the most common types of tracked vehicles. The track module receives its input from the MBS software in terms of velocities, forces and moments. The velocities are dened by a longitudinal, a transverse and a rotational component for the mid-point of the track. Due to the restriction to at ground, the motion for the track could be described by the concept of a specic spin pole, i.e. an instantaneous centre of rotation. The equilibrium for the model of the vehicle-track system is solved by the software. The model of the track has a linearly varying discrete normal track load distribution, which could easily be modied to some other more complex and realistic distribution. The magnitude of the total normal load in the ground contact and its position are then applied to dene the geometry of the normal load distribution. By applying consistent constitutive equations, the motion, the normal load distribution and the resulting action of the friction forces in the ground plane could be calculated. In this case, Coulomb friction allowing for anisotropic friction, is used. These forces are returned from the track module to the model of the chassis in the MBS software. In the present case of planar motion there is only one correspondingly acting reaction force along a specic line. However, in order to t this force to the handling of data within the software, it is split into three components: one longitudinal force, one transverse force, and a vertical moment acting about the mid-point of the track. The longitudinal track force must be in equilibrium with the torque in the drive shaft. The load changes due to tension in the tracks, which reduce the loads under the leading and trailing road wheels, are also considered. The steering input could either be utilized by a specied velocity of each track or by prescribing the sprocket torques. A realistic model of a powertrain can be part of the total vehicle model and control the track motion. The track module has been tested in the MBS software ADAMS but can be modied to suit any MBS software. Since the dynamic behaviour of a tracked vehicle is complicated, the track module presented is a versatile and time-saving tool for the analysis and the prediction of the steering performance. Such analyses will provide much data useful in the early stages of the design process of tracked vehicles. Key words: tracked vehicle, steering, hard ground, solid ground, simulation, multi body system, MBS, ADAMS, DADS, MECHANICA MOTION

DAG THUVESEN

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TRANSIENT STEERING OF TRACKED VEHICLES ON HARD GROUND

CONTENTS
Abstract . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i Contents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iii Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iv Notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v 1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1 Main objective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2 Two theoretical approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.3 The work performed by Gerbert and Olsson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 MBS - Multi Body System approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2 A vehicle model in an MBS program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3 A tyre module for a vehicle model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4 A track module versus a tyre module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1 1 2 3 3 4 5 7

3 The track module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 3.1 Module interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 3.1.1 Ground - track module interaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 3.1.2 Drive shaft - track module interaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 3.1.3 Chassis - track module interaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 4 Special numerical considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 5 Implementation of the track module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 6 Verification of the proposed method of analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.1 Methods of verification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.2 The vehicle manoeuvre by Gerbert and Olsson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.3 Comparison with the work by Gerbert and Olsson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.3.1 Motion response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.4 Comparison with the work by Jakobsson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.5 Observed qualitative agreement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.6 Integration performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 23 23 24 24 26 28 28

7 Summary and future work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 Appendix A: Summary of the paper: On track vehicles running through curves . . . . . . . . . A1

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DAG THUVESEN

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This work was carried out at the department of Machine and Vehicle Design at Chalmers University of Technology under the supervision of Professor Mart Mgi. It took a long time to nish not primarily due to its extreme difculty but to the many intricate obstacles appearing on the way. First I would like to thank my advisor professor Mart Mgi for his excellent support, guidance and great patience. I would also like to thank Frsvarets Materielverk (FMV, Defence Materiel Administration) for their nancial support and, especially, Jonas F. Persson at FMV for his deep interest in this project, his belief in the future and positive thinking. I also want to express my deep gratitude to Ph.D. Anders Hedman. Without him, this report would have been an impossibility. The article On track vehicles running through curves by Gran Gerbert and Karl-Olof Olsson, partially summarized in Appendix A, has been modied by Ph.D. Anders Hedman. Special thanks to Ph.D. Lars Lindkvist and Lic.Eng. Johan Hultn who helped me to solve some of the numerical problems that I have been faced with during my thesis work. Ph.D. Rikard Sderberg and Lic.Eng. Magnus Evertsson are also remembered for their moral support and useful advice. Last but not least, I want to express my deepest appreciation to my lovely supporting wife Katarina and our two fascinating children Erik and Anna for putting up with me all this time, especially during the last few months.

Dag Thuvesen Kungsbacka, May 1997

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TRANSIENT STEERING OF TRACKED VEHICLES ON HARD GROUND

NOTATION
C CG D drive FL F T , F Tq G L M M b, M bs M drive O S e ex ey kb kq n q r 1, r 2, r 3 rq uq L 2 v 1, v 2, v 3 v assembly v L, v T v pad v rel v vehicle x, y, z yL 2 G Mid-point on track Distance to the track load centre (non dimensional) Virtual diameter of driving wheel Longitudinal track force Transverse track force, in a specic point q Track normal load Ground contact length of track Turning moment of a track Brake torque, Brake torque by stationary motion Driving torque on the drive shaft Centre of curvature for the entire vehicle Spin pole Distance to the spin pole perpendicular to the track (Appendix A) Distance along the track assembly from the mid-point of the track to the point A Distance to the spin pole perpendicular to the track Brake factor Load distribution factor Number of road wheels Number of a specic road wheels Radius to the spin pole Moment arm for the transverse force acting about the point C Distance from a specic contact point to the point A Velocity of a track pad relative to the ground Absolute velocity of the mid-point, C, of the track assembly Sliding velocity component along and across the track Absolute velocity of the track pad at the reference point C Relative velocity of a track pad relative to the track assembly Absolute velocity of the centre of gravity of the vehicle Local coordinate system Spin pole distance along track from one end to the point A Degree of skewness of the track load distribution

DAG THUVESEN

kq t L, T z b c

Lifting component on leading or trailing road wheel Integrating time step Angle between the front (or rear) track links and the ground Coefcient of friction, longitudinal, transverse Angular velocity of the chassis, yaw velocity Angular velocity of the steering brake drum Angular velocity of the planet carrier

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TRANSIENT STEERING OF TRACKED VEHICLES ON HARD GROUND

1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 MAIN OBJECTIVE
There exist a number of ways to analyse a steering manoeuvre of a tracked vehicle. Jakobsson analysed the steering performance of tracked and half tracked vehicles for a stationary curve motion (Jakobsson 1947). The work by Jakobsson was performed in the early 1940s. Much later Gerbert and Olsson continued this work, carrying out a more general analysis of a transient steering manoeuvre (Gerbert and Olsson 1982). They solved their equations for low velocities but were unable to nd any stable solutions for higher velocities. The purpose of the present work is to develop a general track module for MBS (Multi Body System) software. Such a module would be based on the same type of assumptions that were used by Jakobsson and by Gerbert and Olsson but would simplify the related analysis of steady-state and transient steering manoeuvres considerably.

1.2 TWO THEORETICAL APPROACHES

As was pointed out by Mgi, there are two theoretical approaches to the analysis of steering of tracked vehicles (Mgi 1994). The rst approach is based on the work performed by Merritt in the 1930s (Merritt 1939). His theory assumes a completely rigid ground and track. He also assumes that Coulomb friction occurs in the entire contact area between the ground and the track. The main purpose of this approach is to analyse the steering behaviour of a tracked vehicle. These theories were used by Jakobsson and later also by Gerbert and Olsson (Jakobsson 1947, Gerbert and Olsson 1982). Jakobsson analysed vehicle tracks in a steady-state motion in a curve at low speed. He regarded a track as a machine component based on physically sound theories. Gerbert and Olsson applied the theories of Jakobsson but in a more general way including transient steering not restricted to low speed. Andersson also developed a model for a tracked vehicle sliding on hard ground based on the same concepts as Jakobsson (Andersson 1993). He introduced this concept of analysis of tracked vehicles to Swedish industry. The second approach is that of Bekker (Bekker 1956, 1960 and 1969), whose theories are the most widely used today. These theories are further developed in the work by Wong (Wong 1989, 1993). The main intention of this approach is to analyse the tractive performance and slip, when driving straight ahead. Steering is then dealt with as an add-on effect. These theories are based on constitutive relations of elastoplastically deformable ground in the longitudinal direction of the track. Perpendicular to the track, the forces are given by other constitutive relationships, in this case Coulomb friction. To use different constitutive equations perpendicular and parallel the tracks is obviously not consistent. It consists of the superposition of solutions to a nonlinear and nonconservative problem. Kitano has also based his work on Bekker. He has analysed not only common skid steered tracked vehicles (Kitano et al. 1976, 1977, 1988) but also articulated tracked vehicles, see Figure 1.1 (Watanabe and Kitano 1986).

DAG THUVESEN

Figure 1.1 An articulated vehicle, BV 206, designed by Hgglunds Vehicle AB in Sweden (Wong 1993).

1.3 THE WORK PERFORMED BY GERBERT AND OLSSON

Gerbert and Olsson elaborated the equations of Jakobsson, who restricted the analysis to a stationary motion, and presented a more general analysis of the motion of tracked vehicles including transient steering. The concept of spin poles according to Mgi was introduced in the analysis (Mgi 1974). The spin pole is the instantaneous centre of rotation. The position of the spin pole is dened by the linear and angular velocity components of any point of a moving body, see Figure 1.2. Furthermore, Gerbert and Olsson computerized the equations and solved them numerically. A more detailed description of the work is presented in Appendix A.
v1 = z r 1

r1 v2 = z r 2 v3 = z r 3 r2 r3 z Spin pole

Figure 1.2 The spin pole concept for a track in motion.

All loads were taken up as concentrated forces on the road wheels, giving the support load G n on each wheel, where G is the total track load and n is the number of road wheels. There was a pure Coulombian friction force beneath each support wheel, where the force is counteracting the sliding velocity. The coefcient of friction was constant. The model of the vehicle was given by analytical equations. The equations were solved numerically only to a limited extent. At that time the computer capacity was low. For the case of transient steering there were only stable solutions for velocities up to ve metres per second. The present paper is based on the work done by Gerbert and Olsson.

TRANSIENT STEERING OF TRACKED VEHICLES ON HARD GROUND

2 MBS - MULTI BODY SYSTEM APPROACH

2.1 INTRODUCTION
MBS software is used to model and analyse real world mechanical systems. Its advantage is to create new or modify existing systems and to optimize them for different parameters. Using a set of data that describes the machine to be modelled, an MBS program builds a discrete mathematical model of the system, corresponding to an idealized physical system as shown in Figure 2.1. Positions, orientations, velocities and accelerations of the various parts of the machine can be calculated, as well as resulting forces that act within the system. Externally acting forces must be prescribed. By using such a program the behaviour of a wide range of alternative designs can be analysed. Thereby, the need for building and testing prototypes can be reduced signicantly. Such a technique may be referred to as virtual prototyping.

Force generator Constraint Rigid body Centre of gravity

Connecting point

Ground

Figure 2.1 A discrete theoretical multi body system.

A computer model of a mechanical system, see Figure 2.2, is created by describing the real physical system in terms of MBS software elements, see Figure 2.3. A part in the physical system is dened by a discrete rigid body with mass and inertia. A second type of element is a massless connector, obeying a constitutive relationship between bodies. In some literature this element is referred to as a force generator (Haug 1992). A force generator could in the physical system be a force or torque like a spring or damper applied to some part of the system. It could also be an actuator or gravity. The MBS software denes the constitutive relationship as a massless element that produces a linear or nonlinear force or torque. A connection between parts in the physical system like a hinge or some other joint is described by a massless constraint element. The constraint element is very theoretical in its behaviour. It reduces the allowed degrees of freedom between the two bodies it is attached to and does not exhibit any kind of elasticity. It either allows a specic translation or rotation or prevents it. A particular kind of constraint is called a driver or motion generator. The driver is a massless constraint that will create a prespecied motion in terms of displacement, velocity or acceleration in an already dened constraint.

DAG THUVESEN

Bearing

Flywheel

Crankshaft

Cylinder Gas force

Connecting rod Piston

Figure 2.2 A simple physical system.

Flywheel part Crankshaft part

Bearing constraint

Cylinder constraint

Force generator Connecting rod part Piston part

Revolute constraint

Figure 2.3 A physical system modelled in an MBS program with wireframe representation of the bodies.

2.2 A VEHICLE MODEL IN AN MBS PROGRAM

A central idea of MBS modelling is to deal with and decide what parts the system analysed will contain. Each of these parts will at rst have all six degrees of freedom. The next step is to decide what constraints that have to be applied between the parts to reduce the number of degrees of freedom. The user must decide which degrees of freedom that are of greatest importance and then introduce the constraints that suppress the non-existing motions. There

TRANSIENT STEERING OF TRACKED VEHICLES ON HARD GROUND

are theoretically no restrictions to allow every degree of freedom in a system but the model might be too complex to analyse. The complexity of the model is limited by the computer capacity available during analysis. The model of the physical system must at least account for the dominating degrees of freedom. The physical system of a ground vehicle modelled as one rigid body has six degrees of freedom, see Figure 2.4. There are three translational degrees of freedom: forward, lateral and vertical; and three rotational ones: roll, pitch and yaw. The default local coordinate system is oriented in such a way that x is forward, y lateral and z vertical. Within the system there may be many other separately moving bodies, for example rotations of the crankshaft or translations of the pistons in the engine, but this is not of very great interest when the overall steering behaviour is analysed. A computer model of such a vehicle should primarily show this general behaviour, that is, motion along the six mentioned degrees of freedom.

Pitch y Lateral Roll Forward x

Yaw

Vertical

Figure 2.4 Principal degrees of freedom for any kind of ground vehicle.

2.3 A TYRE MODULE FOR A VEHICLE MODEL

A very simple model of a four-wheel vehicle would consist of four wheels connected to a chassis. The chassis constitute one part, and four other parts dene the wheels. Each part is dened by its mass, inertia and position. Basically, each part has six degrees of freedom. The wheels will interact with the ground and the chassis. The interaction between a wheel and the ground is accomplished with a tyre. The tyre is dened as the contact between the wheel and the ground, see Figure 2.5. The tyre is represented by a force generator previously mentioned, see section 2.1. The wheel is allowed to move along its six degrees of freedom relative to the ground, see Figure 2.5 and Figure 2.6. Therefore, there will be no constraints that reduce the allowed degrees of freedom. Sliding in either direction produces frictional reaction forces between the tyre and the ground. The force in the plane of the wheel, along the vehicle, is called tractive force and the perpendicular force, lateral force. The vertical translation represents the elasticity in the tyre. The rotations generate reaction moments between the tyre and the ground. These moments represent overturning moment, rolling resistance and aligning moment, in the x, y and z direction respectively. These forces and moments could be described by a force generator in

DAG THUVESEN

the MBS program, generating forces and moments in all directions dened by the six degrees of freedom. The wheel will also interact with the chassis. There are at least two motions that have to be allowed between the wheel and the chassis. The wheel must be able to rotate about its rotational axis and it must also be able to translate vertically relative to the chassis. Dealing with an ordinary road vehicle, the front wheels can also rotate about the vertical axis or the king pin to enable a steering motion. This means that either two or three degrees of freedom must be allowed, depending on whether it is the front or rear wheel. The other motions must, for this simple vehicle model, be inhibited. The interface between the wheel and the chassis will have constraints that inhibit these motions.

Wheel

Chassis

x y Tyre contact z Ground

Figure 2.5 Existing translational degrees of freedom.

Only for a steered wheel

Wheel

Chassis

x y Tyre contact z Ground

Figure 2.6 Existing rotational degrees of freedom.

If the wheel is a driven wheel it will also interact with a drive shaft. This interaction could be described by a force generator where a driving torque is dened. The approach of describing a complex system in modules is very efcient. In the case of a vehicle on wheels there are different ways to dene the modules, which depend on where the system boundary is dened. In various MBS programs, the denition of the tyre module differs. One denition of the tyre module would be that only the massless force generator denes the tyre module. Another variant would be that both the wheel and the force generator dene the tyre module. In this case the numerical data that dene the module would have to be the mass of the wheel, its inertia and some description of the stiffness and damping in the tyre in all six directions. A third type is dened by both the tyre, the wheel, the constraints and the force elements that connect the wheel to the chassis.

TRANSIENT STEERING OF TRACKED VEHICLES ON HARD GROUND

2.4 A TRACK MODULE VERSUS A TYRE MODULE

In order to enable versatile simulation of the performance of road vehicles on wheels, many different models of the force interaction between the tyre and the ground have been developed. These models differ much in complexity and quality but are based on the same general ideas as are mentioned in the previous section. With the basic principles of a tyre module on a vehicle as a background, it is not difcult to develop a track module according to similar principles. The principles of motion for the chassis are the same but the track shows a different pattern of motion on the ground than the tyre does. A four-wheel vehicle would theoretically make contact with the ground in four spots, creating contact lines while moving on the ground, see Figure 2.7. A tracked vehicle, on the other hand, must, during a steering motion, slide its tracks over the ground, creating wide contact areas under each track. This indicates that the constitutive equations for the track to ground contact are more complex.
Contact area

Contact lines

Tyres

Tracks

Figure 2.7

The traces of ground contact of a wheeled vehicle compared to a tracked vehicle.

By simplifying a model of a physical system, information will inevitably be lost, compared to the real situation. Obviously, this will occur with a model of a track, too, but according to earlier results (Jakobsson 1947), a quite simple track model will predict steering performance on hard ground surprisingly well. However, motion resistance and longitudinal slip may require different or more complex models. The tyre module did allow six degrees of freedom in the contact with the ground. The proposed track module must be free to move in the surface plane of the ground with three degrees of freedom; however, it must be constrained to remain in that plain, see Figure 2.8. If described by a line contact, however, the track may tilt about the longitudinal axis of the vehicle, the roll axis. The two prevented components of motion are the vertical translation and the rotation about the y axis, pitch. In the sense of MBS, constrained motions generate compatible constraint reaction forces.

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Track module

x z

Ground

Figure 2.8 The four existing degrees of freedom for a track module relative to the ground.

The proposed module will include the interaction with the ground, the chassis and the drive shaft. Studying the vehicle model with four connected tyre modules, the system seems to be statically overdetermined, however, this is avoided due to the vertical elasticity. The vehicle model with only two track modules connected must not be statically overdetermined either. This is accomplished by allowing certain motions between the chassis and the track module. Here the vertical motion and the rotation about the y axis are allowed, see Figure 2.9. This will also allow the chassis its six degrees of freedom in order to demonstrate a normal performance.

Chassis

Track module

Ground

Figure 2.9 The two existing degrees of freedom between the chassis and the track module.

TRANSIENT STEERING OF TRACKED VEHICLES ON HARD GROUND

3 THE TRACK MODULE

The main purpose of the track module developed in this thesis is to enable versatile analysis of a transient steering manoeuvre of any kind of tracked vehicle. The module is to be used in conjunction with an MBS program, like ADAMS or DADS. When studying the interaction between the ground and the vehicle, it is important to distinguish between different relative motions. Vehicle motion relative to ground Track assembly motion relative to ground Track pad motion relative to track assembly Track pad motion relative to ground Velocities relative to ground are in the present context absolute velocities both in translation and rotation. They may be identied as: v vehicle at centre of gravity v assembly at reference point C in the middle of the ground-track contact v pad at reference point C in the middle of the ground-track contact which are observed at the points specied. The relative velocity between the pads and the track assembly is always oriented along the track. This velocity is denoted v diff and its magnitude and direction are dened basically by the vehicle propulsion and steering system. Schematically these motions could be illustrated as in Figure 3.1. The track module is here dened to be composed of parts and elements according to the dashed line.

Track module 2 DOF (min)

Chassis

Track Aggregate 6 DOF 1 DOF Track pad DOF = Degree of freedom 4 DOF Ground

Figure 3.1 Schematic illustration of the existing motions within a tracked vehicle model.

The physical track is an endless chain. There are track pads on each link. The track runs around a number of wheels: the sprocket, the idler and the road wheels, see Figure 3.2. The wheels may deect relative to the chassis if they are connected to some kind of suspension. The model of the physical track assembly has to take into account all the parts mentioned. There are no restrictions to modelling all the parts; wheels, links etc., see Figure 3.3. This has been done when analysing a complete exible link system (Murray, M., Caneld, T. R. 1992),

DAG THUVESEN

but this system would not be practical for analysing steering behaviour due to excessive analysis time for the computer. The model must be simplied but still reect the general performance of a complete real vehicle. At the rst stage, presented here, the internal friction losses within the track assembly could be disregarded.

Toproller

Idler Sprocket Suspension Track Road wheel

Figure 3.2 The track assembly of a tracked vehicle (Terry et al. 1991).

The characteristics of a physical wheel, referring to the mass, the inertia, the axis of rotation etc., are easy to apply to the tyre module. The denition of a track module is not that simple. The track assembly includes a number of road wheels, links of the track, etc. The developed module will in some simplied way comprise the whole track assembly, including the connections to the ground, the chassis and the drive shaft.

3.1 MODULE INTERFACES

The proposed and developed track module is based on the same general ideas as the earlier described tyre module. Therefore, each of the interfaces that the module of the track has with its surroundings is studied. The module of the track is connected to the rest of the vehicle to create a tracked vehicle system, used in the analysis. The module of the track interacts with the following parts: ground, drive shaft and chassis.

Figure 3.3 Detail of the track assembly (Terry et al. 1991).

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TRANSIENT STEERING OF TRACKED VEHICLES ON HARD GROUND

3.1.1 GROUND - TRACK MODULE INTERACTION

This interaction is the key issue of the track module. The module will in some way be described by the motion of a line contact, which allows four degrees of freedom. Related motions are the longitudinal and transverse translations in the ground plane as well as the roll and yaw rotations. The prevented translation is in the vertical direction and the prevented rotation about the lateral direction. This is achieved by constraints that create a resulting normal load and a moment which denes the virtual location of the normal load somewhere along the track. Since the ground is only two-dimensional, the forces in the track-ground interface could be separated into vertical and horizontal forces. Therefore, these two will hereafter be discussed separately.

Churchill v Nominal

Comet Nominal

Panther A Nominal

Sherman v Nominal

Figure 3.4 Measured pressure distribution at a depth of 23 cm below the soil surface under various tracked vehicles (Wong 1993).

VERTICAL FORCES The real pressure distribution on soft ground is very complex, see Figure 3.4. The actual distribution is inuenced not only by ground conditions but also by the design of the suspension system and the track tension. The distribution on hard ground has, however, an accentuated characteristics. On hard ground like asphalt and concrete, the contact pressure is concentrated in small contacts areas under each road wheel. There are numerous ways to analytically describe this distribution, see Figure 3.5. Fortunately, it has been found by several authors (Jakobsson 1947, Kitano 1976) that the details of the vertical force distribution along the track are not signicant at the analysis of steering of tracked vehicles on hard ground. Therefore, a simplied model is chosen here, where the normal load is distributed as concentrated discrete forces under each road wheel. The distribution across the track is disregarded in the present analysis. This is appropriate to most common tracked vehicles, except for snow-mobiles and similar applications.

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Constant pressure

Sinusoidal variation

Forces on each road wheel

Figure 3.5 Different pressure distributions (Holmdahl 1989).

If the track is modelled as just one rigid body, interacting with rigid ground, the load distribution along the track must be prescribed since it cannot be found by analysis. For a narrow track, the only signicant vertical force is the resulting force and its location along the track, which also produces a moment about the pitch axis, see Figure 3.6. By denition, it is acting within the track width, which is negligible. The position and the magnitude of the resulting normal action must at all times be solved by the module.

Figure 3.6 The position of the resulting force acting on the module.

In the most simple case, the load on a track is evenly distributed over all the road wheels giving the support load G n on each wheel, where G is the total track load and n is the number of road wheels on one track, see Figure 3.7. This implies that the centre of gravity is positioned in the longitudinal centre of the track. However, the position of the resulting action is determined both by the position of the centre of gravity and by the vehicle dynamics arising from acceleration in any direction. Both the magnitude of the resulting action and its position

12

TRANSIENT STEERING OF TRACKED VEHICLES ON HARD GROUND

must at all times be correct. To enable the change in position of the resulting action, the initially mentioned even distribution has to be reshaped. To modify this constant support load, the shape of the distribution could vary linearly, see Figure 3.8.

G --n

q = n L2

q = 1

Figure 3.7 Constant support load on each road wheel.

This variation is described in more detail in Appendix A. The individual support load will, according to this variation, be k q G , where 3(CG 1) 1 - 1 -----------------------k q = -( n 2 q + 1 ) n n+1
(3.1)

In equation (3.1) the location parameter C G is dened according to Figure 3.8, and q is the subscript for a specic road wheel, numbered one (1) through n. This linear default shape could easily be modied to some other, possibly more realistic, distribution.
CGL 2 G G kqG q = n L2 q = 1 G --n

Figure 3.8 Linearly varying support load.

The tracks travel over the ground. Due to this motion the tracks are exposed to forces both along and across the tracks. A longitudinal force F L , either positive or negative, must always be present to produce either propelling or braking action. Due to this action, the leading and the trailing road wheels on either side will be partially unloaded, see Figure 3.9. The lifting component is assumed to be k q = F L sin
(3.2)

where is the angle between the ground and the front (or rear) track link that is not in contact with the ground, see Figure 3.9. Due to this partial unloading of a support wheel, the shape must be modied so that the magnitude of the resulting action and its position remain unchanged. This is accomplished by dening a steeper shape of the linear prole. The road wheel could be totally unloaded and thereby lift off the ground.

13

DAG THUVESEN

CGL 2 G FL

k q = F L sin

kq G --n kqG

q = 1

q = n L2

Figure 3.9 Change in support load due to wheel lift.

HORIZONTAL FORCES Assuming the ground and the track to be rigid, and the surface dry, the friction forces could then be described by Coulomb friction. This module will allow anisotropic Coulomb friction according to the model of Micklethwait (Micklethwait 1944). By dening the coefcient of friction in both the longitudinal and the transverse direction, L and T , respectively, the friction forces could easily be dealt with analytically, see Figure 3.10. When relative sliding exists, then friction is developed component by component in the longitudinal and transverse direction. The fraction of longitudinal and transverse sliding is evaluated, v L v tot and v T v tot , respectively. The same fractions of maximum friction forces will be obtained vL F L = L G ------v tot FT vT = T G ------v tot

(3.3)

Friction force ellipse

Direction of resulting frictional force

Direction of motion

Figure 3.10 An anisotropic friction model (Micklethwait 1944).

The module treats motion with the concept of spin poles (instantaneous centre of rotation). The track is considered to rotate about an axis, normal to the plane of its motion. This axis is

14

TRANSIENT STEERING OF TRACKED VEHICLES ON HARD GROUND

called the instantaneous axis of rotation. The intersection of this axis with the ground plane is then the instantaneous centre of rotation or spin pole. There are no restrictions on the location of the spin pole. Knowing the normal loads and the coefcients of friction, the resulting action of traction is uniquely dened.

v pad L u q -2 x C O ex A z L y -2 ey S y z L

Figure 3.11 Geometrical denitions of the track module.

The position of the track module is dened by a single point C located in the ground plane at the longitudinal centre of each track assembly, see Figure 3.11. This point is the origin of the local coordinate system, which denes the orientation of the track and is xed to the track assembly. On the track assembly there are track pads that move relative to the assembly with the velocity of v rel . The sliding motion of a track pad relative to the ground is obtained in terms of absolute and relative motion, as was described earlier. Translational velocities are dened positive along the positive axis in the local coordinate system at C. The relative velocity, v rel , is dened positive for the assembly motion relative to the pad motion, which is the normal case at driving in the forward direction. The motion of the reference point C of the assembly is absolute, as well as that of the pad. At the reference point C is then obtained: v pad ,x = v assembly ,x v rel
(3.4)

This corresponds to the velocity of a track pad relative to the ground positioned in the point C. With the absolute velocities v pad ,x , v pad ,y and z , the spin pole location could be calculated, see Figure 1.2. At a point A on the track, which could be anywhere along the track, there is no lateral velocity, but only a longitudinal velocity, see Figure 3.11. The distance along the track from the centre C to the point A is v pad ,y e x = ------------z
(3.5)

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DAG THUVESEN

and the distance perpendicular to the track to the spin pole S is v pad ,x e y = ------------z
(3.6)

which denes the location of the spin pole in the local frame of reference. In Appendix A the equations are given with respect to the point A. This means that the e y corresponds to the distance e in Appendix A. The distance u q L 2 from Appendix A is the distance from A to a specic contact point q and dened as L ( q 1 ) L yL - = ------------------- ----u q -2 (n 1) 2 The denition of u q L 2 is the same in this track module as in Appendix A and L L - = -y -- + ex 2 2
(3.8) (3.7)

The core equations from Appendix A are equations (A.6), (A.7) and (A.8). These equations express not only the traction force along and perpendicular to the track but also the moment. These equations are expressed referring to the point A previously discussed, see Figure A.4, and based on the constant load distribution G n . The traction force F L along the track is then G F L = --n ------------------------------2 e L e 2 + u q - 2
n

(3.9)

q=1

The transverse force F T perpendicular to the track is G = --n L u q -2 ------------------------------2 L q=1 - e 2 + u q - 2

n

FT

(3.10)

and the moment about the point A on the track is L2 u - q 2 G ------------------------------M = --n 2 L q = 1 e 2 + u -- q 2
n

(3.11)

Instead of using the spin pole concept, distances e and u q L 2 , as was done in Appendix A, the denitions in equations (3.5) and (3.6) are applied. These denitions refer directly to the velocities dened in the local coordinate system positioned at C. The anisotropic friction model is also applied by dening L and T . Furthermore, the denition of u q L 2 in equation (3.7) is used as well as the linearly varying distribution k q G and equation (3.8). The

16

TRANSIENT STEERING OF TRACKED VEHICLES ON HARD GROUND

derived forces and moment (equations (3.9), (3.10) and (3.11)) could then be rearranged giving the longitudinal friction force F L = L kq G

q=1

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------2
L (q 1) - + v pad ,y ( v pad ,x ) 2 + 2 ---------------- 1 - ( n 1 ) 2 z

v pad ,x

(3.12)

The transverse force F T perpendicular to the track will then be L q 1) 2 ( - + v pad ,y ---------------- 1 - ( n 1 ) 2 z = T k q G -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------2 L q 1) q = 1 (v - 2 + 2 ( --------------- ) 1 + v pad ,x pad ,y ( n 1 ) 2 z
n

FT

(3.13)

The moment which is created by the transverse components of friction forces, will be redened from point A to C, yielding M = F Tq r q Here F Tq is the transverse force in a specic point q and the moment arm r q is L(2q n 1) r q = -------------------------------2(n 1) This gives the total moment L q 1) 2 ( - + v pad ,y ---------------- 1 - ( n 1 ) 2 z L(2q n 1) M = T k q G ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------2(n 1) 2 L q 1) - q = 1 (v 2 + 2 ( --------------- ) 1 + v pad ,x pad ,y ( n 1 ) 2 z
n

(3.14)

(3.15)

(3.16)

acting about the point C.

3.1.2 DRIVE SHAFT - TRACK MODULE INTERACTION

This interface does not have any degree of freedom, only the demand of equilibrium. The drive shaft interface has to allow for the equilibrium between the longitudinal track forces and the torque from the drive shaft. This equilibrium must not include vertical forces like normal load. The local longitudinal forces on the track are in equilibrium with the torque at the drive shaft, giving M drive = F L D drive 2
(3.17)

where F L refers to the total longitudinal force in the track, equation (3.12), and D drive is the virtual diameter of the driving wheels. The ctitious driving wheel diameter includes the height of the track links. The internal frictional losses are disregarded in equation (3.17).

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DAG THUVESEN

3.1.3 CHASSIS - TRACK MODULE INTERACTION

The last interface, the chassis track interface, must at least full the total requirements of the six degrees-of-freedom motion of the chassis. The degrees of freedom that are not locked anywhere else must be in this interface. These degrees of freedom are the translations in the x and the y direction (forward and lateral) as well as the yaw and roll, the rotation about the x and z axis. This means that the track must not move relative to the chassis in these four directions. In other words, the track assembly has to be xed to the chassis in all but two directions. These directions are the rotation about the y-axis (pitch) and the vertical translation in the z direction. This motion has to be reduced by means of some stiffness and damping to show the real performance of a chassis in these two directions. This is accomplished by using proper force generators and constraints.

18

TRANSIENT STEERING OF TRACKED VEHICLES ON HARD GROUND

4 SPECIAL NUMERICAL CONSIDERATIONS

The assumptions used in the previous chapter, rigid ground and track, imply a special condition for the existence of unique relationships between relative motion track-ground and related tractive action. Spin motion must be present to release frictional forces under controlled slip conditions, i.e., z 0
(4.1)

which will result in a unique denition of the location of the spin pole according to Figure 1.2. For any spin pole location, unique traction effort is dened according to equations (3.9), (3.10) and (3.11), and this denes the normal conditions prevailing when steering tracked vehicles. However, the special condition z 0
(4.2)

may also occur, which requires other ways of determining the still existing tractive effort between ground and track. Contrary to controlled slip conditions at normal steering conditions, two special slip conditions may be identied: zero slip uncontrolled macro slip According to the assumptions made, zero slip conditions occur when driving straight ahead. Then the maximum static friction is not utilized, which, in the case of isotropic friction, means
2 + F 2 < G FL T

(4.3)

or modied to anisotropic friction FT L F ----- + -----<G L T

2 2

(4.4)

Uncontrolled macroslip means maximum utilization of friction with uncontrolled sliding in one direction only over the entire track assembly. This will most likely occur when braking very heavily and means
2 + F 2 G FL T

(4.5)

or modied to anisotropic friction FT L F ----- + -----G L T

2 2

(4.6)

Uncontrolled macroslip is described by an innitely distant spin pole location. There are different ways of handling the problem of multiple denition conditions. One way would be to alter the vehicle model by exchanging the force generators in the ground plane to constraints when z 0 . The motion in the ground plane would, instead of generating forces, be constrained, and the calculated constraint forces would dene the utilized friction forces, which must full the condition of equation (4.3) or equation (4.4). Another alternative would be to dene a motion-dependent coefcient of friction, which conceptually allows some distributed shear elasticity in the track-ground contact.

19

DAG THUVESEN

In the present module the second alternative is chosen. This implies that the equations for dening the friction forces between the track and the ground are always the same; however, they are numerically reconstructed to produce the desired effects. The dependency of the friction as a function of the sliding velocity relative to the ground is complicated. The module could be provided with different models of this sliding dependent friction; however, a simple and versatile model has been chosen, see Figure 4.1.
Utilized friction ( L, T )

Sliding velocity ( v T , v L )

Figure 4.1 Simple friction model, dependent on the relative sliding velocity.

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TRANSIENT STEERING OF TRACKED VEHICLES ON HARD GROUND

5 IMPLEMENTATION OF THE TRACK MODULE

The implementation of a track module for MBS software is carried out in steps. The limits of a track are established based on the concepts described. The module could be created in various ways depending on which MBS program it should t to. The equations for the discrete normal load distribution and the friction forces could either be written in FORTRAN or C code and compiled with the main program, or dened directly by functions available in the MBS program.

Track module

Rotational Spring damper Chassis

Parallel axes joint Inline joint Track Body Perpendicular joint Inplane joint 3 component torque General force Ground Translational Spring damper

Figure 5.1 Schematic illustration of the track module modelled in ADAMS.

The module must also contain some parts, force generators and constraints to resemble the described track module. There are various ways of composing the track module. The module in Figure 5.1 is one suggestion. It is modelled in ADAMS, but could be created in any MBS program. The ground contact is modelled by two constraints. An inplane joint is used to lock the vertical translation and a perpendicular joint to lock the rotation about the transverse axis. There are two constraints between the track body and the chassis. There is one inline joint that removes two rotations. It allows rotation about the transverse axis, i.e., the pitch axis. A second joint, a parallel joint, is used to remove two translations and here the vertical translation is allowed. There are also four force generators within the module. In the ground plane a general force, which is a six-component force, denes the friction forces. Only three components of the general force are dened as frictional components, the other three are being zero. A translational spring damper between the track body and the chassis resembles the vertical suspension system. A rotational spring damper between the chassis and the track body allows for the suspension about the pitch axis. The last force generator is a three-component torque between the track body and the chassis, which produces a driving torque on the track and

21

DAG THUVESEN

reaction forces on the chassis. The other two are not applied. The input to the track module must include: Track contact length Number of road wheels Coefcients of friction: L, T Track assembly mass Track assembly inertia Stiffness and damping in the suspension system A model of a vehicle is created in the program. The model is dened by parts described in section 2.1. If there are constraints or forces within the vehicle, for example between the two parts of the chassis in an articulated steered vehicle, these constraints and forces must also be created. The track module is attached to the vehicle to create a complete tracked vehicle model. The result of the assembly is an analytical model of the tracked vehicle, which may be visualized as in Figure 5.2. Arbitrary external loads and prescribed partial motion may be applied and the resulting response is obtained. The motion may be animated and any internal force may be plotted as a function of time.

Figure 5.2 A model of a tracked vehicle in ADAMS.

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TRANSIENT STEERING OF TRACKED VEHICLES ON HARD GROUND

6 VERIFICATION OF THE PROPOSED METHOD OF ANALYSIS

6.1 METHODS OF VERIFICATION
There are various ways of verifying the performance of the developed track module. One way is to compare experimentally obtained and theoretically predicted data on vehicle response to some characteristic steering control sequences. Physical experiments could be carried out with either full-scale or downscaled tracked vehicles. The verication could be done by full-scale experiments, where a model of a specic tracked vehicle is analysed in the MBS program, and the motion of the physical tracked vehicle is measured as the response to a specied steering manoeuvre. The position of the vehicle and a steering signal have to be recorded as functions of time. The measured steering signal would then be the input to the model of the vehicle. Another method of verication is to compare the performance of a computer model of a tracked vehicle with experimental or analytical data from the literature. To perform full-scale experiments at the Department of Machine and Vehicle Design was not possible due to lack of resources and time. FMV (Defence Materiel Administration) performed full-scale experiments; however, they lacked some important input data. Complete experimental data is not available in the literature. Due to the problems of obtaining any reference data, the module has instead been compared to the results presented by Gerbert and Olsson.

6.2 THE VEHICLE MANOEUVRE BY GERBERT AND OLSSON

Gerbert and Olsson produced numerical results to a limited extent covering two steering manoeuvres using one specic vehicle with the travelling speed as a parameter. The rst manoeuvre studied was a steady state motion in a curve at a constant velocity and constant speed ratio between the two tracks, see equation (A.20) in Appendix A. This analysis was performed to determine the steering brake torque and the engine torque required for a specic stationary circular path motion. The velocity and the speed ratio for the tracks were the parameters used. The second manoeuvre was the transition from straight ahead to circular path motion, when the steady-state steering control command was instantly issued, see Figure 6.1. The engine torque was constant through the whole curve and set to the same torque as for the stationary motion. The brake torque was applied as a multiple of the steady-state braking torque needed: M b = k b M bs
(6.1)

where M bs is the brake torque in the stationary case and k b is a brake factor ( k b > 1 ) . The brake factor had to exceed a certain value to reduce the velocity of the brake drum. This manoeuvre lasted until the speed ratio between the two tracks reached the speed ratio at the stationary motion.

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DAG THUVESEN

6.3 COMPARISON WITH THE WORK BY GERBERT AND OLSSON

6.3.1 MOTION RESPONSE
The specic motion studied here to compare the prediction from the track module based analysis to the work by Gerbert and Olsson was the application of full braking when travelling straight ahead with constant speed. The initial velocity was four metres per second. The external motion resistance was fully neglected and the vehicle data used is stated in Table 6.1. To perform the comparison, two track modules have been connected to a model of a vehicle chassis. The vehicle data and the data to the track module are modied to a certain extent to t as an input into the MBS model of the vehicle. The powertrain which was used by Gerbert and Olsson was a Cletrac transmission, see Appendix A, page A.6. The whole Cletrac transmission could have been modelled in ADAMS by creating parts, constraints etc. as described in section 2.1., however, it was modelled by a Fortran subroutine. The subroutine keeps track of the torques acting on the transmission from the left and right side drive shafts, the torque from the engine and the brake torque. Two rotational velocities are calculated, the steering brake velocity, b , and the planet carrier velocity, c . The rotational c and b in equation (A.28) and equation (A.29) in Appendix A, are dened as acceleration, two separate differential equations. These equations are integrated by the core software (ADAMS) in parallel with the other equations that dene the mechanical system. At full braking, b = 0 , the speed ratio between the two tracks is given by equation (A.21). Table 6.1 Vehicle data (Gerbert and Olsson 1982)
Vehicle weight Track contact length Distance between tracks Centre of gravity location Height of centre of gravity Number of support wheels Radius of inertia (chassis) Carrier shaft inertia Brake shaft inertia Speed ratio (planetary gears) Speed ratio (motor side) Speed ratio (track side) Driving wheel radius (ctitious) Coefcient of friction Length over width ratio Gravitational constant
m = 5000 kg L = 1.6 m B = 1.6 m c =1 H = 0.6 m n =6 r = L/3 J c = 70 kg m 2 J b = 0.7 kg m 2 U p = 0.2 U m = 2.5 U t = 3.2 r d = 0.275 m = 0.8 = 1.0 g = 9.81

The complete vehicle model is given an initial velocity, v vehicle , of four metres per second. A constant torque from the engine is applied, which is identical to the torque needed at stationary circular motion. A torque is also applied on the brake drum. The brake factor k b , given in Appendix A, is the dening parameter for different runs, see Figure 6.2. This manoeuvre is compared to the manoeuvre by Gerbert and Olsson and the pattern is found to be similar, see Figure 6.2. The brake factor adjusts the braking torque applied to the brake drum,

24

TRANSIENT STEERING OF TRACKED VEHICLES ON HARD GROUND

and simulates variants of the basic steering manoeuvre. The brake drum will stop at different time instants depending on the brake factor.

Indicates full braking

Figure 6.1 Steering manoeuvres depending on brake torque (Gerbert and Olsson 1982).

k b = 1.3 k b = 1.4 k b = 1.5

Indicates full braking

Figure 6.2 The response to a steering command at four metres per second travelling speed but with different brake torques.

The reported analysis started when the braking torque was applied at a stationary straight

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DAG THUVESEN

ahead motion. The analysis could alternatively have started earlier, applying a constant engine torque when the vehicle is at rest. The vehicle is then accelerated straight ahead to some specic speed, when the braking torque is applied instantly. What then follows, will be identical to the reported steering response. The performance of the vehicle is also studied by altering the initial velocity. A constant brake torque is dened. The torque from the engine is the same as for the stationary motion. At four and ve metres per second, the vehicle performs a stable manoeuvre but at six metres per second the manoeuvre is unstable, see Figure 6.3. Gerbert and Olsson were unable to nd any stable solutions for velocities higher than ve metres per second, which is supported and explained in the present study.

v x = 6 m/s v x = 5 m/s v x = 4 m/s

Indicates full braking

Figure 6.3 The trajectories of a vehicle at different velocities.

6.4 COMPARISON WITH THE WORK BY JAKOBSSON

Jakobsson studied stationary circular motion. He found from full-scale experiments that the vehicle could travel along a kind of spiral, when circular motion was expected. He explained that this was the modication of the basic circular motion, when the vehicle travelled along a slope. The original results of Jakobsson are shown in Figure 6.4. A qualitatively similar motion has also been studied here as shown in Figure 6.5. It was found that the deviation of the spiral orientation from the steepest slope depended on the location of the centre of gravity of the vehicle relative to the location of the tracks.

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TRANSIENT STEERING OF TRACKED VEHICLES ON HARD GROUND

Direction of slope

Figure 6.4 Trajectory of a vehicle in a slope (Jakobsson 1947).

Direction of slope

Figure 6.5 Trajectory of a vehicle moving in a slope predicted by ADAMS.

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DAG THUVESEN

6.5 OBSERVED QUALITATIVE AGREEMENT

The reported comparisons demonstrate good qualitative agreement between results from the present study and the results available from other authors. The result by Gerbert and Olsson also exhibit quantitative similarities with the results obtained here, as is exemplied in Figure 6.6. Complete agreement is very unlike. Until MBS software was introduced, powerful tools for integration of combined differential-algebraic equations were not generally available.

6.6 INTEGRATION PERFORMANCE

To test the convergence of the solutions from the integrator, the yaw velocity was especially studied. A specic motion was analysed, the one illustrated in Figure 6.2. The yaw velocity at the time when the steering brake was locked was recorded. For the dened motion the time to full braking was 1.1 seconds. The integrator used by ADAMS can adjust the time step to obtain results within dened tolerances. To study the dependency of the time step, the integrator was forced to use a specied time step. Depending on the time step used, the results obtained differed. Figure 6.6 shows how the yaw velocity depends on the time step. The results are converging towards 0.748 radians per second. The yaw velocity obtained by Gerbert and Olsson with the time step of 0.1 second was 0.757 radians per second. The difference is about one per cent. The integrator in ADAMS did not produce the value 0.757 at any prescribed time step or error tolerance. Figure 6.7 shows the consumed net integration time at different time steps for the specied motion. However, the duration for the vehicle manoeuvre was ten seconds. If the default settings are used for the integrator, the consumed computer time is 23.3 seconds. Most of that time was used for the motion response, 23 seconds.

28

TRANSIENT STEERING OF TRACKED VEHICLES ON HARD GROUND

( rad s ) 0.76

0.755

0.75

The result by Gerbert and Olsson

0.745 z

0.74

0.735

0.73

0.725

0.72 4 10

10

10

10

(s)

Figure 6.6 Convergence of the yaw velocity, z , as a function of the time step, t , used for integration.
( s ) 350

300

250

200

CPUtime

150

Integrator default settings

100

50

0 4 10

10

10

10 ( s )

Figure 6.7 Consumed computer time as a function of the time step used for integration.

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DAG THUVESEN

7 SUMMARY AND FUTURE WORK

A track module has been developed for analysis of steering of any kind of tracked vehicles. The module is restricted to work on hard ground. The track module is especially tted to interact with an MBS (Multi Body System) program such as ADAMS or DADS. The track module is based on sound constitutive relationships. Since the dynamic behaviour of a tracked vehicle is complicated, this track module is a versatile and time-saving tool for the analysis and the prediction of the steering response of the vehicle. An analysis of this kind will provide much data that is indispensable in the early stages of the design process of tracked vehicles. The module applied to a vehicle model in ADAMS shows qualitative agreement in steering response compared to results obtained by Gerbert and Olsson and by Jakobsson. In the future it would be desirable to obtain experimental data on the steering of tracked vehicles, whereby transient steering commands are linked to transient motion response. The real-world vehicle could then be modelled in an MBS program, including the track module. The analytically obtained response to the steering control signal could be compared to the corresponding experimental data. This data will further validate the track module. It is also desirable to expand the track module to allow shear deformations of the ground. Such expansion will enable the prediction of the classical traction curve at straight ahead motion; traction effort versus slip.

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TRANSIENT STEERING OF TRACKED VEHICLES ON HARD GROUND

REFERENCES
Andersson, B.: Mobility and Steering of Tracked Vehicles, Hgglunds Vehicle AB, rnskldsvik, Sweden, 1993. Bekker, M. G.: Theory of Land Locomotion, The University of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor, 1956. Bekker, M. G.: Off-the-road Locomotion, Ann Arbor, The University of Michigan Press, 1960. Bekker, M. G.: Introduction to Terrain-Vehicle systems, The University of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor, 1969. Computer Aided Design Software Incorporated, DADS Users manual, Revision 7.0, Coralville, Iowa, 1993. Gerbert, G. and Olsson, K.-O.: On track vehicles running through curves, Joint report, Division of Machine Elements, Chalmers University of Technology, Gteborg, Lund Institute of Technology, 1982. Haug, E. J.: Intermediate Dynamics, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, 1992. Holmdahl, L.: Anisotropic Dry Friction Models, Lic.Eng. Thesis, Machine and Vehicle Design, Chalmers University of Technology, Gteborg, 1989. Jakobsson, B.: Styrning av bandfordon (Steering of Tracked Vehicles), Dissertation, Chalmers University of Technology, Gteborg, 1947 (In Swedish). Kitano, M. and Jyozaki, H.: A theoretical analysis of steerability of tracked vehicles, J. of Terramechanics, Vol. 13, No. 4, pp. 241-258, 1976. Kitano, M. and Kuma, M.: An analysis of horizontal plane motion of tracked vehicles, J. of Terramechanics, Vol. 14, No. 4, pp. 211-225, 1977. Kitano, M., Watanabe, K., Takaba, Y. and Togo, K.: Lane change maneuver of high speed tracked vehicles, J. of Terramechanics, Vol. 25, No. 2, pp. 91-102, 1988. Mgi, M.: On Efciencies of mechanical Coplanar Shaft Power Transmissions, Dissertation, Division of Machine Elements, Chalmers University of Technology, Gteborg, 1974. Mgi, M.: On Constitutive Equations Used at Analysis of Steering of Tracked Vehicles, Proceedings of the 6th European ISTVS Conference, Vienna, Austria, 1994. Mechanical Dynamics Incorporated, ADAMS/VIEW Users Reference manual, ADAMS/ SOLVER Reference manual, Version 8.0, Ann Arbor, Michigan, 1994. Merritt, H. E.: Some considerations inuencing the design of high speed track-vehicles, The Inst. of Automobile Engineers, pp. 398-430, January 1939. Micklethwait, E. W.: Soil mechanics in relation to ghting vehicles, Military Coll. of Science, Cobham Lane, Chertesy, 1944. Murray, M., Caneld, T. R.: Modelling a Flexible-link Power Transmission System, Proceedings of the 6th International Power Transmission and Gearing Conference, Scottsdale, Arizona, 1992. Terry, T. W., Jackson, S. R., Ryley, C. E. S., Jones, B. E. and Wormell, P. J. H.: Fighting Vehicles, Brasseys, UK, 1991. Watanabe, K. and Kitano, M.: Study on steerability of articulated tracked vehicles-Theoretical and experimental analysis, J. of Terramechanics, Vol. 23, No. 2, pp. 69-83, 1986. Wong, J. Y.: Terramechanics and Off-Road Vehicles, Elsevier Science Publishers, Amsterdam, Netherlands, 1989. Wong, J. Y.: Theory of Ground Vehicles (2nd Ed.), John Wiley & Sons, 1993.

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APPENDIX A: SUMMARY OF THE PAPER ON TRACK VEHICLES RUNNING THROUGH CURVES

This is a short summary of one chapter of the unpublished article On track vehicles running through curves by G. Gerbert and K.-O. Olsson which was written in 1982. The original article also includes a literature review and different driving transmissions. On the last page of this appendix, the notation for equations is given.

TRACK BEHAVIOUR IN A CURVE

Figure A.1 shows a track with the contact length L between the track and the ground.

Figure A.1: Contact length of the track.

TRACK MOTION AND SLIP

Figure A.2 shows a track running through a curve of the radius R. The centre of the curve is located at O. The velocity v represents the velocity of the track along the curve. The vector from O and the longitudinal axis of the track are perpendicular in a point A. This point is positioned at yL 2 relative to the track and therefore moves along the track at the speed of y L 2 .

O R

L v+y -2 A L y -2

Figure A.2: Track motion along a curve.

A.1

DAG THUVESEN

The angular velocity of the track is then L v+y -2 = -------------- R

(A.1)

In [1] it was shown that a track must slide against the ground while running in a curve. The slip, either a positive or a negative nondimensional quantity, was dened in the following way: circumferential velocity of the driven wheel w sliding velocity along the track ws velocity of the track relative to the ground w(1-s) This gives the velocity of the track v = w(1 s)
(A.2)

At the point A the sliding velocity ws is directed only along the track. At other points on the track there is also a sliding velocity perpendicular to the track. This sliding velocity at a giving the total sliding velocity of distance uL 2 from A is uL 2 vs = L 2 - ( ws ) 2 + u - 2

(A.3)

and the sliding velocity ws of the point A. Figure A.3 shows the angular velocity of the track The point S is referred to as the spinpole according to Mgi [2]. S is positioned on the line OA at a distance e from the track. ws e = ---- In this point there is only a rotational speed relative to the ground.
(A.4)

vs L u -2 O R A ws e S

Figure A.3: Location of the spin pole S.

A.2

TRANSIENT STEERING OF TRACKED VEHICLES ON HARD GROUND

TRACK LOAD
The contact area between the track and the ground is a rectangle. The normal load G is distributed over this contact area. In reference [1] different distributions are discussed. Here the distribution called 4-n is chosen which implies that: all loads are taken up as concentrated forces beneath the n support wheels, the normal load is evenly distributed on the support wheels giving the support load G n on each wheel, there is a pure Coulombian friction force F q = G n beneath each support wheel. Here is the coefcient of friction and F q is counterdirected to and counteracting the sliding velocity v s . The conditions of the distribution are shown in Figure A.4. A discrete variable u q L 2 denes the location to the q:th support wheel where L ( q 1 ) L yL - = ------------------- ----u q -2 (n 1) 2
(A.5)

By using the distance u q L 2 the normal load G and the distance e to the spinpole S, the force between the ground and the track can be calculated.

n q O R L y -2 L u q -2 A 2 1 G F q = --n G --n L e S L ----------n1

Figure A.4: Load distribution and geometry.

The traction force F L along the track is then G F L = --n ------------------------------2 e L e 2 + u q - 2

n

(A.6)

q=1

The transverse force F T perpendicular to the track is given by

A.3

DAG THUVESEN

FT

G = --n

L u q -2 ------------------------------2 L q=1 - e 2 + u q - 2
n

(A.7)

The moment around the point A on the track is L2 u -q 2 G ------------------------------M = --n 2 L q = 1 e 2 + u -- q 2

n

(A.8)

VARYING GROUND PRESSURE

The load distribution, previously described, has a constant support load G n . This means that the resulting load G is located in the middle of the track. To be able to model a less simple distribution, the position of centre of gravity and all forces in a plane perpendicular to the ground and along the vehicle have to be considered. A continuous redistribution of the support load is desirable. The distribution is affected by ground conditions, the suspension system and the track tension. A linear distribution would allow the resulting load G to move along the track. Figure A.5 shows the linearly distributed support load k q G . Vertical equilibrium requires G=

kqG kq
q=1 q=1 L

= 1

(A.9)

CGL 2 G G G knG kqG kqG G --n

Figure A.5: Linearly varying support wheel load.

Turning the load line, G n , around the midpoint gives

A.4

TRANSIENT STEERING OF TRACKED VEHICLES ON HARD GROUND

1 k 1 = -- n 1 k n = --+ n

(A.10)

In this equation is the degree of skewness. There are support forces at q=1 to q=n. At the q:th support we have q1 1 - + 2 ----------k q = -n1 n Equilibrium yields L - = C G -2 -L k q ----------n1
n

(A.11)

q1

(A.12)

q=1

Eliminating k q and performing the summation gives 3(n 1) = ( C G 1 ) ------------------n(n + 1) Thus according to equation (A.11) 3(CG 1) 1 - 1 -----------------------( n 2 q + 1 ) k q = - n+1 n This equation is valid as long as k 1 > 0 i.e. 1 n > which results in n+1 C G < 1 + ------------------3(n 1) Once k q is obtained, the frictional forces F L , F T and the moment M can be calculated.
(A.15) (A.14) (A.13)

A.5

DAG THUVESEN

DRIVING TRANSMISSION
The most common principle for steering a tracked vehicle is to drive the tracks at different velocities relative to each other. In a transmission with a differential the velocities of the two driving wheels will change but as long as the engine speed is constant the mean velocity will be constant.

Figure A.6: A differential steering transmission.

A transmission that works in this way is the Cletrac transmission, see Figure A.6. Referring to Figure A.6 there are six shafts labelled 1 through 6. There are also a planet carrier c, steering brakes b and an engine m. The inner driving wheel is indexed i and the outer u. The indexes A through H refer to the gears and have tooth numbers z a through z h . While the vehicle runs straight forward, the rotational velocities are 2 = 4 = 5 = 6 = c
(A.16)

Making a left turn implies that the left steering brake will be applied. This will reduce the rotational velocities 5 , 2 and 4 . The speed relationship for the differential is 4 c ------------------ = 1 2 c and for the planetary gear zC zE 2 c - = Up -----------------= ----- ---zD zF 5 c The mean velocity discussed is given by equation (A.17) and is expressed 4 + 2 = 2 c By combining the equations and assuming b = 5 , the speed ratio is
(A.19) (A.18) (A.17)

A.6

TRANSIENT STEERING OF TRACKED VEHICLES ON HARD GROUND

b 1 + U p 1 ---- c 4 u U = ----- = ----- = ------------------------------------2 i b 1 U p 1 ---- c At full braking b = 0 giving 1 + Up U = ---------------1 Up In the stationary case, equilibrium yields Mc + M2 + M4 + M5 = 0 Analysing the rolling power relative to the carrier giving M 2 ( 2 c ) + M 4 ( 4 c ) + M 5 ( 5 c ) = 0 and applying the speed relationship in the stationary case given ( M 2 M 4)U p + M 5 = 0 In the dynamic case, while braking, b 0 , the inertia loads present are c = Mc + M2 + M4 + M5 J c b c) = ( M 2 M 4)U p + M 5 J b(

(A.20)

(A.21)

(A.22)

(A.23)

(A.24)

(A.25) (A.26)

where J c is the reduced inertia of the tracks, the engine the brake drum and the transmission applied to the carrier shaft, and J b is the inertia of the transmission, brake drum and tracks reduced to the brake shaft. Dening the torque M c above as positive implies the following signs for the torques. Mm = Mc Um M b = M 5 M i = M 2U t M u = M 4U t This gives c) M u + M i = U t( M mU m M b J c Ut b c)) - ( M + J b( M u M i = -----Up b where the speed ratios are dened as
(A.28) (A.27)

(A.29)

A.7

DAG THUVESEN

zH U m = ----zG zA U t = ---zB

(A.30)

The driving torques M u and M i are related to the longitudinal frictional track forces F Lu and F Li by the following M u = F Lu r d M i = F Li r d where r d is the ctitious radius of the driving wheel.
(A.31)

REFERENCES
[1] Jakobsson, B.: Styrning av bandfordon. Dissertation, Chalmers University of Technology, Gteborg 1947 (In Swedish). [2] Mgi, M.: On efciencies of mechanical coplanar shaft power transmissions. Dissertation, Division of Machine Elements, Chalmers University of Technology, Gteborg 1947.

A.8

TRANSIENT STEERING OF TRACKED VEHICLES ON HARD GROUND

NOTATION CG FL FT Fq G Jb Jc L M Mb Mm M i, M u O R S U = u i Um Up Ut e kb kq n q rd s u v vs w y = d dt Distance to track load centre (non-dimensional) Traction force Transverse track force Frictional force beneath a support q Track load Moment of inertia of transmission reduced to brake shaft Moment of inertia of transmission reduced to carrier shaft Contact length of track Turning moment of a track about reference point A Brake torque Engine torque Driving torque on inner and outer track Centre of curvature Turning radius of reference point A Spin pole Speed ratio of outer track speed over inner track speed Speed ratio at engine side Basic speed ratio of planetary gear Speed ratio at engine side Spin pole distance transverse track Brake factor Load distribution factor Number of road wheels (support wheels) Integer Virtual radius of driving wheel Slip (non-dimensional) Road wheel (support wheel) coordinate Velocity of vehicle Sliding velocity Velocity of track Spin pole distance along track (non-dimensional) Degree of skewness of track load distribution Coefcient of friction Angular coordinate Derivative with respect to time Angular velocity

A.9

DAG THUVESEN

INDICES
L T b c d i m p q s t u

Along track Transverse track Brake Planet carrier Driver wheel Inner track Engine Planetary gear Support q Slip, stationary Track Outer

A.10