Vo1.12, No.

3 1996

A News Journal for the International Genetic Resources Community

A News Journal for the International Genetic Resources Community

DIVERSITY is an international quarterly news journal whose mission is to provide to the biodiversity community a broad range of views and information on people, issues, policies, practices, and activities relating to the preservation, conservation, and utilization of genetic resources. DIVERSITY is published by Genetic Resources Communications Systems, Inc. DIVERSITY 1996. All rights reserved. Reproduction in any form is forbidden without express permission of the the copyright owner. DIVERSITY is registered with the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office. Printed in USA. ISSN:0744-8163.

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Vol.12, no.3,1996

NEWS IN BRIEF

WASHINGTON, DC - Just as the planning process for the proposed Human Genome Diversity Project (HGDP) was about to get underway, a group representing non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and indigenous peoples from throughout the world converged on Washington to try to stop it. The groups, led by the Rural Advancement Foundation International (RAFI), came to give testimony before the U.S. National Academy of Sciences Committee on the HGDP as the committee was to meet on September 16 to evaluate the proposed large-scale initiative to collect human DNA worldwide. The project is being sponsored by the National Science Foundation and the National Institutes of Health. The flow of human biodiversity in the mid1990s is at a level reminiscent of the flow of plant genetic material twenty years ago, charged RAFI. The Convention on Biological Diversity must come to grips with its legal obligation to conserve and protect human biodi-

versity and to establish binding procedures for the international exchange of human genetic resources, claimed the international NGO that has been leading the charge on the agrobiodiversity front during those two tumultuous decades. While HGDP officials have asserted that the project has no commercial aims, the NGO groups claim they have indisputable truthbased on what RAFI says are U.S. government documents obtained under the U.S. Freedom of Information Act-that pieces of indigenous and remote rural peoples very bodies are now the potential intellectual property of the corporations and governments researching them in the North. The officials do acknowledge, however, that the material they collect will be useful to medical research efforts now underway to develop treatments for such diseases as Parkinsons, Alzheimers, AIDS, leukemia, asthma, and obesity. It has been estimated that a single gene

WASHINGTON, DC - Indisputable proof that warnings about global biodiversity loss havent been exaggerated, was how Conservational International (CI) president Russell Mittermeir described the 1996 IUCN Red List of Threatened Animals recently released by CI and the World Conservation Union/Species Survival Commission (IUCN/SCC). The first assessment of all known mammals for their conservation status revealed that at least one-quarter of them are at risk, a finding that greatly increases the urgency of global conservation measures, asserted Mittermeir when releasing the report in Washington, DC, on October 3. If anything, he added, weve been too optimistic. More rigorous criteria were used to assess the conservation status of species for the 1996 Red List, which identifies 5,205 species as threatened with extinction. Of those, pigs, ante-

lope, and cattle comprise 33 percent. More than 100 species of marine fishes, including sharks, tuna, coral reef fish, and seahorses, were added to the 1996 List, which originated in 1960. The top five countries with the largest numbers of threatened mammals are Indonesia, China, India, Brazil, and Mexico. Those with the most threatened species of birds are Indonesia, Brazil, China, the Philippines, and India. The United States is among the top 20 countries with the most threatened species of mammals and among the top 10 with the most threatened species of birds. The Red List is actually a red flag, warning us about the perilous status of animals and drawing attention to threats such as habitat destruction, pollution, over-harvesting, and the introduction of non-native species, said George Raab, who chairs the SCC, the volunteer network of more than 500 scientists which provided the data and carried out the assessments for the 368-page document (compiled and edited by Jonathan Baillie and Brian Groombridge).

sequence can be worth US$1.5 billion per year and that more than 1,000 patents on DNA sequences have been issued to over 300 groups. According to one report, rights to asthma treatments derived from research on the DNA of isolated populations have sold for $70 million. The world was shocked when NIH patented the cell line of an indigenous person, said Edward Hammond, a program officer with RAFI. If it now finances the collection of thousands more, U.S. researchers will be set back even further with the worlds rural, societies and charges of biocolonialism will ring even more true (see DIVERSITY, vol.9,no.4/ vol.l0,no.l,p.55). Abadio Green Stocel, the President of the National Indigenous Peoples Organization of Colombia, alleged to reporters at a briefing at the Washington Press Club held immediately prior to the NAS hearing that, Thousands of samples from dozens of Colombian indigenous and rural peoples have been exported to the U.S. without our knowledge. The HGDP may have benign intentions, but we will not allow it to proceed in our communities until we are absolutely sure the project isnt going to control our genetic heritage and put it in the hands of lawyers, technocrats, and biotechnology companies. It is difficult for some policymakers, scientists, and industries to understand, one NGO representative told reporters, that, unlike the economic rights issues involved in debates over the ownership of plant and animal genetic resources, many of the indigenous groups fighting this initiative have no economic interests or demands; they just want these actions stopped based on their ethical or religious beliefs. As Ruth Liloqula, a Solomon Islander who testified before the NAS panel tried to explain, The traditions and customs that protect the sanctity of human materials-be it blood, saliva, or mucus -are very strong. The agenda for the meeting of the 15-member HGDP committee, chaired by William Schull, Director of the Center for Demographic Population Genetics at the University of TexasHouston, indicated that much of the discussion would, indeed, focus on the ethical, social, and legal issues that are raised by the project as well as its relation to other endeavors such as the Human Genome Project.

Vo1.12, no.3, 1996

NEWS IN BRIEF

TEXCOC, MEXICO - CIMMYT, the worlds leading research center for maize and wheat, inaugurated a new Genetic Resources Center at a day-long commemoration of the research institutes 30th anniversary on September 23. Timothy Reeves, Director General of the International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT), also used the occasion to unveil a new research plan that he said will usher in nothing less than a double-green revolution. Noting that the original Green Revolution of the 1970s spearheaded at CIMMYT by Nobel Peace Prize laureate Norman Borlaug (who, with many other dignitaries from throughout the world, was on hand for the ceremony), used research advances to develop radical cropping systems that yielded vast new quantities of wheat, Reeves said that what is needed now and into the 21 st century is a second revolution that is as committed to environmental protec-

tion as it is to ever-increasing yields for a more populated world. Topping CIMMYTs new research agenda of 14 megaprojects is protecting, evaluating, and ensuring the equitable sharing of maize and wheat genetic diversity. The new Genetic Resources Center, financed in part by the Japanese government, will be one of the largest repositories of its kind in the world for wheat and maize and is expected to store over 100,000 varieties of wheat and wheat-related materials and over 14,000 varieties of maize. Bent Skovmand, a wheat genetic resources specialist at CIMMYT, described the pragmatic value of the center which is named for Edwin J. Wellhausen, CIMMYTs first Director General, and Glenn Anderson, CIMMYTs second Wheat Director. The center will safeguard in perpetuity maize and wheat genetic resources to ensure their availability today and tomorrow, he pre-

dicted. and it will be useful in identifying important genetic variation in varieties and making them available to plant breeders worldwide.

More from CIMMYT...

Many researchers and policy-makers assume that-since the Green Revolution of the late 1960s-fewer and fewer varieties have been planted across larger and larger areas. But recent evidence suggests that the opposite is actually true. In many of the major wheat-producing nations in both the developing and industrialized world, the percentage of wheat area sown to any single cultivar is lower, not higher, than it was earlier in this century. says CIMMYT economist Melinda Smale. That doesnt mean farmers have adequate access to the range of varieties they want. But their access is often limited by economic policies, not by crop breeding strategies. Its wrong to think that breeders, on their own, can increase farmer access to varieties, says Smale. That kind of change will require careful attention to input and output prices, the proportion of released cultivars for which seed is actually multiplied and distributed, and the regional allocation of seed supplies. After decades of uniformity, wheat genetic diversity is finally on the rise in the Peoples Republic of China. According to a newlyreleased CIMMYT study, Chinese farmers are now intensely Interested in preserving unique wheat varieties. While the progress of this increased diversity still bears continued scrutiny, the study, by CIMMYT researcher Ning Yang and CIMMYT economist Melinda Smale, indicates that a greater freedom of choice has resulted in a greater diversity in modem wheats. And, they report, the data point to a continuation of this improved diversity. CIMMYT, one of the International Agricultural Research Centers operating under the aegis of the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR), employs more than 100 scientific staff from 39 countries together with more than 800 support staff. Funding for CIMMYTs work comes from public and private foundations as well as some 40 countries, the majority of which is administered through the CGIAR.

SCOTTSDALE, AZ - In a keynote address before the annual meeting of the American Seed Trade Association, renowned agriculturalist Dennis Avery called high-yield farming the only proven strategy the world has for saving its wildlife from destruction. The potential loss of habitat to low-yield farming poses the leading threat to the worlds biological diversity. In order to meet projected global food demands, Avery, the Director of the Hudson Institutes Center for Global Food Issues, told the large audience of private sector seed scientists and industry executives, the world must boost farm output by 250-300 percent by the year 2050, and we must do it by tripling yields or be forced to plow down 10-30 million square miles of our current wildlife habitat. The author of Saving the Planet with Pesticides and Plastics (1995) argued that we must continue to use our modern pesticides and commercial fertilizers, declaring that they represent virtually no threat to wildlife while plowing more cropland could cause massive extinctions of wild species. The most important element of sustainable

farming is preventing erosion, Avery continued. When high-yield farming triples the yields on the best and safest cropland, it cuts erosion per ton of food by two-thirds. Now, conservation tillage is cutting erosion by another 65-95 percent by substituting chemical weed killers for such bare-earth farming systems as plowing, fallow and cultivation, The key environmental strategies for feeding a world of 9 billion people by 2040, said Avery, are investments in high-yield agriculture and forestry, and free trade in farm and forest products. He called for America to renew and expand its traditional commitment to high-yield agricultural research. The world is just beginning the biggest surge of food demand in world history, and we must triple the worlds farm output, again, from the existing farmland or watch millions of square miles of wildlife habitat be destroyed for low-yielding crops. America has always been the world leader in agricultural research, he pointed out, and there is no question that our research investments have helped the nation strengthen its agricultural advantage at the same time it has helped other countries to avoid famine.

NEWS IN BRIEF

DES MOINES, IA - Two unassuming rice research scientists, whose work has revolutionized Asian agriculture and improved the diets and environment for literally hundreds of millions of people, have been jointly awarded the 1966 World Food Prize (WFP). The recipients, Dr. Henry M. Beachell--considered by many to be the individual most responsible for the Green Revolution in rice-and Dr. Gurdev Singh Khush- a protegee of Beachells who now heads the worlds flagship rice breeding program at the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI), were announced in Washington, DC, on October 15 by The World Food Prize Foundation. The foundation was established as the WFP sponsor in 1990 by Iowan businessman John Ruan, following its initial sponsorship by Kraft General Foods Foundation. Some have estimated the economic benefit of the improved varieties of rice the two scientists developed to be in the multi-billion dollar category; the resulting increased availability of rice has enhanced the nutrition of millions of people and the caloric intake in almost all Asian nations. The impact of the combined work of Drs. Beachell and Khush over a 30-year period is incalculable, said Dr. Norman Borlaug, the Nobel Peace Prize laureate whose work at the International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT) is credited with leading to the Green Revolution in world wheat production. These individuals are reminders to us all of us that service to our fellow human beings is the scientists true mission, Borlaug told reporters. Dr. Borlaug, who was instrumental in establishing the WFP in 1986 after his attempts to establish a Nobel Prize for agriculture were frustrated, serves as a member of the Council of Advisors to the WFP along with former U.S. President Jimmy Carter and other highly esteemed individuals from throughout the world. He will be joined on October 19 at the 1996 WFP award ceremonies 10th Anniversary World Food Prize Symposium on Food Security Issues for the 2 1 st Century in Des Moines, Iowa, by such luminaries as Robert McNamera, former World Bank president; Jacques Diouf, Director General of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO); and Ismail Serageldin, Chairman of the Consultative

Group on International Agricultural Research and World Bank Vice President for Environmentally Sustainable Development, and all living World Food Prize laureates. The event will begin with the award of the WFP to Drs. Beachell and Khush. The first WFP

laureate was Dr. M.S. Swaminathan, who helped to introduce high-yielding grains to India. Dr. Swaminathan used the $200,000 cash prize to establish the M.S. Swaminathan Research Foundation in Madras, India (see articles, p.41 and p.73).

BELTSVILLE, MD - Acquisition and preservation of grain crop germplasm must continue to be a priority at the Federal level, according to findings released by a team of grain research experts appointed by the U.S. Department of Agricultures Agricultural Research Service (ARS) to conduct a Grain Crop Improvement Review that is undertaken by the agency every 5 years. The team also recommended that the development of molecular markers, transformation, and related technologies should continue to be a high priority within ARS to insure that the U.S. remains on the cutting edge of technology and its application to grain crop improvement. The Review, conducted in St. Louis, Missouri, April 22-26, 1996, by an eight person team from academia and private industry, was the culmination of nearly a year of preparatory activity by the more than one hundred participating scientists from the USDA/ARS system. The review team also examined the continuum of ARS research activities relating to the genetic improvement of corn, sorghum, wheat, oats, barley and rice. These six grain crops occupy

approximately 200 million U.S. acres with gross value to producers exceeding $25 billion. This production supports a large commercial industry that includes, among others, Pioneer, Cargill, Kellogg, Busch, Quaker Oats, Riceland, Frito-Lay, General Mills, and Pillsbury. The total ARS research expenditure for programs included in the review, which is overseen by Charles Murphy, National Program Leader for Grain Crops, is about $50 million.

Objectives of the review were to assess individual ARS crop research programs in terms of accomplishments, focus, direction, and resources, with an eye for networking across traditional commodity and discipline lines. The review team examined the last such report, made five years ago, and noted that they were impressed with progress achieved. The Team made five specific recommendations on Germplasm Preservation and Evaluation: . It is critical to have a complete germ plasm collection that is well-characterized and evaluated, provides quality germplasm/seed, and maintains information in an accessible format. ARS is uniquely qualified to carry out this vital function. . Continued efforts in the accumulation of worldwide germplasm and proper preservation, including the black box preservation required to protect intellectual property concerns, are necessary. . Efforts to obtain the germplasm resource, of retiring breeders or terminated programs and the systematic collection of germplasm from ongoing programs on a protected basis in order that closed programs not be lost is crucial and requires continued funding of adequate storage space, facilities, and personnel. . An efficient system for scientists to transmit and receive germplasm between U.S. and other countries with due respect for intellectual property rights and phytosanitary laws and practices should be assured. . A system to better assess, document, and communicate usage of material distributed by germplasm banks and ARS programs should be developed.

Vo1.12, no.3, 1996

NEWS IN BRIEF

WASHINGTON, D.C. - It is scientifically indefensible to regulate the inherited traits of plants for pest and disease resistance under statutes developed specifically for chemical pesticides applied externally to plants, charged a consortium of eleven major U.S. scientific societies representing more than 80,000 members. Their assertion came in a joint response opposing a proposed rule by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) on regulation of substances produced by plants for defense against pests. The so-called plant-pesticide rule, announced by EPA in late 1994 and open for public comment, would make such substances and the genes needed to produce them subject to regulation under the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA), a statute developed specifically for chemical pesticides applied externally to plants. The EPA proposal would create a new category of regulated pesticide that generated is within a plant as a result of genetic engineering techniques. Concern in the scientific community over the implications of the proposed rule was so great that the consortium was formed to conduct a scientific review of the issue. The report, completed in July, points out that the ability to respond to and resist pests is a characteristic of the plant and cannot be separated for regulatory purposes from the plant itself. . The report, Appropriate Oversight for Plants with Inherited Traits for Resistance to Pests, also underscores that, historically, plants have not been subjected to risk assessment and management in the manner applied to pesticides and that oversight for the safety of food, including food from new plant varieties developed with the aid of recombinant DNA (rDNA) techniques (genetic engineering), is provided by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA). Similarly, it noted, oversight for protection of the environment from the release of plants genetically modified by rDNA techniques is provided by the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA). The consortium expressed concern about the unnecessary regulatory burdens that would be imposed by the proposal, and stated that evaluation of the safety of substances in plants should be based on the toxicological and exposure characteristics of the substance and not on whether the substance confers protection against a plant pest. The eleven societies are the American Insti-

tute of Biological Sciences, the American Phytopathological Society, the American Society for Horticultural Science, the American Society for Microbiology, the American Society of Agronomy, the American Society of Plant

Physiologists, the Crop Science Society of America, the Entomological Society of America, the Institute of Food Technologists, the Society of Nematologists, and the Weed Science Society of America.

TOKYO, JAPAN-The M.S. Swaminathan Research Foundation of Madras, India, was awarded the 1996 Blue Planet Prize for research promoting sustainable agriculture and rural development. The Swaminathan Foundation (MSSRF), the first Blue Planet Prize recipient from Asia, was cited for its contributions to the preservation and sustainable utilization of biodiversity, improvement of soil and plant health using environmentally friendly methods, and creation of ecological jobs for rural families. The prestigious international award is presented annually to recognize achievements contributing to the resolution of global environmental problems. Two recipients of the award are named each year by the Asahi Glass Foundation, Tokyo, Japan. Swaminathan-and Wallace S. Broecker, a Columbia University geologist whose research deals with climate change and global warming-will receive the Blue Planet Prize, including 50 million (approximately 16,000,00 Rs. or US$450,000), in October, and the winners will deliver commemorative lectures at the United Nations University, Tokyo, in November. Among the Research Foundations activities that were cited in its selection were the study, conservation, and restoration of coastal ecosystems, particularly mangrove wetlands; promoting sustainable agroforestry and aquaculture, including the use of organic fertilizers; assisting coastal families in attaining ecologically sustainable livelihoods; establishing a community biodiversity program to rescue endangered plant species; identifying microorganisms to serve as bioindicators of ecosystem health; and conserving genetic diversity of plant species used as food or in medicinal and other applications. The MSSRF was also cited for creating a community genebank to store collected seeds,

establishing guidelines for conducting ecological observations, and promoting the biovillage model of sustainable rural development in India, the Peoples Republic of China, and South East Asia. The onset of the information age has made the concept of the global village real, foundation chairman M.S. Swaminathan said in expressing his appreciation. Frontier technologies like biotechnology, space technology, renewable energy technology, and pollutionfree industrial material and processes are opening up opportunities for integrating the principles of ecology, social and gender equity, and economics in the form of a new development paradigm. The Research Foundation, a nonprofit, political organization established in 1988 after Swaminathan received the World Food Prize, agricultures equivalent to the Nobel Prize (see articles, p.5 and p.41) focuses on harnessing science and technology for environmentally sustainable and socially equitable development. The MSSRFs research, training, communication, extension, and networking programs in agriculture and rural development are designed to link ecological security with livelihood security and promote an orientation in technology development encompassing the interests of conservation, the poor, and women in coastal systems research, biodiversity and biotechnology, ecotechnology and sustainable agriculture, and education and capacity building. Past recipients of the Blue Planet Prize, established in 1992 following the RIO Earth Summit, include IUCN-The World Conservation Union, Switzerland; Lester R. Brown, founder of the Worldwatch Institute, Washington, DC; and Maurice F. Strong, chairman of the Earth Council, Canada.

Vol.12, no.3, 1996

INTERNATIONAL

NEWS

by D. Putterman
The Fourth International Technical Conference on the Conservation and Sustainable Utilization of Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture concluded in Leipzig, Germany, in the wee hours of Sunday, 23 June, with the adoption of a comprehensive Global Plan of Action for conserving plant genetic resources (PGR) and a wordy, if politically tame, Leipzig Declaration. Conceived by the FAO Commission on Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture in response to Agenda 21 and the UNCED process, the Global Plan of Action on PGR conservation and sustainable utilization had been under preparation for two years prior to the Leipzig Conference (see DIVERSITY, vol.10,no.2,pp.17-18). The Global Plan forms part of FAO Global System on PGR, which includes the International Undertaking on PGR as well as its newly minted Report on the State of the Worlds PGR. Developing a coordinated approach to PGR has acquired a certain urgency within the FAO, due in large part to a rapidly evolving discussion stimulated by the Biodiversity Convention over the equitable sharing of benefits from the use of genetic resources. Adopting a costed Global Plan utilizing data from the State of the World report was the ultimate goal of the Leipzig Conference. Preparing the report, including the formulation of some 150 separate country reports discussed at 11 different regional meetings, helped the nations of the world focus on PGR issues. The State of the World report, the first of its kind, condenses 5,000 pages of text into a surprisingly readable summary of current capacity and projected needs for both in situ and ex situ PGR conservation (see DIVERSITY, vol. 11 no.4, P.2). The draft Global Plan presented in Leipzig contained just 12 instances of unresolved text, the result of some hard com-

promising by delegations made during preconference negotiations in Rome intended to iron out differences. Nevertheless, close scrutiny of the remaining differences going into the Leipzig Conference reveals the heart of the post-UNCED debate over ownership of and responsibility for PGR (see DIVERSITY, vol.12,no.2,p.2).

U.S. Relents on Some Key Issues

From the start of the conference, U.S. positions on key issues in the Global Plan differed markedly from those of much of the world community. During discussion on realizing farmers rights, substantial heat was generated by the United States delegations insistence that text refer to the concept of farmers rights, rather than farmers rights per se. Behind the U.S. position was the claim that no normative international standards yet exist that define farmers rights. According to this reasoning, the world community still has little more than a concept, yet to be realized. After referring the matter to a closed contact group, the Conference settled on conservative wording, calling for realization of farmers rights as defined in FAO Resolution 5/89. This definition of farmers rights calls for rights arising from the . . . contributions of farmers in conserving, improving and making available PGR . . for the purpose of ensuring full benefits to farmers and the continuation of their contributions. Further refinement of the farmers rights issue will be left to the Third Extraordinary Session of the Commission in December, focusing on revision of the International Undertaking. Although criticism of the U.S. position on the reference to farmers rights yielded some inspired speechmaking and clever word play on the part of NGOs and delegations, a key achievement-the U.S. agreement to a global plan calling upon the world community to support farmers rights-was lost on many. Despite assertions that the U.S. position was little more than a smokescreen for opposition to benefit-sharing schemes, the assertion that no normative standards yet exist has a ring of truth to it. Nevertheless, the United States may not be as willing to embrace the cause of community resource rights, normative standards or not, as it claims. D I V E R S I T Y

During later deliberations referring to promoting in situ conservation with farming communities, U.S. representatives insisted that such communities be marketbased, farmer-owned cooperatives. Such a definition would probably-and needlessly--exclude the majority of indigenous and local communities as described by the Biodiversity Convention. Final language referred instead to farmer-owned cooperatives, as well as NGOs and extension agencies. Another area of stark disagreement between the United States and the world community emerged during negotiations over text calling upon governments, the private sector, and institutions to facilitate access to ex situ germplasm collections.

Building national genebanks defensively would be a tragic waste of resources.

The U.S. initially insisted upon unrestricted access. Virtually every regional bloc at the conference protested, with even developed countries pointing out that unrestricted access for the private sector to germplasm collections in the post-UNCED world was probably no longer a reasonable expectation. In the end, the word unrestricted was deleted. Such decisions may have ramifications for international ex situ collections. According to Geoffrey Hawtin, Director General of the International Plant Genetic Resources Institute, the international agricultural research centers (IARCs) will be taking their cue from the world community before tinkering with the open access regime still governing international ex situ collections.

Financing Most Contentious Issue

Most contentious of all at the Leipzig Conference was the issue of financing the Global Plan. From the start, many donor countries balked at the very presence of this issue on the agenda. While the goal of the Leipzig Conference may have been the development of a costed plan, some delegations insisted that funding had been excluded from the agenda by a prior decision of the Commission. In any event, the Conference did not attach an itemized price tag to the Global Plan. The final decision on funding was vaguely worded, stating that funding should come from developed countries

Vo1.12, no.3, 1996

INTERNATIONAL

NEWS FAO Secretariat admitted meant forests. Much of the foregoing begins to sound reminiscent of the Biodiversity Conventions Second Conference of the Parties (COP2), held last year in Jakarta (see DIVERSITY, vol.10,no.4,pp.12-16). Exactly how to differentiate forest plant genetic resources from all biodiversity, including the conventions general reference to genetic resources, remains unclear. Similar difficulties exist in differentiating between farmers rights and the equitable sharing of benefits with indigenous and local communities called for in Article 8 of the convention. Convention Secretariat is crucial. Some observers note with irony that the emphasis on promoting national ex situ collections within the Global Plan may have less to do with current needs than with fears over the impact of future restrictions on access to gene banks. Building national genebanks defensively would be a tragic waste of resources. Like it or not, the common issues of farmers rights and equitable benefit-sharing inextricably bind the FAO Commission to the Biodiversity Convention Secretariat. As always, it will be up to national governments to make sense of these overlapping claims. India, for example, has been debating for several years national legislation combining farmers rights with equitable benefit-sharing (see article, p.73). A delegate from Malaysia had the last word on these issues in Leipzig. Stating that farmers in rich countries routinely invest in crop insurance to safeguard their livelihoods, he cleverly compared realizing farmers rights to taking out yet another form of crop insurance, one meant to ensure the availability of disease- and stress-resistant cultivars for the world community. Surely the world must broaden this insurance policy to cover all biodiversity in order to ensure the panoply of benefits that the planets genetic resources have to offer. It is not too much to ask of United Nations agencies to work together in facilitating this policy, a consistent and affordable system of biodiversity insurance for all.

and/or other sources and should, where possible, seek to facilitate the leveraging of other funding sources and mechanisms. Notably absent from the finance discussion was any mention of the private sector and domestic resources, so prevalent at this years fourth meeting of the Commission on Sustainable Development. With donor countries unable or unwilling to meet official development assistance targets outlined in Agenda 21, many have called upon developing countries to mobilize these two sectors to provide additional financing for sustainable development. Neither alternative was referred to, at least publicly, during the Leipzig Conference.

A Funding Window to the GEF

Unofficial hallway chatter at the Leipzig Conference related this overlapping mandate to funding strategies. It is an open secret within the UN system that, as budgets shrink, some agencies are looking to the Global Environment Facility for supplementary funding (see article, p.71). Delegates suggested that FAO may try to place the International Undertaking under the purview of the Biodiversity Convention itself, thus opening a funding window to the GEF for in situ conservation of agrobiodiversity. Certainly, none would begrudge FAO a critical role in promoting ex situ conservation of PGR, but many continue to question its competence to promote in situ programs. Clearly, continued dialogue between the FAO Commission and the Biodiversity

Inter-Agency Turf Battles

Besides providing a forum for at-times heated debate over the Global Plan, the Leipzig Conference also served up a generous helping of inter-agency turf battling, particularly between FAO, UNEP, the Biodiversity Convention Secretariat, and the Commission on Sustainable Developments Intergovernmental Panel on Forests. For example, the issue of forest genetic resources surfaced during debate over both the Global Plan and the Leipzig Declaration. FAO had been strongly criticized two months earlier at the Second Extraordinary Session of the Commission for including this item on the agenda. Final wording on the scope of the Global Plan referred to PGR for food and agriculture, and in the future, to other subsets of PGR, which the

eflections upon Leipzig: Renewing the Pact of Dependence between Humans and Cultivated
future. Nourishment and a quality environment should be seen as fundamental rights that are made available to each individual human being. Agricultural productivity is fundamental to achieving these standards of living. Proper and useful reflection upon Leipzig can help provide constructive solutions that are best founded upon a historical and evolutionary perspective. In many countries with little industrial development most of the populace is directly involved in food production. With continuing industrial development around the world, populations are moving away from rural areas toward cities. But many who flee from grinding poverty only to D I V E R S I T Y encounter additional challenges and deprivations in a new urban environment. In the wealthy, industrially developed countries, less than 5 percent of the population is directly involved in agriculture. The remaining 95 percent of the populace is regularly and conveniently served an abundance of food at ever-decreasing real prices. This agricultural success story, however, can lead to ignorance and breed complacency about agriculture among the very people who depend upon it, the same populace upon which the future of agriculture depends. The invention of agriculture created a pact of dependence between humans and cultivated plants. If that pact is broken, then civilization as we have known it for 10,000 years will abruptly change and the conseVo1.12, no. 3, 1996

by S. Smith
As each of us returns home after Leipzig we would do well to bring back the message that each farmer, each conservator, each breeder, each supporter, and each innovator in the service of agriculture, regardless of their means of funding and of their location in the world, are helping to feed the world and to provide the resources that will help to meet the increasingly demanding and hungry world of the

INTERNATIONAL NEWS quences will be severe and potentially catastrophic. Herein lies the Achilles heel of modem industrial society. A productive, environmentally sound, and sustainable agriculture is the bedrock of national health and a national economy and is, therefore, the quintessential provider of national and international security. Yet, many people take the abundance of food for granted, their vision extending no further than the grocery store or the microwave oven. which alter so much in a few years time. New plans, new inventions and discoveries, follow each other in constant succession. These changes are driven by expanding and more urbanized populations that are involved in a multitude of economic, artistic, political, intellectual, and other activities rather than the arduous and daily toil of food production! Notable agricultural developments have included alterations in the sites where genetic diversity is conserved, increases in productivity through more effective breeding, increasing support from various disciplines for plant breeding, and increased participation by private sector investors that cannot occur without some form of intellectual property protection. Farmers have become less self-suffcient and have become integrated into a more capital-intensive and market-oriented network. Genetic diversity is now conserved in breeders stocks, in ex situ collections, or not at all, and conscious management of resources is required. One key goal of the Global Plan of Action (GPA), for example, is to catalogue these needs on a comprehensive scale. A key value of the Leipzig effort was to obtain multinational support at the highest governmental levels to reach these objectives on a global scale. In countries experiencing great population increases, economic and technological regimes resembling those of medieval times in Europe exist precariously sideby-side with the most technologically advanced and consumer-oriented societies that the end of the 20th century has to offer. These are challenging times for the world. Agriculture is the bedrock upon which all change will depend, and like bedrock it is itself swept and molded by the forces of change. plasm requires intellect, finance, and technologies and dedicated, full-time plant breeders. A danger exists, however, that as more farmers concentrate on productivity they will spend less time on conservation. Consequently, the long-term needs of agriculture demand that conservation take place ex situ. These collections must be secure, wellevaluated, and accurately documented, and

Modern Agriculture Undervalued, Criticized

A lack of understanding of the fundamental importance of agriculture was evident among some parties at the Fourth FAO Technical Conference in June. An NGO statement at the beginning of the Conference stated that conservation of genetic resources was at best a temporary bandaid solution and that the real problem was industrialized agriculture itself. Left unsaid in this statement was that without modem agriculture many thousands of people would return to rural areas to provide food. The statement further failed to suggest how current and future world populations would be fed. Criticizing technology and society without providing even explorable options is sheer ignorance and should be regarded as inexcusable.

Each year that we fail to make an investment, we add to the biological deficit.
the data must be made accessible. Prebreeding or germplasm enhancement activities must increase in both the public and private sectors, and collaborations are desirable and attractive. Public awareness of our dependence upon agriculture must be greatly increased so that public pressure can engender cooperative governmental efforts.

Good News Outweighs Bad News

The good news about Leipzig was that it brought all of these crucial issues into the limelight and provided the potential for governments to recognize see the necessity for supporting a global agricultural foundation. The so-called Global Plan of Action is currently a framework yet to be fashioned into a plan. Given that a myriad of details must be worked out, specific programs must be designed and funding must be determined. And many considerable controversies remain, most notably on finance and on the concept-or more correctly, concepts--of farmers rights. The bad news is that political rhetoric continues to exist in abundance. It may be ameliorated by: (1) discussion and policies based upon economic, genetic, and technological realities and (2) a foundation of greater public support and willingness to commit real resources. The migratory routes of crop plants which encircle the globe could serve to bind the world together unless ideologies are allowed to create fracture lines separating political divisions. Under the worst circumstances, the poor and disadvantaged in regions that lack plant breeding capacities would endure severe hardship. Genetic diversity alone cannot provide relief from malnutrition and famine. In the long run, all nations would be hurt by any political stand-offs that result in barriers to germplasm access, evaluation, and prebreeding. 9

If the pact between humans and cultivated plants is broken, consequences will be severe and potentially catastrophic.
The multiple inventions of agriculture around the globe that occurred some 5,000 to 10,000 years ago were human technological responses to the needs to provide more food per unit area of land. Subsequent agricultural change was gradual, at least until the last three centuries in northem Europe, North America, and Canada and, more recently, in such areas as Asia. Time was when there was nothing so changeless, so fixed and unalterable as farming; nothing so conservative, said Richard Jefferies in 1873. During the last three centuries, however, particularly in industrially developing regions, agriculture went through successive cycles of revolution with accompanying reinventions in its basic processes, support, and marketing. The whirlwind of change during the last two or three centuries is now compressed into one or two decades. As Jefferies observed, Now there are few occupations Vo1.12, no.3, 1996

Global Agriculture and Multinational Dependency

The history of world agriculture exemplifies multinational dependencies as migratory routes of cultivated plants encircle the globe in all directions. Long sojourns in Europe and North America during which landraces became gradually adapted through farming practices to temperate environments have subsequently allowed for re-infusions of useful diversity back into more tropical regions to help increase productivity. Useful diversity, however, will come forth only through a well-evaluated reservoir of diversity. Genetic diversity alone will not feed the world. The continued provision of increasingly productive germ-

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NEWS single weapon system, even a single airplane. The total annual estimated cost of meeting the premium plan of action in the GPA is less than the cost of two Boeing 747 jumbo jets. If the world community cannot provide those resources and make effective use of them. then we as a human species deserve to crash. It is the responsibility of current generations to pose the right arguments now in order to make sure that this does not happen. asked to fly in a plane that has ever-increasing difficulties in obtaining clearance for take-off due to safety concerns. And the biological deficit builds further as developing countries are inadequately supported by conservation and plant breeding. National deficits in agriculture are international deficits that ultimately affect us all; multinational dependencies upon genetic resources and agricultural productivity are an inescapable part of human existence. We must secure their future for the sake of our future. All those present at Leipzig need to seize the opportunity that any international consensus resulting from the Leipzig Declaration and the Global Plan of Action has provided to help ensure that the world enters the 21st century with the capability to meet the huge food and environmental demands that will be made upon agriculture. We have lots of work to do! For additional information, contact: Dr. Stephen Smith, Research Fellow, Pioneer Hi-Bred International, Inc., 7300 NW 62nd Ave., P.O. Box 1004, Johnston, Iowa 50131-1004, USA. Tel: +1-515-270-3353. Fax: +1-515-270-4312. E-mail: SMITHS@ PHIBRED.COM.

Some positive signs are evident, however. Arguments around intellectual property protection seem to have abated, and discussions are developing on benefit-sharing that is more equitable and conducive to investment in conservation and breeding.

Private Sector a Necessary Component

The private sector is included in the Global Plan of Action as a useful and necessary component, and for the most part industry representatives welcome that invitation. Private interests can do much to encourage their own investors, other investors, and governments to provide political and economic support for the conservation and sustainable development of plant genetic resources. Support from the public, legislatures, communities, and the various interest groups will be essential in enabling the Leipzig conference to be a springboard for success in the future of humankind. Additional good news is the context within which current requests can be made. Public investments in agriculture to provide the necessary genetic resources for future financial, intellectual, and technological commitments are small compared to demands for medical care or defense, a

Failure to Invest Adds to Biological Deficit

Further reason for optimism is the increase in agricultural productivity, about half of which has been brought about during this century in industrially developed countries and which has decreased the real price of food. Thus, it can be argued that monies provided for genetic resources can, to some extent, produce a resulting food dividend and can be reinvested into longterm support of agriculture. Each year that we fail to make that investment, we add to the biological deficit. That deficit is seen in the U.S. National Plant Germplasm System itself as seedstocks remain unrepresented, ill-conserved, or unevaluated. The future of U.S. agriculture, horticulture, and forestry is now being

by P.R. Mooney
In the early summer of 1990, sitting on Henry Shands (USDAs Crop Germplasm Czar) front porch somewhere outside Washington, the idea was to move beyond the political posturing of the 1980s to the practical actions that could actually conserve crop germplasm. Henry was sharing his stoop with Pepe Esquinas Alczar from FAO, Don Duvick (just then retiring from Pioneer Hi-Bred International, Inc.), and myself. The purpose of our meeting was to cap-

italize on the positive momentum of the Keystone International Dialogue on Plant Genetic Resources in a way that would bring the United States into the FAO Commission. One part of our solution was to reconvene the International Technical Conference on Plant Genetic Resources last held in Rome in 1981 (see DIVERSITY, vol.9,nos. 1&2,p.6). In the gathering darkness, we all stressed the technical nature of such a conference. The politics were being dealt with through Keystone and the FAO Commission. The Technical Conference would give the genetic resources community a do-able agenda for the future. Henry, Don, Pepe, and I will meet in an Ashram later this year to brush up on our Zen. Life is (indeed) what happens to you when youre making other plans. The Fourth (dont tell anyone, but it was the Fifth) International Technical Conference (ITC) on Plant Genetic Resources is now history. Six years in the making! They said it couldnt (shouldnt?) be done! Never D I V E R S I T Y

before on the wide screen such a cast of characters!

Life is What Happens to You When Youre Making Global Plans . . .

But it didnt evolve like we planned it. Somehow, during the production process, the script went from technical to political. What was meant to be a relatively modest scientific encounter became more a process than a meeting. By the time the more than 600 delegates rolled into Leipzig, 150 countries had contributed national action programs through more than a dozen regional and sub-regional conferences that disgorged no fewer than 2,000 technical and policy recommendations. Out of all this came the communitys first-ever State of the World Report (on Plant Genetic Resources) as well as a rolling Global Plan of Action embracing 21 strategic fields of work (see DIVERSITY, vol.11,no.4,p.2, and vol.11,no.3,p.4). There was also an indicative budget. Conceding

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INTERNATIONAL that many of the activities-such as training-tend to be open-ended, FAO nevertheless concluded that the original 199 1 Keystone proposal of a global annual expenditure in the range of $300 million was about right. To their credit, the FAO documents adroitly sidestepped potentially political debate (as far as anyone can) and stuck to the mandated script. Then life happened. Delegations to the Technical Conferences unofficial Prepcom in Rome in April had the advantage of six years in which to conjure a whole new political agenda. Since Henry Shands front porch, UNCED, the Biodiversity Convention, species patents, and the FAO-CGIAR Accord had all happened. Forests had become political. To suggest scientifically that the conservation of food plants must also mean concern for the (so-called) wild and weedy relatives of these species-most of which are in forests -is to be polemical. One delegate suspected a plot when he noticed that the host country, Germany, was led by a Ministry that included food and forestry! He demanded a name change. Over the years, in situ conservation has also become political. Secretariat proposals to direct a portion of the conservation work toward the further development of in situ (including, but not exclusively, on-farm) activities met with cries from a few governments (South and North) that gene banks (ex situ conservation) were being abandoned. Still other activities to ensure that major gene banks were secure, their collections duplicated, and their regeneration programs in place, led to cries that the Norths (and CGIARs) dominance in critical collections was about to be further subsidized by the wider community. Finally, the once highly-political prospect of farmers rights rose to the fore again-but largely because the United States opposed references to it in the preamble to the Action Plan-even though farmers rights and the USA joined the FAO Commission together in 199 1. At about midnight of the final day of the Prepcom, governments staggered out of FAO with a Plan of Action covered in enough square brackets (meaning unnegotiated text) to fill a black hole. There were no fewer than 370 chunks of bracketed text-97 of them imposed by a nervous U.S. delegation and half as many again by nitpicking Canadians. The Latin Americans, too, festooned the document with the Vo1.12, no.3,1996 unwelcome brackets. The prognosis for a successful Technical Conference looked poor. A last-ditch effort to salvage the Plan was staged on the eve of the Leipzig Conference when two delegates from each world region bundled into one of FAOs rooms to dismantle the square brackets. Miraculously, good will prevailed. The Americans, the Canadians, and the Brazilians seemed to come to their senses and much of the mess was cleared away.

NEWS

Politics is What Happens To You When Youre Making Technical Plans . . .

Somehow, though, on the short flight between Rome and Leipzig, the mood shifted yet again. The U.S. delegation-so accommodating in Rome-remembered its April angst when it landed in Germany. The Brazilians, bolstered by pugilistic Argentineans, did likewise. NGOs, shocked and largely on the sidelines in April, came to Leipzig wearing cleats and ready to fight hard in defense of farmers rights. U.S. State Department officials (who should have been in Paris negotiating table shapes with the Vietnamese) irritated friends and neighbors by turning purely housekeeping matters into diplomatic incidents and delayed discussions for much of a day. This dispute was hardly settled before the Americans found themselves the only delegation in the plenary hall attempting to downgrade farmers rights. Although a few other delegations such as New Zealand (otherwise verbally-challenged throughout the conference) were cajoled into grudging support of the U.S. text, constructive work on the Global Plans substance almost ground to a halt. Days ticked past as an embarrassed and embattled group of USDA and State officials, admonished from the use of cell phones by their security people, scampered around the hallways making calls to legal offices in Washington. On at least one occasion, the U.S. delegation in Leipzig announced agreement to compromise language only to have to later admit that Washington lawyers had nixed the deal. As the debate over farmers rights raged on, another battle-one more predictable -was being fought over funding for the Global Plan. By agreement a year before, it had been determined to de-link adoption of the Global Plan from its funding. The theory (highly questionable) was that this would D I V E R S I T Y

allow governments and scientists to focus on substance divorced from political-financial considerations. The reality was that the South-and NGOs-in the absence of a clear schedule for financial negotiations wanted a commitment from the North that new and additional financial support would be forthcoming. Without this commitment, they reasoned, the Global Plan would be a public relations fraud. For the North (sympathetic though they generally were), delegations had no mandate to negotiate money. Argentina and Colombia, in particular, took advantage of the situation not so much to improve their position as to imperil the success of the conference itself.

The Midnight Hour Brings Many Firsts

In typical UN style, negotiations came to a focus at midnight on Saturday and a tired plenary stayed up until 3:00 a.m. to approve the results of closed-door agreements on both farmers rights and financing. At that hour, few in Leipzig could be sure of which official UN language the texts were written in. The farmers rights text-pronounced a victory by Ethiopia, Philippines, Malaysia, Venezuela, China, and India-had all the unequivocal clarity of a White House press statement. There was, however, recognition that new and additional financial support was needed for the Global Plan of Action. Not until the wrap-up news conferences of Sunday morning did most delegations realize what they had actually achieved. For the first time in the history of plant genetic resources, the international community has adopted a Global Plan of Action. For the first time, there was broad agreement on what we all need to do and how we should all go about doing it. There is, though sometimes sketchy, a blueprint.

Along the way, we have all helped each other improve our thinking and our work.
A memo that I have kept from the thenDirector of IBPGR to Dieter Bommer (then FAO Assistant Director General for Agriculture) sent at the time of the 1981 Technical Conference jars one into realizing just how things can change. It asks that Cary Fowler (then on the staff of RAFI) and I be barred from the open meeting. We were-until IBPGR (now the much-modified IPGRI) was advised that it would cause more embarrassment to have us outside than inside. 11

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NEWS Don Duvick were smiling too. Somehow the Technical Conferenceturned-Political came out Technical after all. Somehow, along the way, we have all helped each other improve our thinking and our work. There has been progress. The Leipzig Process-which continues with the revamping of the International Undertaking and negotiations around germplasm access-offers us all a sound basis for our work in the future. And, fear not, that agenda also gives us all lots to fight about. Life (and Leipzig) is what happens to you when youre making other plans. My compliments to the chef. For further information, contact: Rural Advancement Foundation International, Suite 504-71 Bank St., Ottawa, Ontario K 1 P 5N2, Canada. Tel: + 1-613-567-6880. Fax: +1-613-567-6884. E-mail: rafican@ web.apc.org.

I confess to smiling during the negotiations at this Technical Conference (along with my fellow NGO representative, Dieter Bommer) watching Conference Secretary Cary Fowler, architect of the Global Plan of Action, supported by David Cooper, architect of the State of the World report and formerly of GRAIN, manage the meeting. I suspect that Henry Shands, a dedicated, if sometimes unhappy, warrior for his governments muddled machinations and

Investments in agricultural research by U.S. taxpayers to stave off hunger in developing countries have been repaid to U.S. farmers and consumers as much as 200 times over, according to a new report released by the Washington, D.C.-based research organization IFPRI (International Food Policy Research Institute). The findings directly counter the misperception cited by some foreign aid donors who hesitate to support agriculture because they fear rising production in developing countries will lower donor countries agricultural exports. Research and real-world experience, show just the opposite, asserts the most comprehensive study ever conducted to quantify the benefits and consumers of foreign aid spending on agricultural research to U.S. farmers and consumers. It found that the benefits of international wheat research are as high as 190 times the U.S. investment, and the benefits of international rice research are as high as 17 times the U.S. investment.

ed by economists from IFPRI and the University of California at Davis that examines more than three decades of research to enhance the yields of rice and wheat in

Investments in agricultural research are investments in international stability.

developing countries and the United States and reports the resulting impact on U.S. rice and wheat farming. The study analyzes the costs of USAID investments in the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR), a network of 16 international agricultural research centers whose work underpina most of the crop-improvement efforts for developing countries. Though the primary purpose of the CGIAR is to alleviate poverty and hunger in developing countries, new and improved plant varieties developed by CGIAR centers have also found their way onto U.S. farms from California to the Mississippi Delta. Many of these varieties were bred from the crop genetic resources stored at the IARC genebanks which, Borlaug told reporters, make the CGIAR system a truly global melting pot for genetic resources.

Trying to Salvage Self-defeating Cutbacks

The report, Hidden Harvest: U.S. Benefits from International Research Aid, was released at a press conference sponsored by IFPRI in Washington on September 19 that was also attended by luminaries such as Norman Borlaug, the Nobel Peace Prizewinning scientist credited for bringing about the Green Revolution, and U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID) Director Brian Atwood, who is trying to salvage and restore the devastating cuts his agency has been forced to impose on the very programs that provide the most fundamental support for the international agricultural research enterprise. The report summarizes a study conduct-

Semi-dwarfing Boosts U.S. Production

High-yielding crops with resistance to insects and disease developed by the CGIAR have proved effective in ending food production shortages worldwide, according to Phil Pardey, lead author and research fellow at IFPRI. These modem seed varieties have allowed us to feed an additional 1.5 billion people in the last two decades. But better seeds such as these have also reduced the production costs of

U.S. wheat and rice farming, making bread, pasta, and a host of other products cheaper for the consumer. One of the major breakthroughs of wheat and rice farming targeted for poor countries abroad was an advance known as semi-dwarfing, continued Pardey, which makes plants shorter and stronger, allowing more of the plants energy to be directed to grain production. This means more grain per acre of farmland and, therefore, cheaper food for people living in destitute countries in Africa, Asia, and Latin America. But semi-dwarfing also means cheaper food for the U.S. consumer. Over 75 percent of the U.S. rice acreage and 58 percent of the U.S. wheat acreage consist of semi-dwarf varieties, thus providing donors and recipients gains from international agricultural research. Because the new varieties are more productive, farmers can grow more grain on the same amount of land, thus preserving natural resources, Pardey added. From an overall investment of $71 million in wheat improvement research at the CGIARs International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT) since 1960, the U.S. economy has realized a return of at least $3.4 billion and up to $13.4 billion for the period 1970 to 1993. From a total investment of about $63 million in rice research at the CGIARs International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) since 1960, the United States has gained at least $37 million and up to $1 billion in economic benefits from 1970 to 1993. To measure the benefits realized by the U.S. economy from CGIAR research, IFPRI researchers tracked the development and use of improved, higher-yielding varieties of rice and wheat developed by IRRI, CIMMYT, and U.S. breeders. The rate and extent of their adoption by U.S. farmers

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INTERNATIONAL NEWS plains states of Montana, Minnesota, and North and South Dakota. Winter wheats used for bread are grown in the central plains states of Nebraska, Colorado, Iowa,, and Kansas as well as the southern plains states of Oklahoma and Texas. The northwest states of Idaho, Oregon, and Washington grow soft winter wheats useful for biscuits and noodles. By the early 1990s about 20 percent of the total U.S. acreage of wheat was grown to varieties with CIMMYT ancestry. In 1993, virtually all of the California spring wheat crop was grown with varieties with CIMMYT ancestry. CIMMYT varieties have also had a sizable impact on the varieties grown in the northern, central and southern plains states. The United States is also a major exporter of rice, accounting for nearly 18% of internationally traded rice. In 1993, rice production generated $1.3 billion for the U.S. economy. Rice is grown in California and in the Mississippi Delta region including Arkansas, Texas, Louisiana, Mississippi, and Missouri. In 1993,73 percent of the total U.S. rice acreage was sown to varieties with IRRI ancestry. Nearly all of the California rice crop grown that year consisted of varieties with IRRI ancestry, as did 70% of rice grown in the Mississippi Delta region.

from 1970 to 1993 were measured, and the economic value of the improved productivity from these varieties was estimated. Those economic benefits that were due to the CGIAR research were determined and compared with the corresponding costs of investing in the CGIAR.

U.S. a Major Exporter of Wheat and Rice

Wheat and rice are not indigenous to the U.S., but these food crops are important to the agricultural economies of large regions of the country and are thus useful to illustrate the benefits and costs to the United States of international agricultural research, said Pardey. Wheat is among the top ten agricultural commodities by value in 26 U.S. states, from California across the northern plains and the Midwest to northeastern states like Pennsylvania and New York. Wheat production in 1993 meant $7.7 billion to the U.S. economy. One of the worlds largest exporters of wheat, the United States produced 65 million metric tons in 1993, or about 12 percent of the worlds output. Spring wheats, such as red wheat used for bread and durum wheats used for pasta, are grown in California and in the northern

Multiple Dividends to U.S. Investment in Agricultural Research

The U.S. has also benefited in other ways. Investments in agricultural research are investments in international stability, said Pardey. Improved food security and economic growth in developing countries

can reduce political instability and con flicts, which often lead to pressure on developing countries in the form of refugee crises, costly emergency aid, and dangerous military interventions. Despite the fact that Pardey calls the USAID program in agricultural research widely recognized as the most effective development assistance provided by USAID as well as a source of large gains to the U.S. economy, there has been a general scaling back of the U.S. commitment to international assistance, according to the IFPRI report. In addition to threatening the U.S. investment already made, as well as to the many gains yet to be realized from more than three decades of research, Atwood shared his grave concern that the U.S. cutback (40 percent from the 1990 contribution of $60.1 million) is now being used as a reason other countries justify cutting back from their investment in agricultural research as well. For further information and copies of the report, contact: Barbara Rose, IFPRI, 1200 Seventeenth St. NW, Washington, DC 20036-3006 USA, tel:(202) 862-5600; fax: (202)467-4439; e-mail: IFPRI@ CGNET.COM. --DS

iotechnology Heralds a Major Restructuring of the Global Seed Industry

by S. Sehgal
Success in the seed industry can usually be traced to the strength of a companys plant breeding program. Even the introduction of sophisticated molecular marker technology merely helped to optimize classical breeding, rather than fundamentally changing the competitive dynamic of the seed industry in the developed world. But with the advent of the first products resulting from genetic engineering, we are witnessing a significant restructuring of the seed industry in those countries. While it may be too soon to say what that restructured seed industry will look like, we can be sure that it will be heavily imprinted by both existing and future claims of intellectual property rights (IPRs) as well as the international treaties currently negotiating farmers rights that are bound to impact them (see articles, p.49 and p.79). In this context, the motto of the AmeriD I V E R S I T Y can Seed Trade Association-First the Seed-has acquired a new twist of meaning. With farmers more and more likely to be planting genetically engineered seed, companies seeking to recover value from their technological developments are confronted by this fundamental truth of agricultural productivity long known to seedsmen. As with traditionally bred traits, seed is the carrier of genetically engineered traits, including protection against insects and disease, herbicide tolerance, and modified oil, starch, and protein content, to name a few. These technologies and their associated IPRs have thus led companies 13

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NEWS Unfortunately, this strategy did not work for all the new entrants for several reasons: 1. The time required to convert the early new technologies into products took much longer than originally envisioned. 2. There was a conflict between the entrepreneurial management style of the comparatively smaller seed companies and the hierarchical style of most large chemical companies. 3. The learning curve has been longer and more complex than expected and has led to poor financial performance. 4. Unlike chemicals, seed cannot be marketed globally, but only in agroclimatic regions similar to where it was developed. As a result, such companies as Shell, Pfizer, Rohm & Haas, Sanofi, Arco Chemical, Upjohn, and several others began to divest their seed and biotech businesses in the 1990s. by technology and IPR issues. Similarly, the acquisition by Empresas La Modema (ELM) of DNA Plant Technology was driven by the latters technology and portfolio of delayed fruit-ripening patents. Dow Elancos 46 percent participation in Mycogen was driven by the formers desire to secure access to Bt technology and other patents. On the other hand, the Zeneca and Vanderhave merger was triggered more by geographic fit and other considerations than by IPR considerations. The Ciba and Sandoz merger was also to a large extent driven by their mutual interests in chemical and pharmaceutical business. The more recent mergers and acquisition include: August 1996-AgrEvo acquires PGS April 1996-Monsanto acquires

from such diverse businesses as agrochemicals, agricultural biotechnology, and food processing back to the seed. For some time now the seed business outside of developing countries has been considered a mature industry. The growth

Unlike chemicals, seed cannot be marketed globally, but only in agroclimatic regions similar to where it was developed.
of the commercial seed industry was due, in fact, to the introduction of hybrids, particularly hybrid corn in North America, hybrid sugarbeet in Europe, and hybrid vegetables in East Asia. Of the $15 billion market in commercial seed at present, hybrids account for approximately 40 percent of sales and most of its profit. In North America and Europe the hybrid seed industry grew from regionally based family businesses. The profitability of hybrids far outstripped that of non-hybrid, open-pollinated seeds, leading to eventual consolidation in the industry and the dominance of several key companies in particular crops. The attraction of hybrids was obvious: when double-cross corn hybrids were first commercialized in the U.S. in the early 1930s, they were priced at approximately 10-12 times the price of commercial grain. With the introduction of single crosses in the 1960s, hybrid corn seed prices jumped to 20-25 times the commodity price. In the 1970s these high margins attracted the attention of several agrochemical companies anticipating seed synergies with their own line of business. The acquisition of Northrup King by Sandoz, of Funk Seeds by Ciba-Geigy, of Nickerson by Shell, and of Asgrow by Upjohn, occurred during this period.

Agracetus
March 1996-CIBA and Sandoz merge to create Novartis February 1996-Monsanto acquires 45 percent of DEKALB Genetics February 1996-Zeneca (ICI Seeds) and Vanderhave merge February 1996-ELM acquires DNA

Separating the Value of Technology from the Value of the Seed

With genetically engineered seed finally reaching the market, the seed industry has been reassessed and the benefits that plant biotechnology can bring to farmers are drawing attention once again. This realization is hastening the convergence of the agricultural biotechnology, seed, and chemical industries and is driving change in the cost structure of the traditional seed business and in product pricing. We have seen attempts, therefore, to separate the value of technology from the value of the seed in the form of a technology premium to be paid by farmers when they purchase a product improved by biotechnology. For example, in 1996 the technology premium for Bt-based insect protection in cotton is over $30 per acre and roughly $10 per acre for corn. In order to maximize value recovery, minimize the threat of litigation, and secure access to technology, several strategic, partnerships have been announced in recent months. AgrEvos acquisition o f P l a n t Genetic Systems (PGS) and Monsantos acquisition of 49.9 percent of Calgene, 45 percent of DEKALB, and 100 percent of Agracetus were, to a large extent, driven D I V E R S I T Y

Plant Technology
January 1996-DOW Elanco acquires 46 percent of Mycogen November 1995-Monsanto acquires 49.9 percent of Calgene With the seed industry in such a state of flux, new competitive strategies are expected to emerge. These strategies are likely to focus in four areas: (1) pricing based on separating the value of technology from the

Seed Industry in Flux

In the 1980s, other agrochemical companies which were engaged in biotechnology research also began to acquire seed companies. They did so this time in the realization that seed would be the primary delivery system for their new technologies, particularly biotechnology. The belief that delivering and capturing value from new input and output traits required control over the distribution channel. This factor brought such companies as Elf Acquitaine (Sanofi), ICI, Monsanto, Rohm & Haas, and Unilever into the seed business. Their strategy was to recapture margins along the length of the agribusiness chain, from the laboratory to the field. 14

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INTERNATIONAL value of the seed; (2) market segmentation; (3) product development using classical breeding, genetic engineering, and technologies to reduce cycle time, and (4) sales and distribution. In the flagship U.S. corn seed market, for example, it is anticipated that the seed distribution system will undergo significant changes in the next five years to meet farmers expanding needs for more sophisticated technology and information. There will be a growing trend towards multichannel distribution rather than the existing farmerdealer system only. In hybrid seed corn, the very existence of many local and regional U.S. companies will depend upon the success of Holdens Inc., a major supplier of foundation seed, in integrating new technologies in its proprietary germplasm. include plant transformation systems, selectable markers, gene expression techniques, and what can be called gene silencing technologies. Plant transformation is employed to insert specific genes into plant cells. Methods include using Agrobacterium as a vector (Ti-mediated transformation), electroporation, or particle gun. The result of all such methods is that the plant cell incorporates novel DNA into its chromosomes. Since the incorporation of DNA, i.e., genes, is random, selectable markers such as nptII or bar are used to identify the transformed cells. To be sure that the inserted genes function in their new environment, expression technology is employed. This technology in combination with specific gene promoters is used to specify the timing and location of gene expression. By contrast, gene silencing technologies, such as anti-sense, can be used to suppress gene expression. The Flavor Saver tomato of Calgene uses anti-sense to suppress one of the genes responsible for ripening so that tomatoes can remain on the vine longer and become sweeter without going soft. (See Table 1 for select transgenic products.)

NEWS

insect-tolerant variety based on this package of technologies. Alternative packages are as complicated. Because of the difficulties of sorting through various IPRs, the cost of doing seed business will increase, as well as the likelihood of litigation. As companies seek to bundle traits to gain competitive advantage, gaining freedom to operate will become even more complicated. The permutations and combinations of various input and output traits gives enormous opportunities to bundle and stack genes provided one can resolve freedom to operate issues.

Conclusions
The restructuring of the seed industry which is currently taking place is being driven by biotechnology and IPR issues. The winners in this process will be those companies that are able to deal with the complexities of IPR and bring their products to market. Their ability to do so is limited by a number of factors: 1. There are a large number of technologies involved in developing a product. 2. Many products will be dependent on third-party technologies and subject to their intellectual property rights. Those technologies may be unavailable for licensing or only available on onerous terms. If the technology owner seeks its maximum value, the cost of technology acquisition can become prohibitive and its recovery in the market almost impossible. 3. Access to technology may require companies to use their own patented technologies as trading chips. The more such chips one has, the better will be ones chance of obtaining freedom to operate for a product. This favors companies that started early in biotech and have a broad technology portfolio. 4. Some technologies are still to be tried, tested and mastered. The learning curve this requires can be longer than anticipated. If other resources are limited, this time lag can have a significant impact on the viability of the company. Some people predict that the changes that have taken place so far are just the beginning and that there is a lot more to come in the next three to five years. This will provide opportunities for some companies and nightmares for others. As the process continues, we can expect to see a lot of casualties, some survivors, and a few successes For more information, contact: Dr. Suri Sehgal, Plant Genetic Systems, Jozef Plasteaustraat 22-B, Gent, Belgium. Tel: +329-235-84-40. Fax: +32-9-224-06-94. 15

Genes and Enabling Technologies: Promoters and Suppressors

New technologies entering the market in the first products can be broadly divided into two major groups-genes and enabling technologies. Genes encode proteins, the major building blocks of all cells. For example, insect protection is due to the presence of proteins encoded by Bt genes such as crylA(b), crylA(c), cry9C. In 1996 roughly 1.8 million acres of Bt cotton, 200,000 acres of Bt corn, and 18,000 acres of Bt potato were planted in the U.S. Tolerance to the herbicide LibertyTM is due to the presence of the genes bar or pat, while tolerance to the popular herbicide RoundupTM is due to a gene encoding an EPSP Mutant. In 1996 approximately 200,000 acres of LibertyTM-tolerant canola and 50,000 acres of RoundupTM-tolerant canola were planted in Canada, and approximately 2 million acres of Roundup TM-tolerant soybeans were planted in the U.S. The important enabling technologies

IPR and Freedom to Operate

Even from these first products, a rather complicated IPR pedigree emerges. At issue is the so-called freedom to operate. Freedom to operate can be defined as legal access to all the technologies required to launch a product. This is particularly important because virtually all transgenic seeds either contain several technologies or require them for their development. Even in cases where a technology is novel and patented, it may be dependent on earlier developments and so cannot be freely used even by the inventor. Single-trait cases are already presenting extremely complex IPR issues. For example, a transgenic insect-tolerant plant may involve plant variety rights (PVR), plant patents, as well as several patents relating to transformation technology, the selectable marker employed, the gene coding for the insecticidal protein, the promoter, and various regulatory elements and modifications needed to adequately express genes in plant cells (Table 2). An IPR holder of even one element could block the commercialization of an D I V E R S I T Y

Vo1.12, no.3, 1996

INTERNATIONAL

NEWS

NGRP NEWS

rivate Sector Collaborates with U.S. Crop Germplasm Program on Critical Regeneration Needs
Seedbank collections held by the U.S. National Plant Germplasm System have been substantially increased, and in some cases greatly improved, through seed regeneration and evaluation projects undertaken in cooperation with private industry. These joint efforts, which began in the early 1980s with action taken by member companies to the National Council of Commercial Plant Breeders (see DIVERSITY, vol. 1 ,no.3,p.92), often grew out of informal communications between corporate scientists, breeders, and government germplasm curators when the availability and viability of national seed stores were threatened by lack of proper facilities, inappropriate climatic conditions, inadequate space for growouts, or budgetary constraints. While the extent to which private companies participate in regeneration efforts varies markedly depending on the crop involved, this work can constitute as much as 25 percent of production at a given seed repository, said Henry L. Shands, USDA Associate Deputy Administrator of Genetic Resources. Factors influencing private industry participation can include crop characteristics-such as biennial production which requires greater planting areas over a longer periods and, therefore, larger, more crop-specific facilities-as well as the pre-existence of industry-initiated regeneration programs which preclude the need for start-up arrangements, investments, and 16 staffing by National Plant Germplasm System (NPGS) stations. Cooperative efforts are not new to germplasm production and enhancement, particularly in the international context which allows regeneration projects to take advantage of varying climates, altitudes, and other growing conditions present in countries in different parts of the world. A major example is the Latin America Maize Project (LAMP), undertaken from 1987-1996 by Pioneer Hi-Bred International, Inc., scientists in 12 countries, and USDAs Agricultural Research Service (ARS) to evaluate landrace accessions and identify resistances to disease, pests, and climate conditions (see DIVERSITY, vol.7,nos. l& 2,pp.40-42, and vol.11,no.4,p.6). Some of the rationales and public and private participants involved in cooperative regeneration projects are illustrated by efforts undertaken to expand and improve collections of specific crops. companies and 19 public institutions, including land-grant universities and at least five ARS stations (see Table 1). Authorized by the U.S. Congress with an annual appropriation of $500,000, the undertaking is intended to enhance the corn germplasm base by increasing the productivity and genetic diversity of maize grown in the United States, according to Salhuana.

Regeneration is the key to keeping valuable germplasm available.

-Ryochi Kojima, Sakata Seed Co. Recognizing that regeneration is one of the most important activities in genetic resources, Salhuana said, seed companies will make significant financial contributions in crossing germplasm from the LAMP program with their elite proprietary inbreds, exchanging complex crosses, and evaluating hybrids from the newly derived lines. In addition to accessions from other countries, DEKALB Genetics Corporation of Dekalb, Illinois, contributed seven tropical hybrids. The crosses are being grown in at least six locations under private and public supervision to identify the breeding crosses for the selection process. The cooperative effort not only serves as a source of evaluations other than those that the ARS-GEM locations and private Vo1.12, no.3, 1996

MAIZE: Cooperative Germplasm Project Expands

Pioneer, whose LAMP efforts were led by Wilfredo Salhuana, research fellow at the companys Miami, Florida, office, was also involved in the initiation of the U.S. Germplasm Enhancement Maize (USGEM) project (see DIVERSITY, vol.9, no.4,pp.77-79), that builds on the results of the LAMP project and involves 21 private D I V E R S I T Y

NGRP NEWS cooperators are capable of performing, Salhuana reported, but also provide additional enhanced germplasm and training for future plant scientists. The projects Technical Steering Group prioritized screening for diseases and insects for the United States and is now focusing on value-added trait evaluations. To complete the maize enhancement, the joint effort must be extended to Latin American countries, Salhuana added, and further financial support is currently being sought from private companies to coordinate national programs in these countries. Minnesota. Each company planted a few hundred rows, resulting in a total of about 1 lb. of seed, sufficient to satisfy the U.S. National Seed Storage Laboratorys requirement of at least 5,000 seeds, or about l/4 lb., to constitute a holding. Four of the sorghum accessions were found to be resistant to greenbug, a trait that was not present in NPGS stores at the time. The sorghum seed from these accessions is now being used in a program to develop resistance to newer biotypes of greenbug. SUGARBEET: Industry Foundation Aids Research through Grant Program The Sugarbeet Crop Germplasm Committee (CGC), formed in 1983, was one of the first crop councils established and, as a regeneration program was not in place at that time, benefited greatly from the assistance of many private seed companies. The original CGC (then a Crop Advisory Committee) was formed as a committee of the American Society of Sugar Beet Technologists and included specialists from federal, state, and private interests. Lee Panella, who chairs the Sugarbeet CGC and conducts research at the Colorado State University Crops Research Laboratory at Fort Collins, said companies increasing sugarbeet seed in the committees early years included Holly Sugar Corp., Great Western Sugar Co., Amalgamated Sugar Co., Betaseed, Inc., American Crystal Sugar Co., Menneson (Ferry Morse), and B.J. Division of North American Plant Breeders. Panella said these companies and others have continued to regenerate seed when requested. Problems facing the Beta collection at Ames, Iowa, before it was moved to Pullman, Washington, included insufficient isolation facilities, improper climate, and lack of expertise to contain windborne pollen, leaving breeders reluctant to utilize the NPGS germplasm due to apparent contamination of some accessions. Efforts to improve the regeneration process included working with 13 public and private geneticists who regenerated about 60 accessions at no cost to the sugarbeet committee, according to the CGCs 1996 report. The Beet Sugar DevelopD I V E R S I T Y ment Foundation of Denver, Colorado, a nonprofit organization funded by sugarbeet seed companies and sugar processors, also plays a role in maintaining the supply of sugarbeet germplasm through competitive grant funding for sugar research. One such project enabled the curator of the sugar-beet collection in Pullman, Washington, to hire summer students to assist in regeneration projects, thus alleviating staffing shortages which often limit such efforts. Panella said sugarbeet is particularly labor-intensive as plants, pollinated by wind, need to be grown l/2 mile apart or in tents to avoid accidental crossing. The Sugarbeet CGCs 1996 report summarized its germplasm activities by stating, in part, Early cooperative efforts between public and private breeders developed into a division of breeding effort, with companies concentrating on high-yielding varieties and USDA breeders, with the cooperation of commercial breeders, concentrating on disease resistance and referred to a cooperative breeding effort and working relationship that existed for about 40 years.

SORGHUM: National Stores Increased, New Resistance Developed

Sorghum seed collections held by the NPGS not only were increased but also gained accessions resistant to greenbug through a cooperative program initiated about three years ago by Ken Kofoid of the Fort Hays Experiment Station, Kansas State University, working with three private seed companies. The Fort Hays location did not have adequate space or the appropriate facilities to conduct regeneration and screening of sorghum germplasm it had obtained from the International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT), some of which was under quarantine or was photoperiod-sensitive. Kofoid worked with Pioneer Hi-Bred; Northrup King Co., Henderson, Kentucky; and Cargill Seeds, Minneapolis,

Cooperative Efforts Mitigate NPGS Crop Regeneration Problems

Additional examples of the many NPGS germplasm collections that have been augmented through efforts involving the seed industry include: CELERY: A. Duda & Sons, a large produce company headquartered in Florida with offices in Texas and California, conducts its own breeding program, according to Larry Pierce, chair of the Leafy Vegetable Germplasm Committee. Pierce said his primary interest is celery, and the company developed its breeding efforts due to the poor quality and small supply of good, viable, disease-tolerant seed. It was in the companys best interest, he added, to propagate the collection and bring it up to date. The three-year program, now in its last phase, with the Geneva, New York, Plant Genetic Resources Unit produced very good seed volume and quality, Pierce said, and the regenerated germplasm will go back to Geneva into the NPGS system. Noting that cooperative programs operate under various funding arrangements, he described the A. Duda & Sons/Geneva projects structure as fairly unusual, with the NPGS station providing the cages and the company supplying the labor and security maintenance. ONION: James McFerson, USDA/ARS Supervisory Geneticist and Research Leader at the Geneva station, said several private 17

Vo1.12, no.3, 1996

NGRP NEWS Appreciation for the benefits the private sector realizes in working in regeneration efforts was echoed by Rock Kojima, Brassica research director for Sakata Seed Company, Salinas, California. Seed that Sakata has grown comes from all over the world and it is free, Kojima said, so we want to help in any way we can, even though we are not members of the CGC. . . . We receive the original seed from Iowa and return all the seed generated. [Regeneration] is the key to keeping valuable germplasm available, and Sakata is very happy to do it. In the past few years, most of the timeconsuming, labor-intensive work at Sakata has been performed by several dozen interns/trainees from Japan, Kojima said. Some are already farmers, some work for family seed companies, and others come through the Japanese Agricultural Exchange Council, the Japanese Farmers Aid Association, and the Ohio University agricultural internship program. The interns visit USDA crop research facilities, Kojima explained, and are taught farming and breeding techniques. -CJ
The editors of DIVERSITY wish to acknowledge the many seed industry representatives, scientists and breeders, and USDA/ARS staff members who provided information for this article. The editors are aware that many private companies work with the National Plant Germplasm System in regeneration and other projects and welcome reports on these cooperative efforts, their initiation, progress, and results.

companies have assisted in regeneration of onion since that project began eight years ago. Onion regeneration illustrates some of the problems that can be alleviated through cooperative efforts with private industry as well as the mutual benefits of joint public/private efforts. As a biennial crop which is cross-pollinated, onion requires a controlled pollination process with plants protected by insect-proof mesh, according to Augustine Agraz, senior plant breeder with Basic Vegetable Products in Hanford, California. His work with the Geneva NPGS station usually involves germplasm exchange. The seed he obtains is often in limited supply, so the first regeneration cycle typically is intended to increase the amount of seed. He returns about half of the seed he produces at this stage, usually several times more seed than he originally received. Agraz then uses the remainder in crossing experiments to study and develop particular traits, such as resis-

tance to disease or pests. Such cooperation permits industry scientists to see the importance of germplasm work, McFerson said, and hopefully they tell their supervisors and congressmen. SPINACH : Peter Bretting, Research Leader/Coordinator at the USDA/ARS Plant Introduction Station at Iowa State University at Ames, explained the benefits of public/private cooperation in the case of spinach growouts: Spinach is particularly difficult to regenerate because it requires special positive pressure chambers to prevent accidental pollination and still allow enough air passage to prevent moisture damage. While regeneration is necessary to maintain healthy germplasm, he said, it is a very labor-intensive activity. ARS can provide the seeds, and industry can provide the labor. . . . More seed comes back than was given them, Bretting said. The companies provide a service to the entire germplasm community.

hallenges of Conserving the Global Herd Addressed by American Livestock Breeds Conservancy
by C.J. Christman
The challenges of equine genetic conservation were recently addressed by the American Livestock Breeds Conservancy at a workshop on Preserving Your Part of the Global Herd held June 29, 1996, at the Kentucky Horse Park in Lexington, Kentucky. The workshop attracted more than 120 horse and donkey breeders, association representatives, and industry leaders. Because these species are not widely used for food, rare breeds of horses and donkeys have attracted relatively little attention from genetic conservation agencies. The misperception exists that they have less value to agricultural systems than do cattle, swine, and small ruminants. As a result, in North America and in Europe, conservation of rare horse breeds has often existed on the periphery of livestock conservation, and it has generally been undertaken by breeders associations. This separation can also be attributed to the fact that horses are often raised independently of the other domestic animals and managed under different conditions. Nonetheless, they cannot escape the plight of other agricultural livestock breeds. Genetic erosion is occurring rapidly in the equine species, and rare horse and donkey breeds warrant immediate conservation activity. D I V E R S I T Y The ALBC, a nonprofit organization working to protect livestock genetic resources in the United States, has a comprehensive program in place to encourage the conservation of rare breeds of horses and donkeys in the United States. The organization hosted Preserving Your Part of the Global Herd, which focused on equine diversity, breeds as genetic units, and methods of conservation, as a way to educate breeders and industry leaders about the importance of genetic conservation. Equine Diversity Historically, horses and donkeys were used primarily for work, and equine breeding has been directed toward goals relevant to the accomplishment of many different tasks. As a result, while there is a great and Vo1.12, no.3, 1596

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NGRP NEWS easily recognized variety of equine breeds, this diversity is highly vulnerable to economic and social change. Presentations by Catherine Tyler of Driving Digest Magazine and Tex Taylor of Texas A&M University provided an explanation for the decline of diversity in the equine species. Horses and donkeys reached their maximum numbers in North America in 1920 when the need for work animals suitable for many specific tasks created habitat for a wide variety of breeds and types of animals. Each purpose, and even each vehicle, required a different horse, donkey, or mule. For example, five types of mules were used in America at the turn of this century: mining mules, cotton mules, farm mules, sugar mules, and draft mules. Demand for these mules supported the breeding of the several types of ass and draft horse breeds used to produce them. Shortly after 1920, however, mechanization began to eliminate the markets for working horses and donkeys. The numbers of draft, driving, and all-purpose animals in the United States (and in many European countries as well) declined dramatically. Many breeds likely became extinct, while others were transformed to meet new markets in recreation and sport, which became important in the 1960s. This was particularly the case for traditional European carriage breeds, most all of which were crossed with Thoroughbreds to create the lighter, warmblood types which dominate sport horse markets today. Historic varieties, however, are now near extinction. In the United States alone, 20 breeds of horses and donkeys-about one-fourth of the total number of breeds-are in decline or have become rare. Three quarters of the purebred horses born and registered annually in North America are members of the Thoroughbred and stock horse family of breeds, which includes the American Quarter Horse, Appaloosa, Paint, and several other related breeds. Rare breeds of horses make up less than 2 percent of the purebred foals registered. They include some breeds which are found only in the United States and others which are internationally distributed. size, and each individual is relatively expensive, which can reduce the amount of culling that is practiced. The species are characterized by long gestation (horses, 1112 months, and donkeys, 12- 13 months) and by slow maturation, so that it takes three to four years to produce replacements. Management of males is challenging as well. While many males must be maintained to assure genetic breadth, the strong bonds between herd members means that different males cannot be cycled through a breeding herd each year as can be done for cattle, swine, small ruminants, and most poultry. Sponenberg encouraged the establishment of a strong group of breeders within each breed as well as a tolerance of some difference in philosophy and goals among them. He also discussed the importance of maintaining several distinct bloodlines within each breed as a way to manage the inbreeding that is bound to occur in small populations. Specific breeding protocols were included in A Conservation Breeding Handbook by Sponenberg and the author, which served as the textbook for the workshop. Breed association representatives described their successes in promoting conservation of rare breeds, such as the Friesian horse, Rocky Mountain horse, Egyptian strain of Arabian horse, and the Suffolk draft horse. The Suffolk is the rarest of these, numbering fewer than 600 globally, with the population divided between the U.S. and Great Britain. The breed neared extinction during the 1950s and 1960s but is increasing in numbers with the growing demand for small sized draft horses appropriate for farm use. In the workshops final presentation, on the use of new reproductive technologies for horses and donkeys, Dr. Paul Mennick of Pacific International Genetics informed the experts on how the use of fresh and frozen semen is becoming more common in horse and donkey breeding. These practices can solve the problems many breeders have in finding the right males for use in breeding, he explained, especially in a country the size of the U.S. or for breeds which are international in distribution. For information on how to obtain copies of A Conservation Breeding Handbook, Taking Stock: the North American Livestock Census and on the conservation of equines and other livestock genetic resources in the United States, contact: Carolyn Christman or Don Bixby, American Livestock Breeds Conservancy, PO Box 477, Pittsboro, NC 273 12, USA, 919542-5704, fax 919-545-0022. 19

Rare breeds of horses and donkeys have attracted relatively little attention from genetic conservation agencies.
behaviors, adaptations, and traits. Maintenance and use of living populations of equine breeds is the essential element of their conservation. The global herd is made up of about 400 breeds, more than one-third of which are endangered, according to a presentation by Bonnie Hendricks, author of The Intemational Encylopedia of the Horse. Hendricks discussed her book as well as the years of work required to gather information, particularly the efforts required to get

data on horse breeds of China and the former U.S.S.R. A presentation by Gus Cothran, Director of the Equine Bloodtyping Laboratory of the University of Kentucky, focused on his work using blood group marker analysis on all breeds of horses in the world. This research has excellent application in improving our understanding of the parameters of breeds, the relationships between breeds, and the genetic variation present within breeds. Cothrans work has been of great use to conservation programs through identification of specific and unique genetic populations and in providing information relevant to the management of rare populations.

Geographical Distribution
Because these species are not industrialized or bred by large organizations, individual breeders have an essential role, asserted D. Phillip Sponenberg, of the Virginia Polytechnical Institute and the American Livestock Breeds Conservancy, who described how individual breeders and breed associations can conserve rare breeds of horses and donkeys. This can be an advantage, he pointed out, as it keeps the resources within a breed distributed geographically and under a variety of management systems. There are some obstacles to this success, however. Horses and donkeys are large in D I V E R S I T Y

Breeds as Genetic Units

The reasons for ALBCs reliance on breeds as the genetic unit for horses and donkeys as well as for other domestic animals was the topic of a presentation by this author. True breeds in the genetic sense were created by isolation and selection, contain unique genes and combinations, and provide the easiest access to complex Vol.12, no.3, 1996

FROM THE EDITORS

DIVERSITY has kept the global genetic resources community updated on Indias National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources, the premier institution of its kind in South Asia, for over a decade. It was most gratifying, therefore, when Dr. R.S. Paroda, Director General of the Indian Council on Agriculture Research, and Dr. K.P.S. Chandel, Director of the NBPGR, suggested that DIVERSITY produce a special supplement to coincide with the dedication of Indias new state-of-the-art genebank and research facility, the result of a multi-million dollar collaboration between the U.S. Agency for International Development and the Government of India for the U.S./India Cooperative Project in Plant Genetic Resources with the NBPGR, the U.S. Department of Agriculture, and Winrock International that began in 1988. GRCS owes a great debt of gratitude to the countless institutions and individuals, particularly the more than 60 specialists whose expertise is recorded in this supplement, for contributing their time and spirit to this effort. The financial support that allowed this project to move from aspiration to fruition is most appreciated. Primary support was made available through a grant from the U.S. Agency for International Development, via the U.S. Department of Agriculture/Foreign Agriculture Service/International Cooperation and Development from funds administered to the NBPGR. We are particularly indebted to Carol J. Wilson, USDA Project Officer, who oversaw all aspects of the project and really made it happen. GRCS is especially grateful to the many international agricultural research centers that provided the funds needed in order for the supplement to include the international and regional focus that is so essential to all of the genetic resources work being undertaken throughout the world. These include: AVRDC, CIAT, CIMMYT, ICARDA, ICRISAT (the only IARC based in the region), IPGRI, and IRRI. Important support also came from Winrock International and Proagro Seed Company, Ltd. We would like to acknowledge the very important services of B.P. Srivastava, at the USDA/FAS/ICD Far Eastern Regional Research Office (FERRO) of the American Embassy in New Delhi who patiently transferred communications between GRCS/DIVERSITY and the many authors and officials at ICAR and NBPGR throughout the course of the project, It is hard to imagine how this effort would have been accomplished without him. As always, A.B. Damania served with great dedication and efficacy as DIVERSITYs India-based representative. His work with authors and production staff was crucial. A special note of thanks to Sue Hall of ICRISAT and Ruth Raymond and Paul Stapleton of IPGRI for their assistance with many of the visuals that appear throughout the issue. Anyone who has ever worked for or with a nonprofit organization knows that without the tireless--and usually thankless efforts made by a few very dedicated Board members, most of its good work (and probably its very existence) would never come to pass. We are fortunate to have more than a few. For this project, it was the talents and determination of both Jitendra Srivastava and J. Trevor Williams (who edited the articles for technical accuracy) for which we are so appreciative. DIVERSITY Associate Editor Carol Jakas dedication to this project was unsurpassed. The articles that appear on the following pages reveal much about the remarkable work being undertaken throughout India and South Asia to rescue, preserve, and equitably utilize their irreplaceable genetic resources. As with our previous efforts dealing with Latin America (vol.7,nos.1&2,1991) and the Mediterranean Region (vol.11 nos.1&2, I995), the GRCS Board and the DIVERSITY staff are pleased to have been able to provide the genetic resources community with an in-depth and current look at the Hindustani Center of Diversity and hope to have the opportunity of profiling other megadiversity centers in the future. Deborah Strauss Managing Editor Linda Worthington Project Manager

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HINDUSTANI CENTER OF DIVERSITY

industani Center Provides India and the World a Trove of Genetic Diversity
by K.P.S. Chandel
The Indian subcontinent is one of the worlds mega-centers of crop origins and crop plant diversity, and is named the Hindustani Center. Rich diversity is seen in cultigens and their wild and weedy relatives. Floristically very rich, India has about 141 endemic genera belonging to over 47 families of higher plants. Of the 4,200 endemic species, the larger number are located in the Himalayas-about 2,532 species (see article, p.24)-with fewer in other regions, such as the peninsular region (1,788 species) and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands (185 species). plants fulfilled their needs and were gradually cultivated, selected, and improved through continuous selection of desired types. This scenario is evident, for instance, in the case of rice, millet, and vegetable crops which are highly variable. Natural processes aided domestication: introgression, gene recombination, and disruptive or directional selection must have provided the means for the build-up of genetic vatiability. Abrupt climatic changes during the course of millennia could have resulted in spontaneous mutations; some of those favored by nature might have survived due to adaptive polymorphism. Thus agrobiodiversity diversified and landrace diversity

period led to the introduction of coffee, cocoa, cashew nut, litchi, cinchona, strawberry, and blueberry, as well as tea from China and rubber and pineapple from Latin America.

Current Matrix of Diversity

The current matrix of diversity available in India consists of genepools of indigenous crops and introduced agri-horticultural and plantation crops. The introduced crop species, depending upon the time of introduction, extent and type of material, and the areas of introduction, have also led to a build up of secondary diversity. Prominent examples include: cereals- wheat, barley, oat, maize; millets- pearl millet and Sorghum; grain legumes/pulses -chickpea, pea, lentil, bean; vegetables- potato, sweet potato, vegetables of Mediterranean origin, chilli, and tomato; temperate and tropical fruits; oilseeds- groundnut, soybean, sunflower; fiber crops- cotton, particularly herbaceum and barbadense types; and medicinal and aromatic plantsopium, basil, liquorice, henbane, foxglove, Cinchona, and hops.

The genetic diversity occurring in India is extremely important in other parts of the world and could play a prominent and crucial role in alleviating hunger:
It is estimated that floristic richness is greatest in the northeastern region of India, which holds about 50 percent of Indias total species diversity-more than 7,000 species. For instance, of 990 species of orchids in the Hindustani Center, 700 species occur in the northeastern region alone. Indias diverse agroclimatic and regional topography and the preponderance of indigenous tribal populations and their ethnic groups have contributed significantly over millennia to the diversification of agrobiodiversity. Rich crop landrace diversity is still prevalent today. India possesses about 166 species of agri-horticultural crops and about 324 species of wild relatives of crops (see article, p.22). The agrobiodiversity in India is distributed in eight very diverse phytogeographical and 15 agroecological regions. These areas possess unique genepools comprising landraces, primitive forms, and wild relatives of crop groups such as cereals, grain legumes, vegetables, fruits, oilseeds, forages, fibers, sugar crops, spices, medicinal plants, ornamentals, and others (see box). prevailed in the small holdings of the farming community. Indigenous tribes and their ethnic populations also held the diversity in their back yards. It is estimated that in rice alone India possesses about 16,000 landraces. Legumes, oilseeds, vegetables, and fruits represent a similar scenario. Mango, banana, Citrus, and jackfruit all exhibit immense variability of considerable economic importance. Among vegetable crops, eggplant, cucumber, muskmelon, Citrullus, Colocasia, and bitter gourd exhibit enormous genetic variability that offers an unique opportunity for plant scientists for crop improvement. Genus Vigna, comprising prominent grain legumes such as green gram, black gram, moth bean, and rice bean, along with some 22 allied wild species, offers rich sources of protein for the predominantly vegetarian population of India. Pigeonpea and chickpea adequately supplement the everyday diet (see articles, p.58 and p. 63). India has been enriched considerably by a continuous influx of new crop species and their specific cultivars from ancient times. The Moghuls, Spaniards, Portuguese, and British introduced new crops that became an integral part of Indian agriculture. Prominent among these are apple, pear, peach, apricot, grape, almond, datepalm, maize, potato, sweet potato, bean, onion, garlic, tomato, chillies, and lentil. The Arabs possibly brought with them clove, coriander, cumin, and fennel. The British D I V E R S I T Y

Valuable Medicinals and Aromatics

The indigenous diversity of plant species of medicinal and aromatic value in the region is unique. Several thousand species occur in India and have been used in the traditional systems of medicine (see articles, p.35, and p.36). Considerable efforts are now directed to bring important and endangered species of economic value under cultivation. The genetic diversity of crops in the Hindustani Center provides great potential for sustainable production and nutritional security based on diverse but adequately balanced agroecosystems. This genetic wealth is extremely important in other parts of the world and could play a prominent and crucial role in alleviating hunger. The Indian gene center thus has the capacity and natural resources to serve humanity at large. For further information, contact: Dr. K.P.S. Chandel, Director, National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources, Pusa Campus, New Delhi-110012, India. Tel: +91-11573-2365. Fax: +91-11-573-1495. Telex: 3177257, NBGR(IN). E-mail: nbpgr@ x400.nigw.nic.in.

Ancient Peoples Domesticated A Cornucopia

The process of domestication, initiated by ancient people, was preceded by gathering wild plants from natural habitats. These

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HINDUSTANI CENTER OF DIVERSITY

by R.K. Arora
The Indian subcontinent presents a wide spectrum of ecoclimates ranging from humid tropical to semi-arid, temperate to alpine, and its cultural and ethnic diversity includes over 550 tribal communities of 227 ethnic groups spread over 5,000 forested villages. The subcontinent is a center of domestication and diversification of plants. India has ca. 15,000 species of higher plants occurring in 16 major vegetation types. About 33 percent of species are endemic. The region also holds approximately half of the worlds aquatic plant diversity. It is a treasure house of wild economic plants which are largely underutilized, particularly wild edible and medicinal plants. Studies carried out by the All India Coordinated Project on Ethnobiology of the Ministry of Environment and Forests have estimated that 9,500 species are utilized by native communities for diverse uses-7,500 for medicinal purposes, 3,900 for edible use, 700 for material and cultural requirements, 525 for fiber and cordage, 400 for fodder, 300 as pesticides and piscicides, 300 for gums, resins, and dyes, and 100 for incense and perfumes. Published inventories, such as floras and economic plant treatises, point out that about 5,000 species constitute useful botanical wealth. These listings include 1,000 species used for fuel/timber, 120 for spices/condiments, and 100 for oils.

tives of crop plants, including genepool representatives closely or distantly related to cultigens. Based on economic plant groups, this wealth can be classfied as: 51 cereals and millets, 31 legumes, 109 fruits, 54 vegetables, 12 oilseeds, 24 fiber plants, 27 spices and condiments, and 26 miscellaneous species. This total diversity includes 60 endemic and/or rare species. For example: Wild Legumes: pigeonpea (Atylosia cajanifolia); chickpea (Cicer microphyllum); swordbean (Canavalia stocksii); hyacinth bean (Dolichos bracteatus); black gram (Vigna mungo var. sylvestris) Wild Vegetables: okra (Abelmoschus tuberculatus); onion/garlic (Allium rubellum and others); cucumber (Cucumis hardwickii, C. callosus); pointed gourd (Trichosanthes khasiana, T. cucumerina); eggplant (Solanum incanum, S. indicum) Wild Fruits: citrus (Citrus assamensis, C. indica, C. ichangensis); banana (Musa sikkimensis, M. nagensium, M. mannii); peach (Prunus jenkinsii); pear (Pyrus kumaoni); apples (Docynia hookeriana, Malus baccata var. himalaica) Wild species are distributed in different phyto-geographical/floristic regions or botanical zones as follows: 125 in the Western Himalayas, 82 in the Eastern Himalayas, 132 in the north-

Wild Edible Plants

Wild edible plants have been documented recently, with data focusing on over 1,000 species serving various purposes: 145 as roots/tubers, 521 as leafy vegetables/greens, 10 1 for buds/flower 647 for fruits, and 118 for seeds/nuts. This species diversity is largely distributed in the humid peninsular tracts, Central India, northeastern region, and the Himalayas (see table) (see article, p.24). Much of the diversity is found in backyards and home gardens, and it forms a component of a sustainable utilization patterns operated by local communities. An estimated 320 species are wild relasular tract/Western Ghais, and 91 in the Deccan/Eastern peninsular tract/Eastern Ghats. Major distribution zones of such wild genetic resources are the Western Himalayas, the northeastern region, and the peninsular tract, with some endemic diversity (such as wild mango, Mangifera andamanica, and wild rice, Oryza inandamanica) confined to the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Table 1 lists some promising edible wild species in the process of domestication and for which some selection and cultivation occur. Recent studies have revealed that some others are also valuable. For instance, the leafy vegetable Lamium album used by tribals of the Gurez valley, Kashmir, is rich in minerals and proteins (20.4 to 26 perD I V E R S I T Y Vo1.12, no.3, 1996

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ing resistance to tungro virus in cultivated rice; wild black gram Vigna mungo var. sylvestris and wild green gram V. radiata var. sublobata exhibiting tolerance to yellow vein mosaic virus, and wild okra, Abelmoschus tuberculatus, providing tolerance to yellow vein mosaic virus in cultivated A. esculentus. Wild species in the genepools of sesame, cucumber, and eggplant have been used for disease resistances. Wild sugarcane, Saccharum spontaneum, and related species of the genepool have provided sources of resistance to stem rot as well as drought tolerance. Several wild species are also used for rootstocks and as breeding materials for many fruits, including citrus, mango, jujube, and pome, stone, and soft fruits. Wild Medicinal Plants The potential value of Indias medicinal plant wealth is enormous. The World Bank has estimated the trade in medicinal plants and their products at US$3 billion per annum. Several medicinal plants related to common ailments are of interest in India. Hepatoprotective and 100 percent effective antifertility activities are observed in compounds isolated from Wedelia calendulacea and Kunstleria keralenais respectively. Trichopus zeylanicus from the Agasthyar Hills of the Western Ghats has anti-fatigue and immuno-modulating properties. Canarium euphyllum and C. manii from Andaman forests, Paeonia obovata from

Western Ghats, and Euphorbia acaulis from Central India are effective against rheumatoid arthritis and inflammation. Seeds of Centratherum anthelminticum are effective against thread worms; Bacopa monniera is a neuro-tonic with active constituents more like Rauvolfia serpentina; roots of Coleus forskohlii possess a nonsteroid cardio-active constitutent (Forskolin); Tylophora indica, used in treating asthma and whooping cough, possesses anti-bacterial properties, and is effective in treating common colds and bronchitis; Podophyllum hexandrum and Taxus baccata (new discovery of taxol) are anti-cancerous; Indian gentian, Picrorhiza kurroo, is used in the treatment of jaundice and liver ailments; and the Himalayan ginseng, Panax pseudo-ginsing, is a tonic. Much attention is being given to margosa or the neem tree, Azadiracta indica, for its

diverse uses in the pharmaceutical industry. Several of these important species are endangered now because of over exploitation, often to the point of extinction in their native habitats (see related stories, p.24, p.29, p.35, and p.36). Realization of the huge economic potential of Indias wild plant genetic wealth will require increased awareness of the need to collect, evaluate, document, and effectively conserve and use this diversity. Fortunately, these efforts are addressed by the Indian governments programs. Undoubtedly with more genetic diversity available now and with better means to exploit it, facilitated by advances in bio-technology, Indias wild, useful, under- and unexploited diversity holds great promise for contributing to the future welfare of humankind. For further information, contact: Dr. R.K. Arora, IPGRI Office for South Asia, NBPGR Campus, New Delhi 110 012, India. Tel. +91-11-573-1845,578-6112. Fax: +91-11-573-1845. E-mail: IPGRI-DELHI @CGNET.COM. Further Reading

rchaeology and Domestication of Crops in the Indian Subcontinent

by M.D. Kajale
Archaeological evidence on domestication and use of crop plants and related plant species is abundant from the major part of the Indian subcontinent. Most of the data are from India and Pakistan, with a little archaeobotanical information from sites in Bangladesh and Burma. The general picture is gleaned from nearly 170 sites including Mesolithic (non food-producing cultures) as well as Neolithic, Chacolithic, Harappan, Megalithic, and Early Historical and Historical cultures (all food-producers with varying degrees of agro-pastoralism) (see table). About a dozen key archaeological sites from Pakistan have provided evidence of food grains between ca 9000 and 3000 BP, mostly from the Neolithic (pre-Harappan), Harappan, and a few post-Harappan Chacolithic sites. The Sri Lankan evidence mostly pertains to non-domesticated plant species (wild breadfruit, wild banana, and D I V E R S I T Y

wild Canarium) from Mesolihic cave sites, whereas the Protohistorical and Historical evidence concerns cultivated crops such as rice and black gram. Although the richness of evidence of crop remains has come to light from Indian sites, these can be better appreciated by also taking into consideration related evidence from neighboring countries as well as the extant distribution of wild relatives. This is useful for understanding the time and place of domestication of crop plants that developed in the Hindustani center of crop diversity, the diffusion of crops into and out of the Indian subcontinent, and the factual basis for studying development of a mosaic of highly versatile agricultural systems which have shown the tenacity to assimilate crops from 23

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HINDUSTANI CENTER OF DIVERSITY various agroecological zones of the world. The great botanical wealth of the Indian subcontinent (particularly India and Pakistan) has been exploited on a systematic basis for at least 8,000 years, according to even conservative estimates. The paleoethnobotanical record from the Indian subcontinent provides a fine database to study dispersal and exchange of crop plants and associated species at the hands of ancient humankind. The early agriculturists relied on crops domesticated elsewhere, especially West Asian cultigens like wheat, barley, common pea, chickpea, and grass pea, while domestication and exploitation of indigenous rice, Jobs tears, Setaria, and Panicum (types of millets), may have begun during the fifth millennium BP. From the end of the fifth millennium BP, the record shows a mixture of African summer crop species along with indigenous domesticates such as rice and several food legumes. These are clearly seen in the post-Harappan and Deccan Neolithic-Chalcolithic sites of the fourth millennium BP. Exchanges Continued Crops like sesame, citrus, cotton, and some food legumes could have moved out from India during prehistoric times, but more archaeobotanical evidence is needed to be sure of the timing. By early historical times, trade routes were well established: India and Sri Lanka exchanged with the Roman world plant produce such as rice, black pepper, long pepper, ginger, areca nut, cardamom, indigo, sanMany of these introduced crops secondarily diversified in a relatively short time but paleoethnobotanical records are inadequate to confirm the evidence. Further research and excavations of late historical sites are needed. For further information, contact: Dr. M.D. Kajale, Department of Archaeology, Deccan College, Postgraduate Research Institute, Pune 411 006, India. Tel: +91-212-669795. Fax: +91-212-660104. Acknowledgments
The author is grateful to the authorities of the Deccan College over the years, especially the late Professors H.D. Sankalia, S.B. Deo, M.K. Dhavalikar, and V.N. Misra for academic facilities and encouragement to undertake archaeobotanical studies. He is most beholden to various excavators from various governmental archaeological organizations and university archaeology departments for inviting him to undertake paleobotanical investigations concurrently with their excavations. This paper is dedicated to the memory of the late Prof S.B. Deo, one of the doyens of Indian archeology.

Further Reading
Costantini, Lorenzo. 1984. The beginnings of Agriculture in the Kacchi Plain: the evidence of Mehrgarh. In South Asian Archaeology-1981. B. Allchin (ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp.29-33. Kajale, M.D. 1991. Current status of Indian palaeoethnobotany: Introduced and indigenous food plants with a discussion of the historical and evolutionary developments of Indian agriculture and agricultural systems in general. In New Light on Early Farming: Recent Developments in Palaeoenobotany. Jane Renfrew (ed.). Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, pp. 155- 189. Saraswat, K.S. 1992. Archaeobotanical remains in ancient cultural and socioeconomical dynamics of the Indian subcontinent. Paleobotanist 40:514-545. Vishnu Mittre. 1988. Forty years of archaeobotanical research in South Asia. Man and Environment 14( 1): l- 16.

dalwood, ebony, myrobalan, nutmeg, etc. Further introductions of fruit crops from Central Asia took place during Muslim rule in India. The import of New World crops, such as maize and potato, was due to European colonizers in more recent centuries.

oncern Mounts over Rapid Erosion of Himalayan Biodiversity

by T.N. Khoshoo
If one looks at the continent of Asia from outer space, its unique feature is the Himalaya (over 2500 km long), also known as the Third Pole, which separates the Indian subcontinent from more northerly parts of Asia. The youngest, tallest, and most fragile mountain system in the world, the Himalaya, has considerable diversity in altitudes, climates, habitats, soils, flora, and fauna. Himalayan biodiversity is reinforced by human, cultural, and developmental diversity but is being rapidly eroded to the detriment of many, especially forestdependent local people. About 22 percent of the Indian HimaD I V E R S I T Y

laya area is under close forest cover with 40 percent or more crown density, but ideally such an area should be 60 percent. The rate of deforestation is high. Out of about 8,000 species of flowering plants in the Himalaya, nearly 5,000 grow in Eastern Himalaya alone. Similar figures are not available on Himalayan animals, nor does such information exist on microorganism diversity. Some 3,165 species of flowering plants, 17 species of mammals, and 27 species of birds are endemic to the Himalaya. Many species of flowering plants and higher animals are endangered and must be conserved through both in situ and ex situ methods. Among the endangered plants are vo1.12, no.3, 1996

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HINDUSTANI CENTER OF DIVERSITY herbal drugs of repute that are widely collected and sold by local people. Of the animals, particular mention must be made of the pheasants, including jungle fowl, partridge, and quail. Most of these are gorgeously plumaged, thus becoming easy targets for poachers, smugglers, and illegal exporters. At least nine species have become extinct in the Himalaya. macro-level (ecosystems, communities, and populations) and also includes the establishment of Forest Tree Genetic Reserves to conserve tree germplasm (see article, p.24). With their unique flora and fauna, representative lakes and wetlands also need documentation and conservation. Special reserves are particularly needed to conserve in situ some of the important and unique biota given under the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act of 1993, Schedule I (endangered and/or those that are not allowed to be exported and need conservation). Examples of protected plants are rhododendrons, orchids, wild relatives of Citrus, mango, banana, rice, and important medicinal and aromatic plants, and protected animals include pheasants, markhor, chiru, musk deer, and snow leopard. The areas ex situ conservation deals with conserving representative genetic diversity within species. This is done in a range of facilities including genebanks in the form of 11 botanical gardens and 17 zoological parks, altogether covering about 250 ha. Unfortunately, these are not representative and have little management. Furthermore, except for seed genebanks, which operate under the auspices of the NBPGR, there are no banks yet for pollen, sperm, eggs, embryos, tissues, organs, and DNA. economic plants (and some animals) that are in constant demand in trade need priority attention. These are mostly herbal drugs of commercial value. Over-harvesting has endangered many species-especially bamboo and rattan-yielding a host of other economic products (poles, ropes,

The Eastern Himalaya is one of the 18 hotspots of biodiversity in the world.

The Eastern Himalaya is recognized as one of the 18 hotspots of biodiversity in the world. This region is floristically rich and home to many economic plants. India is also an important Vavilovian center of agribiodiversity, having contributed 167 species to world agriculture. Three of the eight subcenters of agribiodiversity fall within the Himalayan belt. These harbor wild relatives of cereals, pulses, fruits, oilyielding plants, spices, trees of commercial importance, and medicinal and aromatic plants used in indigenous health systems. Himalayan animal species relevant to agriculture are jungle fowl, zebu, mithun, and yak (see article, p.31). A common feature of Himalaya is mixed cropping in numerous permutations and combinations, and five distinct agroecosystems are practiced in Northwestern Himalaya, Western Himalaya, Assam Plains, Eastern Himalaya, and North Eastern Himalaya. Each has its own distinctive crop and livestock profile. New economic plants are being introduced in each.

Community Genebanks
Informal community genebanks exist at the village level, but these need to be formalized keeping in view the different agroforestry systems existing in the Himalayan belt since these systems are indeed treasure troves of genes. Communities in the region can be vocal witnesses to widely publicized local resistance to deforestation in northern India. One group, the Chipko, recently sponsored tree planting to regenerate denuded hills in the Indian Himalaya. Such NGOs must be looked at closely in developing strategies. There is an urgent need to have an indepth look at the entire informal and formal conservation and utilization efforts in the Himalayan belt. This should include a study of the relationship between loss of biodiversity due to major developmental projects like road building, hydro-electric dams, large-scale housing and fruit growing, and other development schemes. The process of change thus set in the biodiversity regimes needs close monitoring so that timely remedial action is taken. Conservation and domestication of wild D I V E R S I T Y

Himalayan In situ Conservation

In situ conservation guarantees evolutionary change due to natural selection at high rates as revealed by the pioneering work of Janaki Ammal and others. About 8.5 percent of the area of the Himalaya is under in situ conservation, where it involves watersheds, sacred groves, and the Protected Area Network (PAN) of biosphere reserves, national parks, and wildlife sanctuaries (see DIVERSITY, vol. 11, nos.l&2,p.38). Indias six biosphere reserves also fall in the Himalayan belt: Nanda Devi, Uttarkhand, Manas, Namdapha, Nokrek, and Kaziranga (see table, p.30). Three states in the Himalayan belt (Himachal Pradesh, Sikkim, and Arunachal Pradesh) are among the best protected states, while three others (Mizoram, Nagaland, and Tripura) have no protected areas. In situ conservation is Vo1.12, no.3,1996

mats, brooms, baskets, fodder, and wild fruit). Production through enhanced domestication and cultivation of desirable forms will reduce pressure on such species. Local technical knowledge and the trade involving such microenterprises need proper documentation to ensure benefit to the local people and not just the middle-men. A meeting in 1996, sponsored by the International Development Research Centre (IDRC) Canada, International Network for Bamboo and Rattan (INBAR), and the International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMD), discussed such strategies for bamboo, rattan, and medicinal plants and led to the Pokhara Declaration (see article, p.35). A modem database needs to be organized on biodiversity of the Himalaya. It must be innovative, taking into account causes and consequences of change, such as deforestation, and locallevel case studies linked to national, regional, and sub-regional contexts. For further information, contact: Dr. T.N. Khoshoo, Distinguished Fellow, Tata Energy Research Institute, Darbari Seth Block, Habitat Place, Lodi Road, New Delhi 110 003, India. Tel: +91-11-462-2246, 4601550. Fax: +91-11-462-1770,463-2609. Email: khoshoo@teri.emet.in.

Further Reading

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he Panorama of Indian Forests: A Reservoir of Plant and Animal Wealth

by K. N. Subramanian and K.R. Sasidharan
The recorded forest area in India is 75.18 million ha, about 22.8 percent of the geographical area of the country. But, according to the estimates made by the Forest Survey of India using satellite imagery, the actual forest cover is 64.01 million ha, only 19.47 percent of the geographical area of the country. The Indian forests are classified into 16 major forest types which have been sub-divided into 221 minor types (see Table 1). The panorama of Indian forests ranges from evergreen tropical rainforests in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands to dry alpine scrub high in the Himalayas in the north. Between the two extremes the country are semi-evergreen forests, deciduous monsoon forests, thorn forests, subtropical broadleaved, and subtropical pine forests in the lower montane zone and temperate montane forests. Of the total forest cover, 37 percent is tropical moist deciduous, 28.6 percent tropical dry deciduous, 8 percent tropical wet evergreen, and the rest is subtropical, alpine, and other forests (see box, p.28). Non-wood forest products (NWFP) play a vital role in maintaining the economic status of tribals and villagers who often earn their livelihood by collecting these products and selling them to the tribal cooperative societies or local markets (see article, p.36). NWFP include gums, resins, medicinal plants, tubers, edible fruits, and honey. India and the region are particularly important for the origin of many crops (see articles, p.21 and p.22), and many came from the forests. Apart from these food plants, many species of bamboos which are edible, also originated in the region. Even for introduced plants, such as oil palm, the region functions as a center of variability. estimated as 235 million cubic meters.

Medicinal Plants
India is endowed with a rich heritage of medicinal plant wealth (see articles, p.35 and p.36). The forests of the country possess plants like Rauvolfia serpentina- known as the wonder drug of India-which was used for centuries as a remedy for epilepsy, hypertension, and insanity. Reserpine extracted from this plant is used in modem medicine as a hypertensive and tranquilizer. About 200 important medicinal trees, used for the treatment of heart diseases, cancer, dysentery, jaundice, epilepsy, rheumatism and other diseases, are estimated to occur in the Western Ghat forests. Recent phytochemical studies revealed that a small tree known as Nothapodytes foetida growing in the evergreen forests of the Western Ghats contains the anti-leukaemic compound camptothecine. It is reported that the Santals of Santal Parganas have been using Kanta (Lasia spinosa), an Araceae member, for sterilization practices. Another plant, called Kaj or Kajhi (Bridelia spinosa), of Euphorbiaceae is used to effect permanent sterility. The Toda tribals of the Nilgiris also use many plants for birth control.

Timber and Industrial Wood Species

The country has many native commercial hardwood species: Calophyllum, Mesua, Diospyros, Swietenia, Terminalia, rosewood (Dalbergia latifolia), sal (Shorea robusta), and teak (Tectona grandis). Certain species yield good quality timber, such as the Indian red wood tree (Gluta travan corica) which is endemic to the Western Ghat forests of the southern Kerala. Sandalwood (Santalum album) is perhaps the most economically important species in high demand. The forests of India are also rich in many species of softwood and pulpwood species. Ailanthus spp. is mainly used for matches, whereas Bombax spp., Dipterocarpus spp., and Macanga peltata are examples used in softwood industries. Bamboos are known as poor mans timber because of their comparatively low price and easy availability. Many bamboos are used for construction purposes, and some are used for basket making, an important cottage industry. They are also used for making paper pulp, and many species of Acacia yield tannins used in the leather industry. Fuelwood is a predominant source of energy in village areas, the largest sector in which wood is consumed. The annual requirement of fuelwood is D I V E R S I T Y

Diversity of Resources
Apart from the plant wealth of the forests, the insects, birds, and mammals are very important to the perpetuation of forest genetic resources. Insects, especially bees, wasps, butterflies, moths, beetles, and flies, do yeomen service by acting as pollinators of many tropical trees which are outcrossers. Their availability determines seed setting and natural regeneration. Some tree species have specific pollinators which have co-evolved during the process of evolution. The role of birds and mammals in pollination and seed dispersal of forest species is well-understood. Other than these benefits, animals can provide food and many forest products like honey, lao, ivory, feathers, horns, skins, and furs which earn foreign exchange. The role of animals in maintaining the ecological balance is perhaps the most important service they render.

Depletion of Genetic Resources

Humankind has advanced materially and culturally by exploiting the natural resources available on Earth, and forest resources were recklessly utilized without caring for consequences. The annual rate of loss of forest cover in India is estimated as

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HINDUSTANI CENTER OF DIVERSITY 47,500 ha. The main reasons for deforestation in India are (1) excess removal of firewood from forests leading to degradation of forest lands, (2) grazing in forests beyond their carrying capacity, (3) diversion of forest land to non-forestry purposes, and (4) forest fires. Though a large number of genera and species can provide goods and services such as timber, fuelwood, fodder, food, fiber, and other forest products, fewer than 500 tree species have been systematically tested for their utility and fewer than 40 are being actively bred. Even in the case of tree species of high economic importance, the genetic base is very narrow due to the indiscriminate removal of natural populations from the forest areas. few important timber and pulpwood species like teak, sisham, semul, pine, Eucalypti, sandal, and red sanders were taken up. Later on, with reorganization and the establishment of the Indian Council of Forestry Research and Education (ICFRE), tree improvement research gained more importance. Short-rotation, multipurpose species like Acacia spp., Azadirachta indica, bamboos, Casuarina spp., and Populus spp. were taken up (see article, p.47). Some of the major characters in which improvement can be worked out are: (1) growth rate and timber yield; (2) trunk features; (3) branching characteristics; (4) wood properties; (5) resin yield, tannin content, and other important forest products; and (6) resistance to specific diseases and pests. Provenance testing: Provenance testing is conducted to identify the best suited seed source/provenance for a particular area so that the seeds from the same source can be utilized for large-scale afforestation of the locality. Provenance trials on native species like Chir Pine (Pinus roxburghii), Gmelina arborea, semul (Bombax ceiba), and teak (Tectona grandis) were carried out in collaboration with DANIDA Forest Tree Seed Centre, Denmark. India has also participated in the International Provenance testing of Casuarina equisetifolia and various species of Eucalyptus, particularly E. camaldulensis, E. grandis, and E. tereticornis, and some tropical pines such as Pinus caribaea and P. oocarpa. International and national provenance trials of Acacia spp., Albizia spp., and Azadirachta indica are being conducted now. Plus trees: Outstanding individuals occurring in natural stands or in evenaged plantations which combine in themselves a number of desirable features are selected as plus trees. The genetic gain expected from such selection is 15 to 20 percent. About 3,295 plus trees of important timber species have been selected so far in the country. Clonal seed orchards: The objectives of clonal seed orchards (CSOs) are to produce genetically improved seeds and to facilitate harvesting. About 1,275 ha of CSOs have been established in India. Seed Production Areas: A Seed Production Area (SPA) refers to a phenotypically superior stand made up of vigorously growing, healthy trees, upgraded by thinning to remove inferior phenotypes and treated to cause abun27

In Situ and Ex Situ Conservation of Forest Genetic Resources

Biosphere reserves, national parks, and sanctuaries: The Forest Policy of 1988 gives much emphasis to conservation of forest genetic resources (see article, p.29). A network of protected areas has been established in the country, with 75 national parks and 419 sanctuaries covering about 138,000 km2, or about 4 percent of the land area. It is also widely recognized that preservation of habitats must extend beyond protected areas. The biosphere reserve concept being developed in 14 potential sites extends the conservation initiatives beyond national parks and sanctuaries through developing an overall planning strategy. Preservation plots: A silvicultural conference held in 1929 recommended laying out preservation plots in India by selecting representative areas of chief types of forests and exceptional trees to be selected for permanent protection. At present there are 309 preservation plots throughout the country, 187 in natural forests and 112 in plantations covering 8,500 ha (see Table 2). In addition, 537 trees in various states of the country are protected. Sacred groves: Sacred groves are patches of climax vegetation existing in various parts of the country that are protected according to some religious faith or the presence of reigning deities. There are 364 such groves recorded in India. They also play important roles as in situ conservation areas for conservation of genetic resources. In India, sacred groves have been reported along the entire length of Western Ghats, in

Maharashtra, Kamataka, and Kerala as well as in the hill states of North Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh and in eastern India. Botanical gardens play an important role in the ex situ conservation of resources. The Indian Botanical Garden at Howrah, which is over 200 years old, is one such important conservation center; other important botanical gardens are situated in Bangalore and Lucknow.

Tree Improvement Research

Scientific work on tree improvement was initiated in 1959-60 at the Forest Research Institute, Dehra Dun, and its regional centers in close collaboration with the State Forest Departments. Initially, only a

D I V E R S I T Y

HINDUSTANI CENTER OF DIVERSITY destruction of the relatively hardy mangrove vegetation. Chemical and dyestuff manufacturing units on the west coast of India dump effluents directly into rivers, invariably harming the mangrove vegetation, before they discharge into the sea and consequently also harm the aquatic and marine life. Although various pollution control bodies are functioning, they do not possess effective legal means to stop the harm to the environment. Industries are encouraged to move to a particular state, (e.g. Gujarat,) through incentives to industrialists. Conservation of biodiversity and maintenance of a safe environment are secondary to creating jobs. Only through public awareness can the principals of the manufacturing units be made to take rectifying measures to curb their environmentally-unfriendly industrial processes. highly successful as it involves local, community-based resources and labor. Several mangrove islands have been kept intact under the protective custody of local temples in Kerala. estates, and blocks of flats for human habitation has destroyed mangroves in India. Since ex situ conservation rarely is successful with mangrove species, in situ methods are being applied. These methods not only preserve the germplasm but also prevent the forests from further destruction. One of the prerequisites for such conservation is preparation of a comprehensive inventory of biological diversity existing in each target area. This is being done by the Indian governments Ministry of Environment and Forests using a multi-disciplinary approach. Remote sensing and Geographical Information Systems (GISs) have also been employed to map Indias coastal areas and identify areas of mangrove diversity as well as degradation. Restoration of mangroves is a complicated process because of interrelated elements of the entire ecosystem within the land/sea interphase zone. Well-established mangroves have been known to keep the shoreline intact and act as a buffer against soil erosion from the sea. Through artificial regeneration of mangroves, nurseries have been developed in India which provide seedlings for replanting in the degraded areas. Local people readily cooperate because of the beneficial repercussions on the spawning grounds of certain fish which are then sold for much needed cash. The success of the reforestation can be gauged by the arrival of a large flock of painted storks (Mycteria leucocephala) each June since 1994 at the Pichavaram reserve in Tamil Nadu.

In Situ Mangrove Conservation

Dredging for landfills for commercial activities such as building ports, industrial

Mangrove Species as Medicinal Plants

Traditionally, indigenous knowledge of medicinal properties of mangrove trees and shrubs has been regarded in India as family property and is much guarded by tribal people living in or close to these forests. However, in recent years, due to the improvement in medical facilities (one of the reasons for the population explosion in India), the use of traditional medicine has declined and lost its importance. Some traditional and curative uses of mangrove plant products are given in the accompanying table. Economic realities brought about considerable changes in the traditional activities of communities residing in and around coastal areas. A highly productive, as well as ecologically sound, production system has developed in Kerala state, with agro-based practices such as rice farming between monsoons, prawn and fish farming during the monsoons, and intercropping of coconut, garden vegetables, pepper vine, and other spices. The overall system is 30 D I V E R S I T Y

Integral Conservation Approach is Crucial

Human and mangrove interaction has been in existence for a very long time. Only recently, however, has human activity in the densely populated areas of the world resulted in wanton destruction with seeming disregard for the detrimental effects on the entire ecosystem of the Earth. Vo1.12, no.3, 1996

HINDUSTANI CENTER OF DIVERSITY A community-based approach is needed to bring about an end to the over-exploitation of mangrove resources (see articles, p.73 and p.76). At the same time, a detailed analysis of the social behavior of coastal communities can contribute toward the success of in situ conservation of biodiversity of the mangrove vegetation. Greater awareness must be generated through education, media, and word of mouth, especially among the young, that destruction of mangrove forests can have harmful repercussions on their own communities. Because no international body is working solely on mangroves, NGOs such as the M.S. Swaminathan Research Foundation and the Bombay Natural History Society have set up relatively small projects for the study and conservation of mangrove genetic resources in India. The mangrove ecosystem, an important coastal wetland, provides protective, productive, and economic benefits to the

The mangrove ecosystem provides protective, productive, and economic benefits to the coastal communities of India.
coastal communities of India, but they are being rapidly degraded and depleted by several human-induced stresses on these

ecosystems, ranging from changes in land use patterns to over-exploitation. An integral approach involving the conservation of the remaining mangrove forests, restoration of the degraded areas through replantations, and the development of innovative techniques for sustainable utilization of mangrove genetic resources will ensure that the profits from these dynamic coastal wetlands will be available to future generations. In addition, the mangrove ecosystems constitute a bridge between terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems which provide various

benefits to the coastal communities. Like several agricultural and forest plant species, an integral national strategy is needed to conserve and enhance biological diversity in the mangrove ecosystems of India. For further information contact: Dr. Sanjay Deshmukh, Bombay Natural History Society, Hombill House, Bhagat Singh Road, Bombay 400 023, India. Tel: +9122-282-1811. Fax: +91-22-283-7615. Further Reading
M.S. Swaminathan Research Foundation. 1991. First Annual Report 1990-91. MSSRF Madras, India.

temming the Threat to Indian Livestock

by A.E. Nivsarkar, S.C. Gupta, and P.K. Vij
Livestock and poultry form an integral part of natures ecological balance due to their interaction with plants and other animals. They have served humankind throughout the ages and are vitally linked to human civilization, culture, and heritage in many ways. The broad genetic diversity of Indian livestock under various agroclimatic conditions is illustrated by the number of breeds within a species and in the variability of animal raising patterns, management systems, and product utilization. The intensification and modernization of agriculture has resulted in only a few breeds being widely used while others decrease in population size, some disappearing completely. Activities to improve output of indigenous animals in India have been pursued for 40 years by introducing new genes from exotic germplasm. While the beneficial effects of crossbreeding for milk production and other traits have been documented widely, such crossing also threatens the genetic diversity of the native breeds. Many local breeds considered to have unique genetic adaptation to specific and harsh environments are being diluted. A census of Indias livestock in 1977 indicated that cattle constituted about 48.7 percent of the total livestock population, a figure which decreased to 44.8 percent by 1987. Sheep decreased during these years from 11.1 to 10.3 percent. Buffalo increased marginally from 16.8 to 17.1 percent, while goat increased substantially

from 20.5 to 24.7 percent. The poultry population increased by 71.1 percent during the same period. Diversity in Animal Genetic Resources India occupies a pre-eminent position with respect to animal genetic resources, with 26 breeds of cattle, 8 breeds of buffalo, 42 breeds of sheep, 20 of goat, 8 of camel, 6 of horse, a few types of pigs, and 18 breeds of poultry along with species like yak, mithun, geese, and duck. Cattle-The second FAO World Watch List (199.5) reported about 61 breeds of native cattle of which only 26 Indian breeds have been accredited based on their phenotype, production, and reproduction performance.* From a utility point of view these can be classified into three types:
*Due to differences in language and dialect, which may change within 25 km of a geographical area, the same breed may be named differently. Whether these different names actually correspond to different breeds has not been confirmed by systematic study.

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HINDUSTANI CENTER OF DIVERSITY . Sahiwal, Tharparkar, Red Sindhi, and Gir-the prominent dairy breeds of the Indian subcontinent-which are highly adapted under tropical conditions and produce about 2,500-3,000 kg milk in 305 days of lactation; . Hariana, Rathi, Kankrej, Deoni, and Kangayam- dual-purpose breeds whose males are good bullocks while the females annually give 1,200 to 2,000 kg milk; and . about 18 breeds of good draft cattle, spread throughout the country, are mainly raised to produce male calves for bullocks and for the extra milk obtained after suckling of calves (300 to 400 kg annually). of Uttar Pradesh is known for its high butterfat milk. Toda is a meat-type buffalo raised under semi-wild conditions by the Toda tribe in the Nilgiri hills of Tamil Nadu. In eastern states, swamp-type buffaloes are used for ploughing in paddies. Wild Asiatic buffalo is found in the Kaziranga reserve forest in Assam and other northeastern hill states of India. Sheep- Because the economic context and natural environment of the country require much diversity in sheep husbandry, the number of breeds and genetic variation in the sheep population is significant. Of the 59 breeds of sheep listed in the FAO Second World Watch List (1995) about 42 have been documented in India over the years. The fact that these sheep breeds are divided among four zones in the country explains not only geographical distribution but also shows great genetic diversity and utility patterns: . Sheep of the north temperate zone are fine-wool type. They include Gurej, Karnaah, Bhakarwal, Kashmir Valley, and Changthangi of Jamu and Kashmir, Rampur Blishair, and Gaddi of Himachal and Garhwal hills of U.P. . Sheep breeds of the northwestern dry region are good carpet-wool types. They include Chokla, Lohi, Nali, Magra, Pugal, Jaiselmeri, and Marwari in the states of Rajasthan, Gujarat, Haryana, and Punjab. . In the hot, humid, and tropical climate of the southern plateau, the largesized hairy sheep with good mutton potential predominate. Mandya, Deccani, Bellari, Nellore, Madras Red, Trichi Black, Coimbatore, Macheri, Killakarsel, and Ramnad White are such breeds. Nilgiri is a fine-wool sheep found in the subtemperate climate of the Nilgiri hills. . In the eastern part of the country the sheep are small-sized but are known for high prolificacy and good feed conversion efficiency. Garrole is a litter-bearing breed. Goat-Diversified phenotypes and varied performance and utility patterns are the hallmarks of Indias indigenous goat population. Twenty breeds of goats have been recognized in India.

India occupies a pre-eminent position with respect to animal genetic resources.

Apart from the diversity in production types, a great variation in body size, color pattern, horn types, and other phenotypic parameters exist. Sahiwal, Tharparkar, and Kankrej are medium- to heavy-sized, Punganur is a dwarf, and Vechur is a miniature cattle. Siri cattle of Sikkim and local hill cattle of Himachal Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh hills are capable of draft work at high-altitude, hilly terrain. Cattle of Assam and Bengal are also useful for agricultural operations on small landholdings on staircase-type (terraced) fields. Buffalo- India possesses almost all the breeds of riverine buffaloes. Murrah and Nili-Ravi are the main milch breeds of buffalo of Haryana and Punjab. Jaffrabadi, Surti, and Mehsana are good milch breeds of Gujarat. Nagpuri, a longhorn breed, is found in the Vidharbha region, and several similar types of this breed, with some minor differences in horn pattern or other phenotypes, are also found in parts of Maharastra and Andhra Pradesh. The Bhadawari breed

di breed of Himachal Pradesh produces long, coarse hairs. . Goats in the northwestern dry region -Marwari, Beetal, Sirohi, Jamnapari, Jakhrana, Siirti, and Barberi-yield good milk and have good meat potential. Jamnapari has been used to improve breeds both within the country as well as in Southeast Asian countries. . Goat breeds of south and eastern regions are mainly raised for meat. Black Bengal goats are known for their high fecundity and good feed conversion index. Horse, camel, and other pack animals- India has two primary types of horses: (1) the Mongolian-type breeds, suitable for hill areas, include the Zanskari of Ladakh, Spiti of Himachal Pradesh, Bhutia of Sikkim and Manipuri; and (2) the Arabian-type breeds adapted to hot, arid conditions that include Kathiawari and Marwari. A large population of common Indian black donkey serves as an important pack animal in rural areas. Wild ass (Equus onager) is found in small numbers in the Rann (desert) of Kutch in Gujarat. Important Dromedian camel breeds used as excellent pack and transport animals in hot, arid deserts in the northwestern parts of India include Marwari, Jaiselmeri, Kutclii, Jalori, and Mewati. Bactrian camels are in limited number in the highaltitude, cold, arid region of the Nubra Valley of the Ladakh region of Jamu and Kashmir. Yaks with large variation in their phenotypes and production are found in the highaltitude mountains of Ladakh, Himchal Pradesh, Sikkim, and Arunachal Pradesh in the Himalayas. They are the most important pack animals on snowbound passes at high altitude and also provide milk, meat, Vo1.12, no. 3, 1996

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HINDUSTANI CENTER OF DIVERSITY hair/wool, and skin for the human population living there. Mithun, maintained under semi-wild conditions, is a most important sacrificial animal amongst the tribes of the northeastern hill region of India. Pig and poultry- Although there is no well-defined breed of pig in India, large numbers of native pigs are raised to provide pork. Seventeen indigenous breeds of poultry have been identified in India. Aseel, Kadaknath, and Nacked Neck are important breeds which have been very popular among the local people for their excellent meat quality and utility as game birds. Besides these, a large variety of duck, turkey, partridge, and quail are found in different parts of the country. Indigenous Breeds at Risk While documentation on the status of many breeds is presently not available, preliminary studies and estimates from census reports indicate that population trends have emerged among different species, particularly those needing immediate attention. Cattle-From the number of breedable females available and the number of them bred true, Red Sindhi, Sahiwal, Tharparkar, Punganur, and Vechur are believed to be heading towards extinction. Buffalo-- The Bhadawari breed of buffalo, known for its high fat content in milk, is in danger of extinction. The Toda breed, suitable for the hill region, is limited in number. Although Nili-Ravi buffalo is predominant in Pakistan, their number in India has remained very small, located primarily in Punjab and Haryana. Sheep-Due to the introduction of Merino types on a large scale during the last few decades, all native breeds of Jamu and Kashmir are virtually extinct. Likewise, Nilgiri, another fine-wool sheep of Tamil Nadu, is facing extinction as there is no local demand for wool and slaughtering is indiscriminate. Muzaffamagri, one of the largest breed of sheep, is on the verge of extinction because landholdings are very small and much land is coming under agricultural farming. Also showing decline are the Malpura, Chokla, and Jaisalmeri in Rajasthan; Munjal from Haryana; Changthangi and Tibetan from the upper hills; and Bonpala from Sikkim. Goat- Jamnapari is the most important Indian goat breed facing extinction. The other goat breeds showing a declining trend in population are Beetal, Chegu, Changthangi, Surti, and Jakhrana. Camel- The double-humped Bactrian camel is practically extinct; the present population is reported to have only 50 females and three or four males in the Nubra Valley of Ladakh. Other breeds of camel in need of conservation are Jaisalmeri and Sindhi. Poultry- All of Indias 17 indigenous breeds of poultry are facing extinction. The three important breeds, Aseel, Kadaknath, and Nacked Neck, which have been very popular among the local people for their excellent meat quality and their utility as game birds, are now suddenly disappearing.

For further information contact: Dr. A.E. Nivsarkar, Director, National Bureau of Animal Genetic Resources, PO. Box 129, Makrampur Campus, G.T. Road Bye Pass, Kamal-132001 (Haryana), India. Tel: +91-184-253-918. Fax: +91-184-253654. E-mail: nbagr@x400.nicgw.nic.in.

by P. Das and D. Kapoor India is fortunate to be endowed with a bounty of natural habitats, including snowcovered Himalayas, the Indo-Gangetic plains, the Deccan plateau, coastal regions, and the seas. Such areas support a broad extent of water resources, including cold, warm, brackish, and marine waters harboring abundant fish genetic resources (Table 1). Of some 20,000 species comprising the

fish genetic resources of the world, nearly 11 percent (or 2,200 finfish species) have been recorded in India by the ICAR National Bureau of Fish Genetic Resources (NBFGR) in Lucknow. NBFGRs mandate reflects its scientific commitment to the cause of fish diversity conservation and includes: (a) collection, classification, and evaluation of information on fish genetic resources of the country; (b) cataloguing genotypes; (c) maintenance and conservation of fish genetic materials in coordination with other agencies; (d) conservation of endangered species; and (e) monitoring the introduction of exotic species in Indian waters. Coldwaters: Coldwater resources cover some portions of the Indus, upper stretches D I V E R S I T Y

of the Ganga and Brahmaputra river systems including their tributaries, and streams of the Nilgiri hills, harboring 73 species. Common fish are Tor tor, T. putitora, T. khudree, Acrossocheilus hexagonolepis, Schizothorax spp., and Schizothoraichthys spp. Warmwaters of the plains: In India, 14 major river systems share about 83 percent of the drainage. Out of 2,200 species, 544 inhabit warm freshwaters. The most important and common species are Labeo rohita, L. calbasu, Catla catla, Cirrhinus mrigala, Mystus aor, M. seenghala, Eutropiichthys vacha, Tenuolosa ilisha, and Heteropneustes fossilis. The distribution of fish species in Indian river systems is shown in Table 2.

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HINDUSTANI CENTER OF DIVERSITY India, discussions with eminent scientists, naturalists, and conservationists, a tentative list of threatened fishes of India has been prepared following IUCN categories (Table 3). Stresses Affecting Fish Diversity With Indias rapid development, population explosion, and ever-increasing demand for fish as food, the aquatic systems are under constant human-induced pressures. These include: . Habitat destruction: Construction of multipurpose dams and the addition of soil to rivers due to erosion in the hills have adversely affected the habitats. . Over-exploitation: Juveniles and brood fish recruitment has declined rapidly. . Wanton destruction.. Indiscriminate use of destructive fishing methods is causing serious damage. . Aquatic pollution: Industrial waste, sewage, and pesticide pollution have been causing permanent damage. . Uncontrolled introduction of exoticfishes: Since the introduction of exotic common carp and silver carp, indigenous Schizothorax spp. and Catla have declined drastically in certain waters. Conservation Techniques The Indian Fisheries Act is intended to protect fish by restricting catch size, indiscriminate and destructive methods of fishing, and catching of juveniles and brood fishes, but implementation of the act in a vast country has been problematic. The act is presently under revision. In situ preservation efforts, undertaken within natural or manmade ecosystems, are in progress. The Himachal Pradesh Government has selected certain stretches of the rivers, such as Sidhpur, Ranuka, Baijnath, and Machial, as protected areas and banned mahseer (Tor putitora) fishing as a conservation measure. Sanctuaries for aquatic reserves have been designated inland and in the coastal belt in India for conservation of fish. The Gulf of Kutch Marine Park Zone, covering 42 islands, and the Gulf of Mannar, including 22 islands, are also protected areas. To replenish the declining population of mahseer, a seed ranching program has been initiated as a collaborative venture in the U.P. Hills. In addition, scientists have initiated ranching of Tenualosa ilisha seed above Farraka barrage where it is endangered. Some genetic population studies of Indian major carp and endangered fishes were carried out by screening 25 enzymes systems using PAGE and IEF of eyelens protein and gradient SDS-PAGE. Inter- and intraspecific variations were recorded. Polymorphism, shown by NOR banding of chromosomes, is observed in seven finfishes. A chromosome atlas of Indian fish species showing such studies is under preparation. The NBFGR in Lucknow has developed long-term cryopreservation of milt of commercial and threatened species. While a full-size genebank is presently under construction, a small one exists at the NBFGR Lucknow site and contains viable sperm of threatened and commercial species. At the NBFGRs Live Fish Genetic Resource Centre (under construction), genetic management of prioritized endangered species, including a ranching program for critically endangered germplasm, will be undertaken. A public information drive is underway on conservation of endangered mahseer using model cases in the Kosi and Kali streams of northern upland streams in an effort to expand areas of operation for meaningful conservation in the country. For further information, contact Dr. P. Das or Dr. D. Kapoor, National Bureau of Fish Genetic Resources, Post Box No. 19, 351/28 Dariyapur, Talkatora Rd., Lucknow-226004, India. Tel: +91-522-250315, 250332. Fax: +91-522-259820.

Brackish water of estuarine areas: While about 143 species are found in brackish water, those with the greatest economic value are Pangasius pangasius, Mugil cephalus, Setipinna phasa, Harpodon nehereus, and Lates calcifer. Seas: Marine fish of the three seas around India-the Bay of Bengal, the Arabian Sea, and the Indian Ocean-include coastal and offshore deep-sea species and contain about 1,440 finfish species constituting 65.45 percent of the fish resources of the country. A few commercially important species are Sardinella longiceps, S. fimbriatus, Rastrelliger kanagurta, Plotosus canius, Anguilla hengalensis, Polynemus tetradauctylus, and Parastronzateus niger. Present Status of Fish Genetic Resources in India In the coldwater system, one species, Gymnocypris biswasi, has not been collected in the catch for quite a long time. In the Ganga river system, the annual hilsa landing has declined from 19.30 t to 1.04 t in Allahabad, 3 1.97 t to 0.60 t in Kanpur, and 3.95 t to 0.68 t in Bhagalpur after the commissioning of the Farraka barrage. In brackish ecosystems, abundance of the pearl spot, Etroplus suratensis, appears to have decreased. In the seas, most of the commercially important fishes except for oil sardine have been declining. Based on papers presented at a seminar at NBFGR on Endangered Fishes of 34

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ndia Uniquely Positioned to Capitalize on Abundant Medicinal Plant Heritage

by J. Halley and J.T. Williams Indias vast resource base of medicinal plants is well-known the world over. The many articles and respected compendia that have been published on the countrys wealth of diverse genetic resources and medical traditions make a compelling case for the assertion that India is uniquely positioned to exploit her riches in medicinal plants. With such an abundance of evidence available in this regard, it is appropriate to consider how this floristic wealth fits into peoples lives and how it can be used and safeguarded to those same peoples benefit. An Ancient System of Medicine The heritage of medicinal plant use in India has an ancient history, dating back to the pre-Vedic culture, at least 4,000 years. Today it is estimated that at least 70 percent of the countrys people rely on herbal medicines for primary health care, and many others make use of such treatments in conjunction with other forms of medical therapy. These estimates, though, are only a beginning, as they concentrate mainly on codified and well-documented systems such as Ayurveda, Siddha, and Unani medicine, as well as homeopathy and allopathy. In addition to these classical systems of medicine, innumerable local folk medicinal traditions exist but often are limited in practice to particular villages or tribes and still unknown outside these areas. In all, over 7,000 plants are known to be used for medicinal purposes in the country. India is not only a large consumer of medicinal plants and herbal medicines, but is also a very important global producer as well. An estimated three-fourths of the plant-based drugs mentioned in pharmacopeias worldwide are found in their natural state in India. An immense industry, ranging from cottage-level to small- and medium-scale factory production, has grown up around these resources. This industry, of over 7,000 licensed manufacturing units, supplies over 55,000 pharmacies and 14,000 herbal dispensaries with plant-based medicines. In the end, conservative estimates suggest that medicinal plants cultivation, harvesting, processing, agriculture, forestry, enviand use generates over 200 million days of ronment, health, and science and technoloemployment each year in the country. gy. The need of the hour, recognized now by nearly all who are involved in the sector, External Pressures is for strategic alliances. To this end, several coordinated projects The linkages between plants and people also relate directly to well-being. According have been developed around the country. to Indias Ministry of Health and Family An ICAR/IARI All-India Coordinated Welfare, the modem medical infrastructure Project on Medicinal Plants, working out provides primary health care in only 3-30 of the National Bureau of Plant Genetic percent of cases in the country. In most Resources (NBPGR), was set up to address other cases, people rely on traditional, for the state of the resource base and the needs the most part plant-based, medicine. for conservation and careful Despite these statistics and utilization. The Publications declarations of the World and Information Directorate Health Organization concernof the Council of Scientific ing the need for the continand Industrial Research ued use of medicinal plants, (CSIR), New Delhi, is a key there have been mounting focal point for information external pressures through and works in cooperation increased trade demands with ICAR. for crude plant materials The Indian Council from industrialized counof Medical Research and tries and pressures to focus the Central Councils for Reon Western-type medicine. search in Ayurveda and Siddha, Over-exploitation of certain Unani, and Homeopathy link a species has resulted in endangergreat deal of genetic resources data ment of 14 species currently, with 35 to the encyclopedic compilation Wealth more considered to be vulnerable. Over of India and to Medicinal and Aromatic one-third of the plants listed in the Indian Plants Abstracts, published since 1979. India is also a participant in the G-15 Red Data Book are medicinals. These trends have led to a number of Gene Banks for Medicinal and Aromatefforts to conserve resources on the one ic Plants (GEBMAP) Initiative and has hand and to cultivate threatened species on played an active role, led by the Departthe other. Conservation of resources is not ment of Biotechnology, as the Regional easy, however, because active principles Coordinator for the Asian countries particare not always of the same efficacy from all ipating in GEBMAP. examples of the species. Little, other than As a part of its cooperation, three local knowledge, is known in this regard. national genebanks have been established. Even more importantly, about 95 percent of all materials are harvested from the wild, The heritage of medicinal plant and knowledge of patterns of genetic diveruse in India has an sity and what exactly to cultivate is sparse ancient history. except for a handful of species. Until more is known, genetic resources work seems to be limited to somewhat subjective sam- Two of the genebanks, located at the Cenpling, and the best empirical approach is to tral Institute of Medicinal and Aromatic conserve as much diversity as possible in Plants (CIMAP), in Lucknow, and the situ. At the same time, ex situ conservation NBPGR, in Delhi, focus on species found and propagation of known endangered predominantly in the north. The third, in high-demand species should also be a high Trivandrum, at the Tropical Botanical priority. Gardens Research Institute, concentrates on species of the south.The three institutes Strategic Alliances conserve materials in field genebanks, in At the government level, interest in and seed storage, in active in vitro culture, and support for medicinal plant research is under cryopreservation. somewhat diffuse as it involves several These conservation activities are backed institutions and ministries encompassing by characterization and evaluation of D I V E R S I T Y 35

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HINDUSTANI CENTER OF DIVERSITY germplasm and documentation. At present, highest priority is given to species depending on criteria including known degrees of threat, established use, known intra-specific variations, commercial importance, and problems in exchange of germplasm. India also participates in the AsiaPacific Information Network on Medicinal and Aromatic Plants (APINMAP), set up by UNESCO, and in the Asian Network on Medicinal and Aromatic Plants (ANMAP), sponsored by FAO in Bangkok. Among NGOs that are active in the country, the most notable is the Foundation for Revitalization of Local Health Traditions (FRLHT), based in Bangalore (see next article). Among other projects, FRLHT maintains a network of 20 Medicinal Plants Conservation Areas for in situ conservation in the three southernmost states of India. It is also actively involved in ethnobotanical research and documentation of traditional medicinal systems and practices. Linking the Medicinal Plants Partners Bridging the gap between governmenr and non-government efforts, and also between these and the private and healthcare sectors, the International Development Research Centre (IDRC), Canada, has developed a Medicinal Plants Network (IMPN) that links partners from throughout the region, including all those named above. IMPN works with the prominent proponents of traditional medicine, such as the Arya Vaidya Sala, Kottakal, as well as established institutes of modem science, including the Indian Institute of Science, and focuses on linking these to the needs of communities and people involved. IMPN has also undertaken, with the World Bank, a state-of-the-art review of the medicinal plants sector in India, focusing on the possibilities for translating the economic value of the resources into conservation and health care planning. This report strongly suggests the need for sustained networking and coordinated, strategic research and development, and testifies to Indias global role in medicinal plants. The countrys demonstrated interest and richness in both genetic diversity and traditional medicine suggests an excellent opportunity for current efforts in the South Asian region to play a major role in international efforts and coordination. For further information, contact: Mr. Jason Holley, International Development Research Centre, 17 Jor Bagh, New Delhi 110003, India. Tel: +91-11-461-941 1. Fax: +91-11-462-2707. E-mail: jholley@idrc.ca.

edicinal Plants Conservation Provides Communities with Health and Wealth

by V. Tandon
The Foundation for Revitalization of Local Health Traditions (FRLHT), a nongovernment organization based in Bangalore, is dedicated to the revival of Indias indigenous medical heritage. The foundation currently is coordinating a project in three South Indian states-Kerala, Karnataka, and Tamil Nadu-to establish a system to conserve and sustainably use medicinal plants, particularly in the context of primary health care. The project is necessary not only to rescue many medicinal plant species and reduce the threats of imminent extinction, but also to revive popular interest and usage of local health traditions (LHTs) which for the vast majority of Indias rural people are the only affordable health care. Network of Medicinal Plant Sites for In Situ and Ex Situ Conservation To achieve the twin objectives of conserving of medicinal plant diversity and revitalizing their associated cultural traditions, the project seeks to establish a network of in situ and ex situ conservation sites. At the end of the first phase of the project in March 1997, this network will consist of 55 conservation sites. I. Thirty in situ Medicinal Plants Conservation Areas (MPCAs) have been established. Each MPCA, averaging 200 ha, represents a major forest type. The altitudinal and spatial distribution of the MPCAs also covers centers of endemism and species richness, traditionally acknowledged centers of medicinal plant wealth, and distinct biogeographic zones of southem peninsular India. Twenty MPCAs are scattered along the Western Ghats, the southern part of which has been recognized as a conservation hot spot by the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN). Initial floristic surveys reveal that 63 percent of the known medicinal plant diversity of southern India is within these MPCAs. Over 1,800 species of higher plants have been catalogued and herbarium specimens prepared. Vegetation and ecological data recorded along belt transects at about 1.5 percent sampling intensity in each MPCA are currently being computerized for analysis. Other related studies aim to help maximize species diversity presence and, where feasible, nurture viable breeding populations. 2.Fifteen ex situ Medicinal Plants Conservation Parks (MPCPs) to supplement the in situ conservation efforts have been set up in distinct agro-ecological D I V E R S I T Y zones. These MPCPs, varying between 6 and 10 ha, are owned and managed by community-based NGOs with experience in environment/health related work. Common features of an MPCP include: . An Ethno-Medicinal Forest Park wherein medicinal flora known to local ethnic communities would be grown in polyculture models. Accessions from different wild locations would be introduced

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An Outreach Nursery that would grow medicinal plants for the public, propagating suitable species for home herbal gardens as well as species categorized as rare, endangered, or otherwise threatened (RET) in southern India. An Herbarium, Seed and Raw Drug Center that would display herbarium specimens, samples of seeds, and raw drugs of medicinal plants of the region or district for purposes of training, study, and education. Centered around this MPCP the NGO will implement a people-oriented program to conserve and revitalize medicinal plants of local health traditions in its area of operation. 3. Ten conservation sites called Medicinal Plants Development Areas (MPDAs) are located on degraded forest lands on which adjacent communities partly depend for their livelihood. MPDAs are designed to test different models of joint forest management between the Forest Department (FD) and local communities. Here, the MPDAs are intensively planted with herb, shrub, and tree medicinal species. Profits through harvesting and sale of products will be shared between the FD and the local community in an agreed manner. MPDAs seek to increase the economic stake of local communities in rehabilitation and conservation of degraded forest lands. Vigorous Community Participation Essential to Success The entire network of the 55 medicinal plants conservation sites also has a vigorous community participation element to seek involvement of local communities in their long-term conservation. By using existing village-level organizations, such as womens groups and farmer clubs, wider appreciation of the role and importance of medicinal plants in the rural economy and health care is being sought. On the cultural level, an extensive effort to document and use indigenous knowledge is being attempted. Vol.12, no.3, 1996

Recognizing that the economic returns to rural communities must flow increasingly as a result of their conserving their natural resources, in its second phase the project seeks to enhance such potential economic gains through encouraging value addition and better marketing of raw, grown, or cultivated medicinal plants or

Economic returns to rural communities must flow increasingly as a result of their natural resources conservation.
their semi-processed products. Direct marketing tie-ins with industry are being explored, and initial contacts are encouraging. For example, in one MPDA at Dodda D I V E R S I T Y

Betta in the Nilgiri district of Tamil Nadu, in the first year alone the local community itself was able to generate an income of over Rs 100,000 through a simple oil distillation unit there. In the villages where the MPCPs are operating, initial public response to developing home herbal gardens and attending related medicinal plant use training has been encouraging. In some MPCPs in the first six months of launching the program, 300 to 400 women started home herbal gardens. The demand for suitable planting materials and training on their medicinal uses is steadily increasing. Several research projects addressing field problems and areas of applied nature are being supported. Frontline areas of research include the mapping of genetic variability within six selected species of medicinal plants among their populations in six in situ conservation sites. To strengthen its efforts and improve the quality of its programs, FRLHT is in the process of developing a multidisciplinary database for various user groups. An active communications component to support various project activities over the last two years has produced custom-made educational materials in three major vernacular languages, training materials, slide shows, movies, and folk media such as puppet theater. To provide general information and to focus public attention on the need to conserve this rich medicinal heritage, FRLHT through its subsidiary, Medplan Conservatory Society, publishes Amruth, a bimonthly magazine. For further information, contact: Vinay Tandon, Conservation Coordinator, Foundation for Revitalization of Local Health Traditions, 50. M.S.H. Layout, 2nd Stage, 3rd Main, Anand Nagar, Bangalore024, India. Tel: +91 80 333-6906/333-0348. Fax: +91-80-333-4167. E-mail: root@ frlht.emet.in. Internet: http://ece.iisc.emet. in\met-members\frlht.html.

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INDIAS GENETIC RESOURCES SYSTEM

by E.A. Siddiq
Genetic resources of the Indian subcontinent have contributed greatly to the improvement, production, and productivity of major crop plants, yielding a substantial body of information on the use of these resources for genetic enhancement, particularly for improvement of yields and production. The continued need for evaluation and use of these valuable collections is well-illustrated in the examples summarized below. RICE: Providing the World with Germplasm Northeastern India, where one can find unique diversity in the genepool of rice, is on the periphery of the center of origin of this major Asian staple crop. Phylogeneticists believe that the aus rices of this region could have evolved into japonica and that aman rices evolved into juvanica varietal groups. Rice breeding in many Asian countries reveals how Indias germplasm had been utilized to improve both tropical and temperate rices long before the introduction of high-yielding varieties (HYVs). Intan, Mas, and Peta, the most popular varieties of Indonesia, for instance, are the products of the cross of the Indian variety Latisail with the Chinese Variety Cina. Peta is a parent of the miracle variety, IR8; hence, over 80 percent of the dwarf varieties cultivated today in Asia have germplasm from Latisail. Similarly, IR5, a cross Peta x Tongai Rotan, led to many rainfed lowland rices, and all have Latisail germplasm. Since the Green Revolution, dwarf rices became widespread and Indian rice germplasm has been further extensively used for a range of characters from resistance to biotic and abiotic stresses to consumer quality parameters. A recent analysis shows that IRRIs 35 breeding lines adopted as varieties in rice-growing countries include in their ancestry one or more varieties or wild species of India. Whereas Latisail occurs in all 35 varieties, Indias GEB24, known for its grain quality, occurs in 31 of them. Plant and leaf hopper, stem borer, gall midge, and rice tungro virus (RTV) resis-

tance sources (e.g., CO 18, Ptb 18, and Ptb 21) are involved in 18-25 varieties. An Indian accession of wild Oryza nivara, and the only source of resistance to grassy stunt virus, occurs in as many as seven varieties. Other frequently used sources include Mudgo and Ptb 33, for resistance to brown planthopper, and HR 21 for RTV resistance. Detailed analysis shows that, in the ancestry of the two worldwide successful varieties of IRRI (IR 36 and IR 64) seven and six donor varieties, respectively, are involved for resistances (see article, p.60). In fact, the majority of sources of resistance used against hoppers are from peninsular India and Sri Lanka. When brown plant hopper (BPH) appeared recurrently in increasingly virulent forms (biotypes) devastating the rice crop in South and Southeast Asia, it was Indian sources of resistance that saved them. In 1975, when the first batch of IRRI varieties IR 26, IR 28, and IR 30 became susceptible to BPH in the Philippines, Vietnam, and Indonesia, the pest damage was contained by replacing them with IR 32, IR 36, and IR 48 with resistance gene bph I from Mudgo. In the following three to four years another biotype appeared in the Mindano region of the Philippines and in Sumatra, Indonesia, again causing heavy crop losses. Resistance gene bph 2 identified in Asd 7 and Ptb 18 was then used. The variety IR 50 having the resistance gene bph 3 drawn from Ptb 19, Ptb 21, and Ptb 33 then proved handy to contain the pest. Continual appearance of new biotypes necessitated identification and use of matching resistance genes such as bph 4, bph 5, bph 6, etc., largely from Indian sources. Although no such biotype variation was observed in India, the existing biotype itself is the most virulent, necessitating development of highly resistant varieties. As a result, a mosaic of more than 10 varieties was released or introduced in India, e.g, Chaitanya, Krishnaveni, Vajram, Pavizham Chandana, Sonasali, Jyoti, D I V E R S I T Y

Nagarjuna, IR 60, IR 70, and IR 72. Another serious insect pest of rice is gall midge, although it is confined to relatively small pockets in several Asian countries. Evaluation showed existence of host plant resistance to this pest in Eswarakora, a landrace in Andhra Pradesh. Using the landrace, the first highyielding cultivar resistant to gall midge was developed-a major step forward in breeding for resistance. Following the recognition of biotypes 1-5 of the pest, biotype-specific resistance genes were sought and found in Ptb 10, Ptb 18, and Velluthacheera. Use of these led to the release of resistant varieties like Abhaya, Suraksha, Daya, Pratap, Udaya, Shaktiman, Kshira, Neera, and Lalat. The rice germplasm collections of India continue to provide a wide range of gene sources for breeding. The collections include primary as well as secondary diversity, particularly from the northeast hills (ARC collection), the Jaipore-Koraput region of Orissa, the Chatisgarh belt of Madhya Pradesh, and peninsular India.

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INDIAS GENETIC RESOURCES SYSTEM Some derivatives are shown in Table 1. India also participates actively in the IRRI international yield and observational nurseries, which evaluate and test entries aimed to help national production in a range of rice ecologies. In more recent rice breeding, the successful development of hybrid technology is considered to be a landmark following the HYV releases. It was Indian and Chinese sources of cytoplasmic male sterility and fertility restoration that made hybrid rice a commercial reality and helped raise the genetic yield ceiling. A male sterile line in India, also widely used elsewhere, is a converted line of the Indian cv. Pusa 167. WHEAT: A Glorious Chapter in Indias History Although wheat did not originate in the Hindustani region, it was introduced in antiquity and developed wide variation. Bread wheat (Triticum aestivum) in the entire Indogangetic plains and T. durum and T. dicoccum in central India and the Deccan plateau, respectively, are centers of diversity. The continuous flow of germplasm to and from the region in the past 90 years has enabled both recipients and donors to evolve HYVs with desired levels of resistance to stresses and with consumer quality. The history of wheat breeding in the subcontinent reveals how successfully local germplasm has been used to progressively develop improved varieties for different agroecologies (such as irrigated, rainfed, hills, and problem soils). Some of the germplasm, taken to countries such as Australia and Canada, was introduced directly as varieties, but most were used as donor sources for grain quality, earliness, drought tolerance, etc. In Australia alone as many as 40 varieties were developed during the pre-Green Revolution time using Indian varieties as one of the parents. Several Giza varieties in Egypt also involved Indian varieties. The countries that have depended upon Indian wheat germplasm include those of Latin America (Mexico, Argentina, Brazil, Bolivia); Africa (Morocco, Algeria, Egypt, Sudan, South Africa); Asia (Nepal, Myanmar, Pakistan, Thailand, China, Afghanistan, Bangladesh); Arab and Gulf countries (Saudi Arabia, Syria, Iran, Yemen, Oman, Lebanon), and others such as the USSR and Canada. From the early 1960s India took advantage of Norin dwarfing gene-based germ plasm that combines a unique set of high-productivity traits such as non-lodging habit, high fertilizer responsiveness, Vo1.12, no.3, 1996

and resistance to rust and foliar diseases. This germplasm was made available largely through the international nurseries of CIMMYT (see article, p.65). The advent and wide adoption of dwarf spring wheat transformed the chronically food-deficit subcontinent into a self-sufficient and surplus one in less than 20 years and is a glorious chapter in Indias agricultural history. Between 1966 and 1970 more than 40 percent of the varieties evolved in India were derived from crosses involving exotic parents. Since the early 1980s there has been a significant shift towards increased use of Indian germplasm as parents; over 80 percent of the varieties developed during 1986199 1 involved local sources as parents. The impact of the three decades of wheat breeding is seen in more than a fivefold increase in wheat production and a three-fold increase in yield; a sharp rise in per capita availability; relatively low and stable prices; and a sizeable surplus ( 15- 16 million t in buffer stock and 3-4 million t/ha for export). Indian varieties have contributed substantially to wheat production in numerous other countries. Table 2 lists those released in other areas of Asia. SUGARCANE: The Wonder Varieties India is the largest producer of sugar ( 14 million t) in the world. Tropical cane varieties (such as CO 6304, CO 8362, CO 7314, CO 7314, COC 671, COS 767, CO 6907, CO 8021, and the subtropical CO 1148, CO 7717, CO 87268, CO 87277, COJ 64, COLK 8001, COLK 8 102, and CO D I V E R S I T Y

Pant 84211) heralded the sugar revolution. Compared with a two-and-a-half times increase in area, production increased nearly five times and productivity by two times during the last 25 years (34 to 64 t). The wonder varieties are the outcome of the strong foundations laid more than 70 years back by the father of Noble Canes, Sir T.S. Venkatraman, whose innovative breeding involved different cultivated and wild species (Sacharum officinarum, S. barberi, S. sinense, S. spontaneum, and S. robustum). A large germplasm collection of 3,500 accessions is maintained at the Sugarcane Breeding Institute, Coimbatore. In the development of as many as 100 varieties, three different genotype sources (CO, COS, and BO) have been widely used. Besides making an impressive impact in the country, many like COY 19, CO 527, and CO 6806 are popular in African countries such as Sudan, Kenya, Mozambique, and South Africa and East Asian countries including Vietnam and Korea. Several of the Indiabred varieties such as COY 19, CO 997, CO 775, CO 312, and CO 740 have been widely used as parents to improve yield, sugar content, and disease and drought resistances in Australia, Brazil, Indonesia, Thailand, Barbados, Romania, Sudan, Nigeria, and other countries. COARSE GRAINS: Sustenance of the Green Revolution The subcontinent is one of the largest areas that produces coarse grain cereals. The most important coarse grains are 39

INDIAS GENETIC RESOURCES SYSTEM sorghum, pearlmillet, maize, and ragi, grown predominantly in rainfed marginal lands. These crops originated elsewhere, but the Indian subcontinent is a rich center of secondary diversity. Exploitation of the local genepools, in combination with exotic resources, enabled the region to herald the Green Revolution and sustain it during the last four decades. The materials so developed have been shared with countries having similar agroecologies, either directly or indirectly through CGIAR centers. the source of resistance to stem borer and shootfly, and DJ 6514 to midge. ICSV 745 of ICRISAT, which combines a high level of resistance to midge drawn from the Indian accession, is providing an excellent source of resistance to the pest in Australia and the USA. Various forms of Maldhandi, the widely popular dual purpose rabi (dry season) sorghum, is the major source of grain quality and drought tolerance. Over 800 Indian accessions have been used by the USA in its conversion program for modifying height and maturity. Some hybrids and varieties developed in India have been released in Sudan, Egypt, and Burkina Faso, and numerous other varieties and male sterile lines are being used in the breeding programs of many countries. As in sorghum, a single germplasm source-African Varietal Group, popularly known as Togo type-has contributed significantly to increase the production and productivity of pearlmillet. The traits in Togo of earliness and photo-insensitivity have thus become common in Indian pearlmillet. It is unlikely that germplasm of the kind of Togo with its wide adaptability will be easily found in the future. It is through the use of such germplasm that India had earned the distinction of developing the first grain pearlmillet hybrid in the world. The first hybrid HB 1 was the combination of an exotic female parent from USA (Tift 23A) and an Indian restorer (J 104). Subsequently a range of released hybrids have continued to use exotic and indigenous sources. Maize has been grown for hundreds of years in the northeastern hill states of India. Existence of primitive forms of maize, such as the multicobbed Sikkim Primitive aptly called the Living Fossil, confirms the long history of the crop in this region, far away from its center of origin in South America. The launching of the All-India Coordinated Maize Improvement Project 40 years ago marked the D I V E R S I T Y

The Indian subcontinent is a rich center of secondary diversity.

Yield breakthrough-witnessed in sorghum following the development of CSH 1, the first hybrid, and later such other successful hybrids as CSH-5, CSH-6, and CSH-9-is traceable to the extensive use of Zera-Zera sorghum from Ethiopia and eastern Sudan, particularly of Combella varieties (CS 3541, GPR 148, etc.). Indian germplasm has been utilized similarly in various countries, being the unique source of resistance to major pests like shootfly, stem borer, and midge (Table 3). For instance, IS 2205 has been widely used as

beginning of a concerted effort to develop heterotic hybrids and composites for different agroecologies. Ganga 1, Ganga 5, Ganga 9, Ganga 11, Ganga 101, Ranjit, Jawahar, Vikram, Deccan 103, and Trishulata and high-protein composites like Shakti, Rattan, and Protima are some of the most important ones. Their wide adoption helped the country to more than double the yield during this period. This has been possible largely because of free flow of breeding lines/germplasm from various sources, particularly CIMMYT. Regarding use of Indias germplasm for maize improvement in the region, development of early genepools in CIMMYT involving Indias early composites like Diara, MCU 508, and Arun is important. Several instances show that Indian maize germplasm has been utilized in other countries such as Nepal, Bhutan, and Pakistan. With respect to other crops, the subcontinent has largely gained its growth from other countries germplasm. For instance, in Indias achievement of self-sufficiency in edible oil, the role of introduced germplasm of sunflower and soybean is considerable. In other crops, such as chickpea, Indias improved varieties have become valuable elsewhere, e.g., Indian chickpea varieties introduced to Australia and Pakistan. Cucumber and okra germplasm has been used in the USA and other countries. For further information, contact: Dr. E.A. Siddiq, Deputy Director General, Crop Sciences, Indian Council of Agricultural Research, Krishi Bhavan, New Delhi, India. Tel: +91-11-338-2545 or 464-2423. Fax: +91-11-338-7293. E-mail (via Ravi Viswanathan): ravi@icar.delhi.nic.in.

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INDIAS GENETIC RESOURCES SYSTEM

by B. Sharma
B.P. PAL Dr. B.P. Pal was among the first plant geneticists of Indian origin with formal education in plant breeding. Very early in his career, Dr. Pal recognized the importance of naturally occurring genetic variation, its collection at one place, characterization, and its utilization for plant improvement. Soon after the Imperial (now Indian) Agricultural Research Institute (IARI) moved from Pusa in Bihar Province to the national capital in Delhi in 1936, Dr. Pal began the search for genes imparting resistance against wheat rust. The success he achieved in this endeavor and the subsequent commercialization of a large number of rust-resistant varieties in the New Pusa series prompted Dr. Pal to extend the quest for genetic diversity to other crops as well, including cereals, millets, vegetables, and ornamental plants. Dr. Pal began by creating a small section of plant exploration and introduction in the Division of Botany (subsequently converted into the Division of Genetics) at TART. Later, during his tenure as Director of IARI, this section was strengthened and elevated into an independent Division of Plant Introduction. With a clear vision of things to come, Dr. Pal recognized the value of germplasm collections. It was during his tenure as Diree or General of the Indian Council of Agricultural Research that the Green Revolution began. He could visualize the potential threat to the landraces and other forms of agrobiodiversity of genetic erosion posed by the use of high-yielding varieties. It was upon his initiative that the Plant Introduction Division was separated from IARI as an independent institute-the National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources (NBPGR). As a professional plant breeder, Dr. Pal did not stop at collection of genotypes, cultivated or wild. He used the collections intensively in the breeding process. Although primarily a wheat geneticist, he also had a deep interest in breeding varieties of ornamental plants. A large collec-

tion of roses was established at IARI, and a large number of bougainvillea genotypes were also collected for use in the development of new varieties under the leadership and direct supervision of Dr. B.P. Pal. As a teacher of great eminence, Dr. Pal established the Post-Graduate School at IARI. In 1958, when specially designed courses related to ecology, agricultural botany, and biodiversity were initiated, similar courses were also introduced into a large number of

that were established in different states of India. This helped in developing a broadbased cadre of specialists in plant introduction and biodiversity. Several of his close associates and students developed a keen interest in plant exploration, classification, and conservation of biodiversity. Dr. Harbhajan Singh was prominent among them, and he dedicated his entire life to germplasm activity. Later, others such as Dr. A.B. Joshi and Dr. M.S. Swaminathan (see next page), were inducted into this discipline to the benefit of agriculture throughout the world. The All-India Coordinated Research Projects for crops, which was a pioneering concept, were also organized under Dr. Pals leadership. These projects, which continue to have an obligation to maintain germplasm of their respective mandate crops, are one of Dr. Pals lasting contributions to the global genetic resources community. HARBHAJAN SINGH A botanist by education, Dr. Harbhajan Singh was possibly the most distinguished plant explorer of India. Referred to by many as the Indian Vavilov, he is credited with giving a distinct identity to the discipline of germplasm collection, mainteD I V E R S I T Y

trance, and exploitation. For more than 25 years, Dr. Singh personally organized and undertook major plant explorations. Through visits to CSIRO in Australia and the N.I. Vavilov Institute of Plant Industry in Leningrad (now St. Petersburg, Russia), he acquainted himself with the organization of germplasm activity and gave it an institutional shape. Starting from a small unit of plant exploration in the Division of Botany, Dr. Singh became head of the Division of Plant Introduction of IARI, which would later evolve into the National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources (NBPGR). At IARI, he guided many students in their M.Sc. and Ph.D. programs, including Dr. MS. Swaminathan, one of his most distinguished students. A very active plant breeder whose interest concentrated mainly on vegetable crops, Dr. Singh studied the genetic variability collected from the wild, received from exotic sources, or obtained from the produce brought to the wholesale markets by farmers from different areas, continuously searching for new traits (genes) and transferring them to the cultivars. He produced many varieties (tomato, okra, eggplant, clusterbean, cowpea, vegetable peas, French bean, cucumber, bottlegourd, watermelon, muskmelon, potato, onion, carrot, turnip, radish, cabbage, and cauliflower) of which several remain popular today, 20 years after his death. Dr. Singh is also credited with the introduction of two new crops into India-soybean and sunflower-which he accomplished by proving their economic viability in Indian agriculture. He had demonstrated that sunflower is a season-free crop under Indian conditions, and that it can be sown any time of year when a field is vacated by the previous crop. Unfortunately, he did not survive to see the realization of his dream as it took more than a decade and development of the oil processing industry before these crops became established. The magnitude of the spread of these crops throughout India today is testimony to Harbhajan Singhs vision. Among his other contributions was the collection and establishment of a new wild species of okra (Ahelmoschus tuberculatus) and the discovery of a source of mosaic virus resistance in an okra variety from 41

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INDIAS GENETIC RESOURCES SYSTEM mal government and institutional service. Following the award in 1988 of the first World Food Prize-created by Nobel Peace Prize Laureate Norman Borlaug and re-ferred to by many as the Nobel of Agriculture-Dr. Swaminathan established the M.S. Swaminathan Research Foundation at Madras, which, among many initiatives, is carrying out a major project on the biodiversity conservation of the mangroves of Indias coastline (see DIVERSITY, no. 13, pp. 19-20, and article, p. 11). Based on deliberations at various foundation conferences, two books have been published, Madras Dialogue and Agrobiodiversity and Farmers Rights, and a Technical Resource Centre for the Implementation of the Equity Provisions of the Convention on Biological Diversity has been established at the Swaminathan Foundation headquarters. Dr. Swaminathan continues to serve the international community in various capacities. Many throughout the world continue to rely on his wisdom and sense of equity to bridge the many chasms that remain among the various players charged with achieving the sustainable development on which future generations rely (see article, p.6). For more information, contact: Dr. B. Sharma, Division of Genetics, IARI, New Delhi 110 012, India. Tel: +91-11578-3077. Fax: +91-11-575-1719 or +91-11-576-6420.
Photographs were made available by NPBGR.

ndias National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources Leads Nationwide System

by R.S. Paroda
Bestowed with immensely rich landrace diversity in major agri-horticultural crops and enormously rich in wild relatives, India occupies a special significance among the major gene-rich countries of the world. The Indian National Plant Genetic Resources System, operative through its National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources (NBPGR), is unique, vibrant, and one of the most dynamic PGR systems to be found among the developing countries. It is a leading organization which now holds a prominent place among the worlds other important genebanks. In its new incarnation the NBPGR is the offshoot of the erstwhile Plant Introduction Division of the Indian Agricultural Research Institute (IARI), New Delhi, and history. The beginning of a centralized plant introduction service at IARI was made in the Division of Botany (now Genetics) in 1946 when the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) felt the dire need for a systematic introduction of plant materials. D I V E R S I T Y

Subsequently, it was elevated to the Plant Introduction Division in 1969. Dr. B.P. Pal, then Director of IARI, and Dr. Harbhajan Singh, the first Head of the Division, played crucial roles in its creation and further strengthening of its various activities (see article, p.41). Later, several regional stations were established in the diverse climatic zones according to the principles of phytogeographic distribution (aero-ecological analogues), comparable to the former Soviet system operated by the Vavilov Institute of Plant Industry. The NBPGR was established as a fully

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INDIAS GENETIC RESOURCES SYSTEM independent organization under ICAR in August 1976. Dr. M.S. Swaminathan, then Director General of ICAR, and Dr. A.B. Joshi, then Director of IARI, played key roles (see article, p.41). While the basic mandate of this organization has remained the same since its inception, it has been progressively expanded and consolidated (see box below). National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources NBPGR operates under the ICAR system controlled by the Department of Agricultural Research and Education (DARE), of the Government of India (GOI). It has five main divisions at its headquarters in New Delhi concentrating on germplasm exchange; exploration and collecting; plant quarantine; evaluation, characterization, documentation; and germplasm conservation. The bureau also maintains a national Seed Genebank, the National Plant Tissue Culture Repository, and a cryobank. At present, NBPGR has five regional centers located in diverse agro-ecological regions of India: the temperate region (Shimla, Himalaya), arid region (Jodhpur), semi-arid region (Akola), humid tropical region (Thrissur), and humid sub-tropical region (Shillong). The NBPGR also has four base centers at Cuttack (Orissa), Ranchi (Bihar), Bhowaii (U.P. Hills), and Hyderabad (A.P.). Two All-India Coordinated

installed. In addition, the cryobank will have the capacity to preserve a quarter-million samples of small-seeded crops in liquid nitrogen (-196C). The National Plant Tissue Culture Repository and the National Centre on DNA Fingerprinting will further enhance the scope and scientific capability of the Indian plant genetic resources system. Efforts are currently underway toward developing a strong National Plant Genetic Resources System in India led by NBPGR and linked effectively with 30 other cropbased ICAR institutes, state agricultural universities (SAUs), national research centers, and project directorates. These centers have been variously assigned responsibilities to maintain, evaluate, and supply germplasm from their active collections (see map, p.46). NBPGR is also assisting 13 other collaborating institutes/centers in establishing medium-term seed storage, computer and data documentation at each of the cen44 D I V E R S I T Y

ters, and a massive program for human resource development to run all aspects of the national system effectively. In the past two decades, the NBPGR has also embarked upon enhancing its activities related to exploration and assemblage of genetic diversity in major and minor agri-horticultural crops and their wild relatives, germplasm exchange, and detection of new pests and pathogens. Concerted efforts on characterization, evaluation, and multiplication of germplasm have led to the publication of several monographs and catalogues (see box, p.29). Earlier major emphasis had been on ex situ conservation of germplasm diversity enabling the national genebank, established in 1985, to conserve more than 150,000 accessions. Additionally, through tissue culture methods, a national in vitro repository now includes some 50 species of tuberous/bulbous crops, fruit plants, spices, and medicinal/aromatic plants, all of which have tremendous economic

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INDIAS GENETIC RESOURCES SYSTEM value. It currently maintains some 1,000 accessions in this repository. For in vitro work, diverse techniques involving meristems, pollen, embryos, and embryonic axes have been used to conserve vegetatively propagated crops. New cryopreservation techniques are being used for medium- to long-term conservation of plant germplasm. NBPGR programs are also appropriately linked with biochemical and molecular characterization using new emergent techniques of RFLPS, AFLPS, RAPDs, and other PCR-based molecular technology. Recently a National Center on DNA Fingerprinting and Gene Sequencing has been established at NBPGRs new genebank complex. This center will work in close collaboration with IARIs Biotechnology Center and the National Bureaus of Animal and Fish Genetic Resources for the characterization of indigenous genetic resources of plants, animals and fish (see articles, p.31 and p.33). The NBPGR is further strengthening the National Information and Data Base Centre, established a National Herbarium of cultivated plants and their wild relatives, and maintains seed libraries of varieties, cultivars, and related species. For all activities, training is receiving increased impetus. tion of such committees is yet another milestone in NBPGRs efforts towards organizing a strong national PGR system linked effectively with crop and regional institutions and organizations. National coordination is accomplished through associations and linkages with 30 major crop-based ICAR institutes, agricultural universities, research foundations, nongovernmental organizations, and other stakeholders in the area of biodiversity and plant genetic resources. It assists crop scientists in India and provides requisite support for achieving their crop improvement and production targets by providing them appropriate, useful, and new germplasm resources. The NBPGR is funded by the ICAR and is one of its constituent institutes. Allocations during the eighth Five-Year Plan amount to Rs. 72.91 million (US$l = Rs. 35). In addition, two very important projects are funded by the Indian governments Department of Biotechnology, at NBPGR-the National Facility for Plant Tissue Culture Repository and the project on the establishment of a Genebank for Medicinal and Aromatic Plants under the umbrella of a group of developing nations (see article, p.35).

Indo-USAID PGR Project

An Indian National Plant Genetic Resources Programme, conceived while this author was Director of NBPGR (1985-1987), was approved by the U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID) and a Memorandum of Understanding was signed in 1988. The NBPGR has been operating this prominent project for nine years with a budget provision of US$27.95 million. USAID is providing approximately US$18.0 million, while the GOI has contributed the rest. The project is being implemented to enhance NBPGRs infrastructural facilities and professional competence to enable it to play an enhanced and constructive role at the regional and international levels. The project has also helped in strengthening research linkages between NBPGR and the U.S. National Plant Genetic Resources System. D I V E R S I T Y 45

Organizational Components, Operations, and Funding

A high-level Policy Planning and Advisory Committee constituted by the ICAR provides policy guidelines and oversees the implementation of the activities in consultation with the Director General and Deputy Director General (Crop Sciences), ICAR. The Director of NBPGR acts as Executive Secretary. Crop Advisory Committees, focusing on a specialized crop or group of crops, advise the bureau regarding the status of germplasm holdings, collecting and evaluation needs, gaps and shortfalls in storage and management, as well as sustained utilization of the materials. The committees also advise on the introduction of specific germplasm required for crop breeding and improvement from other countries and from the IARCs. The contribuVo1.12, no.3, 1996

INDIAS GENETIC RESOURCES SYSTEM Under this program, Dr. K.V. Bhat conducted research on molecular characterization and DNA fingerprinting on banana in Griffin, Georgia, with a U.S. scientist who, in turn, visited NBPGR in 1995. Kalyani Srinivasan traveled to the National Seed Storage Laboratory in Fort Collins, Colorado, to work on conservation, and one of 70,000 in funding over three years for a research project on conservation of recalcitrant species, initiated by the International Plant Genetic Resources Institute (IPGRI).

International Collaborative Activities and Responsibilities

NBPGR actively collaborates with the IARCs operating in India and elsewhere. IPGRI has been an active collaborator with The Indian national genetic NBPGR and has contributed to the bureaus resources system is one of the efforts by offering requisite expertise, trainmost dynamic to be found among ing, and research support. IPGRIs South the developing countries. Asia Office is located on the NBPGR Campus, New Delhi (see article, p.55). NBPGR her associates from the NSSL later came to also effectively collaborates with ICRISAT India. Dr. J.L. Karihaloo participated in a on joint exploration and multilocation evalcollaborative research program at Davis, uation programs focusing on ICRISATs California, on crop evolutionary studies in five mandate crops. These efforts have Solanum species complex using biochemi- resulted in the documentation of germcal and molecular markers. On two occa- plasm collections in pearl millet, sorghum, sions, researcher J. Radhameni worked on pigeonpea, chickpea, and groundnut (see a collaborative cryobiological program at articles, p.58 and p.59). Considerable exchange of germplasm has also taken Cornell University, New York. place with IRRI (see article, p.60), CIMIndo-UK Project on PGR MYT (see article, p.47), ICARDA (see NBPGR also signed an MOU in 1989 articles, p.44 and p.45), CIP (see article, with the British Council for funding by the p.49), CIAT, and AVRDC (see article, UK-Overseas Development Administra- p.50), as well as with several countries. IPGRI has assigned global base seed tion (ODA) to strengthen the network of regional stations with an allocation of 5 collection responsibility for a number of million. This project aims to provide medi- crops to NBPGR. Among these, sesame, um-term storage facilities, other essential okra, eggplant, and Vigna species are equipment, and training. In the first phase. important. ICRISAT has also signed an Shimla, Bhowaii, and Thrissur stations MOU for NBPGR to hold a duplicate have been covered. Other stations will be world collection of pigeonpea. ICAR is engaged in bilateral programs strengthened after a mid-term review in with many countries and, under agreed 1996. In addition, UK-ODA is providing MOUs, germplasm is exchanged regularly. The bureau receives germplasm from more than 80 countries in the world. Prominent among these are USA, UK and other European countries, Mexico, Israel, Australia, New Zealand, Iran, Turkey, and Zimbabwe. Together the components of the Indian genetic resources system will go a long way in the conservation of immensely valuable genetic diversity required for sustained production, food security, and alleviation of hunger and poverty. Clearly, NBPGR is emerging as a vibrant organization to steward valuable plant genetic resources for posterity. For further information, contact: Dr. R.S. Paroda, Director General, ICAR, Secretary, Department of Agriculture Research and Education (DARE), Krishi Bhavan, New Delhi 110 001, India. Tel: +91-11-338-2629. Fax: +91-11-338Sites of India National Bureau of Plant Genetic 4773. E-mail: rsp@icar.ren.nic.in.
Resources.
(Courtesy of NBPGR)

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INDIAS GENETIC RESOURCES SYSTEM category of threatened species in India. The biodiversity in tropical ecozones is under constant threat of a high rate of deforestation (1.5 m ha annually in Asian region only). The diversity at various levels of organization in Indias agroforestry is described below. structure, in order to meet their household needs, tend to grow a wide range of plant species in small numbers. Such a system supported by proven traditional practices and uses does not pose any problem of marketing outside their locality.

Ecosystem Level
In the ecosystem as a whole, agroforestry combines many communities of herbaceous annuals and perennials and woody perennials interacting in time and space with interdependent energy flow and nutrient cycles. Aside from the diversity of the other forms of life, the phytodiversity alone is remarkable. At the ecosystem level, tropical zones with traditional home gardens contain 66-100 species of plants with such diverse uses as fruits, oils and fats, beverages, spices, condiments, vegetables, fodder grasses, and MPTS.

Species Level
Collections of multi-purpose tree species (MPTS) at regional levels have shown vast diversity in the species for growth forms, phenology, and product quality. Among notable species of MPTS attempted in agroforestry are Prosopis cineraria, Azadirachta indica, Acacia nilotica, Alhizia lebbeck, Tamarindus indica, and Grewia optiva. The presence of diverse plant types at any one place is also exploited for the variety of products and for longer periods of availability. This is primarily true in agroforestry systems based on fruit trees, such as Artocarpus heterophyllus, Mangifera indica, and Zizyphus mauritiana. While attempts are being made to identify superior types, blending of diverse types is useful.

Agroforestry is an age-old, traditional practice in India.

In addition to the plants, 8-10 species of domestic animals are observed in home gardens. Further, the size of home gardens decreases at higher altitudes, while plant density increases, indicating more dependence on woody perennials for subsistence. Comparing various ecozones of the prevalent agroforestry systems-the number of plant species per unit area, canopy layers, and the animal species dependent upon them-shows greater richness in tropical ecozones than in arid or sub-tropical zones.

System Level
Many diverse crops and trees are grown together in agroforestry systems to derive manifold gains. The number of woody species tend to increase with increasing soil moisture and resource richness (see table). In arid zones, often one or two species (P. cineraria and Z. mauritiana) are used in agrisilviculture; in semiarid central India, five or six species of woody perennials are maintained along field boundaries. In tropical home gardens, 10-20 tree species are maintained per ha with many genotypes of individual species; 68 species of woody perennials have been recorded as live fences for home gardens. Such a wide choice depends upon specific use and diversity dependent upon the habitat richness. Furthermore, small farmers who have limited access to assured marketing infra-

Attempts to Conserve Diversity in Agroecosystems

Identifying the traditional knowledge base, species exploration, and plant conservation are considered in promoting sustainability in the farming systems. Agroforestry-based land use in marginal and fragile zones is advocated for conserving resources and optimizing production, and the introduction of ideal plant species and

planting stock is emphasized. The All-India Coordinated Research Project on Agroforestry at 39 stations and the 38 wellfocused small grant projects spread throughout the country are supporting this effort. The long-term conservation of woody germplasm thus collected is made possible through the facilities available at the NBPGR. Research focuses on: (1) inventorying traditional systems, knowledge, and uses of tree-based farming systems; (2) exploration, evaluation, and improvement of MPTS for agroforestry systems and the ecozones; (3) analyzing above- and belowground interactions to augment tree resources in farming systems; and (4) propagation techniques for large-scale multiplication to promote effective use of the biodiversity. For further information, contact: Dr. P.S. Pathak, Assistant Director General (Agroforestry), ICAR, Krishi Bhavan, New Delhi 110 001, India. Tel: +91-11-338-9106. Fax: +91-11-338-7293. E-mail: pspathak@icar. Delhi.nic.in. or Dr. N.G. Hegde, President, BAIF Bhavan, Dr. Manibhai Desai Nagar, (Bombay-Bangalore Bye-Pass Highway), S. No. 134/l, Warje Malwadi, Pune, India 411 029. Tel. +91-212-816248. Fax: +91212-349806 Vo1.12, no.3, 1996

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INDIAS GENETIC RESOURCES SYSTEM are subjected to controlled growth in special facilities for checking material. The facilities are approved and certified for specified periods by the Designated Inspection Authorities (DIAs), who do the inspection and decide on release or rejection of the material. Bulk imports for consumption and planting (specific varieties or hybrids of various crops for commercial exploitation) are processed for quarantine clearance by the directorate. The National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources (NBPGR) is recognized as the nodal institution for exchange of plant germplasm for research use and has been empowered by the GOT to undertake quarantine processing and clearance of such materials. The Director of NBPGR is authorized to issue import permits for germplasm material imported for research use both by public and private agencies. To fulfill its quarantine obligations, NBPGRs Division of Plant Quarantine maintains wellequipped modern laboratories and trained staff in entomology, nematology, and plant pathology. Environment-controlled greenhouse facilities have been established at Delhi, Hyderabad, Bhowali, and Kanpur for safe introduction of germplasm. In addition, NBPGR utilizes the expertise available at crop-based ICAR institutes for inspection and clearance of crops such as potato, sugarcane, cotton, and tobacco. A number of diseases and pests, as yet unreported in India, have been intercepted at NBPGR. If introduced, they could have resulted in enormous losses in host crops.* Some of the most dreaded ones intercepted include snow mold and dwarf bunt in wheat, soybean downy mildew, sugarbeet rust, cotton boll weevil, bean bruchid, potato rot nematode, stem and bulb nematode in garlic and hops, and red ring nematode in coconut. NBPGR has also developed a number of techniques for salvaging infested/infected
*Snow mold kills the wheat plant; dwarf bunt reduce\ the wheat gram into a black powdery mass; soybean downy mildew reduces the plant yield; sugarbeet rust reduces the plant yield, but salvaging techniques have been developed by NBPGR; cotton boll weevil affects quality of fiber; bean bruchid bores holes in the beans; potato rot nematodes blacken the potato and make it mushy; stem and bulb nematode in garlic destroys the bulbs and significantly reduces yields; and red ring nematode of coconut kills the palm.

by R. Nath
Every country in the world has benefited immensely from the exchange of plant material and its use to increase food production. At the same time, many countries have suffered enormous crop losses due to inadvertent introduction of exotic pests with introduced planting materials. The Irish potato famine of 1845 was due to almost total devastation by late blight fungus (Phytophthora infestans) introduced from America (see DIVERSITY, vol. 12, no.2,p.8). India has had her own share of exotic pests and diseases which gained entry through introduced planting material leading to severe crop losses from time to time. Potato late blight, grape downy mildew, San Jose scale, codling moth, potato golden nematode, rice bacterial blight, banana bunchy top, and coffee berry borer are a few examples of such introduced pests and diseases. It is, therefore, imperative that adequate plant quarantine measures be taken to prevent entry of exotic pathogens which may endanger Indian agriculture.

and most important. This order was necessitated to appropriately reflect GOIs New Policy on Seed Development which came into force in October 1988 (see box). In the public interest the central government may relax any of the conditions relating to the

PFS Order 1989

As early as 1914 the Government of India (GOI), recognizing the importance of plant quarantine, enacted comprehensive legislation, known as the Destructive Insects and Pests Act (DIP Act). Plant quarantine regulations issued under the Act can be grouped as foreign quarantine regulations to regulate import of plants, planting materials, and plant products brought into India, and domestic quarantine regulations that regulate transport/movement of articles from one state to another within the country. Among the foreign quarantine regulations, Plants, Fruits and Seeds (Regulation of Import into India) Order 1989, popularly known as the PFS Order 1989, is the latest

requirement of import permits and phytosanitary certificates. Domestic quarantine regulations are in operation to prevent the spread of eight pests or diseases considered to have a restricted/limited distribution in the country: fluted scale, San Jose scale, banana bunchy top, banana mosaic, potato wart, potato golden nematode, apple scab, and codling moth. Movement of infected material from infected States to clean States within the country is prohibited.

Plant Quarantine Operations

The Directorate of Plant Protection, Quarantine and Storage headed by the Plant Protection Adviser has the responsibility to enforce the quarantine regulations in India. The directorate has established a chain of Plant Quarantine and Fumigation Stations at all the international airports, seaports, and land custom stations on border checkposts. Incoming plant materials are inspected, disinfected/fumigated, and released or rejected. Adequate laboratory and isolation growing facilities along with specialist scientific staff to operate them have also been developed at five stations to conform with the requirements of new seed policy. In addition, bulk consignments of specified crops imported by private seed companies D I V E R S I T Y

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INDIAS GENETIC RESOURCES SYSTEM germplasm so that clean exotic germplasm can be made available promptly without undue risk to national crop improvement programs. Many of these include hot water treatments at varying lengths and periods of time. For further information, contact: Shri Ram Nath, National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources, New Delhi-110 012, India. Fax: 91-11-573-1495, 578-5619. Email:NBPGR/ADMD=NIC4OO/C=IN/@ X400.nicgw.Nic.In.

by A. Damania
Genetic diversity of crop plants in South Asia continues to meet the needs of most of the small farmers in India and plays an important role in production systems around the world. The in situ maintenance of indigenous varieties, including landraces, can be a crucial component of sustainable agricultural development as well as contribute to conservation of biodiversity in general. In situ conservation has been defined as the continuing maintenance of a plant population within its ecosystem in the environment to which it is adapted. The term is usually applied to naturally occurring progenitors of crop plants, forest trees, and wild fauna, but it can also include conservation of landraces of crops as well as artificial regeneration of obsolete cultivars whenever sowing is carried out without conscious selection in the same area where the cultivars were developed by particular farming communities. Wild populations of crops and their close relatives are found in two broad categories of in situ reserves in India: (1) those designated to maintain optimum conditions and (2) those that permit extraction and even clearing of land for other purposes. National parks, nature reserves, and specialized field genebanks fall in the first category; national forests, indigenous peoples

reserves, and extractive reserves-which all permit a range of economic activities such as harvesting of forest products-fall into the second category. A third method, as yet largely unexplored in India, is offering financial incentives to local farmers to act as custodians of traditional primitive forms nurtured in their fields and backyards. In 1982, Indias extremely rich biodiversity was considered for a pilot project on in situ conservation under the auspices of UNESCOs Man and Biosphere (MAB) project. To date, seven areas are operational. These biosphere reserves (gene sanctuaries) are exceptionally high in genetic diversity (see table).

The Influence of the Indian Center of Diversity Worldwide

Crop plant species from the Indian center of diversity have influenced the agricultural development of such other ancient river-based civilizations as the Egyptian, Assyrian, Sumerian, and Hittite. During the early days of the spread of Buddhism, monks took plants from India to East Asia and north into Tibet and China. Economically important plants were spread through the overland trade routes into the Mediterranean basin. Much later, historical introductions were made to India by the Portuguese who brought in plants from the New World and in turn took Indian plants to the Caribbean from whence they spread to the Americas. In 1935, N.I. Vavilov named India as one of the eight centers of origin of cultivated crops. Later, in 1945, C.D. Darlington and the renowned Indian cytogeneticist, E.K. Janaki Amal, identified 12 centers of origin, extending the range of the Indian center into a broader Indo/Burma center. The region is particularly important for priD I V E R S I T Y

mary and secondary genetic diversity of the following important crop plants and their wild progenitors. Cereals: rice, bread wheat, T. aestivum subsp. sphaerococcum, and maize Millets: finger millet, shama millet, kodo millet, and sorghum Legumes: black gram, mungbean, cowpea, chickpea, guar bean, and lentil Oilseeds: rape, safflower, cotton, castor, linseed, sesame, colocynth, Guizotia, and Eruca Fruits: jackfruit, orange, mangosteen, mango, banana, pear, swingle, and Ziziphus (jujube) Vegetables: chilli pepper, Alocasia, taro, giant arum, cucumber, snake gourd, bottle gourd, sponge gourd, satputia, drum stick (horse radish), serpent radish, Rumex, Moringa, and eggplant Spices: Bengal cardamon, cumin, coriander, cardamom, turmeric, black pepper, and ginger Some medicinalplants: carmin, bishops weed (omum), purging croton, lemon grass, green thorn apple, Hydnocarpus laurifolia, Strychnos nux-vomica, neem, sandalwood, costus, Indian privet, vetiver, and long zedoary (amada) Other major useful plants: bamboos, ambari hemp (Hibiscus cannabinus), coconut, jute, Indian hemp, saffron, date palm, tamarind, and teak (Tectona grandis) Threats to loss of biodiversity largely stem from the very high rate of growth of the human population in India, especially during the latter half of this century. This phenomenon has resulted in over-exploitation of the biotic and physical environment, habitat fragmentation and loss, pollution, microclimate change, and large-scale but unsustainable agriculture and forestry projects. The depletion of crop plant genetic resources, particularly in their centers of diversity, can be associated with the spread of modern agriculture through the Green Vo1.12, no. 3, 1996

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INDIAS GENETIC RESOURCES SYSTEM Revolution. These included the adoption of improved, higher-yielding, genetically uniform varieties requiring fertilizers and other inputs over large areas. In parallel, the locally adapted, genetically variable, but lower-yielding indigenous varieties grown by subsistence farmers in developing countries are abandoned. would aid the simultaneous conservation of tribal cultures and their associated plants and animals. Usually, when biodiversity is threatened, the loss of animals is highlighted first because of greater visibility and emotional appeal. For instance, destruction of mangrove vegetation due to cutting and industrial pollution was first noticed by the indigenous fishermen (kolis) along the coastline near Bombay since their catch was alarmingly reduced (see article, p.29). According to the researchers at the Bombay Natural History Society (BNHS), several fish species utilized the mangroves to spawn. Subsequently, the port authorities declared a moratorium on further destruction of mangrove forest and have designated some areas for in situ conservation. This action by the Bombay Port Trust, called the Emerald Project, has not only saved mangrove plant species but also assured that the nesting grounds of many migratory birds from central Asia remain intact. In fact, flamingo (Phoenicopterus ruseus), which had not been seen in the area for 40 years, reappeared in the winter of 1994, giving the Emerald Project wide and popular publicity. of land for the sake of undefined future commercial rewards. The avoidance of perverse incentives in order to encourage farmers towards in situ conservation has been suggested. For example, some rural development programs require farmers to plant introduced hybrid varieties in order to secure loans or cash credit for fertilizers and other inputs from local financial institutions and cooperative banks. If such disincentives were eliminated, decisions regarding what to plant would return to the farmer.

Conservation Depends on Peasant Farmers

Indian peasant farmers have allowed themselves to become so dependent on external solutions to their essentially local problems that they have lost confidence in their own ability to help themselves. They see modem, imported, high-tech, or institutionally promoted techniques as superior to their own and those passed on to them by their ancestors. A communication gap between the youth and the community elders affects the perpetuation of indigenous knowledge related to biodiversity and its use in farming systems. Crop diversity, however, cannot be preserved in situ without simultaneously saving the farm community which fostered it and protecting its rights (see article, p.73). There is a need to recognize the equity of developing countries, such as India, and the rights of their farmers who have nurtured and unselfishly provided to collectors genetic resources, especially old landraces, which largely make up most major national ex situ collections. Arguments in support of in situ conservation of landraces focus on allowing evolutionary processes to continue and on equitable participation by local people to realize long-term benefits of such conservation. Such on-farm conservation in India

Support for in situ conservation of wild relatives of crop plants can be elusive, but the stakes for inaction can be high.
In situ conservation can also be promoted by noneconomic means, such as awards to the farming communities that maintain agrobiodiversity. Such strategies, accompanied by local publicity, could raise the prestige of the small farmer, an important factor at the village level. Support for agricultural fairs informally organized by the farmers during weekly market days held all over rural India could also promote conservation. An example of such conservation can be found in the Great Rann (desert) of Kutch, located on the northwest coast of India. It is a vast expanse which provides a sanctuary for many species of animals and birds seeking shelter from the onslaught of urban expansion and destruction of their habitat. Interestingly, in this unequal battle, nature may have found an ally in humankind itself, for the Vishnoi, a tribal people which occupy some of these parts, have conserved in situ innumerable forms of indigenous crops, flora and fauna, for centuries (see DIVERSITY, vol.11,no.4,pp.l0-11).

Making In Situ Conservation Viable

In order to reach their goals, in situ conservation projects should be politically acceptable and share broad national development goals, such as increased farm income, as well as straightforward conservation. Political viability depends on acceptance of the project by special interest groups other than genetic resources scientists and nature conservationists, such as farmers, consumers, NGOs, and govemment officials. Support for conservation of wild relatives of crop plants in situ can be elusive, but the stakes for inaction can be high. Following the agricultural revolution and the consequent abundance of food grains, the human species in India has multiplied its own numbers incredibly at the expense of the rest of the countrys biota. It is almost impossible to convince government authorities, struggling under the weight of socioeconomic problems and human population pressures, to set aside vast tracts D I V E R S I T Y

Involvement of Local People Necessary for Conservation

It is this authors firm conviction that in a vast, poverty-stricken country like India no in situ conservation project can succeed without the fullest cooperation and involvement of the local people. A tribal hamlet of a group of indigenous people called Mullukurambas in the Nilgiri hills, South India, is known to maintain local diversity of millets, amaranths, tea, coffee, pepper, cardamom, and a substantial number of ornamental and flowering plants in situ. Even though the men and women of this community earn a bonus by doing manual labor, they take pride in diversify51

vo1.12, no.3, 1996

INDIAS GENETIC RESOURCES SYSTEM ing the little land they control since it is ingrained in their culture. It is, therefore, imperative that many similar hot spots of biodiversity be identified along with the communities of people who can be entrusted with maintenance and enhancement of biodiversity in a sustainable manner. Although the agrobiodiversity and cultural practices in natural and cultivated habitats may contribute to sustained productivity and help buffer ecosystems against shocks and stresses, the long-term benefits of in situ plant conservation, however substantial, are not necessarily sufficient returns on investments to meet the immediate needs of agrarian populations in developing economies such as India. In other words, economically compelling reasons for conserving genetic resources must be established as part of sound land use. lector in Africa, South Asia, and the Indian Ocean Islands for the International Board for Plant Genetic Resources (IBPGR) from 1976 to 1985, subsets of collections were always left with the national programs of the countries in which they were made. These subsets were invariably lost because (a) the national program failed to recognize their importance, (b) they did not have the necessary facilities and/or training to maintain the collections, or (c) they disposed of the strategically sampled sub-sets believing that they could obtain another set from the same farmers. The collections held ex situ by IARCs are repatriated to the countries of origin whenever the latter make such requests, and they also channel genetic material from the North to the South. The establishment of in situ reserves, therefore, would further serve in retaining control of the genetic material within the countries which harbor them.

Overcoming Political Obstacles

The political will on the part of government to support in situ conservation is vital. When a perfectly beautiful forest in the Western Ghats of Maharashtra was ordered to be felled by the Chief Conservator of Forests, who considered it so much overmature timber, it was only rescued by the timely intervention of Dr. M. Gadgil, a professor from Bangalore. He was, it is claimed, able to have the order rescinded by citing the religious objection of the tribal peoples living in the vicinity of sacred groves earmarked for felling. In India, religion, mythology, and folklore play a major role in the lives of rural folk, and it may be necessary to invoke these beliefs, in addition to appropriate incentives, if pockets of biodiversity are to be preserved at the village level. There are also political obstacles. Not all persons in positions of power at the federal level are in favor of in situ conservation, which is often viewed as regressive. Even establishing fully fledged ex situ national storage facilities in India has been slow. Despite the efforts of several eminent scientists in the country, who were well aware of the great potential of Indias genetic resources, no national genebank with internationally acceptable standards has been constructed until now (see DIVERSITY, vol.12,no.l ,p.14, and article, p.43).The main reason for past inaction was lack of funding. For a major gene center such delays and loss of genetic material due to improper storage and erosion is unacceptable. When the success of the Green Revolution in India and Pakistan was making headlines in the press, the political hierar52

tcy was unmoved by the pleas to save old varieties and landraces as they believed this would counter the higher yields achieved by introducing improved germplasm, mostly from outside the country. Additionally, a large number of important economic plants cannot be stored as seed ex situ and need to be preserved as plants in the field. Hence, a focused campaign to educate the public and the administrators who control the allocation of funds is needed to put in place a truly comprehensive policy on conservation, including the complementarity of in situ and ex situ methods. On the positive side, India now has NGOs, such as the M.S. Swaminathan Research Foundation, that are concentrating a substantial portion of their resources towards this aim DIVERSITY, (see vo1 12,no.2. pp.6-8, and article, p.73).

In Situ Conservationa Renewable Resource

In situ conservation is not just for crops or other economically important plants but for entire ecosystems, including humans. If the utilization of biodiversity from in situ reserves is to be sustainable, it must be conserved as a renewable resource. Hence it is essential to investigate the association of ecological and environmental variables with genetic diversity. The distribution pattern of the genetic diversity and human activities at or near the site will in turn determine optimal conditions in suitable locations for in situ conservation of the target species. Multiple obstacles may need to be overcome in practicing locally based conservation, but an array of strategies and methodologies are now available that are multidisciplinary and can be applied as appropriate. A strategy applicable at one site may not work at another. In the Indian context, in situ conservation may actually be less expensive and more desirable than ex situ maintenance of seeds, tissues, and clones in collections and genebanks. For further information, contact: Dr. A.B. Damania, 18-20 Cawasji Patel Street, Jeevan Jyot, Fort, Bombay 400 001, India. Tel: +91-22-283-2920. Fax: +91-22266-2735. E-mail: adi.damania@axcess. net.in.

Livestock and Plant Conservation are Interdependent

A major thrust of in situ conservation policy in India should be to facilitate traditional small farmers to maintain the types of agricultural habitats that generated the agrobiodiversity on the land under their control in the first place. The maintenance of livestock and crop genetic resources must occur together for they are inseparable in low-input farming practices. The so-called North is very often criticized in the press and in NGO publications for holding or exercising control over 7.5 percent of the worlds ex situ genetic resources. It is true that most of the materials held in the North originated in the South. However, while the North was busy assembling collections, the South did not have trained personnel to do the collecting themselves nor the facilities to preserve and use the materials once collected. While this author worked as a plant colD I V E R S I T Y

Further Reading
Engelr, J.M.M. (1995). In situ conservation and sustainable use of plant genetic resources for food and agriculture in developing countries. Report of a DSE/ATSAF/lPGRI Workshop, 2-4 May 1995. Rome: IPGRI. 116 pp.

Vo1.12, no. 3, 1996

PARTNERSHIPS IN SOUTH ASIA

ations of South Asia Face Challenges and Opportunities of Biodiversity Convention Compliance
by A. Brocklehurst
India
It is fortunate that India, the largest country in South Asia and a nation that occupies a hugely varied terrain, has had something of a head start in setting up biodiversity programs and complying with the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD). Unlike most developing countries, India already had a reasonably strong infrastructure capable of dealing with many biodiversity issues, explained Amarjeet Kaur Ahuja, coordinator of the Indian federal governments biological diversity program. India established its Botanical Survey 100 years ago and the Zoological Survey in 1910. The efforts of both have resulted in the identification and description 47,000 species of plants and 81,000 species of animals. The Government of India includes national bureaus for plant, animal, and fish genetic resources, and several universities maintain specialized knowledge bases (see p.31, p.33, and p.43). Further, Indias history of forest resource management dates back more than
50 years.

Convention on Biological Diversity

versities. Some of Indias state governments have also taken their own measures to conserve and sustainably use biological diversity.

Sri Lanka
Leslie de S. Wijesinghe, Sri Lankas representative at SBSTTA, agreed that the other countries of South Asia have far to go before they catch up to India on imple-

The Indian Subcontinent

As the country goes about implementing the CBD, one of its main priorities is strengthening and consolidating these systems, said Ms. Ahuja, who represented the country at the second annual meeting of the CBDs Subsidiary Body on Scientific, Technical and Technological Advice (SBSTTA) meeting in Montreal in September 1996. We are reviewing all our strategies, the functioning of all these organizations, identifying gaps and coming up with strategies. Ms. Ahuja emphasizes that a general awareness of the importance of the issue is evident throughout her country. Govemment officials are now analyzing recommendations made by an expert group which met for 1 1/2 years including participants from various ministries, NGOs, and uni-

menting the principles of the CBD. An advisor to the environment ministry, who is also the representative for the IUCN in Sri Lanka and the chairman of his countrys expert group on biological diversity, he noted that the countrys environment ministry is not yet a decade old. Sri Lanka also lacks the infrastructure that exists in India for evaluating biodiversity, although it has just completed a five-year National Conservation Review which assessed the state of biodiversity in all of the countrys forests. The methodologies used were cited in one of the official SBSTTA documents. The review lived up to all expectations, said Wijesinghe. We have got a lot of data. The review dealt with both ecosystem and species diversity but limited its assessment of the latter to wooded plants, vertebrates, mollusks, and certain groups of insects because, as he explained, We cant cover the whole of everything, D I V E R S I T Y

he said, adding, however, that the review allows the government to study the extent to which the protected area network covers ecosystem biodiversity in the country and, if necessary, to extend it. The review will be integrated into Sri Lankas Biodiversity Action Plan, the national response to Article 6 of the Biodiversity Convention which states that countries shall develop national strategies, plans or programs for the conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity or adapt for this purpose existing strategies, plans or programs. . . . Funding for the review was obtained from the Global Environment Facility (GEF) through the World Bank. The GEF is the interim institutional structure which operates the financial mechanism under the Convention (see DIVERSITY, vol.12, no.1 ,p.5). Through the World Bank, the GEF has granted Sri Lanka funds to prepare a proposal for a project on medicinal plants. If accepted, it will lead to a substantial five-year investment project. The World Bank is also jointly funding a series of biodiversity skills enhancement workshops for decision makers and mid-level managers in the civil service. The program aims to reach bureaucrats in ministries such as transport, foreign affairs, and industry, and Wijesinghe says it has been very successful to date.

Pakistan
Like Sri Lanka, Pakistan has received GEF funding-in its case, some $3 10,000 -to help prepare its national action plan and to identify 3-5 protected areas (see artcle, p.70). As part of a second phase, it plans to request $10 million to manage the designated areas and develop them in a manner which protects biological diversity. Pakistans representative at SBSTTA, Kalimulla Shirazi, explained that the funding would support, among other activities, training wildlife managers, providing equipment such as vehicles and walkietalkies, and creating trails for tourists. Pakistan also plans to set aside buffer zones for people living in areas designated protected.
53

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PARTNERSHIPS IN SOUTH ASIA We want to update and implement the laws, said Shirazi. Pakistan is among the few countries which have prepared a National Conservation Strategy but its implementation requires a big investment, and Pakistan is looking for donor agencies to help implement it. Research, surveys, and inventories such as aerial assessments are all needed, he added. These are not onetime activities. We have to repeat them. Pakistan has a biodiversity coordinating committee at the federal level as well as a working group to advise on the smooth implementation of the CBD. Shirazi noted that material gathered to assist in complying with the CBD is often helpful with regard to other nature conservation treaties. He also pointed out that the government has made successful efforts to involve the private sector and that the countrys largest banks were among those participating in a massive forestation program begun after last years monsoon season. The goal is to plant 90 million trees throughout the country, and funding so far has reached some $7.5 million. able management. He acknowledged, however, that Nepal is still in the very early stages of dealing with biodiversity.

Nepal
In Nepal, a national survey, carried out with the assistance of the Netherlands, has given the country a general idea of the problems it is facing and has led to a series of recommendations, says Tamrakar Jamuna Krishna, the Nepalese representative at SBSTTA. The main recommendations involve providing alternative sources of income to people whose current methods of earning a living endanger biodiversity and increasing public awareness of the issues. The government is now trying to assess the value of non-timber forest products, and schools and colleges have just recently begun to include subjects such as forest conservation and the environment. Tamrakar said Nepal is working to strengthen its community forest program under which local people are given control of forests, thereby encouraging their protection and sustain-

Bangladesh
The efforts of Bangladsh to comply with the CBD include a major public awareness campaign, according to the countrys SBSTTA representative, Abdus Sattar. A number of multilateral agencies and development banks have already contributed to a variety of biodiversity-related projects such as mangrove forest conservation and the purchase of computer hardware and software needed to comply with the CBD. Some $2.5 million in GEF money is also being used for a local communities project in the north of the country. For further information, contact: Ann Brocklehurst, CBD Secretariat, World Trade Centre, 413 St. Jacques Street, Office 630, Montreal, Quebec H2Y lN9, Canada. Tel: + 1-514-288-2220. Fax: + l514-288-6588.

ystem-Wide Genetic Resources Program Leads Way in Effort to Coordinate CGIAR Center Activities
by J. Toll
Ensuring coordination between agricultural research institutes with similar concerns is an efficient way to optimize their effectiveness. In 1994, the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR) concluded that the introduction of programs at a system-wide level would improve its capacity to share expertise and resources among centers, enhance partnerships with other organizations, and hence promote greater impact. Among the first of the programs to be established was the System-wide Genetic Resources Programme (SGRP) (see DIVERSITY, vol.10,no.3,p.25). Its goal is to integrate the work of the international centers in this area, including activities on exsitu and in situ conservation of crops and their wild relatives; forages, forestry, and agroforestry species; and livestock and aquatic genetic resources. SGRPs mandate also includes conducting research on policies, strategies, and technologies for genetic resources and providing information, advice, and training to its partners. IPGRI is the Convening Center for the 15 participating SGRP centers. The SGRP is likely to impact widely in South Asia. Its main goal is to ensure that the CGIAR centers concemed with genetic resources meet the challenges posed by the Convention on Biological Diversity, Agenda 21, and the Global Plan of Action for plant genetic resources, which was recently adopted at the FAO International Technical Conference on Plant Genetic Resources in Leipzig, Germany (see articles, pp.7, 8, and 10). Responses to these initiatives will form the basis for SGRPs future work. Within the context of SGRP, consultations were held in 1995 and 1996 to address improved management of field and in vitro genebanks and the regeneration of seed collections. A meeting on seed regeneration, hosted by ICRISAT at Hyderabad, India, was attended by six CGIAR centers and 12 national institutes holding genebank collections, including Indias National Bureau for Plant Genetic Resources. D I V E R S I T Y Regeneration is an aspect of seedbank management that is often neglected. All seedbank collections need to be periodically regenerated to ensure maintenance of viability and to increase seed stocks. At the technical consultation in India, participants exchanged information about their experiences and practices in seed germ plasm regeneration and developed a framework for cost-effective regeneration, which includes the following strategies: . minimizing the regeneration requirement of the collection; . minimizing the regeneration frequency of accessions in the collection; and . minimizing genetic changes to accessions during regeneration and the costs associated with carrying out regeneration. The framework has been designed to be a guide to decision-making to enable curators to take account of the specific requirements of their accessions and the individual circumstances of each genebank. Once fully developed, the framework will be used as the basis for guidelines to be put before the FAO Commission on Genetic Resources for endorsement. A similar approach has been taken in the developVo1.12, no. 3, 1996

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PARTNERSHIPS IN SOUTH ASIA ment of guidelines for field and in vitro genebank management in consultations hosted by CIAT in Cali, Colombia. studies, is being carried out in collaboration with national institutes. In India, the project focus is studying in situ conservation sites at Biligiri Rangan Hills, South Karnataka, and Mudumalai in northern Tamil Nadu with collaborators from the University of Agricultural Sciences, Bangalore, and local communities. Three sampling areas at each site were selected representing low, moderate, and high disturbance levels. The studies show that reproductive features such as seed weight, seed germination, and seedling fitness are adversely affected by disturbance, and seed predation was highest in the most disturbed sites. Genetic studies are being carried out on the samples collected through the project using isoenzyme and DNA marker analyses. Trees from different disturbance levels have been found to be genetically distinct. Socioeconomic surveys are also assessing the intensity and patterns of use of the forest by the local communities. For further information, contact: Jane Toll, SGRP Coordinator, c/o IPGRI, Via delle Sette Chiese 142, 00145 Rome, Italy. Tel. +39-6-518-921; Fax: +39-6-575-0309. E-Mail: J.TOLL@CGNET.COM

SGRP Supports Joint Forestry Ecosystem Study in India

Forest genetic resources is a relatively new area for the CGIAR. Funding has been allocated by SGRP to support a joint project between the Centre for International Forestry Research (CIFOR) and IPGRI to assess, monitor, and forecast the impact of human activities on genetic resources in tropical forest ecosystems in Malaysia, Thailand, and India. The research, which integrates socioeconomic and biological

ollaboration with IPGRI Advances Sustainable Development in South Asia

by R.K. Arora and J.P. Horry
Background
Archeological evidence suggests that South Asia has a particularly long agricultural history. Rice farming, for example, was widespread in India by 2000 BC. The genetic diversity existing throughout South Asia has been exploited and nurtured by rural people through the millennia to develop cultigens which meet diverse environmental conditions and different human needs. A wide range of climates occur in the region, including humid tropical, dry semiarid, and temperate alpine. A vast stretch also represents oceanic/tropical littoral habitats as in the Maldives and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. The region is characterized by rich ethnic diversity as well: in India alone one can find over 550 tribal communities within 227 ethnic groups. The region is extremely rich floristically: more than over 15,000 higher plant species occur in India, about one-third of which are endemic. Sri Lanka and Nepal are also well-endowed with rich plant diversity, as are some underexplored areas such as Bhutan. Nearly 170 cultivated plant species occur in the Hindustani region-one of the 12 regions of diversity of cultivated plants-and the region is also rich in diversity of wild relatives of crops. To facilitate collaboration and to promote the conservation and use of plant genetic resources activities in the region, in 1988, the International Board for Plant Genetic Resources (IBPGR), now the International Plant Genetic Resources Institute (IPGRI), established a regional office for South and Southeast Asia at the National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources (NBPGR) in New Delhi. India signed the Establishment Agreement granting international status in 1992, further cementing the close ties created in 1987 when a Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) was signed between IBPGR and the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR). For many years India has provided regular financial support to IBPGR/IPGRIs program. genetic resources work and helps to promote suitable policies and activities among decision-makers. Other activities include research undertaken in partnership with South Asian national program partners, assistance in the development of project proposals, facilitating germplasm exchange and organizing collecting missions, training, and workshops. Considering the heterogeneity among the national programs in the region, IPGRI consults extensively with its partners to ensure that its program is based on regional and national needs.

Collaborative Priority Projects Cover Broad Range of Crops

During the 1990s, several projects were developed in collaboration with NBPGR based on a joint biennial work plan between IPGRI and ICAR. These involved work on priority crops of regional and national importance and were executed by NBPGR. Three important South Asian cropsokra, sesame, and maize-were the focus of projects to collect, characterize, evaluate, and document genetic resources. Other projects involved collecting eggplant and Himalayan maize. Joint exploration missions by NBPGR and the national programs of Nepal, Bangladesh, and Sri Lanka were undertaken in these four countries with support from IPGRI. These missions collected 1,835 accessions of okra and its wild relatives, 3,070 of eggplant, 2,045 of sesame, and 797 of maize. IPGRI also helped to supplement the NBPGR collection by arranging for the supply of samples from the world collec-

The genetic diversity existing throughout South Asia has been exploited and nurtured by rural people through the millennia.
As a result of an internal reorganization in 1992, the New Delhi office assumed responsibility for IPGRIs work in South Asia (within the context of the institutes overall program for Asia, the Pacific, and Oceania). The IPGRI program in South Asia covers Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, and Sri Lanka. IPGRIs support of national programs in the region takes many forms. The institute provides advice on the development of appropriate national plans and strategies for D I V E R S I T Y

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PARTNERSHIPS IN SOUTH ASIA tion of sesame and from nine countries within South, Southeast, and East Asia. The results of the evaluation of this material have been published in several crop catalogues, and the information and genetic materials have been shared with scientists around the world. Another project involved genetic diversity studies on wild and cultivated okra (Abelmoschus) species using isozymes and molecular markers to elucidate species relationships in the genepool. IPGRI and NBPGR have also collaborated on research on biological mechanisms determining recalcitrance in the seeds of tea, cocoa, and jackfruit to develop sound conservation techniques and to develop cryopreservation techniques for long-term conservation of recalcitrant seeds and vegetatively propagated plants. These activities have been supported by funding from the British Overseas Development Administration. also collaborates closely with a number of NGOs in the region, for example, the M.S. Swaminathan Research Foundation, Madras, with which it has been involved in establishing a seed genebank and in supporting research and training efforts that have been supported with Italian funding (see article, p.73). develop and promote sustainable methods for improving coconut production should contribute to raising the incomes of people in South Asia and around the world who depend on coconut for their livelihood.

INIBAP
Banana is one of the most widely cultivated plants in the humid tropics of South Asia, from Assam in the northeast to Sri Lanka in the south. Despite a number of constraints, banana production in India is more than 5.4 million tons per year and represents 24 percent of the fruit production of the country. The region falls within the center of origin for Musa. M. acuminata and M. balbisiana, the two wild species from which nearly all edible bananas originated, are both endemic to this area. Several hybrid landraces probably developed here as well, as evidenced by the great diversity of hybrids present in the region. The International Network for the Improvement of Banana and Plantain (INIBAP), established in 1984 with its headquarters in Montpellier, France, aims to increase the production of banana and plantain on small holdings by supporting and coordinating research to improve production; strengthening regional and national programs and facilitating exchange of materials; collecting and disseminating documentation and information on Musa; and coordinating training programs for developing country scientists and technicians. In 1994, INIBAP came under the governance and administration of IPGRI. India is an important partner of INIBAP within the Asia and South Pacific Network. Most Musa accessions from Indian regional field genebanks have been duplicated by the National Research Center for Banana (NRCB) at Podavur, Tamil Nadu. To complement this collection of 425 accessions with samples of global Musa diversity, INIBAP provided NRCB with 74 accessions. INIBAP assistance has also been requested in the fields of taxonomy, evaluation of genetic diversity, and collecting in some remote areas. Activities in these areas will be implemented in the near future. The clones belonging to the Mysore group are among the most popular and widespread varieties consumed in India and Sri Lanka under the names of Poovan and Embul respectively. In both countries, these varieties are severely affected by Banana Streak Virus (BSV). INIBAP supplied NRCB with Pisang Ceylan, a BSVfree clone donated by the Center for International Cooperation and Research in Developmental Agriculture (CIRAD). This Vo1.12, no.3, 1996

Crops and Regional Networks

The IPGRI Office for South Asia has organized several regional and international activities supporting crop and regional networks. For example, in October 1990, the International Okra Workshop was held at NBPGR, jointly with ICAR, and regional workshops on genetic resources of sesame and Lathyrus sativus (grass pea) took place in September 1993 and December 1995, respectively. The workshops have helped promote research and development efforts on the conservation and use of these underutilized crops and have facilitated collaboration among participating countries. It is proposed to develop an informal network for Lathyrus in Asia and West Asia/North Africa (WANA) in collaboration with ICARDA. An effective informal regional network is in place in South Asia, facilitated by the South Asia National PGR coordinators (SAC), and meetings have been held biennially since 1990. To date, the meetings have taken place at NBPGR in New Delhi, at the Plant Genetic Resources Center (PGRC), Sri Lanka, and at the Bangladesh Agricultural Research Council (BARC), in Dhaka. These meetings-supported in part by IPGRI-brought together the PGR coordinators from national organizations to share and discuss their priorities, constraints, and needs.

The genetic diversity existing throughout South Asia has been exploited and nurtured by rural people through the millennia.
Recently, collaborative projects have been initiated with: Central Plantation Crops Research Institute, Kasaragod, Kerala, to help strengthen the national coconut germplasm collection; Kerala Forestry Research Institute, Peechy, Kerala to study the diversity and conservation of bamboo and rattan (in collaboration with the International Network for Bamboo and Rattan) as well as various tree species of commercial importance in South India; Tropical Botanical Garden and Research Institute, Trivandrum, on the phenology of Asian bamboo and the development of low cost micro-propagation techniques; and Center for International Forestry Research to study the in situ conservation of forest genetic resources in Malaysia, Thailand, and India (see article, p.26). This latter project, conducted under the auspices of the CGIAR System-wide Genetic Resources Program (SGRP), is described on page 54. Working through its office in New Delhi, IPGRI has supported the Nepal Agricultural Research Council (NARC), Hill Crops Improvement Program to evaluate and catalogue its barley, buckwheat, ama-

COGENT
Following a decision by the CGIAR that IPGRI should undertake activities on coconut genetic resources, the International Coconut Genetic Resources Network (COGENT) was established by IPGRI in 1992 on the recommendation of 15 coconut producing countries. The network currently has 31 member countries, including India. Two coordinators from each of five regional networks-South Asia, Southeast Asia, the Pacific, Africa, and the Americas -constitute COGENTs Steering Committee which determines program priorities and oversees the networks activities. Coordinated from a unit located in IPGRIs Regional Office for Asia, the Pacific, and Oceania in Singapore, COGENTs efforts to conserve coconut germplasm and to D I V E R S I T Y

ranth, finger millet, foxtail millet, and proso millet germplasm collections. IPGRI 56

PARTNERSHIPS IN SOUTH ASIA clone will act as mother stock for a possible restocking program for the local industry. The NRCB works with INIBAP on several activities linked to the evaluation of banana hybrids developed by the breeding programs. In the framework of the International Musa Testing Program (IMTP), coordinated by INIBAP, India provides five testing sites for evaluation of resistance to Fusavium wilt and black Sigatoka, the two major diseases affecting banana. In 1994, ICAR received a special grant from INIBAP to undertake national evaluation program trials using the black Sigatokatraining programs. In 1992, IPGRI, FAO, and NBPGR organized a regional training course on the conservation and use of crop genetic resources of local and regional importance for countries of South Asia and Indo-China. In addition, short-term consultancies have been offered to Indian scientists to prepare status reports on niger, Genetic Resources organized a Dialogue on Developing National Policy on Plant Genetic Resources, where such issues as plant breeders rights, farmers rights, biotechnology, and the patenting of biological material were discussed. These subjects again came to the fore at a symposium on the role of ethnobotany in the conservation and use of plant genetic resources during the 4th International Ethnobiological Congress at Lucknow in 1994, at a Workshop on Methodologies for Recognizing the Role of Informal Innovation in the Conservation and Utilization of Plant Genetic Resources organized by the M.S. Swaminathan Research Foundation the same year; and at a recent Technical Consultation Meeting held at MSSRF in January 1996 (see DIVERSITY, vol. 12,no.2,pp.68). These meetings, in which IPGRI participated, have helped to raise awareness of plant genetic resources in India and identify issues to consider in the formulation of national policy.

buckwheat, chenopods, citrus, mango, taro, and yams.

In 1995, Dr. Satish Paul was awarded one of IPGRIs prestigious Vavilov-Frankel Fellowships to carry out research at the Scottish Crops Research Institute on the

Information Dissemination
IPGRI distributes publications to promote the importance of plant genetic resources and to inform its partners, in South Asia and around the world, of new developments and innovations in the field of genetic resources conservation and use. The institute has produced more than 400 publications in the years since 1974, and more than 1,000 South Asian national program scientists regularly receive publications from IPGRI. To meet the particular needs of the region, IPGRT produces a Regional Newsletter for Asia, the Pacific and Oceania, books, and regional workshop/network proceedings as well as project reports. The New Delhi office also supports the development of regional databases and provides information services to national programs on all aspects of plant genetic resources. South Asia is an important region with enormous variability in terms of culture, economic development, and genetic resources. IPGRIs activities in this region are designed to complement and support national efforts for the conservation and use of plant genetic resources as a means to advance global progress towards sustainable development. For more information, contact: Dr. R.K. Arora, IPGRI Office for South Asia, c/o NBPGR, Pusa Campus, New Delhi 110 012, India. Tel: +91-11-573-1845/5786112. Fax: +91-11-573-1845. E-mail: IPGRI-DELHI@CGNET.COM.

resistant hybrids developed by the Honduran Foundation for Agricultural Research which were recommended for distribution as an outcome of the first phase of IMTP. INIBAP has also been active in the region through assisting in surveys and the identification of key disease and pest constraints to production. A visit of INIBAPs scientific research coordinator in 1995 to India and Sri Lanka addressed the severe damage to banana production due to virus diseases (banana bract mosaic, banana streak disease, and bunchy top), fungus (leaf spot diseases caused by Mycosphaerella/Septoria pathogen), and bacterial strains of Pseudomonas solanacearum. The sixth annual meeting of the Regional Advisory Committee of the INIBAP Asia and South Pacific network hosted by NRCB is scheduled to convene at Trichy, Tamil Nadu, in September 1996.

Human Resource Development

Since 1977, IPGRI has assisted 55 Indian scientists to further their studies in genetic resources as well as sponsoring the attendance of scientists from ICAR at regional and international meetings and Vol.12. no.3. 1996

detection of genetic variations between and within populations of tea plants. Dr. Sneh Lata, who won one of the 1996 awards, will research the diversity, ethnobotany, and conservation of Grewia optiva- an important multipurpose tree found in the Himalayan region-in India and Nepal. Scientists from other countries in South Asia have also benefited from on-the-job training courses sponsored by IPGRI and organized by NBPGR. Several scientists from the region have received masters degrees in PGR conservation from Birmingham University, U.K., or have benefited by attending short training programs sponsored by IBPGR/IPGRI (see DIVERSITY, vol.6,no.l,pp.11-13). The institute has also played a role in national workshops to raise awareness of the importance of genetic resources conservation and use in development. A workshop on the plant genetic resources of Nepal, jointly organized with the Nepal Agricultural Research Council (NARC) in December 1994, was attended by participants representing both governmental and non-governmental organizations. In 1993, the Indian Society for Plant D I V E R S I T Y

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andraces of the Primitive Pigeonpea Yield Economic Benefit and Contribute to Sustainability
by P. Remanandan
Pigeonpea is predominantly a crop of South Asia. With its increasing importance as a protein-rich grain legume crop in the Caribbean and eastern Africa, it is used as a dried grain legume cooked and eaten in many forms and as a fresh, green, nutritious vegetable. Pigeonpea (Cajunus cajun) also provides forage, green manure, and fuel wood. Since this hardy plant helps to curb soil erosion, conserve soil moisture, and improve soil fertility, it is gaining importance in developing sustainable production systems in fragile environments, particularly in the reclamation of degraded lands and wasteland management. Pigeonpea originated in India and was probably domesticated later than most other grain legumes. Compared to Phaseolus beans, it changed relatively little during domestication and, even today, is considered a primitive crop. Nonetheless, it serves the farmer well and has great potential in modern agriculture. Remarkable diversity is still to be found in the existing pigeonpea landraces in India. germplasm against sterility mosaic (SM) and wilt have been transferred to national programs that make substantial use of them. Pigeonpea varies markedly in crop duration that is determined by interactions between photoperiod, temperature, and genotype. The traditionally grown landraces are of long duration (more than 180 days) or medium duration (130-160 days). Recently bred extrashort-duration (less than 110 days) genotypes, while retaining a high yield potential, have increased options for escaping drought and can fit into gaps in cropping cycles previously inaccessible to pigeonpea. These new plant types are comparatively less sensitive to photoperiod and have begun to succeed in areas where pigeonpea is not traditionally grown. Though the genetic base of this group of pigeonpea is very narrow, by using conventional breeding procedures from available germplasm, successful cultivars have been developed by ICRISAT and collaborating national programs. Released cultivars of extra-short and short (110-130 days) duration varieties include Hunt, Quantum, and Quest in Australia, Megha in Indonesia, Pragati (TCPL X7), Jagriti, and Durga in India, TCPL 87 in Myanmar and MN1 , MN5, and MN8 in the USA. and was released in Fiji with the name Kamica in 1985. ICP 9145, a wilt-resistant landrace with desirable vegetable-type traits collected in Kenya, was a great success in Malawi, where it was released and named Nandolo wanswana in 1988. ICP 11384 was located in a hot spot of SM disease in the Himalayan foothills of Nepal during a joint germplasm collection mission with the Nepalese national program. The landrace in the farmers held was free from the disease, and further tests at ICRISAT and in Nepal confirmed that the cultivar really has host plant resistance against SM. Further, it is well-adapted to the Himalayan foothills where it evolved.

Remarkable diversity is still to be found in the presently existing pigeonpea landraces in India.
This long-duration landrace was also found to be superior in agronomic performance, and it was released in Nepal as Bageswari in 1992. Nepal released another landrace, ICP 6997, with the name Rampur Rhar 1 in 1992. ICP 6997, with resistance to SM and high productivity, was collected by ICRISAT from an ethnic farming community in Madhya Pradesh, India. It is interesting to note that all of these released varieties are cultivars which did not undergo any institutional breeding procedures. These were maintained and conserved by farming communities generation after generation and evolved under selection in farmers fields and probably under severe disease pressure. These landraces are highly productive, have seeds with consumer-acceptable characteristics and, above all, have immunity to such devastating diseases as wilt and sterility mosaic. The economic benefit of the spread of these elite landraces in diverse areas is substantial. Wilt alone causes annual losses valued at US$113 million in southern Asia and Africa. More importantly, the release of cultivars with host-plant resistance to such serious diseases as wilt and SM has made significant contributions in strengthening national programs efforts in developing sustainable cropping systems. For further information, contact: Dr. P. Remanandan, Genetic Resources Division, ICRISAT Asia Center, Patancheru 502 324, Andhra Pradesh, India. Tel: +91-40596- 161. Fax: +91-40-241-239. E-mail: ICRISAT@cgnet.com. Vo1.12, no. 3, 1996

ICRISAT Houses Collection

Since 1972, the International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT) has made a concerted effort to mobilize, evaluate, and utilize germplasm in pigeonpea improvement.* A total of 12,885 accessions originating from 72 countries has been assembled and evaluated. While the active and base seed collections are maintained at ICRISATs Asia Center, a duplicate set of the base collection is conserved in the National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources (NBPGR) genebank, New Delhi. Reliable, field-tested technologies developed at ICRISAT for screening
*ICRISAT, the only CGIAR agricultural research center baaed in the region, has a global mandate for six crops which are vital to the ever increasing populations of the semi-arid tropics: sorghum, pearl millet, finger millet, chickpea, and groundnut. The main ICRISAT center, based in Patancheru, Andhra Pradesh, India, works with nine other ICRISAT locations on improving these crops and serves as the world repository for their genetic resources.

Commercial Possibilities
The discovery of stable genetic male sterility coupled with the crops outcrossing nature has opened the possibility of commercial utilization of the hybrid vigor in pigeonpea. At ICRISAT and at several collaborating national centers considerable efforts have been made to exploit the available genetic diversity and identify heterotic cross combinations with high yield potential, culminating in 1991 when the first commercial hybrid pigeonpea was released. Germplasm, breeding lines, and data move freely from ICRISAT to national programs. Between 1972 and 1996 a total of 56,532 samples moved from ICRISAT to institutions in 102 countries. This strong collaborative effort resulted in the release of 18 varieties and three hybrids. Out of these, four are traditional landraces released directly as varieties, while the rest are selections and cross progenies involving landraces. ICP 7035, a vegetable-type landrace maintained by the ethnic populations in Madhya Pradesh, India, has combined resistance to wilt and SM D I V E R S I T Y

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ains in Groundnut Productivity Illustrate Success of Resistance Breeding Based on Exotic Germplasm
by A.K. Singh and S. N. Nigam
Groundnut (Arachis hypogaea) is a major oilseed crop in India, accounting for 34.5 percent of total oilseeds area (24.5 m ha) and 41.3 percent of total oilseeds production (20.3 m t) in the country. Since the late 1980s there has been a gradual increase in area (12 percent), production (9 percent), and productivity (6 percent) of the main rainy-season groundnut crop. The average pod yield has increased from 794 kg ha in 1980 to 988 kg ha in 1994, again of around 1.4 percent per annum. Although improved cultivars selected ICGS 44, Kadiri 3, ICGS 76, and M 13owe their origin to exotic germplasm. Until 1976, Indian groundnut breeders had access to only about 5,000 germplasm accessions with a narrow range of genetic variability. The variation available for abiotic and biotic stresses in these accessions was little understood or non-existent. Research Project on Oilseeds dealt with varieties which had exotic germplasm in their parentage. The first Indian groundnut cultivar with multiple disease resistance, Girnar 1, was released in 1988. One of the parents of this cultivar was NC AC 17090, a landrace from Peru assembled from North Carolina. Since then, two more cultivars with multiple resistances, ICG(FDRS) 10 and ICGV 86590 have been released in India. Now, most of the new cultivars have resistance/ tolerance to one or more stresses. The full impact of these cultivars at the farm level is yet to be realized as they need further improvements to their agronomic characteristics, e.g., in shelling outturn and crop duration. However, their performance in disease and insect pest endemic areas has been considerably better than that of local cultivars.

ICRISAT World Repository of Groundnut Germplasm

In 1976 groundnut was included in the mandate of ICRISAT which was designated by IBPGR and CGIAR as the worlds repository of groundnut germplasm. Since T has collected and assembled about 15,000 accessions, including 450 accessions of wild Arachis species from 9 1 countries in collaboration with such national/international organizations as NBPGR in India; Centro Nacional de Recursos Geneticos e Biotecnologia (CENARGEN) in Brazil, center of origin and primary and secondary center of diversity of genus Arachis (see DIVERSITY, vol.7, nos. 1&2,pp.59-61); USDA; and IBPGR/IPGRI. Systematic screening for resistance to various abiotic and biotic stresses has resulted in the identification of numerous sources of resistance in cultivated groundnut and their utilization in the breeding program (see Table). The availability of these sources of resistances has reoriented the breeding objectives not only in India but in all groundnut-growing countries with active breeding programs. Since 1980, ICRISAT has distributed 38,362 seed samples to groundnut researchers in India, leading to increased use of exotic germplasm in the national breeding program. On average, 46 percent of the new groundnut varietal proposals between 1985 and 1995 in the All India Coordinated D I V E R S I T Y

Wild Species Provide More Resistance

Another significant development, since 1980, has been the exploitation of wild Arachis species in resistance breeding. The wild Arachis species have provided both a higher level of resistance than that available in cultivated groundnut to some, e.g., rust, early leaf spot, late leaf spot, peanut bud necrosis disease and Spodoptera, and resis-

around 1940, there was an almost complete lull in varietal development activities from then until 1960. Although more than 80 cultivars were released from 1960 to 1995, average productivity remained stagnant until the mid-1980s because of poor production technology, the susceptibility of released cultivars to abiotic and biotic stresses, and their poor adaptation to emerging production systems. In the late 1980s a gradual increase in productivity was apparent, with exotic germplasm making significant contributions towards it. Many old and new leading cultivars-such as JL 24, GG 2, ICGS 11,
*AK 12-24, TMV 2, Gangapuri, Kopergaon, and TMV 1.

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PARTNERSHIPS IN SOUTH ASIA tance to such stresses as peanut mottle and peanut clump virus, for which resistance is not available in cultivated groundnut. Some of these resistances have been successfully incorporated into cultivated groundnut from compatible wild Arachis species, e.g., A. cardenasii, resulting in the production of large number of A. hypogaealike stable tetraploid interspecific derivatives. These are now being utilized in resistance breeding programs. Attempts are also in progress to introgress desirable gene(s) from incompatible species using in vivo hormonal application, in vitro embryo rescue, and genetic transformation techniques. Although the gains in groundnut productivity have not been as spectacular as in cereals, the progress achieved in the last decade suggests that greater research emphasis and utilization of emerging technologies could achieve much higher rates of growth in future. For further information, contact: Dr. A.K. Singh, Genetic Resources Division, ICRISAT Asia Center, Patancheru 502 324, Andhra Pradesh, India. Tel: +91-40596-161. Fax: +91-40-241-239. E-mail: A.SINGH@cgnet.com.

by G. Loresto and M. Jackson

In South Asia-Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Nepal, Pakistan, and Sri Lankarice is highly diverse in terms of genotypes and growing conditions. Domestication brought about a number of morphological and physiological changes compared with the wild rices. Cultivar preferences and social and religious practices contributed further to the diversity in rice varieties. Panicle type, grain shape, size and weight, color and awning, maturity, and plant height are among the most morphologically diverse traits of this staple crop of half the worlds population. As one of the primary centers of origin for cultivated rice (Oryza sativa), India contains a rich and diverse genetic wealth of rice, and many varieties have been used as parents to breed modem cultivars with resistances and high quality. In Bangladesh, rice varieties are classified as aus (short-duration summer crop), transplanted aman and broadcast aman (main crop and photoperiod-sensitive), and boro (adapted to cool climate). In Bhutan, rice farming is concentrated in the central zone valleys, from the foothills to areas with an altitude of about 2,500 m. The traditional rice varieties grown at higher altitudes are important sources of cold-tolerant germplasm. In Nepal, rice is cultivated from an elevation of about 40 m in the subtropical southern terai region to 2,800 m in the Jumla Valley in the cold-temperate northwest hill region, the latter containing some of the worlds highest rice fields. Cultural types

range from the upland, cold-tolerant, rainfed type in the mid-hills to the floating rices in-the eastern terai. In Pakistan, rice grows under average temperatures of 33 C in the upper Sind region. Rices from this area are good genetic sources for grain quality. In Sri Lanka, a group of varieties with short and bold grains, locally known as Samba, is popular for its good cooking and eating quality. The varieties are mostly long-duration and photoperiod-sensitive types, although varieties grown from April through October are insensitive to photoperiod. Six wild rices are endemic to South Asia. One species, O. eichingeri, which is abundant in central and eastern Africa, has been found in forest pools in Sri Lanka. The wild progenitor of Asian rice, O. rufipogon, and its weed race, O. nivara, grow abundantly in swamps, open ditches, swampy grassland, and deepwater rice fields throughout South Asia. O. granulata is found in deciduous forests and bamboo thickets in India, Sri Lanka, and Nepal. O. rhizomatis (described only in 1990) is from the tropical forests and open, tall, scrub vegetation in Sri Lanka. O. officinalis is abundant in India and has also been reported in Bangladesh.

Agricultural Research (ICAR), followed by a third batch of 2,885 in 1977. Other countries have also duplicated all or parts of their rice collections at IRRI (see table). Following an international symposium on rice breeding held at IRRI in 1971, the institute initiated a coordinated program to collect farmer varieties. By 1978, more than 3,400 samples had been collected in India, 735 in Pakistan, and 121 in Bhutan.

International Partnerships
International partnerships to conserve rice germplasm in South Asia have been effective for more than three decades. The International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) provides safety duplicate storage of rice germplasm from the region at its International Rice Genebank (IRG) in the Philippines. In 1970, the first batch of 600 samples of O. sativa from the Assam Rice Collection at the Central Rice Research Institute, Cuttack, India, was sent to IRRI. In 1972, another batch of 2,540 samples was sent through the Indian Council of

In 1978, the International Board for Plant Genetic Resources (now the International Plant Genetic Resources Institute, IPGRI) committed funds for a five-year period to support rice germplasm exploration in South and Southeast Asia, leading to the collection of 1,096 samples in Nepal and more than 2,200 samples in Sri Lanka. The teams of IRRI and national staff made special efforts to collect farmer varieties of Asian rice in remote areas and special types in unusual rice-growing habitats. In the late 1980s the collecting emphasis turned to the wild species of rice. Up to 1992, 692 wild rice samples had been collected from India, 119 from Sri Lanka, 100 from Bangladesh, and 40 from Nepal. Collecting efforts continue today with Vo1.12, no. 3, 1996

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ollaborative Efforts of ICARDA and the Countries in South Asia Aim toward Conservation of Genetic Resources
by L.D. Robertson, J. Valkoun, and J. Konopka
Established in 1977 as one of the international agricultural research centers within the global system of the Consultative Group on Agricultural International Research (CGIAR), the International Center holdings numbered 111,342 accessions representing germplasm from 90 countries, including a significant amount of the collection from India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Nepal (Table 1). The collections are held in trust under the auspices of the Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) for the benefit of the world. 1993 and 1995, some 6,771 accessions were safely duplicated. Also in 1992, ICARDA signed and implemented an agreement for safety duplication of chickpea germplasm and related passport data with another CGIAR institution, the International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT), based in Hyderabad, India (see article, p.63). By the end of 1995, some 4,873 accessions had been duplicated at ICRISAT, and, reciprocally, ICARDA duplicated 2,000 chickpea accessions from ICRISAT in 1996.

South Asian Countries Important Source of Legume and Cereal Germplasm

National programs in South Asia and ICARDA have collaborated in collecting and conserving germplasm of cereals and legumes. In nine joint missions since 1985, over 1,600 accessions have been collected in one mission in Bangladesh, five in Pakistan, and three in Nepal. Approximately half of these missions have been supported by a collaborative project with funding provided by the Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research to link national programs from the western Mediterranean region (Algeria, Morocco, and Tunisia) with those from Bangladesh, Ethiopia, and Pakistan and with the Co-operative Research Centre for Legumes in Mediterranean Agriculture (CLIMA), based at Perth, Australia (see DIVERSITY, vol. 11, nos. 1&2,p.25). One of the major legume crops collected has been Lathyrus sativus, known as khesari. Collecting has been concentrated in Bangladesh, where it is the most impor-

Collection of germplasm of legumes from threshing floors in Bangladesh in 1995.

(Photo by L.D. Robertson)

for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA), based in Aleppo, Syria, received a global mandate for the improvement of barley, lentil, and faba bean and a regional responsibility for the improvement of wheat, chickpea, and pasture and forage crops, most of which are important in the cropping systems of South Asia (see DIVERSITY, vol. 11, nos. 1&2, pp. 23-26). Having adequate conditions for longterm germplasm storage, ICARDA was designated by the International Board of Plant Genetic Resources (IBPGR, later the International Plant Genetic Resources Institute [IPGRI]) to hold global base collections of barley, wild wheat relatives, durum wheat, lentil, and faba bean and regional base collections of bread wheat and chickpea in a coordinated network of base collections. At the end of 1995, ICARDA

An important part of the holdings has been collected by ICARDA itself in cooperation with national programs. In 100 germplasm collecting missions, over 22,000 accessions have been collected, mostly in countries of West Asia and North Africa (WANA). However, ICARDA has also made significant collections of germplasm in joint missions with the national programs of Bangladesh, Pakistan, and Nepal, particularly of food legumes (Table 2).

Collaboration in Safety Duplication

Genetic resources are stored in the genebank at ICARDA according to international standards, including safety. Standby electricity generators are available in case of power supply failure. An important aspect of germplasm conservation of the base collection is safety duplication of unique accessions in other genebanks. For this purpose, ICARDA has two agreements with institutions in South Asia. In 1992, an agreement was signed and implemented between ICARDA and Indias National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources (NBPGR) for the safety duplication of the ICARDA global collection of lentil in the cold storage facilities of NBPGR. Between D I V E R S I T Y

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PARTNERSHIPS IN SOUTH ASIA pulse with 31 percent of the area and 32 percent of the production, and in Nepal where it accounts for 11.8 percent of the area and 9.8 percent of the production of pulses. Khesari is grown because of its tolerance to both drought and waterlogging. Now that ICARDA has implemented an improvement program for Lathyrus sativus as a pulse crop, this germplasm is a valuable resource for developing improved material adapted to South Asia.
tant

This first-ever collection of faba bean in Bangladesh may prove to be valuable germplasm for several important traits.
With the re-implementation of a cropimprovement program for faba bean at ICARDA, two recent germplasm collecting missions to South Asia take on increased significance. Six accessions collected in 1995 are the first to be collected in Bangladesh. This germplasm may have unique characteristics as it was collected from outside the normal range of environments of the crop. Consequently, this firstever collection of faba bean in Bangladesh may prove to be valuable germplasm for several important traits, e.g., earliness and heat tolerance. When collectors went to Nepal in 1995 faba bean was only expected in the midhills region, but was also extensively found in the tarai. The types found in the midhills were the large-seeded broadbean

types. Small-seeded faba beans were found in the tarai, in most cases as a mixture of black/purple and cream-colored types. These mixed types are also grown in India in kitchen gardens, which in most places was the pattern of cultivation in the tarai, though several large fields were also seen. Other legumes collected in joint missions in South Asia included lentil, chickpea, and forage legumes. Cereals, wheat, and barley and their wild relatives were collected in Pakistan in 1986 by a joint mission from the Pakistan Agricultural Research Council (PARC) and ICARDA. The mission had two parts: one was targeted to Baluchistan and the other to northern areas of the country. Aegilops tauschii, a bread wheat wild progenitor, was frequently found in mountainous regions and foothills of Baluchistan. The species was restricted to orchards and fields which were protected from goat grazing. During the expedition to northern areas, a high genetic variability was observed in different traits, especially in the Baltistan region. Indigenous landraces were highly diverse for traits such as spike color, length and density, plant height, and awn characteristics. Genetic erosion was present in bread wheat due to widespread use of improved varieties, but a naked barley landrace, locally called Nas, was still culti-

vated because suitable improved varieties were not available. While ICARDA provides samples of germplasm to the national programs of South Asia for various purposes, a particularly important one is for screening for biotic and abiotic stress resistances. During the period 1993-1995, over 3,700 samples of germplasm have been distributed to the countries of South Asia. For further information, contact the authors at ICARDA, P.O. Box 5466, Aleppo, Syria. Tel: +963-21-213-433 or +96321-213-477. Fax: +963-21-213-490 or +963-21-225-105.

ew Resistance Genes Provide Key to Increased Productivity of South Asias Most Important Pulse Crop
by K.B. Singh and L.D. Robertson
Although chickpea (Cicer arietinum) is the most important pulse crop in South Asia, its productivity (700 kg/ha) is well below its potential. This low productivity is ascribed to (1) low genetic potential of cultivars and (2) susceptibility of cultivars to multiple stresses. Generally, the productivity of chickpea is higher in northwestern India and Pakistan than in the rest of South Asia, but because of extensive damage from blight (Ascochyta rabiei), the seed yields are low and unpredictable in this area. Consequently, farmers have diverted land to crops with better economic returns and relegated chickpea to marginal land, resulting in an overall reduction in chickpea production in the region. Chickpea in this part of India and Pakistan also suffers occasional cold, whereas in central and southern India, Bangladesh, and Nepal, the crop periodically faces drought stress and damage from wilt D I V E R S I T Y (Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. ciceri). Although cyst nematode (Heteroderu ciceri) only occurs in localized pockets of South Asia, it causes severe damage where present. Seed beetle (Callosobruchus chinensis) is a widespread storage pest and causes considerable damage. With these factors present, if the crop yield is to be stabilized and production is to increase, there is a need to incorporate genes for resistance to biotic and abiotic stresses in the high-yielding cultivars.

Evaluation and Identification

The International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA) holds 9,712 collections of kabuli chickpea 63

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PARTNERSHIPS IN SOUTH ASIA countries, as follows: 61 sets resistant to Ascochyta blight, 43 for Fusarium wilt, 3 1 for cold, and six for drought. Based on international nursery testing and work at ICARDA, various sources of resistance have been identified: 13 accessions for Ascochyta blight, six for Fusarium wilt, two for seed beetle, one for cyst nematode, two for cold, and one for drought. In addition, three were resistant to Ascochyta blight, Fusarium wilt, and cold; one (C. echinospermum) was resistant to Fusarium wilt, seed beetle, and cold; and three accessions of C. bijugum were resistant to Ascochyta, Fusarium, seed beetle, cyst nematode, and cold. cultivars in South Asia. The cultivar Noor 1 was released in Pakistan and has become the most widely grown kabuli chickpea there. Other resistant lines are being used in the breeding programs of the region in an effort to stabilize and increase chickpea production. For further information, contact: Dr. Larry D. Robertson, Legume Germplasm Curator, GRU,ICARDA, P.O. Box 5466, Aleppo, Syrian Arab Republic. Tel. +96321-213433. Fax: +963-21-225105. E-mail: L.ROBERTSON@CGNET.COM.

Chickpea harvest in Nepal. (Courtesy of ICRISAT) and 260 accessions of wild Cicer species. Most of these have been evaluated for important stresses of chickpea. Although the bulk of chickpea production in South Asia is of the desi type, genes for resistance can be easily transferred from the kabuli type (see DIVERSITY, vol.11,nos.l&2, pp.116). Cultivated species-Evaluation of kabuli lines held at ICARDA and some of the desi lines maintained in the genebank at the International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT) led to the identification of 32 Ascochyta blightresistant sources out of 19,338 lines; 110 Fusarium wilt-resistant sources out of 5,174 lines; no seed beetle-resistant sources out of 6,025 lines; no cyst nematode-resistant sources out of 9,257 lines; 13 coldresistant sources out of 9,095 lines; and 19 drought-resistant sources out of 4,165 lines. Evaluation of morpho-agronomic traits has helped identify lines which are not only resistant to stresses but which also possess other desirable traits. Wild species-Most of the 260 accessions of annual wild Cicer species have been evaluated for Ascochyta blight, Fusarium wilt, seed beetle, cyst nematode, and cold. Resistant sources were found for all stresses, including seed beetle and cyst nematode, and the level of resistance in wild species was higher than that in the cultivated species. Many accessions were resistant to four or five stresses compared with only one per genotype in the cultivated species. Results of evaluation along with morpho-agronomic traits are listed in a 1995 catalog to facilitate selection of lines for use in breeding programs.

Selected Reading

Utilization of Resistant Sources

Ascochyta blight-resistant sources originally identified at ICARDA formed the basis for breeding blight-resistant chickpea

Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas.

WIDENING

A BOTTLENECK
THE

GENETIC BASE

IN

LENTIL:
IN

SOUTH ASIA

by W Erskine, S. Chandra, M. Chaudhry, LA. Malik, A. Sarker, B. Sharma, M. Tufail, and M.C. Tyagi
The largest growing region in the world for lentil (Lens dinark) is South Asia, with almost half the worlds area of lentil. Indigenous lentils are of a specific ecotype (pilosae) and exhibit a marked lack of variability resulting from the introduction of a small founder population around 2000 BCE which still limits breeders progress today. Lentil was developed in the eastem Mediterranean region as one of the first domesticated plants (see DIVERSITY, vol.11 ,nos. 1&2,p. 116). Evidence of the spread of lentil eastward into the Indo-Gangetic plain dates to ca. 2000 BCE, but previous contacts between Mohenjo-Daro and the Sumerians and Akkadians of Mesopotamia are well-documented, and it may have been introduced into the Indus Valley earlier. When first introduced into the Indo-Gangetic plain, lentil was exposed to very different environmental conditions and selection pressures. As lentil germplasm from India is among the least variable in the world, however, the founder population which did adapt to the new environment most likely was small with little variability.

Three approaches to widening the genetic base in the region have been tried-plant introduction, hybridization, and mutation breeding. Introductions from West Asia flower as indigenous material matures. The asynchrony in flowering has isolated pilosae lentils reproductively. However, the introduction of ILL 4605, an early, large-seeded line, has resulted in its release as Manserha 89 for wetter areas of Pakistan and for its widespread use in crossing in the region. Hybridization between pilocae and exotic germplasm, primarily at ICARDA, followed by selection in the subcontinent, has resulted in cultivars in Bangladesh and Pakistan with improved disease resistance and yield, such as Masur-95 and BARI Masur 2 and 4. Mutation breeding has given new morphological markers and several promising lines. These examples illustrate not only the widening of the genetic base of the lentil in South Asia and the rupture of an ancient bottleneck, but also an evolving program of an international center and national programs targeted toward specific adaptation. For further information, contact: Dr. Willie Erskine, ICARDA, P.O. Box 5466, Aleppo, Syria. Tel: +963-21-213433/213471. Fax: +96321.225105. E-mail: ICARDA@cgnet.com.

International Testing
Resistant sources have been supplied to national programs in Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Nepal, and Pakistan in the form of four international stress nurseries. In the last five years, a total of 141 sets of these nurseries have been furnished to these 64 D I V E R S I T Y Vo1.12, no. 3, 1996

ndia-CIMMYT Collaboration Expands Genetic Diversity of Indian Wheats

by S. Rajaram, S. Nagarajan, K.B.L. Jain, H.J. Dubin, R.P. Singh, D. Mohan, M. Smale, and B. Skovmand
The spectacular increase in Indian wheat production is one of the greatest success stories of science- and technology-based modern agriculture in the late 20th Century. Many cultivars currently grown were bred in India utilizing local genetic resources and foreign varieties. The overall genetic diversity and stability of modern varieties has expanded compared to the originally introduced semidwarfs of the late 1960s and the local tall cultivars of the pre-Green Revolution period. Production has increased from 11 million tons in 1961 to 63 million tons in 1995 on an area of 24 million hectares. These production and productivity gains were achieved by successful planting of superior strains of wheat combined with suitable production practices and supportive government agricultural policy. The India and CIMMYT (International Center for the Improvement of Maize and Wheat) collaborative wheat project was established in the early 1960s with the appointment of the noted geneticist/plant breeder R.G. Anderson, who was assigned to the Rockefeller Foundations office in New Delhi. The first germplasm set prepared by the Mexican Office of Special Studies (CIMMYTS predecessor) appeared in India early in the 1960s through the USDA rust nursery. Indian scientists and administrators immediately recognized the inherent possibilities of the germplasm and subsequently established a larger germplasm exchange program between CIMMYT and India. Currently, India imports a very large quantity of germplasm from CIMMYT (Table l), which increases the overall genetic variability of Indian breeding programs. The high-yielding, semidwarf, photoperiod-insensitive, and rust-resistant varieties of wheat bred by Nobel Prize Laureate N.E. Borlaug in Mexico were equally promising in the Indo-Gangetic plains when introduced and tested there. The adaptability of these wheats to diverse Indian and Mexican environments is the result of CIMMYTs shuttle breeding methodology, which incorporates the superior genetic characters of desirable types necessary for wide adaptation (see DIVERSITY, vol. 10, no. 4, pp. 26-27).

First Generation Green Revolution Wheats in India

In producing germplasm, CIMMYT uses a shuttle between Cd. Obregon (39 masl, 28 N, irrigated) and Toluca (2,640 masl, 18 N, rainfed: 1,000 mm), two extremely contrasting locations. In addition, CIMMYT relies on international, multilocation testing before varieties are disseminated globally and to diverse megaenvironments. These methodologies, combined with utilization of superior genetic stock and efficient breeding and selection methodology, invariably promote genetic pools for superior rust resistance, high yield potential, and other agronomic traits involved in adaptability. Kalyansona and Sonalika were the leading semidwarf varieties in farmers fields in India from the late 1960s through the 1970s. In India, they were popularly known as Green Revolution wheats, and they replaced the improved tall cultivars and landraces. At the height of their popularity, they occupied more than 15 million hectares in India. This created a perfect setting for what might be termed genetic vulnerability. However, increased expansion of genetic variability in the 1980s and 1990s has averted any possible or foreseeable weaknesses such as germplasm homogeneity and uniformity. Since the Green Revolution, genetic diversity has improved in several ways. For example, the number of modem varieties released every year in India has increased from 2.8 in 1966-70 to 6.3 in 1986-91. Most of the recent successful varieties have been derived from crosses between Indian local and foreign cultivars, further increasing the variability (Table 2). The classic case is HD2329, a leading variD I V E R S I T Y

ety in the Gangetic Plains, which has CIMMYT germplasm and Indian landrace K65 for large grain. Both irrigated and semiarid areas of India use predominantly semidwarf wheats. While the genetic bases of Indian varieties expanded from 1966-70 to 1986-91, the average rate of genetic gains (percent/year) registered significant improvement in all five agroecological regions of India (Table 3, Jain 1993). These increases in genetic diversity and sustained gain in yield potential are testimony to a very dynamic wheat improvement program in India. Thirty-eight cultivars of direct CIMMYT origin (Table 4) have been released in India since 1965. Some have been derived from a spring x winter genetic base. Recent releases such as MACS 2496, WH 542, and PBW 343 have a larger number of different landraces in their pedigrees than did earlier releases (Table 5). This trend is indicative of the expanded genetic variability of Indian wheats. Many of these varieties also contain known sources of resistance to the three types of rust (stem, leaf, and stripe), the major diseases of wheat and diseases that had great economic impact in India during the last century.

Boom-Bust Cycles and Gene-Hunting

Wheat breeders have recognized for some time that developing monogenic resistances for such diseases as wheat rusts

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PARTNERSHIPS IN SOUTH ASIA resistance because most of these genes are no longer effective. Durable resistance in wheat results from the additive interactions of a few unnamed slow-rusting genes, each of which has a minor visible impact but which together confer adequate resistance. Several semidwarf cultivars released in India contain what are currently known as durable resistance genes for stem and leaf rusts. The doomsayers would argue that inherent genetic vulnerability, lack of diversity, and commonality of certain genes across the modern wheats are the basis of weakness in modem agriculture. However, since the Green Revolution, and especially over the last 15 years, the dynamic genetic diversification program both in India and at CIMMYT has expanded the bases of modern wheat cultivars adapted in India. The varietal constitution across the Gangetic Indian plains has grown from two major cultivars in 1970 to more than 50 cultivars in the 1990s. This expanded genetic diversity has been harnessed from spring x winter crosses, Indian landraces x CIMMYT improved germplasm, and crosses involving durable resistance sources from the United States and Brazil for stem rust and leaf rust, respectively. Very recently, Indian and CIMMYT breeders have begun to introgress goat grass (Triticum tauschii), a progenitor of bread wheat. Not only has variability increased in terms of stress tolerances, but there has been a sustained increase in genetic yield potential. For further information, contact: Dr. Sanjaya Rajaram, Director, Wheat Program, CIMMYT, Lisboa 27, Apdo. Postal 6-641, 06600 Mexico, D.F., Mexico. Tel: +52-5-726-9091. Fax: +52-5-726-7585. Email: cimmyt@cimmyt.mx or cimmyt@ cgnet.com. Further Reading
Jain, K.B.L. 1993. Wheat breeding in India. Trends and impacts. Unpublished paper. Mexico, D.F.: Indian Council of Agricultural Research/CIMMYT. Sawhney, R.N. 1994. Breeding for Durable Resistance to Wheat Rusts. 52 pp. Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi 110012, India.

contributes to a boom-bust cycle of resistance and vulnerability because the pathogen is able to mutate rapidly and form new strains. The effects of monogenic resistance, which is also known as race-specific or qualitative resistance, are generally easy to observe in a resistant plant. Breeding for this type of resistance is still practiced by many wheat breeders because it is relatively cheap and simple as the presence of the resistance gene can be easily verified both in the seedling and the adult plant. In the long-term, this strategy leads to a continual, expensive search for such genes, or what might be called gene-hunting.

Breeding for Continued Diversity

Achieving resistance that endures through time is clearly a preferable objective. Increasingly, scientists are breeding for polygenic resistance by accumulating diverse, multiple genes from new sources and genes controlling different mechanisms of resistance within single varieties. Considerable genetic diversity exists for genes that are known to confer race-specific resistance in Indian cultivars, but such genetic diversity does not necessarily assure

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rue Potato Seed Technology to Fight Potato Blight in Developing Countries

by M. Upadhya
One of the most damaging fungal dis-eases of potato is late blight caused by Phytophthora infestans. In the 1960s the Indian Potato Programme (IPP) had actively collaborated with William Black and John Niederhauser to breed late blightresistant cultivars which were evaluated in Mexico. Although this program produced resistant varieties now grown extensively in India and neighboring countries, such as Nepal and Bhutan, the resistance seems to be breaking down and more fungicidal sprays are needed to protect potato crops. The hybrid TPS families developed activities, such as through this research carry late-blight (LB) land preparation, resistance from two divergent sources. The crop management, female parental lines with a tuberosum and harvesting, are background have LB resistance derived unchanged with the cultivation of seedling from S. demissum, whereas the male tubers or seed tubers. Seedling tubers are parental lines with an andigena back- planted at a lower rate and are relatively ground have LB resistance from andigena more late blight-resistant than existing germplasm. The resultant hybrid TPS pop- varieties. Thus, cost differences relate to ulations from different TPS families therefore have recombinants of these two sources of LB resistance genes responsible for both vertical and horizontal resistances. Both vertical and horizontal LB resistances are necessary because horizontal resistance boosts vertical resistance and vertical resistance adds to horizontal resistance. Furthermore, multilines in which the components carry disjointed sets of genes for resistance (of the type AB, CD, EF, etc.) may be as effective as, or more effec- expenses for planting material and additive, in preventing the development of tional fungicide spraying for seed tubers. Over the last decade of research at CIP, complex pathogen biotypes than a simple mixture with a single resistance gene per TPS technology has advanced to a point component. The hybrid TPS families devel- where 45 national potato programs are oped in Indias Central Potato Research experimenting with the seed. Of the countries where production from TPS is still in Institute (CPRT) satisfy this condition. Studies on the response of the hybrid the experimental or beginning stages, the TPS families to late blight under different one that holds the most promise is India. environments have shown that the families There, the government, in cooperation with present a very low amount of LB damage, without the use of fungicidal sprays. Data collected from diverse agroecologies in Latin America, Africa and Asia (Peru, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Uganda, Rwanda, Kenya, Ethiopia, Egypt, India, Bangladesh, Nepal, Bhutan, Sri Lanka, Indonesia, the Philippines, Thailand, Vietnam, and China) clearly indicate that LB damage and yield reduction are very low in the hybrid TPS families, reaction being 2-4 on a 9-point scale where 9 is the most severe.

By the year 2000, potato output in India is expected to reach 30 million tons.
During the mid-1970s the national program reestablished research on true potato seed (TPS) for use as an alternative to tubers in potato production because certified tubers were not available (see DIVERSITY, vol. 12,no.2,pp.8-10). During the early 1980s the International Potato Center (CIP) and the Indian Potato Programme began collaborative research on TPS to simplify the process for growers planning to grow potatoes in rotation with rice as a second crop. TPS was also expected to reduce the cost of production as well as to make clean planting material available at a low cost. The IPP-CIP agreement stipulated that hybrid TPS populations containing recombination products of genes for blight resistance (vertical and horizontal) from two diverse sources would automatically create a multiline effect and provide stable protection against late-blight damage. This stipulation was based on the postulate of the famous Russian botanist Vavilov and field observations and research on Solanum demissum that the existence of resistance genes in a plant population plays a significant role in the survival of the species by controlling the annual dissemination and severity of disease in nature. The pathogen also tends to move more slowly in a genetically diverse, multiline population.

Benefits
The benefits of these new planting materials occur from reduced production costs and improved yields, as illustrated in a partial budget (see table) which describes the advantages of seedling tubers vis-a-vis seed tubers per hectare. Most production D I V E R S I T Y 67

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PARTNERSHIPS IN SOUTH ASIA CIP, is about to embark on a program to double potato production using TPS families. India currently produces nearly 16 million tons of potatoes annually. By the year 2000, potato output in India is expected to reach 30 million tons, with yields estimated at 20 tons per hectare (11 tons per acre) on approximately 1.5 million hectares (2.3 million acres). Potato yields on the subcontinent currently average 16 tons per hectare but are estimated to rise to 25 or 30 tons per hectare using CIP hybrids. To meet this target, India plans to establish three TPS centers to produce hybrid seed. For further information, contact: Dr. M. Upadhya, CIP, Apartado 5969, Lima, Peru. Tel/Fax: +51-14-3.5-0842.

outh Asian Vegetable Research Network and AVRDC: Exchanging and Conserving Vegetable Genetic Resources to Secure an Affordable Diet
by S. Shanmugasundaram, L.M. Engle, and S.C.S. Tsou
Networking is the key strategy adopted by the Taiwan-based Asian Vegetable Research and Development Center (AVRDC) to exchange and conserve valuable vegetable genetic resources. AVRDC is a nonprofit international research organization established in 197 1 to help promote vegetable production and consumption in the developing world (see DIVERSITY, no.15,p.11). Its goal is to enhance the nutritional well-being and raise the incomes of poor people in rural and urban areas of developing countries through improved methods of vegetable production, marketing, and distribution which take into consideration the need to preserve the quality of the environment. The center is funded by contributions from the Republic of China, USA, Japan, Thailand, Philippines, Korea, Australia, France, Germany, Switzerland, and the Asian Development Bank (ADB). AVRDC is the only IARC that focuses on vegetable research and development, hence its emphasis on genetic resources conservation and management for crop improvement as well as on strengthening national research capacity in the developing countries through information services, training, and collaborative research. To date the total number of accessions in the AVRDC genebank is more than 43,000 (see Table 1). Through its regional centers and programs and subregional networks in strategic parts of the world, important vegetable germplasm from many developing countries that are sources of resistance to many pests, diseases, and stresses or possess other desirable characteristics are pooled, brought to the attention of the users, and exchanged for use in breeding programs. With half of the worlds poor living in Asia and 80 percent of the worlds vegetable area and 60 percent of world vegetable production contained there, AVRDCs primary focus in the early years was Asia. In the late 1980s AVRDC decided to globalize the scope of its activities and organized subregional networks in the developing world. South Asia was identified as one of the regions where AVRDC could help improve vegetable productivity and, as a result, contribute to the development of the horticultural industry. In South Asia, where the total population exceeds one billion people of which a large proportion is considered poor, an adequate supply of affordable vegetables is needed to minimize malnutrition and undernutrition. Vegetable crops provide the richest source of plant proteins, vitamins, and minerals and thereby enhance nutrition. Vegetable production also provides job opportunities for the rural poor, provides supplementary income to smallholder farmers, and thus helps alleviate poverty. priority crops and others to scientists in the region (Table 3). India, for example, has sent 4,451 accessions of 16 vegetable crops to AVRDC and received from AVRDC some 20,000 seed samples of improved and unimproved germplasm in return. The primary crops of-interest to India, in order of priority, are mungbean, tomato, soybean, chili, and crucifers. AVRDC has obtained a substantial amount of mungbean germplasm from India. In 1990, AVRDC, with funding from ADB, encouraged the six National Agricultural Research Systems (NARS) in the South Asian region to review past activities on vegetable research and development, ongoing activities, and future priorities in a consultation workshop. The national partners identified the priority commodities, constraints, and areas for research individu-

SAVERNET Links South Asian Nations and AVRDC

Through Asian Development Bank funding, the South Asian Vegetable Research Network (SAVERNET) was established in 1992 to link Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Nepal, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka with AVRDC, the executing agency of SAVERNET. Figure 1 shows the structure of SAVERNET. Network activities include research collaboration focusing on the exchange of germplasm resources and information. With the South Asian countries, AVRDC assembled a total of 5,622 accessions of 23 different vegetable crops (Table 2). In return, the Center has distributed a total of 39,859 seed packets of AVRDCs D I V E R S I T Y Vol. 12, no.3, 1996

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ally and collectively as a subregional group. Two very important areas where the NARS decided to share resources are in (1) the exchange of elite germplasm of selected vegetables and (2) exploring the genetic diversity in the specific fungal, bacterial, and viral pathogens present in the six countries. The hypothesis was that within the

region the different countries share a common ecosystem and food habits, and therefore the constraints to production may be similar yet diverse. Thus a genotype from one country may perform equally well or better in another country within the region. Since the signing of the Memorandum of Understanding establishing SAVER-

NET, the six countries in the region have reiterated their commitment to sustain the network activities, particularly on exchange of germplasm. They have exchanged 96 elite varieties of 12 different vegetables. Access to the results of germplasm enhancement research of other partner countries in the region was facilitated through the network despite political differences and national boundaries. Sources of resistance to pests and diseases and other desirable traits have also been identified. Following the network master plan, each of the NARS surveyed in their own country the genetic diversity in pathogens such as bacterial wilt of tomato, anthracnose of chili, chili viruses, and tomato yellow leaf curl virus disease. An understanding of the genetic diversity of a pathogen enables the NARS to better design control measures by manipulating the appropriate host resistance.

Mungbean Research at AVRDC

Mungbean, Vigna radiata var. radiata, is a regionally important grain legume native to the Indian subcontinent. This high-protein crop is grown extensively on 5 million ha in Asia. The genepool of Vigna and the degree of representation in the AVRDC collection is shown in Figure 2. A little over 50 percent of the 5,768 mungbean accessions in the collection comes from the South Asian region. AVRDC is developing country cores (a core collection using countries as subsets) from which a global core will be established to enhance utilization of the collection. The introduction of early and uniform maturity, improved plant type, large seed size, and resistance to diseases such as powdery mildew and Cercospora leaf spot has contributed to the popularity D I V E R S I T Y 69

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PARTNERSHIPS IN SOUTH ASIA of AVRDC mungbean breeding lines in Southeast Asian countries and mainland China, but not in South Asia because of their lack of resistance to mungbean yellow mosaic virus (MYMV). AVRDC is now collaborating with the South Asian NARS to try to combat MYMV, the most serious disease limiting mungbean production in the region. In 1991, AVRDC organized an international workshop on MYMV and stimulated collaboration among the countries within the region. As a result of

In South Asia, where a large proportion of its people is considered poor, an adequate supply of affordable vegetables is needed to minimize malnutrition and undernutrition.
a shuttle breeding program between the Nuclear Institute for Agriculture and Biology (NIAB) in Faisalabad, Pakistan, and AVRDC, promising MYMV-resistant, high-yielding breeding lines are now ready for South Asia. Through donor support, AVRDC is encouraging the South Asian NARS to move these new materials to farmers fields. For more information, contact the authors or: Katherine Lopez, Office of Publications and Communications, Asian Vegetable Research and Development Center, PO. Box 42, Shanhua, Tainan, Taiwan 741, ROC. Tel: +886-6-583-7801. Fax: +886-6-583-0009. E-mail: avrdc@cgnet.com or avrdcbox@ netra.avrdc.org.tw.

by Zahoor Ahmad, T Gamo, and N. Murata

Pakistan is situated in proximity to major centers of diversity of many plant species. The ancient trade route from China to Western Asia passed through this region resulting in the diversity of many crop and fruit species over thousands of years. Particularly in remote valleys in northern areas, many diverse crop and fruit cultivars have resulted from both human and natural selection. The excavations of the ancient civilization of Mohanjo Daro and Harappa revealed much about the origins of agriculture for the Indian sub-continent. Many crops, including wheat, barley, rice, cotton,
*PL-480 is a U.S. agricultural support program to developing countrles administered by the U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID).

and sesame, were discovered to have been under cultivation in the ancient times.

Institute Evolves through Collaboration

Systematic efforts to collect Pakistans crop germplasm-rich in floristic composition and basically diverse-started in the early 1970s with the collection of rice germplasm under a PL-480 project* funded by the United States. In 1977, a national program on Collection, Conservation and Evaluation of Plant Genetic Resources in Pakistan was initiated by the Pakistan Agricultural Research Council (PARC). Under this program, a small genebank for short-term storage and a laboratory were established with support from FAO and IBPGR at the National Agricultural Research Centre (NARC), Islamabad. In 1993, a facility for germplasm storage and associated research was established at NARC with financial support from the Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA). Upon completion of these facilities, the former Genetic Resources Program belonging to the Crop Sciences Institute was reorganized into the Plant D I V E R S I T Y

Genetic Resources Institute (PGRI) directly affiliated to NARC.

Objectives
The PGRI, which is currently operating under a five-year technical cooperation project with JICA to further strengthen activities, has five major objectives: . Acquisition- Expand germplasm collections of seed and clonally propagated crops or new crops via domestic exploration and collection and by foreign exchange; . Conservation- Improve the national plant germplasm maintenance system for seed and clonally propagated crops and potential new crops to preserve genetic diversity; . Preliminary evaluation and documentation-Establish and put into effect a national plant germplasm system useful to breeders and others in the user community; . Distribution- Distribution of plant germplasm to scientists in the user community and collect data on its performance; and . Studies on diversity- To increase

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PARTNERSHIPS IN SOUTH ASIA understanding of the taxonomic relationships, geographical and ecological distribution, and centers of diversity of crop plants and their wild relatives and to help promote their systematic assembly for crop improvement.

Institute Laboratories
The Institute includes six laboratories which are charged with the following work to carry out its objectives: Germplasm Exploration and Collection: Indigenous germplasm of crop plants and their wild relatives are explored and collected, and the majority are conserved in the genebank for utilization by breeders. In some instances where the natural habitat is important for their conservation in situ preservation will also be attempted. EvaluationlMultiplication: Germplasm is evaluated and the data preserved for user reference. Three steps in evaluation are performed: (1) preliminary evaluation, a record of characters visible in the field, viz., morphological traits and maturing dates; (2) detailed evaluation based on agronomic characters, viz., resistance to diseases and pests; and (3) biochemical evaluation which examines the specific characters required for breeding. Electrophoretic analysis of proteins and DNA analysis through the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and other means are the major techniques used. Field evaluation is often performed at the time of seed multiplication. Seed Conservation: Seeds are conserved in two types of systems. An active collection is for short-term storage and ready for exchange on request. Seeds are dried, packed in bottles, and kept at 15C. Mid-term storage seeds to back-up the active collection are kept at 5C. Currently 16,000 accessions are preserved in the

facilities which have a total capacity of 50,000. Storage seeds are periodically subjected to germination tests for monitoring their viability. For some crop plants, tests to find the most appropriate storage conditions are conducted. In Vitro Conservation: Plantlets grown from meristem cultures or regenerated from cultured tissues can be maintained on artificial media in test tubes by subculturing them at defined intervals. Some of the important germplasm of vegetatively propagated plants are thus preserved in vitro as a backup to field genebank collections. Introduction and Seed Health: Avoiding contamination by pathogens and pests is essential in managing plant germplasm. In addition to imposing quarantine, it is also necessary to secure the vigor and longevity of stored seeds and to avoid cross-infection during multiplication. Introduced germplasm as well as the conserved seed stocks are examined for contamination by pathogens and pests. Effects of pathogen contamination on seed longevity is under investigation in an internationally coordinated research program. Exotic germplasm enters PGRI through the Seed Health Laboratory. Information Management: Information about the genetic resources is com-

piled in a database system. Three types of data-passport, management, and evaluation-are recorded. The Pakistan National Germplasm System was set up to establish networking on plant genetic resources at the national and international levels. It is comprised of a National Management Committee and six Crop Advisory Committees for cereals, pulses and oil seeds, sugar and fiber crops, fodder and forage crops, forest and medicinal plants, and special crops. The committees advise on priorities for collecting, comprehensiveness of the collections, procedures for multiplication and evaluation, in situ conservation, passport data needs, and the quality of conserved seeds. The material collected by PGRI is mostly duplicated at IARCs or other relevant institutes throughout the world. The material in the genebank is freely available to the global scientific community. For additional information, contact: Dr. Zahoor Ahmad, Director, Plant Genetic Resources Institute, National Agricultural Research Centre, Park Road, Islamabad, Pakistan 45500. Tel: +92-51-240-146. Fax: +92-351-240-104 and +92-351-260-965. PGR@PGRI-NARC.SDNPK. E-mail: UNDPORG

lobal Environment Facility Launches $74 Million Ecodevelopment Project in India

The Global Environment Facility (GEF), in partnership with the World Bank and the Government of India, has launched a five-year, $74 million Ecodevelopment Project that will pull local communities, national institutions, and NGOs into collaborative action at eight threatened priority sites in India where haphazard development endangers biodiversity and where experts believe rural livelihood can be effectively integrated with conservation. The landmark biodiversity conservation Vo1.12, no.3, 1996 project was announced on September 27 by Mohamed T. El-Ashry, chairman of the GEF, at the 4th Annual World Bank Conference on Environmentally Sustainable Development in Washington, DC. The GEF, the current funding mechanism for the Convention on Biological Diversity, attributed Indias position as one of 12 megadiversity countries in the world and one of the its oldest and largest agricultural societies-as well as its significant, continuing commitment to biodiversity D I V E R S I T Y conservation-as the reason the country was selected to participate in this cuttingedge global project. The GEF estimates that approximately 427,000 Indian villagers will participate in the ecodevelopment project which could ultimately benefit 100-200 protected areas in various states throughout the country. One of the sites, Gir, has the worlds only population of Asian lions. Dr. El-Ashry told a panel of World Bank and foundation officials chaired by World 71

APPROACHES TO COMPENSATION

ompensating Farmers and Communities Through a Global Fund for Biodiversity Conservation for Sustainable Food Security
by MS. Swaminathan The Plant Variety Protection Act (PVPA) under development in India will provide for recognizing and rewarding Farmers Rights (see article, p.79). This is the first piece of legislation in the world which is likely to do so. Although there is agreement with the position that the contributions of farming families to genetic resources conservation and enhancement ought to be recognized and rewarded, there is as yet no agreed mechanism for accomplishing this goal. The principle of equity in benefit sharing (articulated when the author was the Independent Chairman of the FAO Council, 1981-85) was termed farmers rights in 1989 (see DIVERSITY, vol 5,nos.2&3, pp.4-6). The same principle is now enshrined in an article of the legally binding Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD). agrobiodiversity for the economic loss they incur as a result of not substituting high-yielding cultivars for landraces, thereby providing an economic stake in conservation; and . implement the principles of equity in sharing benefits enshrined in CBD.

Policies of Industrialized Countries in Promoting Genetic Conservation

It may be appropriate in this context to cite the lead taken by industrialized countries in providing farming families with financial incentives to safeguard biodiversity. The following examples indicate that economic reward for the contributions of farming families to environmental protection and genetic conservation is an accepted procedure in Europe and North America. As such, the public of rich nations should be able to accept that such rewards should also be extended to the farm families of the biodiversity-rich developing countries. The European Union decided to foster agricultural production methods compatible with protection of the environment and the maintenance of the countryside. Its statement reads: Whereas the requirements of environmental protection are an integral part of the common agricultural policy; Whereas an appropriate aid scheme would encourage farmers to serve society us a whole by introducing or continuing to use farming practices compatible with the increasing demands of protection of the environment and natural resources and upkeep of the landscape and the country side; Whereas the resources available for implementing the measures provided for in this Regulation must be additional to those available for the implementation of measures under the rules governing the Structural Funds, and in particular for measures applicable in regions covered by Objectives I and S(b) us defined in Article 1 of Regulation (EEC) No 2052188 (OJ No L 185, 15.7. 1988, p.9); This Community aid scheme is intended to promote ways of using agricultural land which are compatible with protection and improvement of the environment, the countryside, the landscape, natural resources, the soil and genetic diversity; The maximum eligible amount of D I V E R S I T Y

Global Fund for Farmers Rights

A global fund has been proposed and was among the key issues discussed at two consultations held at the M.S. Swaminathan Research Foundation (MSSRF) in 1994 and 1996 (see DIVERSITY, vo1.12,no.2, pp.6-8). Conservation without such a fund would result in little more than lip service, participants to these consultations concluded. The primary purposes which a Global Fund for Farmers Rights can serve are to: . help accord social prestige to the work of tribal and rural women and men in conservation and enhancement of agrobiodiversity and thereby facilitate the younger generation in continuing the conservation traditions of their ancestors; . change the current ironical situation in which those who have conserved genetic wealth remain poor and those who utilize this wealth through conventional and modem genetic methods become rich; . help to provide resources to tribal and rural communities for the revitalization and restoration of their in situ and ex situ genetic conservation and enhancement traditions; . compensate local communities that continue to practice in situ conservation of

the premium shall be ECU 2.50 per hectare for the cultivation and propagation of useful plants adapted to local conditions and threatened by genetic erosion. In the United States, in the 1996 Farm Bill (HR2854), substantial financial allocation has been made for rewarding the contributions of farming families in the field of

We need commitment on the part of all nations to the cause of conserving and enriching agrobiodiversity.
environmental protection and genetic conservation. President Clintons statement on the Farm Bill, dated 4 April 1996, said, $300 million in additional resources are being provided for rural development and agricultural research through the Fund for Rural America. The Farm Bill provides for more than $1 billion over 7 years for onfarm conservation measures, including assistance for livestock producers, which will help prevent soil erosion and clear our streams and air. Of particular significance is the provi73

Vo1.12, no.3, 1996

APPROACHES

TO

COMPENSATION annual income is flowing today, demands that no further time is lost in recognizing and rewarding the contributions of the families of indigenous, tribal, and rural communities to sustainable food security through their continued efforts in the area of plant and animal genetic resources conservation and enhancement. Rich countries should be able to add 0.01 percent of their GDP to their ODA budget specifically for a Global Fund for Biodiversity Conservation for Sustainable Food Security. According to UNDP, the GDP of industrialized countries was US$18,710 billion in 1992. A mere 0.01 percent annual contribution would provide nearly $2 billion at the current GDP level of G-7 nations. Such an amount will help to implement both the GAP and Farmers Rights. This Fund can be administered either through a separate trust fund mechanism or through a well-defined, earmarked window in the existing GEF (see DIVERSITY, vol.10,no.2,pp.22-24). Well-defined indicators and transparent mechanisms for the use of this fund will be needed. servation could be credited to a separate fund and utilized both for implementing Farmers Rights and the national component of the FAO Global Action Plan.

sion of $50 million in total funding from FY 1996 to FY 2002 for providing assistance to landowners to develop and implement approved management practices to improve wildlife habitat. Thus, methods of rewarding the contributions of farmers for the conservation of habitats rich in biodiversity are being adopted in industrialized countries. Because Third World countries happen to be the major repositories of genetic wealth, as most of the mega-diversity areas occur in developing countries, there is, therefore, an urgent need for providing a mechanism of funding which can lead to the enhancement of the in situ and ex situ conservation practices of rural and farm families.

Towards Transparent and Internationally Acceptable Indicators

As yet, no indicators have been agreed upon to determine how to reward tribal and rural conservers. In the draft sui generis Plant Variety Protection Act (PVPA) developed at the Madras Dialogue in January 1994, a method of implementation was proposed which would require breeders to provide pedigrees of the new varieties indicating the sources of genes conferring commercially valuable characteristics, such as resistance or tolerance to biotic and abiotic stresses. The manner in which the areas of origin of critical genes can be traced is effectively illustrated by the pedigree of the rice variety IR 64 bred at the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI), the Philippines. A feasibility study prepared by IPGRI in April 1996 on access to plant genetic resources and the equitable sharing of benefits offers the following recommendation: A fully effective and equitable system is in the best interests of all. Appropriate legal instruments, whether material transfer agreements or other mechanisms, would need to be developed. Other possibilities for helping to ensure compliance could also be explored, e.g., it might be possible to include in IPR legislation the requirement to disclose the origin of component genetic resources in all IPR applications. Good documentation systems would also assist in the monitoring of the movement of materials and thus help to minimize infringements." The countries and areas within countries from where specific gene donors came can be earmarked with a fair degree of accuracy. Since farmers rights are community rights and since the funds going to such communities will be used for the revitalization of their genetic conservation and enhancement traditions, both local and global communities will benefit.

An across-the-board one percent levy on the sale of all agricultural commodities would be appropriate.
It is important to compensate farmers for the loss they sustain as a result of continuing to plant landraces and folk varieties in preference to improved high-yielding varieties (HYV) of crop plants. Above all, equity demands economic reward for their contributions of value addition to genetic resources over the millennia through additional knowledge and information.

National Level Community Gene Fund

Charity begins at home. Therefore, agrobiodiversity-rich developing nations have both a fundamental responsibility and the privilege to take immediate steps to allot new and additional resources for recognizing and rewarding the contributions of their own tribal and rural families to the conservation of their genetic wealth. It should be emphasized that ex situ preservation of genetic resources is no substitute for in situ conservation. In situ conservation represents both preservation and continuous evolution. Hence, investing in a few ex situ genebanks and arboreta, although important, is not a substitute for preserving and revitalizing the in situ genetic conservation traditions of tribal and rural women and men. Both pathways, if funded adequately, will become mutually reinforcing. A 1996 Madras Consultation on Farmers Rights proposed a 2 percent levy on all seed sales to be credited to a Community Gene Fund for implementing farmers rights (see DIVERSITY, vol. 12,no.2,pp.68). Taxing seed sales alone, however, may imply that farmers are funding farmers rights. Therefore, an across-the-board 1 percent levy on the sale of all agricultural commodities (crop, animal, fish, and forest products) would be more appropriate. The funds generated by a 1 percent agricultural assessment for Genetic Resources Con-

Global Fund for Biodiversity for Sustainable Food Security

At the Rio Earth Summit held in June 1992, the Government of the Netherlands proposed that all industrialized countries provide an additional ODA of 0.1 percent of their gross domestic product (GDP) as an Earth Increment. The essence of the Dutch proposal is to ensure that this additional assistance is entirely reserved for conserving and improving the Earths life support systems of land, water, forests, oceans, biodiversity, and the atmosphere. If, on the occasion of the fifth anniversary of the Rio Conference in 1997, all industrialized countries agree to increase their ODA to promote the conservation of agrobiodiversity by implementing the Global Action Plan (GAP) developed by FAO at the Leipzig Conference (see articles, p.7-12) and to reward the contributions of indigenous and rural communities to genetic conservation and enhancement, there will be new and additional resources for this purpose. Enlightened self-interest on the part of the rich billion of the human population, to whom nearly 84 percent of the global 74

Implementing the Equity Provisions of Biodiversity Convention

We need commitment on the part of all nations-industrialized and developingto the cause of conserving and enriching agrobiodiversity. This is vital for sustainable food security. Environmentalist Lester Brown in a recent book has rightly stressed that the loss of food security promises to Vo1.12, no. 3, 1996

APPROACHES TO COMPENSATION ization of farmers rights as well as for the implementation of the national component of the GAP. Thus, every nation-whether rich in technology or in genes, whether rich in commercial wealth or plant and animal genetic wealth- can show its commitment to both genetic conservation and equitable sharing of benefits from efforts in breeding and biotechnology. Such a step will help to implement the equity provisions of CBD both in letter and spirit. contract cultivation by tribal and rural families of plants of commercial value will be developed and fostered; and provision of a legal advisory unit. The loss of every gene and species limits our options for the future for breeding for potential changes in climate, sea level, and ultraviolet-B radiation. Biodiversity is the feedstock for the biotechnology industry. Also, in the coming millennium, more food and other agricultural commodities will need to be produced from less land and water resources. Advances in higher productivity per unit of land or water must, however, be achieved only through environment-friendly technologies. Thus, the world must produce more but produce it differently than it did in the era of the Green Revolution.

Technical Resource Centers for Implementing Farmers Rights

For the implementation of the equity provisions of CBD as well as the concept of farmers rights, detailed data will be needed and could be provided by a network of technical resource centers (TRCs) of the kind established at the M.S. Swaminathan Research Foundation, Madras. They would have the following objectives: chronicling the contributions of tribal and rural families to the conservation and enhancement of agro-biodiversity through primary data collection in the states of Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Andhra Pradesh, and Orissa, and in the Lakshadweep and Great Nicobar group of islands; organization of an Agro-biodiversity Conservation Corps of young tribal and rural women and men who have a social stake in living in their respective villages and who, with appropriate training, can undertake tasks such as compilation of local biodiversity inventories, revitalization of the in situ genetic conservation and enhancement traditions of their respective communities, monitoring of ecosystem health with the help of appropriate bioindicators, and restoration of degraded sacred groves. A priority area of attention by the Conservation Corps will be hot spot regions of threat to biodiversity; development of multimedia databases on the IPR contributions of tribal and rural families in the conservation and improvement of agro-biodiversity for the purpose of providing benefits from the National and Global Community Gene Funds; maintenance of a Community Gene Bank and Herbarium for use as a reference center; revitalization of genetic conservation traditions of tribal and rural families through investing their contributions with social recognition and prestige and through the creation of an economic stake in conservation. For this purpose, replicable models of private sector engagement in D I V E R S I T Y

An Evergreen Revolution
An evergreen revolution would be sustained by novel genetic combinations capable of conferring to crop plants resistance or tolerance to a wide spectrum of biotic and abiotic stresses. Such a revolution-ire that would ensure sustainable food security, as well as intra- and intergenerational equity, through a two-pronged funding mechanism in which both industrialized and developing countries make a firm financial commitment to the cause of both conservation and equity in sharing benefits-should be launched on 5 June 1997, the fifth anniversary of the Convention in Biological Diversity. What better gift could we give our children as our world approaches the millenium?

become the defining focus of the global environmental threat. Among the various environmental threats, the most serious in relation to sustainable food security is the loss of habitats rich in agrobiodiversity as well as the extinction of the in situ conservation traditions of local communities. The following are likely to be topics discussed at the World Food Summit to be held in Rome in November 1996. Industrialized nations should contribute 0.01 percent additional ODA to a Global Fund for Biodiversity for Sustainable Food Security. Such a fund should be utilized for implementing the Global Plan of Action for the conservation and sustainable use of plant genetic resources for food and agriculture and for recognizing and

Ex situ preservation of genetic resources is no substitute for in situ conservation.

For further information, contact: Professor MS. Swaminathan, Chairman, M.S. Swaminathan Research Foundation, 3rd Cross Street, Taramani Institutional Area, Madras 600 113, India. Tel: +91-44-2351229 or 235-1698. Fax: +91-44-235-1319. E-mail: mssrf.madras@sm8.sprintrpg.ems. vsnl.net.in or MDSAAASl@giasmdOl. vsnl.net.in

Biodiversity is the feedstock for the biotechnology industry.

rewarding the contributions of indigenous (tribal) and rural women and men to the conservation and enhancement of biodiversity. The Fund should also be used to safeguard all mega-biodiversity areas as well as hot spot locations with reference to threats to biodiversity, ranging from landscapes to individual species (i.e., Red Data Book). Developing nations rich in agrobiodiversity should levy a 1 percent assessment on all agriculture-related products to be credited to a National Community Gene Fund specifically earmarked for the realVo1.12, no.3, 1996

Further Reading

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APPROACHES TO COMPENSATION

he Honey Bee Network Strengthens Knowledge for Crops, Creativity, and Compensation
by A.K. Gupta
Many communities have been extremely concerned about the sustainability of their cropping systems as part of the farming systems, particularly in marginal environments. Their concern has led to specific choices of the crops, rotations, inter- or mixed-cropping systems, non-chemical input management systems, and, above all, a whole range of creative innovations requiring individual or group action. Scientists are becoming more conscious of the need for sustainability, and some have also started paying attention to the indigenous knowledge systems of the farmers. However, the links between formal and informal knowledge systems remain weak. In an attempt to remedy this weakness and highlight the role of grassroots creativity and innovations, Honey Bee Network was launched seven years ago. Research and Initiatives for Sustainable Technologies and Institutions (SRISTI), an NGO, and the Indian Institute of Management, Ahmedabad (IIMA). It also includes innovations from diverse parts of the world such as Mongolia, Vietnam, Uganda, Kenya, Columbia, Ecuador, and American Indian communities in North America. The Honey Bee newsletter has been published in several languages for the last seven years and the network extends to 75 countries. plasm, the situation is even more serious. Unlike crops, where a small sample of seeds selected properly may capture a large part of variation of the population, among animals one needs a very large sample to achieve the same result. Most ex situ genebanks have very few animals of different breeds, and the passport information for animal germplasm is even more inadequate than for economic plants. The Honey Bee Network has tried to address the gaps not only in our knowledge of peoples creativity and innovation, but also in terms of germplasm characterization. A recent FAO strategy to develop Domestic Animal Diversity Information Systems (DADIS) (see DIVERSITY, vo1.9,no.3,pp.30-33) attempts to overcome such inadequacies.

Will our children have a chance to grow up as naturalists and guardians of diversity or just become landless laborers?
This database is one of the largest in the world, with contact information about the innovators (individuals as well as communities) or providers of information. The Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) of the Indian government has recently initiated steps to establish formal links between the informal systems with the formal systems through a Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) between SRISTI and CSIR. Collaborative research with clear benefit-sharing arrangements with grassroots innovators through SRISTI is being pursued in several areas of sustainable agriculture, including microbial diversity as an indicator of soil ecosystem health, herbal pesticides, and indigenous veterinary medicine based on local biodiversity.

Building upon Indigenous Knowledge Towards Participatory Breeding

The challenge remains, however, as to how breeders can make information in the genebank accessible to local communities in a manner which they can understand and make sense of and vice versa. Further, how can indigenous peoples obtain materials that they would need for their own breeding programs? Obviously, if communities and selected individuals were able to develop such landraces and animal breeds in the past, they could be expected to do so in the future as well. The challenge of breeding through participation is important for many reasons: The proportion of landraces available in a local genebank that goes into a breeding program of any crop is very small. Existing ecological heterogeneity in rainfed regions and increasing locationspecific differences even in irrigated regions (due to mineral deficiencies, changes in the water table, pest and disease regimes, and drainage profiles) require that breeding for specific local environments becomes a paramount goal. As formal institutions are under a resource crunch throughout the world, it is unlikely that they would have resources to expand on-station research facilities in different subregions. Participatory on-farm research is thus inevitable. A very large amount of improved genetic variability in the form of F7 or F8 generations, or advanced lines, are rejected today because of their inability to surpass Vo1.12, no.3, 1996

Why the Honey Bee Network?

The concept of the Honey Bee Network evolved from regard for responsibility towards those communities and individuals who conserve and use diversity and the knowledge about it but can never partake in any benefits. The ethical basis of extraction of knowledge as well as resources triggered a search for a suitable metaphor. The honey bee does what we, intellectuals, often do not. It collects pollen from the flowers and flowers do not complain. When we collect knowledge as well as resources (such as landraces), I am not sure that farmers do not complain. We do not have any arrangements to share the knowledge or resources we collect from people back to people because we neither have knowledge networks accessible to people nor do we communicate in local languages. The Honey Bee Network has collected more than 5,300 innovations as well as examples of traditional ecological and technological knowledge from 2,300 villages of one state (Gujarat) alone. Similar data have been collected from other states within India such as Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, Katnataka, and Uttar Pradesh. The Honey Bee database is supported by the Society for

Cataloging Diversity: How Do We Read the Book of Diversity?

The gaps in passport data in genebanks, whether at international, national, or regional levels, continue to be a serious problem. If we do not read the book of diversity embedded in indigenous knowledge adequately, we will of course lose much information available in nature and within local communities. Our studies have shown that most breeders did not/could not document information about the resource providers, often did not recall the selection criteria used by the local communities, and did not include recipes indicating the culinary characteristics. In the absence of this information, it would be very difficult to revisit the exact sites and share benefits that may accrue in the future through value addition in landraces. In the case of conserving animal germD I V E R S I T Y

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APPROACHES TO COMPENSATION local checks (control varieties). Many of these lines might prove to be suitable for different locations if given a chance of being selected jointly or independently by farmers as well as scientists under actual growing conditions. The selection criteria of the farmers may be different from that of the scientists and thus may provide additional variability to select and advance in improvement programs. In a 1985 study on matching farmers concerns with technologists objectives, researchers found that the harvest index in documented through the Honey Bee Network could be screened under the farmers criteria and thereby help in developing varieties which respond to non-chemical external inputs. This could mean re-ordering breeding priorities in some cases. Many of the crops in marginal environments are grown as mixed crops. When breeders develop varieties, even for such crops, they often make selection under monocrop conditions and only later try to generate intercrop combinations. Participatory breeding makes it possible for breedal. Thakar Singh found two or three exceptionally good plants in the crop grown. He selected them, developed a more or less pure line, and has grown them since then. The new variety, whose pods are slightly curved and very compact and whose kernels are quite large, is called Morla. Several farmers have bought this seed with good results. Another example: A farmer in Gujarat had faced a serious problem of termites in his field. He had observed that young (less than 30-40 days old) sorghum (Sorghum bicolor) plants when eaten by the cattle caused toxicity. He wondered, could not the same toxicity be used to control the termite? He discovered he was right and soon had substantial control of termites. Perhaps the hydrocyanides (HCN) in the sorghum had contributed to the termite control. If this hypothesis is true, it could provide a new breeding goal for sorghum which otherwise is bred for low HCN content. If farmers could grow sorghum with high HCN content lines in a small patch, as a backyard herbal pesticide factory, they would have a sustainable method of pest control. However, safety aspects of this practice for other soil microbial and earthworm populations will have to be carefully studied.

Conserving Diversity: Novel Approaches

This author has argued earlier that if the regions of high biodiversity are also regions of high poverty, then we cannot conserve diversity by continuing to keep the people poor. Various kinds of incentives must be developed which may include materialistic and non-materialistic rewards for individuals as well as communities or groups. Conservation through competitionsorganizing biodiversity contests for closing the gap: SRISTI has organized biodiversity contests among more than 4,000 children to scout for little geniuses. We have come across children like Mahadev Sodha, 11, in Bansakantha district who knows 309 plants, and Ankita, another 11 -year-old girl who knows as many as 165 plants. What is the destiny of such children? Will they have a chance to grow up as naturalists and guardians of diversity or just become landless laborers? The possibility of the latter alternative is very high because it is in these rainfed and drought-prone regions that male emigration is highest, unemployment lowest, poverty highest, and the dropout rate from schools highest. In these areas (in addition to mountainous and

millets preferred by marginal farmers was much lower than that preferred by those with larger farms. This realization has dawned on the institutional scientists only recently. Choices and preferences of different classes may vary and thus provide a basis for developing diversity. The level of significance at which improved varieties or advanced lines are considered superior is generally 1 or 5 percent, particularly in terms of yield parameters. Farmers face much higher risk and thus might prefer technologies which reduce risk-not necessarily to the extent of 95 per cent but perhaps 80 or 75 percent without much increase in the cost. This could become evident through participatory technology development process. The gender dimension of technological suitability, whether for performing farm operations, assessing post harvest processing, or cooking attributes, offers additional advantages of participatory breeding. Farmer innovations for management of pests and diseases, nutrients, and weeds Vo1.12. no.3. 1996

ers to undertake selection under farmers management conditions. It is well known that the economy of rainfed farmers is primarily dependent upon livestock, and yet most of the crop varieties are only screened on the basis of grain yield rather than on the basis of fodder quality. By working with the farmers, scientists can get quick feedback on such attributes and thereby make mid-course corrections if needed. Farmers own selections from local material as well as other materials have led in the past to development of new varieties. This is a potential which is grossly underutilized.

Local Farmers Develop New Plants, New Uses

For example: Farmer Thakar Singh of Junagadh district of Gujarat suffered great hardships like many other farmers in the 1987 drought, one of the worst of several decades. The government distributed groundnut (Arachis hypogaea) seeds to overcome the shortage of planting materiD I V E R S I T Y

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APPROACHES TO COMPENSATION forest regions) the proportion of women heading or managing a household is also very high. These contests among children have been very helpful in transferring knowledge from grandparents to grandchildren, thus closing the gap between generations in much less time and with greater efficiency than would have been the case if left to itself. Role of culture in diversity: Why do the local people eat weeds found in rice fields only on a particular fasting day? A weed called Sama (Echinochloa colonum) has been conserved in cultivated fields not without purpose. A literature search revealed that in some reported cases the weed does not let leaf roller and other pests complete their life cycles. How do we embed such cultural consciousness among future leaders of our society so that in situ conservation of diversity of cultivated and uncultivated plants can be strengthened? Establishing knowledge networks: What inspires people to take initiatives and transform their options? Potential for lateral learning makes a big difference to many innovators. Honey Bee Network has tried to link communities conserving biodiversity and associated knowledge around the country and different parts of the world through local language networks. Today every other subset of society is networked except the creative individuals and innovators such as crop or animal breeders, develfor such natural products with most consumers willing to pay a 15 percent premium. The major problem is the absence of outlets where people can buy and experiment apart from facilities for certification. SRISTI is pursuing, in collaboration with IIMA and many other formal and informal institutions, several areas of research which can help in recognizing, respecting, and rewarding indigenous creativity. The concept of farmers rights is being redefined in the light of CBD, and a diverse set of incentive choices has been generated for conserving diversity such as trust funds, royalties, educational and curricular modifications, venture capital funds for small innovators, risk and insurance funds for on farm experimentation, public recognition, tax on green revolution surplus, and procurement support to growers of landraces in marginal environments. We must stress once again that biological diversity cannot be conserved by keeping people poor, and thus internal (ethical and value-based) and external (material as well as non-material) incentives are urgently needed to be implemented (see article, p.73). For further information contact: Prof. Anil K. Gupta, SRISTI, Indian Institute of Management, Ahmedabad 380 015, India. Tel: +91-79-407241 ext. 4922. Fax: +9179-6427896. E-mail: anilg@iimahd.ernet. in.

opers of herbal pesticides, or indigenous veterinary medicines. In the International Conference on Creativity and Innovation at Grassroots being organized at IIMA (ll14 January 1997), SRISTI will bring some of these innovators together along with policy makers, researchers, and activists so that future policy options, under the FAO Undertaking on Plant Genetic Resources, the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), and the International Convention to Combat Desertification (ICCD), are generated in the light of real-life experiences of grassroots innovators rather than only through academic debates.

Choices and preferences of different classes may vary and thus provide a basis for developing diversity.
Generating consumer demand for diverse and organic agricultural products: One innovation for conserving diversity that can provide immediate incentives for farmers growing landraces in marginal environments is the generation of premiums on organic and diverse natural products. Country-wide surveys of green consumers in India, pursued through students of IIMA during summer assignments, has revealed a great latent demand

A seminar on Intellectual Property Rights, Community Rights and Biodiversity: A New Partnership for National Sovereignty was held last February in New Delhi to address the concerns of many Indians and Indian organizations over the possible impacts of: . both pending amendments to Indias existing national IPR legislation and . the framing of new IPR legislation to meet the requirements of the TRIPS Agreement of to the GATT/World Trade Organization (see articles, p. 13 and p.79). Community rights have to form an intrinsic part of all IPR legislation, including patent laws, biodiversity conservation laws, plant variety protection laws, and trademark laws, asserted Vandana Shiva, Director of the Research Foundation for Science 78

and Technology and Natural Resources, the organization that sponsored the seminar. These community rights, which exist prior to and are more fundamental than IPRs, need to be the screen through which IPR regimes are evolved and IPR claims are evaluated. They are also necessary to protect the free spaces for knowledge systems and production systems on which livelihoods of local communities depend, she claims. In fact, added Shiva, who is known throughout the world as a champion for asserting the sovereignty of developing countries and their indigenous peoples over

their resources, without the protection of the rights of local communities, the sovereign rights of a country to its biological wealth cannot be exercised since, unlike minerals and oil, biodiversity only survives through the protection of local communities.

Navdanya Celebrates Indias Diversity

The Research Foundation, which has been involved in various activities to promote biodiversity conservation and sustainable development in India for over 15 years, established a native seed conservation program- Navdanya- in 1991 that is now active in seven Indian states. Navdanya, which is a symbol of the celebration of diversity in India and literally means nine seeds, has initiVo1.12, no. 3, 1996

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ated a national network of community seed banks and in situ conservation programs. Also known as the seed keepers, Navdanya works with farmers organizations and, according to a spokesperson, has pioneered the concept of community biodiver-

The Foundation and Navdanya have announced they will co-sponsor an international conference with the Third World Network on Globalization, Food Security, and Sustainable Agriculture in New Delhi on 30-31 July 1997. Papers for the conference

Without the protection of the rights of local communities, the sovereign rights of a country to its biological wealth cannot be exercised. -Vandana Shiva
sity registers that document the resources and knowledge of communities at the local, regional, and national levels (see article, p.76). Those participating in the Navdanya network gathered at Anna University in Madras last December during the Congress on Traditional Sciences where they held workshops on agricultural biodiversity conservation and cooked and served native foods from native seeds to many of the 1,500 in attendance. are invited from economists, agricultural scientists, policymakers, and concerned citizens. For further information and a list of publications and video films that are available, contact: The Research Foundation for Science, Technology, and Natural Resource Policy, A-60 Hauz Khas, New Delhi 110 016, India. Tel: +91-11-696-8077/6522385. Fax: +91-11-685-6795/696-2598. Email: TWN@unv.emet.in. -DGS

by S. Sehgal
The recent flurry of mergers, acquisitions, and alliances in the seed industry in North America and Europe can shed some light on the intellectual property rights (IPR) controversy in India regarding seeds. The events in North America and Europe have to a large extent been driven by IPR issues. India is not immune to these issues, especially since the introduction in 1993 of the Plant Variety Act (PVA) which led to an emotionally charged debate both within and outside the Indian Parliament. India does not currently recognize intellectual property rights in agriculture. In particular, Indian patent law excludes plants and animals from protection. Since India became a signatory to the GATT (General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade), however, the country is required to provide for the protection of microorganisms and microbiological processes. Additionally, plant varieties are to be protected either through patents or through some other sui

generis system to be based on the Intemational Plant Breeders Rights Convention for the Protection of New Plant Varieties (the UPOV Convention). The UPOV Convention was signed in 1978 and revised in 1991 (see DIVERSITY, vol. 10, no. 1, pp. 5759, and vol. 10,no.3,pp.34-35). The Government of India accordingly drafted a Plant Variety Act (PVA) in 1993, which after considerable debate in the Parliament has cleared the Lower House but still awaits passage by the Upper House.

expected to play a vital role in the proposed legislation, and efforts seem to be underway to develop the anticipated capabilities and scientific competence (see article, p 13). Farmers privilege: Farmers will be permitted to save seed of protected varieties for use on their own farms. They will also be permitted to exchange seed with other farmers. This in kind trade among farmers is common practice in India. Essentially derived varieties: Essen-

Since maintaining genetic diversity is good for everybody, asking farmers alone to bear the cost of it via seed price increases seems unfair.
The provisions of the PVA are similar to the those of the 1978 UPOV Convention and to certain of its 1991 revisions. The main features include: Period of protection: A 15 year period of protection is proposed for annual crop plants and 18 years is proposed for fruit trees and vines. It will be compulsory to deposit a reference seed sample in the National Gene Bank and to catalogue it in the National Register. Certification and licensing may also be compulsory. A National Authority and an Appellate Board to resolve arising disputes for plant variety protection are proposed. The NBPGR is D I V E R S I T Y tially derived varieties cannot be sold without the permission of the original breeder. Such varieties are those that are derived from a protected source variety and which, while clearly distinguishable therefrom, nevertheless retain all its essential characteristics. This provision is intended to protect breeders against the simple introduction into a variety of a distinguishing characteristic by mutation, repeated backcrossing, gene insertion, or otherwise without changing the overall genetics of the variety. Breeders exemption: This provision allows protected varieties to be freely used for further plant breeding. 79

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Farmers rights: In 1994 FAO requested countries to implement farmers rights through the mechanism of the Commission on Plant Genetic Resources. India was one of the first countries to comply and has included a Community and Farmers Rights clause in the PVA (see article, p.73). In addition to the proposed PVA, India is also obliged by the GATT to introduce patent protection of micro-organisms and microbiological processes within a grace period of ten years. Infrastructure to Manage Patent System
India undoubtedly will need to develop the appropriate administrative infrastructure to effectively manage a patent system. Patents are widely sought after in the developed world by both public institutes and private sector companies. Two basic justifications are advanced in support of patents: (1) they encourage innovation through the disclosure of inventions, and (2) they promote research by granting exclusive access to the inventor. Several processes and products based on genetic engineering have already been patented in developed countries, including transformation technology, genes, vectors, and such traits as insect protection, tolerance to viruses and stresses, enhanced nutritional value, and pollination control. These technologies have immediate application in India. Transgenic seeds can reduce agricultural inputs and benefit Indias resource-poor farmers. For this reason every effort should be made within the ten-year grace period to accelerate the development of biotechnology and to convert existing technologies into products for the Indian farmer. If we fail to do so, then Indian farmers will be deprived of the very real fruits of this new technology. Additionally, the multinational corporations that hold most of the biotechnology patents in developed countries will come to dominate the IPR scene in India as well.

will be paying extra without directly benefiting. Since maintaining genetic diversity is good for everybody, asking farmers alone to bear the cost of it via seed price increases seems unfair. Concerning the three provisions of the Indian PVA mentioned above, it can be observed that: Although farmers privilege has come in for criticism from the Seed Association of India, many, including this author, believe that it is the right thing to do. For centuries Indias farmers have played a critical role in conserving the landraces which are the basis of commercial crop improvement programs. It is fair that they are not denied the reward of their past efforts. Any legislation which restricts farmers from saving seed for their own use or selling it to their neighbors should therefore be avoided. Restrictions on the sale of protected seed would unduly hamper the spread of new varieties. In this regard it is pertinent to ask whether the Green Revolution would have been possible had the high-yielding varieties of wheat and rice been protected in such a way as to stifle the transfer of seed between farmers. . Because there appears to be a conflict between the provision for essentially derived varieties and a farmers privilege (which permits in kind trade of protected seed between farmers), the former should be deleted. Progress in plant breeding has been possible because of free access to all germplasm. Restricting access to germplasm would adversely affect overall breeding progress and can lead to a decrease in

genetic diversity. The breeders exemption should therefore be maintained in the PVA. Since plant patents exclude the breeders exemption, such patents should not be permitted.

Implications
While agricultural biotechnology can add significant value to Indias agriculture, the public sector will not be able to develop and apply alternative or novel technologies on its own. Budget constraints and other factors require that the Indian government encourage the private sector in this area. The private sector will require an IPR regime conducive to it playing a dynamic role in developing the Indian seed industry if it is to commit to the sizeable investment in research that this will require. For further information, contact: Dr. Suri Sehgal, Proagro Seed Co., Ltd., A-311 Ansal Chambers-l, 3, Bhikaiji Cama Place, New Delhi 110 066, India. Tel: +9111-618-5082. Fax: +91-11-619-2084.

Concerns of Farmers, Breeders, and Seed Industry

Several questions remain outstanding regarding IPR in India and the PVA in particular. For example: How are plant breeders to be compensated? How is the PVA to be administered and by whom? What will its effect be on the seed industry? It should be noted in this regard that any costs incurred by seed companies due to farm ers rights or other IPR provisions will in any case be passed on to their customers. Since the farmer is the customer, he or she 80 D I V E R S I T Y

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