Under standingoxygensensorsandwhyNOTchangethemallatthesametime.

PaulRaymaekers 18/10/2010

1Whatisanoxygensensor theelectrochemicalpart(thegalvaniccell) theelectricalpart(circuitboardwithtemperaturecompensation) summary 2Theperfectsensor 3Thenearperfect sensor(perfectsensorwithfinitelifetime) 4Realworldsensorsandtheirfailuremodes: type1:currentlimiting type2:badbatch type3:suddendeath,highoutput,variableoutput 5Combinationoffailuremodes:theunknown? 6Simulationofdifferentcellreplacementscenario:results. 7General recommendationsforusingsensors 8Remarks

Disclamer: Somegraphsinthepresentationareonlyshownfordidacticpurposesanddonotreflectreal quantitiesofdata. Theauthorofthisarticledoesnottakeanyresponsibilityincasepeopleusethisinformation. Itisattheendtherebreatherdiverwhodecideswhatpolicyhe/shewilluseforreplacingthe sensorsin his/herunit.

1Whatisanoxygensensor? Toexplainwhatanoxygensensordoes,andhowitworks,wewilltakeapartanewsensor andexaminethedifferentpartsofthesensor. Warning:dontdo thisyourself:anoxygensensor containshazardousliquidsthatcan causeseveredamage/burnstoyourskin.Disassemblingasensoryourselfisnot recommended.

Ontheleftyouseeacompleteoxygensensor,ontherighttheinsideofasensor,whenthe outershell/protectionisremoved.Theinsideofthesensorshowsontopacircuitboardwitha connector(malemolexconnector,othertypesofconnectorsaresometimesusedalso),and belowthebodyofthesensor (thegalvaniccell)fromwhere2connectors/wiresgotothe circuitboard.

Atthebottomsideofthebodywenoticeawhitemembrane:thatiswheretheoxygen uptaketakesplace

Whenweremovethecircuitboard,wenoticesomeelectricalcomponentson thebottom sideoftheboard.Ontheotherpart, thegalvaniccellor theelectrochemicalpart,wenotice aflexiblemembrane,coveringaliquid,andsomeelectrodesinside. Wenowanalysebothparts Part1:electrochemicalpartofthesensor(galvaniccell) Toseehowitbehaves,wewilldosometestsonthispart,andrecordtheresults. Wesubjectthebodyto3differentparameters:PPO2,temperatureandload:eachtimewe varyoneparameter,whilewekeepthe2othersconstant,andwemeasurethecurrentsupplied bythepart.

A:Currentsuppliedbythegalvaniccell,asfunctionofload,whilekeepingPPO2(0.21bar) andtemp(20C)constant (applyingaloadtothepartmeansthatweconnectaresistorbetweenthe2wiresofthebody, andthenmeasurethecurrentthatgoesthroughtheresistor)

c urr entas func tionofload(PPO20,21bar,tem p20c )
0,070 0,060 0,050 current(mA) 0,040 0,030 0,020 0,010 0,000 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 loadappliedtos ens or body(Ohm )

Wenoticethatevenifwechangetheload,(theresistance)overawiderange(from20ohm till>500ohm),thecurrentsuppliedbythebodyofthesensor,doesnearlynotchange!This firsttestshows thatthebodyofanoxygensensorisactuallyacurrentsource,(andnota voltagesource),meaningittriestodeliveracertaincurrent,independentoftheresistanceit feelsagainstdeliveringthatcurrent. NowifweapplyOhmslaw(U=RxI, thevoltagewe measureoveraresistorisdirectlylinearwiththecurrentgoingthroughthatresistor),itmeans thatwewillmeasureahighervoltageifweincreasethetotalloadappliedtothesensorbody.

(wewillcomebacklatertothis:butalreadyhereyoucanseewherethetermcurrent limitingcomesfrom,andsothatwedontspeakaboutvoltagelimiting)

B:Currentsuppliedbythebodyofthesensor,asfunctionofPPO2,whilekeepingload(200 ohm)andtemp(20C)constant
c urr entas fuctionofPPO2(load200Ohm,tem p20C)
0,3 0,25 0,2 0,15 0,1 0,05 0 0 0,2 0,4 0,6 PPO2(bar ) 0,8 1 1,2

Wenoticethatwhenweincreasethepartialpressureofoxygenof thegasthatcomesin contactwiththemembraneofthesensorbody,thecurrentsuppliedbythesensoris increasing,andverylinearwiththePPO2:atzeroPPO2,thecurrentisalsozero! Soitbecomesclear,thatwhenweapplyaloadtothesensorbody,andwemeasurethe voltageoverthatload,thevoltagewegetisdirectlyproportionalwiththePPO2ofthegas wherethesensorisplaced. C:Currentsuppliedbythebodyofthesensor,asfunctionoftemperature,whilekeepingload (200ohm)andPPO2(0.21bar)constant

cur rentasfunc tionoftemper atur e(PPO20,21bar,load200Ohm )
0,100 0,090 0,080 0,070 current (mA) 0,060 0,050 0,040 0,030 0,020 0,010 0,000 0 10 20 30 40 50

cu rrent(mA)

tem per atur e(C)

Wenoticethatwhenweincreasethetemperature,thecurrentsuppliedbythesensorbodyalso increases.Weseethattheincreaseisnoteven reallylinearwiththetemperature.Thisis

clearlyaneffectwedontwanttoseeinadevicethatshouldmeasurethePPO2,asthe outcomeisclearlyinfluencedbythetemperature. Conclusion:analysisofthesensorbody,theelectrochemicalpartor thegalvaniccell Thecellisinrealityacurrentsource,notavoltagesource,thatdeliversacurrentthatis relativelyindependentoftheloadappliedtothesensor,thatdeliversacurrentthatisalmost perfectlyproportionaltothePPO2appliedtothesensor,butthatisheavilyinfluencedby temperature.Sowithoutcontrollingthetemperature,orcompensatingtheoutputfor temperaturechanges,wecannotusethissensorbodyformeasuringPPO2inadiving environment.

Note:thesymbol ofacurrentsourceis:

Part2: thecircuitboard Whenweanalysethecircuitboard,wefindaresistornetwork,consistingof3normal resistors, (R1,R2andR3)andonetemperaturedependentresistor,orthermistor:anNTC (meaningaresistorthathasaNegativeTemperatureCoefficient:thevalueofthatresistor (XXohms)will decr easewhenthetemperatureincr eases!) Schematicallywecandrawthecircuitlikethis:(somesensorsmighthaveadifferent organisedcircuit,wejustusethisonetoexplaingeneralsensorbuildup)

On theleftwehavethegalvaniccell,(thecurrentsource),asweanalysedinpart1,inthe middletheresistornetworkwefindonthecircuitboard,andontheleft,forcompleteness,the externalload,thatsensormanufacturersaskyoutoaddwhereyoumeasuretheoutputofthe sensor. Now, A:withoutmakingcomplexcalculations,(notneededhere),ifyoulookcarefullyatthe middlepart,the3fixedresistors,andtheNTC,youcanunderstandthatwhenthetemperature increases,(sincetheresistanceoftheNTCdecreasesbyincreasingtemperature),thetotal resistanceofthenetworkwillalsodecrease, B:wealreadyknowthatthecurrentsuppliedbythesensorbody isindependentofload(so the outputofthegalvaniccellwillnotvaryjustbecauseofchangingload),

C:wealsosawthatthecurrent(I) suppliedbythegalvaniccell body increaseswhenthe temperatureincreases, D:followingOhmslaw,U=Rx Ithatsaysthatthevoltageoveraresistornetworkequalsthe productoftheresistanceandthecurrent, Theresultis:bycorrectlychoosingtheresistornetwork,inthiscase,thetempcompensation network, thevoltagemeasuredoverthenetworkstaysconstantevenwithvarying temperature,if andonlyif theincreaseofthecurrentI(duetotemprise)isexactly compensatedbythedecreaseof thetotal loadR,sothattheproductof IandRdoesnot change(aslongasthePPO2doesnotchange).(pleasenotethatthetotalloadisaresultof theresistorsofthecircuitboard,theNTCandtheexternal loadRL) Thisisthewayhowtemperatureinfluenceinanoxygensensoriscompensated:thiscanonly workbecausethesensorinitselfisacurrentsource,andthecurrentcanbeappliedtoan adaptiveresistornetwork,sothatattheendthevoltage,measuredoverthisnetwork,is independentoftemperature. Typicalvaluesoftheresistornetworkareintheorderof 100200Ohm. Intheschematicsyoualreadysawtheexternalload,thatisnormallyaddedattheoutsideof thesensor:nowwhyisitsimplynotintegratedinsideonthesamecircuitboard? Whydoweneedthatexternalload? Simplyexplained,mostlywedontmeasuredirectlyatthebackofthesensor,onthemolex connector,butatsomedistanceintheelectronics,thecomputerorthePPO2gauge:this meanswewillhaveacablebetweenthesensorandthemeasuringelectronics.Tominimise externalinfluenceonthemeasuringresults,influences,radiationonthecableetc,(alsocalled noise),itiseasiertohaveasmallcurrentflowingthroughthecabletowardstheplacewhere wemeasure,andsoattheendofthecable,aresistorisplaced(Typicalvalueoftheexternal loadRLis10kOhm,or10.000Ohms) So,theinternalresistornetworkischosenthiswaythatitgivesthebestpossibletemperature compensationiftheexactvalueofexternalloadasprescribedbythesensormanufactureris appliedtothesensor. Lookingatthevaluesof internal resistornetwork(totalload100200ohm)andtheexternal load(10.000ohm),youimmediatelyseethat9899%ofthecurrentsuppliedbythegalvanic cellgoesthroughtheinternalresistornetwork,andonlyaverysmallportionthroughthe externalload. Nowwecanalreadyclearuponemyth: disconnectingthesensorfromtheexternalload(10k)willnotextendthelifetimeofthe sensor,asallthecurrentgoesovertheinternalnetworkanyway,andthecelldoesnotstop supplyingcurrent(andevenmore:thecurrentthesensordeliversisindependentofload!) General conclusion: Anoxygensensorisacombinationofanelectrochemicalpart(thecurrentsource:the galvaniccell)andacircuitboard(the temperaturecompensatingresistornetwork), arranged inthiswaythatyoucanmeasureanoutputvoltagethatisalmostperfectlinearwiththePPO2, whenyouhookonthecorrectexternalload.

2Theperfect sensor, Justforthestartofthefollowingdiscussion,letsassumewecanmakeaperfectsensor. Thissensorwouldalwaysgiveoutthesamevoltage,perfectlylinearandproportionaltothe PPO2ofthegasitisplacedin,independentoftemperature,humidityoranyotherinfluence. Thismeansyouwouldonlyhavetocalibrateitonce,whenyouinstallthesensor,andnever exchangeit,becauseithaseternallifetime:meaning:thelikelihoodthatthatsensorfailsina certainmonthafterproductionor installationisalwayszero! Howmanyofthesesensorswouldweneedinarebreather?Theoreticallyonlyone.But.. Atthismomentwedonotsupposewehaveperfectconnectors,norperfectelectronicsthat readoutthesensor, onlyourperfectsensor,soinordertonoticewhensomethingelse outsidethesensoriswrongweneedatleast2sensors,beston2completeredundantread outs,(sothatwenoticethatsomethingisnotokbecausewesee2differentoutputs)orfor minimumsecurityinautomaticvotingsystems,atleast3.(thisisadifferentchapterJ) Sadlywevenotyetfoundthisperfectsensor

3Thenear perfectsensor Letsdefineournearperfectsensorasourperfectsensorfrom above,butwithone inconvenience:thissensorhasanexactlyknownlimitedlifetime,say36months.Theendof lifetimeisdefinedasthemomentwhenoursensorisnotbehavinganymoreasperfect, meaningitcanhaveanytypeoffailure,zerooutput,highoutput,varying,nonlinear,limited, whatever,wedontevenhavetoknowwhatfailureithas,wejustknow thatattheageof36 months,our sensorisendoflife. Thelikelihoodoffailingofthisnearperfectsensorcanbeshowngraphicallylikethis:
lifetimeofsensors:100sensorsfroma'near'perfectbatch
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Thegraphshowstheresultsof atestonan imaginarybatchof100sensors, tellingusatwhat agethesensorsstop tobehavelikeperfectsensors:younoticetheyallfailattheexactageof 36monthsafterproduction! NowsupposeweKNOWwehavesensorsofthisnearperfectbatch,whendowehaveto replacethesensors(2or3ormore..)inourrebreather? Wellinthiscaseweknowtheyareallperfecttilltheageof35,andwillall failinsomeway attheageof36:sojustbeforethesensorsreachthelifeof36months,wetakethemoutofour

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rebreatherandswapthem withnew/freshonesandwecancontinueforanother35 months.. Easynot?..butsadly..eventhisnearperfectsensorweneverfoundonthemarket Ok,letsthenmovetothemorerealworldsensors.

4RealWorldsensorsandtheirfailuremodes Wewillnowhavealookatdifferentfailuremodesof realworld oxygensensors,what causesthem,whataretheresultsandtherisksassociatedwiththefailure,andwhatisthe likelihoodofthefailuretohappenasafunctionoftheageofthesensor,andtheway the sensorisused. Wedefineafailureonasensor,asdeviationfromtheperfectsensorbehaviourin thescope ofuseofthesensorsinrebreathers:linearoutputinaPPO2rangefrom0.21till1.60bar, the absolutevaluenotvaryingmorethanafew%overaperiodofafewdays,andintheusable voltagerangeoftheelectronicswhereitisconnectedto.

A:type1failure:Currentlimiting Inchapterone,wesawthatthegalvaniccellofanoxygensensordeliversacurrentthatis proportionaltothePPO2,andthatthiscurrentisperfectlylinearwiththePPO2. InthetestweonlymeasuredtillaPPO2of1bar. NowwhenwecontinuethistestwithmuchhigherPPO2s,wewillseethatthislinear behaviourislimited:thecurrentdoesnotkeepincreasingeternally. ThenextgraphshowsthecurrentasfunctionofPPO2for3differentsensors:

cu r r e n tas fu n ctio n o fPPO2
0,6

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0,4 cu rren t(mA) sensor1 0,3 sensor2 sensor3 0,2

0,1

0 0 0,5 1 1,5 2 2,5 3 3,5 PPO2(bar )

Whenwelookatsensor1,weseethatthecurrentincreaseslinearwiththePPO2upto+/ 2 bars,andthenthecurvestartstoflatten:thegalvaniccellcannotkeepsupplyinganalways

increasingcurrentwhenthePPO2increases:wetalkinthiscaseaboutcurrentlimitingofan oxygensensor:thereisindeedalimitforthesensortosupply morecurrent. Asamatteroffact,everysensor,evenanewsensorrightoutofthebox,iscurrentlimited. ButsinceweonlyuseasensorinaspecificrangeofPPO2(normallylessthen1.6bars),we dontcareifthesensorfails,orshowswrongoutput,ataPPO2of2ormore,aslongasit worksfine(behaveslinearinthiscase)inthePPO2rangeweuseit. Fortheuseinrebreather,wewillfromnowsay thatasensoriscurrentlimited(andso: failing)whentheflatteningofthecurvestartsbelow1.6barPPO2. Sothismeans,lookingatsensor1,thatwehaveaperfectworkingsensor,thatgivesouta voltagethatisperfectlylinearwiththePPO2.(sothatwhenwecalibrateoursensorreadings ataPPO2of1.0bar,weknowthatwhenweread1.30,itiseffectively1.30andnotmoreore less. Sotoresume: Aslongtheflatteningofthecurveisoutsidetheregionwhereweusethe sensor,noproblem. Nowwhatistheproblemifasensorbecomescurrentlimited? For theeaseofexplainingwelookatthegraphwhere theoutputvoltage(adirectresultofthe current) of our3 sensorsisconvertedtoaPPO2readout: thisiswhattheelectronicsshowus aftercalibration.
d isp layed PPO2asfu nc tion ofr ealPPO2
2,50

2,00 displayedPPO2

1,50

sensor1 sensor2

1,00

sensor3

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0,00 0 0,5 1 1,5 2 2,5 3 3,5 r ealPPO2(bar )

Letshavealookatsensornr2:wenoticethattheoutputofthesensorislinearuptoaPPO2 of1bar.Supposewenowcalibratewithpureoxygen(atsealevel)andwe(falsely)assume wehaveagoodsensor:lineartillminimum1.6barPPO2. WhatwillbethedisplayedPPO2showat1.3bar?Willitbe1.3timeshigherthenat1.0bar wherewecalibrated(asthisiswhatweassume):no! theoutputvalueislower,ifyoulook carefullyatthegraph,thesensorwillindicateus+/1.22.AndatarealPPO2of1.6 our sensorwillindicateusaround1.35only:sothedisplaywillshowusalowerPPO2 then realitynotgood! Butletshavealookatsensornr3.

Aftercalibration,ourdisplayshowsus1barPPO2:correct:butathigherPPO2,itshowsusa valuethatisfarbeyondtherealvalue:at1.3itshows1.17,at1.6itshows1.23,andevenata realPPO2of3bars,itevenonlyshows1.28.. Nowimagineyouredivingarebreather,andatacertainfazeofthediveyouwanttogoover toahighPPO2setpointof 1.3bar.Soyou(oryourelectroniccontrolsystem)start toinject pureO2toincreasethePPO2till1.3.whichitwillneverreach!Nomatterhowmuchyou inject,howhightherealPPO2willbecome,your displaywillnotreach1.3! Sohereliestherealdangerofusingsensorsthatarecurrentlimited:they showalowerthen realPPO2intherangehigherthen1bar,anditspossiblethatthediverdoesnotnoticeit (evenmoreonelectronicallycontrolledrebreathers). Luckilyweusemorethenonesensorinarebreather,andthedivercantestsensorsforcurrent limiting,byinjectingpureO2ataknowsdepth(67meters)andcheckifthedisplayshowsat least1.6bar.

Nowwhydoesasensorgetcurrentlimited??Well,when thesensorhasreachedacertain age wherealotofitsfuelisburned,itcannotgiveveryhighoutputsanymore,andcanonly produceacertainmaximumcurrent.Andthatmaximumcurrentevendecreaseswhenthe cellgetsolder. Thismeansthatcurrentlimitingseemstohappenmoreafterthesensorhasbeenusedfor sometime,nearthe(theoretical)endoflifeofasensor,sothelikelihoodoffailuredueto currentlimitingincreaseswhenthesensorgetsolder. Fromthepastwenoticethattheaverageagewhereasensorbecomescurrentlimiteddepends fairlystrongontheproductionbatch. Wehave seenbatchesofsensorswhere>95%ofthesensorssurvived24monthsofusable lifetime,tilltheybecamecurrentlimited.Thesewecallgoodbatches.
lifetimeo fsen sors: 100sen sorsfromagood b atc h
14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0

time(months)

Butweveseenotherbatchesalso,wherewewereluckytogetanaverageof12monthsonly.. Morelikethisgraph

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lifetimeofsenso rs:100senso rsfro mano rmal(? )batch

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Ok,nowsupposewehavesensorsinourrebreathersystem.Withthisknowledge,whenwill wechangeoursensors?Itisnotsoclearanymore,becauseitseemsthatwedontknowin advancewhen thesensorwillfailitdependsquitalot onthebatchandhowsensorsare threated! Becausecurrentlimitingoccurswhenthesensorhasalreadysuppliedalotofcurrent,and burnedalotofitsfuel,wenowalsoseethatthelifetimeofasensordependsonthe temperaturethesensorisstored:fromchapter1welearnedthatthecurrentsuppliedbythe galvanicpartofthesensorincreasesalotwithincreasingtemperature,meaningthefueluse increaseswithhighertemperature!(fromthegraphinchapter1:at40Ctwicethefuel consumptioncomparedto10C) Sodontbeamazedthatsensorslastlongerincoldcountriescomparedtovery warm counties

B:type2failure:badbatch Fromexperienceinthepastwenoticedthatnotallsensorsbehaveniceuntiltheyhavetime inuse:thisgraphshowsthelifetimeofsomebatcheswegotintheyears2006/2007.

lifetimeofsensors: 100sensorsfromabatchtype2
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tim e(m onths)

Thisgraph clearlyshowsabadproductionbatch,wheresensorsstarttofailassoonasyou putthemintherebreatherfornospecificreason,besidessomeinternal (??)defect. Ormaybethatbatchof sensorsisnotsuitedfordivingapplications,butonlyforuseat1 atmosphere,sothatthemultiplepressurisationsofthesensorduringdivinghasadramatic influenceonthelifetimeofthesensor?

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C:type3failure:otherfailures Someothercommontypeoffailuresarelistednext:forthesetypeoffailurestheredoesnot immediatelyseemtobearelationbetweentheageofthesensor,andthelikelihoodtofail: meaningthegraphismorelikeaconstantheightoverthetimeperiod Suddendeath Anothertypeoffailurewenoticeonoxygensensors,isasudden outputdroptozeroornear zero:thisisafailureduetootherreasonthennomorefuel,asthatoneyoucan seecoming. Thefailurecanbeduetomanyreasons:mechanical,adisconnectionofwires,afaultonthe circuitboard,corrosion,atearin themembranethatholdstheliquidfuel,droppingthe sensorfromacertainheight Highoutput Sometimesasensorallofasuddengivesanoutputthatisfarhigherthennormal,even sometimes5or10timesmore.Accordingtoasensormanufacturerthiscanbeduetosmall holesinthemembraneonthesensingsideofthesensor,sothatmoreoxygencanbe burnedthaninnormaloperation Variableoutput Whentheoutputofasensorvariessofastthatyoucannotgetastableenoughoutputfora distinctperiodoftimeaftercalibration,atleasttocompleteafulldive. Itisclearfromexperienceinthepast,thatfailuresoftheselasttypes(type2and3)occurless frequentthanthetype1failureof goodbatches,wheretheaveragesensor oftenhasa lifetimeof morethen 24months.

5Combinationoffailuremodes:theunknown Afterallthefailuretypeswehaveseeninchapter4,itseemsclearthatitisnotsoeasyto predictthelifetimeofasensor,asyouwillnotknowwhatthequalityofthebatchiswhere yournextsensorcomesfrom:willitbemoreliketype1,orwillyouhavebadluckandget onefromtype2,or Allwecannowpresentisabestguessofwhatthenextsensoryoubuywillbe,fromthe experienceofallbatchesinthepast. Ourbestestimateforthepredictionofsensorlifeatthismomentlookslikethis:

lifetimeo fsen sors: 1000senso rsfromaany b atch
60 50 40 30 20 10 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40 0

tim e(m onths)

Youseeattheleftsideofthecurve,thehigherlikelihoodofafailingsensorrightafter installing(type2),andmoretotherightsidethetypicalfailingduetoage(type1) Thiscurvecanalsoberepresentedinadifferentform:thecumulativeresult.

n umberofsenso rsth athavefailed fro mab atch o f1000
1200 1000 800 600 400 200 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 0 2 4 6 8 40 0

time(months)

Thistypeofgraphshowthenumberofcellthathavefailedbeforeoratthemomentof reachingacertainage,outofabatchof1000sensors. Itisthisgraphwewilllateruseforcomputersimulation,whenwewanttoestimatethe lifetimeofasensor:eachtimeweinstallanewsensorinourrebreather,weletthecomputer pickarandomnumberbetween1and1000,andusingthegraphwegetalifetimeprediction forthisparticularsensor.

6Simulationofdifferentcellreplacementscenario Nowthatwehaveanideaofhowsensorsfail,wecouldtrytofindoutwhatthebestpolicy wouldbeinusingsensorsinarebreather,whentochangethemout,howmanysensorswe shoulduseetc. Nowdefiningwhatagoodpolicywouldbe,meansalsodefiningwhatresultwewanttohave, orwhatresultweabsolutelydontwanttohave. Weallacceptthatasinglesensorcanfailduringadive:whenhavingsufficientredundancy, thisisnotaproblem. Itisclearthathavingallsensorsfailduringthesamedive,istheworstthatcouldhappen, especiallyiftheywouldfailinthesameway,sothatyoudontnoticeit..Sowhatevercell changingpolicywewoulduse,thisresultshouldneverhappen. Thenextworsethingisthemajorityofthesensorsinyoursystemfailinginsomeway during asingledive,evenmoreinafullyautomaticrebreather,wherethecomputerwillmostlytake themajorityofreadingsintoaccountwhennotallreadingsarethesame(votinglogic).In thiswayfailing2sensorsoutof3,isaworseeventthen2outof4,andsurely2outof5. (evenfailing2outof3isworsethen3outof5,althoughaswewillseelater,thelatterisan eventthatisextremelyunlikelytohappen,where2outof3belongstothepossibilities..).

Whichcellchangingpolicieswillwetest(simulate): P1:thestandard,widelyspreadpolicy,ofhaving3sensorsinyoursystem,andchangingout allthesensorsafter12months:restarteverynewdivingyearwithfreshsensors.Thispolicy willalsobesimulatedfor4and5sensorsinyoursystem. Donotehowever,thatwhenputting3newsensorsinyourrebreatheratthesametime,the likelihoodoffailureforthese3sensorsisnotgivenbyourbestestimateofpredictiongraph, (whichisarepresentationofpossiblefailurewhenusingsensorsfromdifferentbatches)but byasinglegraphtype1,2or3:asallsensorsinthiscasecomefromthesamebatch,youwill noticethatthedistributionintimeisfarmoreconcentratedonspecificmomentsintime, whichresultsinahigherlikelihoodoffailingatthesametime. Evenmore,butnotyetinthispredictions,havingsensorswithallexactlythesamedive history,increasesthelikelihoodoffailingallatamoreconcentratedmomentin time. P2:thecompleteextremeontheotherside:having3,4or5sensorsinyourrebreathersystem, butonlyreplacingaparticularsensorafteritfailedduringthepreviousdive. P3:thesystemrEvoalreadyadvisesforsometime,rotatingsensors:thesystemworksas follows:assoonastheyoungestofallsensorsinyoursystem(3,4or5)reachestheageof6 months,youreplacetheweakest(theonethatreactstheslowestonPPO2changes,ortheone thatseemstobecomeclosesttocurrentlimiting,duringthetestat6/7meters),orifyoucant findaweakest,then theoldestinyoursystem.Ifofcourseasensorfailsbeforetheyoungest gets6monthsold,youreplaceit,andthelatteronebecomestheyoungestatthatmoment.

Ok,nowwehaveourdifferentscenarios,using3,4or5sensorsinoursystem,wecanaska wholebunchofdivers,tostartdiving,replacesensorsaccordingtoourdifferentscenarios, andreportusabouttheirresults.Togetsomeusabledata,itwilltakeusafewmilliondives L Luckilywehaveacomputertosimulateallthescenarios:howdoesthiswork? Foreachscenario,andforeachamountofsensors,weletthecomputerdo1million consecutivedives.Weassumethatwedoonediveaweek,andwediveeachweek.Westart withallnew,freshsensors,andeachtimeafreshsensorisputintherebreather(eitheratthe start,eitherbecauseasensorfailed,eitherbecauseitstimetochangeasensorduetoour replacementpolicy),thecomputerwillpredictalifetimeforthesensor,usingarandom generatorintheprogram,andusingthecumulativegraphofsensorfailure.(forpolicy1out ofarandomchosenlifetimepredictionofthesamesinglefailuretypeforall3sensors,forthe otherpoliciesoutofthegraphthatrepresentsmultiplebatches) Asoutputofoursimulation,wewillrecordhow often one ormoresensorsfail duringa singledive.Alsothetotalnumberofsensorsusedtodoamilliondiveswillberecorded.(this allowsustocalculatewhattheaveragenumberofsensorareused/yeardiving,whenyou applyaspecificcellreplacementpolicy.

Thistableshowstheresultof thecomputersimulationfor1.000.000dives:
cells inuse policy1 3 4 5 3 4 5 3 4 5 total number ofused cells 73301 97936 121962 39527 52733 65816 49627 59098 70205 cells used 1fail 14542 18994 22448 38499 50560 62257 23106 38140 52958 2fail 524 937 1531 511 1070 1745 152 527 1095 3fail 7 48 98 2 11 23 0 4 6 4fail 5fail /year 3,81 5,09 6,34 2,06 2,74 3,42 2,58 3,07 3,65

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policy3

Thefirstcolumnindicatesthenumberofsensorsusedintherebreather. Secondcolumnshowsthetotalnumberofsensorsusedover1milliondives,usingaspecific replacementpolicy. Thenextcolumnsshowshowoften,onamilliondives,theeventoccurredthat1,2ormore sensorsfailduringthesamesingledive.Forexampleyouseefromthetablethatneverinany scenario5sensorsfailedduringthesamedive. Thelastcolumnshowstheaveragenumbersofsensorsused/yearofdiving,whenusinga specificreplacementscenario:itisclearthatwhenyouwouldhave5sensorsinyour rebreather,andyoureplacethemallattheendoftheyear,youwillusethehighestnumberof sensors.Thesameifyouwouldonlyuse3sensors,andyouonlyreplacethemwhentheyfail, youwillusetheleastnumberofsensors/yearbutyouwillprobablynotbesafeL. Nowlookingcarefullyatthetable,youwill already notice: whateverreplacementpolicyyouuse,havingallsensorsfailinyoursystem,isextremely rare,andwhenusingagoodreplacementpolicy,nonexistent.(mindyouthisisnottruewhen doingforexampleonly1diveevery3months,becauseinthatcaseyouwillaccumulatethe possiblefailuresoverthatlongerperiod,andsoincreasingthelikelihoodoffailingmore sensorsatthesametime)(justasanexample,ifyouusepolicy2,andyoudontdivefor5 years,youknowforsurethatinthenextdiveallsensorswillfail!)(but,thisdoesnotmean thatyoucannotlooseallreadingsfromallsensorsforanotherreason:completeflood, completeelectronicfailure..) themoresensorsyouhaveinyoursystem,thelesserriskthatthemajorityofsensorsfails: forexamplewhateverpolicyyouuse,thereisalwaysafarhigherriskoffailing2outof3 sensors,than 3outof4,or3outof5. forthesameamountofsensors,themoreyouvaryinyourreplacementpolicy,thelesser sensorsyouuseperdivingyear. bychoosingthecorrectreplacementpolicy,youcanREDUCEtheriskoftomanysensors failingatthesametime,whileconsumingLESSsensors/year,andevenatthesametime havingmoresensorsinyoursystem:(forexample:inpolicy1,using3sensors,theriskisfar highertohave2failoutof3,comparedtopolicy3,using5sensors,toloose3 outof5,butin thelattersystemweconsumelesssensors/year).

7Generalrecommendationsforusingsensors First:wehavetillnowonlybeenlookingatfailureofthesensor,nottheelectronicsthatare attachedtothesensors.Itisclearthatwhatevernumberofsensorsyouuse,whatever replacementpolicyyouuse:ifyouconnectallyoursensorstothesameelectronics,ifthat electronicsfails,alloutputsfromyoursensorsbecomeuseless,asyoucannotusethem anymore. Recommendation1:ifyoucan:connectthenumberofsensorsyouusetodifferent electronics,sothatyoucreateredundancy,andthatthelikelihoodofloosingallsensordata, duetoanelectronicfailure,decreases. Recommendation2:checkyoursensorsonaregularbasisagainstcurrentlimiting:thisisa typeoffailurethatcanbedetected,evenbeforeitbecomesproblematic:even asensorthatis limitedtoaPPO2of1.55bar,willstillfunctionokat1.30,butyouwillreplacethatsensor beforethecurrentlimitingbecomesmorepronounced. Recommendation3:ifasensorisstillworkingok,evenifitisgettingolder,itsalways bettertokeepitasextra(redundant)sensorinyoursystem,alwaysbetterthensimply throwingitaway(??Whythrowawayagoodworkingsensor??):soifyoucan,usethe maximumnumberof(good!)sensorsthesystemallowsyouto:asthisallowsyoutohave enoughsensorsinyourrebreather,sothatyoucanapply THRUEredundancy:uptosensor level(meaningnotevensensorssharedbymultipleelectronicsystems) Thisnowbringsustorecommendationsfordifferentsystems: Recommendation4: systemsthatcontainmaximum3sensors. e/hCCR:neverreplaceyoursensorsallatthesametime:itisclearthatwhenyoudothat, thereisareasonablepossibilitytohave2sensorsfailatthesametime:1in2000dives:andin realitythislikelihoodisevenhigher(seelater) ItisclearthatP3isalwaysasafersystem.Evenifyoubelievethatasensorinyourrebreather shouldneverbemore then12monthsold,thenapplyP3butinstallafreshsensorevery4 months:thiswillhoweveronlygiveyouamarginal decreaseinfailing2sensorsoutof3, comparedtothelargerconsumptionofsensors/year mCCR:thelikelihoodthatadualsensorfailureisdetectedbythediverishighertheninthe eCCR.InthiscasethereisclearlynoreasonnottouseP3. Recommendation5:systemsthatcontainatleast4sensors,andminimum2redundant electronics independentofmCCRore/hCCR,using4ormoresensorsandreplacementpolicyP3 alwaysresultsinahigherprobabilityofhavingatleast2goodworkingsensorsinyour system,comparedtothestandard3SP1,withtheextraadvantageofusinglesssensors/year. Eveninthe5SP3youconsumelesssensors/yearasinthe3SP1,andinanyconditionyouwill alwayshavemoreworkingsensorsthanin3SP1. Evenwhenusing5sensorsinyoursystem,youcouldoptfor P2,onlythrowingawaywhen theyfail(seetable),butsincethisonlygivesusamarginal decreaseofsensorconsumption, thereisnoreasontopreferP2overP3.

Forsystemsthatcancontain4or5sensors: mCCR:startwith3sensors, on2differentelectronicsystems,andaddsensorsaccordingto P3,untilyoucannotaddanymore,becauseallsensorplacesinyoursystemaretaken,and thenstartreplacingaccordingtoP3,throwingawaytheoldest,unlessyouclearlyhaveseena weaker,slowerrespondingsensorduringthelastdives. e/hCCR:sameasformCCR,butstartwith4sensors,asyouneed3sensorsforthevoting electronics,andatleastonefortheredundantelectronic(display/HUD).Eventually,toreduce theriskofmultiplefailureinthebeginningoftheadditionsystem,becauseatthestartyou haveoftennootherchoicethenstartingwithsensorsfromthesamebatch,youcouldaddthe firstsensoraftermonths,andthenstartreplacingevery6months.

Using5sensorsevenhasanotheradvantage:atthemomentasensorwouldfail,youhave timetobuyanothersensor,so thatyoualwaysstartwithrealfreshsensors:youdonthaveto keepthemonstockifyoudontwantto:aswehaveseenrunningtheuniton4working sensorsisalwaysabetteralternativethenusingthe3SP1scenario. Recommendation6:itwasshown thatsensorssupplyahighercurrent(burnmorefuel) whenthetemperatureishigher:ifyoucan,storeyourunitinacooledroom.However,itis notrecommendedtotakesensorsoutoftherebreatherafterdiving,tostorethem separatelyin acooler,asthelikelihoodofmechanicalfailuresincreasethisway.Alsoknowthatmost connectorshavealimitednumberofconnectingactions. Recommendation7:whenyouinstallanewsensorinyoursystem,writetheinstallation dateonthesensor,sothatyouknowwhichoneistheyoungest.Inourstudyitwasassumed thattheservicelifeofasensorstartedwhenitwastakenoutofthesealedbag,assuppliedby themanufacturers. Thisseemscorrectaslongastheproductiondatewaslessthenoneyear beforeinstallation. Theproductiondateofsensorsisprintedonthesensors,indifferentways.Twocommon methodsare: 3numberswherethefirstindicatesthelastnumberoftheproductionyear,andthe2others th themonth(example:805XXX:5 monthof 2008,ormay2008) aletterfollowedbyanumber,wheretheletterindicatesthemonth,andthenumberthelast numberoftheyear(example:A8:January2008)

8Remarks Peoplemightarguethatthefiguresonthetableforhavingmultiplesensorsfailatthesame moment,seemslow.They areright,inrealityitcan bethatsomeeventsoccurmoreoften,but thenitisnotduetothesensoronly,buttosomeothereventthathasinfluencedallsensorsat thesametime,orduetotheelectronicsaroundthesensors Sucheventswillevenforcesensorstostartactinginthesameway,andinthiswayagain increasethelikelihoodofsensorsfailingatthesametimewhentheyhaveexactlythesame ageandmoreimportant:thesamedivehistory! Forexampleifyoufloodedyourunitcompletely,andyouthinkyoucanstilluseyourold sensorsafteragoodrinsing,thereisahigherthennormalpossibilitythatmultiplesensorswill failinthenextdivesindependentofanyreplacementpolicy!

Samefornonredundantelectronics,ornonredundantwiringsystems:thesecanmake multiplesensoroutputsfail,butagainthisisnotrelatedtothereplacementpolicy. Thatisofcoursethereason why itisbettertohaveredundantelectronics:ifnotagood replacementpolicy,andhavinggoodsensors,willbecompletelyundoneby abadlydesigned electronicsystem. Peoplemightalsoarguethattheprobabilitycurveofsensorfailureisnotknown correctly, andcanchangeanymoment:better/differentsensorscomeon themarket.Thatiscorrect,and forthatreason,asimulationwasalsomadeforanotherfailurecurvethatrepresentsbetter batches.Theresultsofthissimulationgavethesamerecommendationattheend,andeven stronger:themorethesensorbatchestendtobegood,moretothetype1failurecurveofa goodbatch,themoreP3ispreferredoverP1. Anotherargumentisthatpeopledontcontinuouslykeepdivingandreplacingsensors accordingtoacertainpolicy,butthatatcertainmomentsarestartor arefreshofallsensors isdone:forexamplewhenaunitissold,orwhenitgetsacompleterevision.Totakethatinto account,simulationsweredonewhereacompleterefreshofallsensors,justlikestartingwith anewunit,wasdone,onesimulationafterevery5years,onesimulationafterevery8years. Againtherecommendationstayedthesameasinchapter7. And,whynotusemorethen5sensorsthen?6or7Thereseemsnoneedto,aslongasyou canspreadthesensorsoverdifferentsystems,thelikelihoodthatmorethen2failisverylow anyway,butyourtotalconsumptionofsensors/yearwillincrease.Andinmostcases,when addingsensorsevery 6months,andkeepingmorethen5sensorsinyoursystem,theoldest sensorswillhavefailedbeforetheyshouldbereplacedbecauseoflackofplace. Lastly,rememberthatessentiallysensorsaremadeforuseat1atmosphere:theywerenot originallydesignedtobepressurisedanddepressurisedmultipletimes.Itisnotexactlyknown atthismomentwhattheinfluenceisofthis,butthereisabeliefthatcompressionand decompression alsocausesmechanicalstressonpartsofthesensor,thatalsodecreasesthe lifetime:againmorereasontohaveasmuchaspossiblesensorswithdifferentdivinghistory inyourrebreather.