CLASSICAL

ANTIQUITIES;
Tyv
BEING

PART

OF

THE

"MANUAL

OP

CLASSICAL

LITERATURE."

FROM

THE

GERMAN

OF

J.
PROFESSOR
IN

J.
THE

ESCHENBURG,
CAROLINUM,
AT

BRUNSWICK.

EMBRACING

TREATISES

ON

THE"FOi,LO"WI"0

SUBJECTS.:

I.

CLASSICAL

GEOGRAPHY

AND

PHY. TOPOGRA-

III.

GREEK

AND

ROMAN

MYTHOLOGY.

IV.

GREEK

ANTIQUITIES.

II.

CLASSICAL

CHRONOLOGY.

V.

ROMAN

ANTIQUITIES.

BY

N.
PROFESSOR

W.
IN

FISKE,
AMHERST

COLLEGE.

FOURTH

EDITION.

PHILADELPHIA
E. C. " J.

BIDDLE,
STEREOTYPED

SOUTH
BY L. JOHNSON.

FIFTH

STREET.

18

50.

Entered

according

to

act

of

Congress,

in

the
year

?843,

by

Edward

C.

Biddle,

in

the

Clerk's

OfSce

of

tlie"

District

Court

for

the

Eastern

District

of

Pennsylvania.

Printed

by

T.

K.

"

P.

G.

Collins.

PREFACE.

For

an

account

of the reader

origin and
is

design

of the
to

Manual the

of
Preface

Classical
to

Literature,
work. but and three The
of

the

respectfully referred
is These Roman
a

that

present
its

volume
Parts.

portion

of

the
:

Manual,

including Geography
and
to

five

three, viz.

Classical

Chronology,
Antiquities,

Greek
are

and

Mythology, separately,
the

and
a

Greek

man Rothe

published

from

regard

wishes The when of his

of

some

teachers,
for
a

especially in

primary
of these the and he the very

classical

schools.
appear,

reasons

separate
that

publication
the
some

parts

will

it is

considered,

scholar, in

commencement

classical while first to

are

studies, needs
it is not the branches The
so

guide
that

help
should
two

in

each attend

of

these

branches,
at

essential with whole go

over

larly particuof the

which

other

parts

Manual the
course

occupied.
must, the and the this

ground
before

embraced

in the his the

are

Manual,
classical

student
;

indeed,

completing
and

but

Archaeology of
Criticism studies
at

Literature the Classical

Art, and Authors,

atic Systemnot

History
included in of in this editions
to

of
the

often of gestions sug-

Academy.
copies
of

In the with for

consequence three the

kind,
were

thousand

parts

contained second

volume of the

printed
and
to

in connection the demand another

first and

Manual,

them

has

been

such

as

induce This
new

the

publisher
edition of

issue

impression. styled
as

the

volume

Classical

Antiquities
to

is

much edition
A

more

valuable the

than and

the

former,

it

corresponds
numerous

the

fourth

of

Manual,
this

is illustrated which

by
has

engravings.
recommended united of with it
a

peculiarity of
estimation of detail of

volume,

greatly

in

the

teachers,

is its

comprehensiveness
common

fullness

sufficient

for all the

purposes the

elementary
of Rome

instruction. and and 304

Ancient Classical

Geography Chronology,
here in the

with

Topography
Greek the

Athens,
Roman

Mythology, presented English

all
so

Antiquities,
compass of

Antiquities, are
There is not

within

pages. work

language,
essential and
so

it is believed,
to

another classical

in which
are

these

topics,
into work that
one

the

young

scholar,

brought
the infer

volume

thus

adapted
any

for
one

daily use.
should be

If, because

comprehends
each

much,

disposed

to

part

must

be

defective, he

is

IV

PREFACE.

requested Geography
in several of the
to

to

examine found

and
to
on

compare.

The every

Epitome
much far

of

Classical

will be

comprise
the

thing of special importance improvement

more

Butler's

work of

subject, with
and and is most of
an

in

points
remains

arrangement,

account

complete
Introduction Treatise of

of Rome, contains many works

Athens,
what

other

cities.

The the
not

Chronology
with of in

essential in

Hegewisch,
nor

things
on

great

importance
in
use.

found The exclude

in that, Treatise such but

a

any

the

Antiquities now
no means

on

Greek
as

Antiquities is by
Potter's, which
teacher will is

intended
on some

to

work

more

minute that

points;
treatise search
on

the

competent

discover for which

this condensed

contains vain in

important
Potter
;
as

information he will
on

his

pupil
as

will full

in

and any

comparison
used
are

find it in
our

every while and

essential the

point

other and

treatise

country,

Greek
much

Mythology
greater
did the
not

Topography
In

given separately
of the is not work used
;

with
of the

fullness. allow that

the

Roman citation

Antiquitiesthe plan
Latin authors

work marks
sede superof the

frequent
;

which
to

pages the

of Adam
use

and
or

the treatise
some

expected wholly
but
a

of

that

larger
any
more

comparison

treatise

in this volume teacher

with

other

in American

schools, will

satisfythe
the
Roman

that it is

full and

complete, independently of

Mythology,
and
some

Geography
persons that

and

Topography
in

introduced have from

separately; expressed
the

of the

experience
scholar is

teaching
obtain

their
a

conviction,

likelyto
that
to

study of

treatise from

like this, a better the

general knowledge
a

of Roman
;
on

Antiquities than
this

study

of such

work

as

of Adam silent.

point, however,
is another

the

translator

ought perhaps

be

There that
it

which peculiarity,
numerous

distinguishes
to cases,
are

this work,

viz. of the

presents

references

authors
to

treating
on

general subjects,and
topics introduced.
not to

also, in many
references the scholar and

works in such

particular
manner as

These embarrass

given

delay
more

or

youngest
and

student, and
to

yet

they

may

help the
In

advanced

the teacher the time and his

cause

find

readilyfurther
at

information, if they wish

have teachers

and

means

command.

offering
author may

to

American allowed

scholars

this

new

edition,
subserve

the in

be

to

express

hope
of

that it may

some

degree
;

the
an

highly important
ardent desire
to

classical and which he

libera;

education

from

promote

originally

prepared
Amherst

the

Translation

of

Eschenburg's

Manual.

College, July, 1843.

CONTENTS.

PART

I.

CLASSICAL

GEOGRAPHY

AND

CHRONOLOGY.

EPITOME

OF

CLASSICAL

GEOGRAPHY.

Iberia.
Minor.

" 157 " 166

Armenia.

" 158-165

Asia

Introduction,
""
to

p.

3, 4.
of earth known

1-5.

" 1-3 " 4, Of

=

Portion
5

ancients. I.

Ancient

divisions.
p. 4-43.

" 167-169 Syria. Phoenicia. of Jerusalem. Palasstina. "168b. Topography " 170 Mesopotamia, Babylonia and tic " 171 Arabia. " 172 AsiaAssyria.
islands.

Europe,
" 6, 7
of

"" 6-148.

Extent

and

ries. bounda"
9-15

III. "" 173-183. of Africa.

Of
=

Africa,
" 173

p. 53-57.

" S
Northern

General countries

subdivisions.

Extent

and

divisions

Cimbrica,
" 16-26 Middle

via, ScandinaEurope ; "c. Germania, Sarmatia,

countries of

Europe

cum,

Rhaetia, Moesia,
of
32-50

Noricum,
Dacia.

Pannonia,
" 27-129 "

" 177 cient AnEgypt. of Egypt. ruins and remains Works lia, the subject. ; Gal" 178 " 179 on ^Ethiopia. Iliyri- Libya. " 180 Africa " 181 NuPropria.
midia.

" 174-176

Southern

"

182

Mauritania.

" 183

Africa

countries

Europe.
"
51-71

"

Italia.

29-31v Hispania. Topography of

and
roads.

Interior.

Atlantis.

Rome.

Bridges
the

Gates " 51, 52 " hills. and

to

" 53
ferences Re-

INTRODUCTION

TO

CLASSICAL

LOGY. CHRONO-

54

Districts.

the topography of on Streets. "57 56 " Campi. city. and Fora. " 58-60 Temples groves. "61-63 Curia?, basilicas, circuses ; theatres, writers
55

"

Preliminary Remarks,
" 184.
of

p.

59.

Importance
present sketch.

of the
Two and

subject.
parts.

sign De-

"c.

" 64

Baths.

" 65-67

Schools,
" 68
Villas. Four
to

ticos, porthe

I.

columns, Sewers. dead. " 70

trophies, "c.
" 69
Monuments

ducts. Aqueurbs. Subtural na-

Of measuring
185-196.

time

adjusting
three
and
as

its

divisio?is, p. 59-63.
""
=

Dwellings.
Thracia.
of Graecia.

" 71

" 185
;

The

natural
year. ginning be-

" 72-75 divisions " 82-85 " 89-103

" 76 " 77-81 " 86-88

divisions

of
187

time

day, month,
customs

donia. Mace-

"

186,
for

Ancient

to

Thessalia. "
104-116

Epirus.
" 106 and
108-110

Hellas.

Topography

of Athens.
The

" 104, 105

Its situation.

" 188 vices Dedividing the day. known the marking and making Dial, Clepsydra. "189, parts of the day.
190

and

Parthenon " 107 Acropolis. " other buildings of the citadel. lower The city and its temples. Porches. Forums.

The
a,

month. 191 b. Roman

The
the

Grecian
of

system.

" 191
the

method

reckoning

"

111

months,
week. year.

and Names The

" 112, 113 Ceramicus. Odea. Stadium. " 114 Aqueducts.

The
The

of

days of the month. the days. " 192

Roman;
Old "
194

Grecian;
193

lian. Juand The The

Areopagus.

Pnyx.
to

" "
on

115

Theatres. Harbors.

Chonew ferences Relunar of

The

Gregorian
" " 195 The

Calendar.

ragic
Athens.
129

monuments. writers

116

" 117-125 "

Topography
situation. and
statues.

topography Peloponnesus. ."126" 126 Form of Sparta.

the
127

style. cycle.

Cycles.
solar.

" 196

cycle
II.
events

of indiction.

Julian

Period.

Of
and

and

Forum.

" 128

lumns Co-

fixing the arranging

" 197

dates them

of historical
in

order,

"
to

129

Hippodrome.
"130-148 Britannia BalearicEe.

p. 63-79.

Harbor.

References

writers. 130-136

""
this

197-215.

" Islands. European and adjoining islands. Corsica " and

142

" "

137

part.
dates.

" 198-201

Methods
of

in Topics noticed ing of ascertain-

1. Successive

Sardinia. Ionian

138-140

Sicilia,
143-148

generations;

and

141,

islands.

"

JEgean

islands. II.
Of
=

Asia,
"

p. 43-53. 150

""

149-172.

149,

Extent

and tries Coun-

general division
of
the

of Asia.

" 151-155
division.

Eastern

Scythia,
Parthia.
sion. divi-

Sinae,
" 156-171

India,
" 156

Persia, Sarmatia,

Media,
Western

Countries

of the

Colchis,

Albania,
a

2. Celestial kings. 3. Coins, inscriptions, "c. appearances. 4. Historical testimony. " 202, 203 Epochs Era of Olympiads; and of Rome eras. ; the the of the Christian; Mahometan; French " 204-207 Republic. Systems and tables. " 204 Claims of the Egyptians and " 205 The Hebrew and Babylonians. the Newton's. Septuagint chronology. Usher's. " 206, 207 Various plans for

successive

reigns

CONTENTS.

charts.

The

best.

$ 208-215

Actual $ 208

dates

states

of Asia

; references

to

works

on

their

of most prominent events. complaint of students.

Common " 209

Remedy.

Brief outline of General Chronology. $ 210 " 211 nology ChroSystems of artificialmemory. of ancient
states ;

history; Assyrian ; Jewish ; Trojan ; Lydian; Persian; Syrian; Parthian. "212 in Africa ; Egyptian ; Of the two principal Carthaginian. $ 213 Of Greece. $ 214,
215

eight principal

Of

Rome.

PART
MYTHOLOGY
OF

II.
GREEKS AND ROMANS.

THE

Introduction, p. 83-90.
$$ 1-12.
to

give

$ 1 Circumstances fabulous character to

=

calculated tions. early tradi-

peculiar to the Greeks. Romans. peculiar to the

Roma.

$ 89-95
$
90

Deities
Tiber.

$ 91.

$ in the

Mythology
sense

in

the

Greek,

modern

of the in

points of view
fables.
in

$ 4

various conditions or presiding over term. Bellona, Juturna, "c. pursuitsof men. contemplating mythological $ 93 Victoria. $ 94 Deified Roman perors. emtions Changes and addi-

tumnus. and Gods ferent Dif$ 3

Terminus. Flora. Feronia.

Priapus. VerPales.

$ 92

and Vices. $ 95 Virtues $ 96 mythological stories. $ 5 Different deities worshiped the Egyptian among of fabrications. " 6 mythological sources Romans. Advantages of an acquaintance with mythology. cian $ 7 Eastern origin of the GreIII. Mythical beings, whose history is rowed deities. $ 8 The Roman gods borintimatelyconnected with that of the gods,

from
and Roman

the

Greeks.

$ 9

The

Greek

their gods. classifying $ 10 The they four classes under which $11 The noare arranged in this work. of deity entertained lions by the Greeks Abode of the gods. $ 12 and Romans. the subject. References to works on treating

system

of

p. 124-132.

$$ 97-117.

$ 97 Titans.
99

$ 98 Giants. $
100

$ Pygmies. $ 101 Nymphs. Graces. $105

Tritons.

Sirens.

$ 102, 103 Muses. Hours. $106 Fates.

$ 104
$107

I.

MythologicalHistory of
p. 91-113.
=

the

Superior
in this Janus.

gods,
class.

Furies. $ 108 a. Harpies. $ 108 b. Venti Winds. $ 109 Daemons. $110 Manes. or $ 112 Penates. $ 111 Lares. $ 113 Sleep, and Death. $ 114 Satyrs and Dreams, Fauns. $117 other IV.
132-137. Amazons. $116 $115Gorgons. Minotaur, Chimaera, and various
monsters.

included $$ 13t67. $ 13 Gods $ 14-17 Saturn. " 18

" 19-21 $ 26-28 Pluto. $ 41-43 Venus.

Cybele
Juno.

or

Rhea.

$ 22-25

Jupiter.
$ 32-34
Diana.

" 29-31

" 35-37
Minerva.

Neptune. Apollo. $ 38-40

$ 44-16
Mars.

Mythical
118-133.
=

History of Heroes,
$ 118
Three

p.

$ 47-50 $ 55-56 Silenus.

Cupid. " 51-54 Vulcan. Bacchus. " 57-60 Mercury.

$ 61-64 II. Ceres.

$$
Grecian

periods of
cause

$ 65-67

Vesta.

$ 119 story. deification of heroes. of venerated

heroes.

General

of the

Mythological History of the Inferior

p. 113-124.
=

gyges,

gods,
class. $ 77

Cecrops, and specially among

Perseus.

$ 120 Two classes $ 121 Inachus, Oxseveral others, honored their

own

people.

$$ 68-96.

$ 68

Gods

included Sol

in this
or

$ 122

Atlas.

$ 69, 70 Ccelus. Iris. $

78

lius. $ 73 Luna.

$71,72 $74, 75 Aurora.

^Eolus.

He-

$76Nox.

$ 81, 82
Nemesis.

Latona. $ 84

$ 83 $ 87

$ 79, SO Pan. Astroea. Themis.

85 Plutus.

$ 125, 126 and the Argonauts. Jason and Pollux. $ 130 Heroes
war.

$ 123, 124 Hercules. Theseus. $ 127, 128 $ 129 Castor of the Theban $ 133

$ 131 Heroes Roman

Pelops
of the

and

his descendants.
war.

iEsculapius. $
Fame.

$ 132 Deified

Trojan

$ 86 Fortune.

$ 88

Deities

emperors.

PART
GREEK AND ROMAN

III.
ANTIQUITIES. of government. $ 8 The $ 10 Causes $ 9 Athens.

GRECIAN

ANTIQUITIES.

Spartan system.
of

Grecian

provement. im-

tiquities, $ 11 Utility of study of Anthe in particular.$ 12 $$ 1-14. $ 1 Origin of and of Grecian name Graecia. ject. it. Original sources $ 2 Countries included under of knowledge on the subcities. "4 Poauthors. litical $ 14 $ 3 Most important Grecian $ 13 References to
=

Introduction, p. 140-145.

Their

$ 6 changes. $ 5 First inhabitants. $ 7 Early forms early intercourse.

Defects

in the

common

treatises

on

Greek distinct.

antiquities.Early and

later ages

CONTENTS.

VH

I. Of Ages, p. " 15

the

Earlier

and

less

145-160.

The

period included,

into four branches. I. Religious Affairs.

" 85 Pythian. " 86 Nemean. Olympic. " 88 System of athletics. " 87 Isthmian. " 89 Theatres, and dramatic tions. representavided Subject diMasks. Chorus. " 90 Theoric
cultivated
money
at

Athens. II. Civil Affairs. Athens " 93

The

"" 16-32.
of

" 16 First

traces

of the Greeks. the poets. the gods. "

21

religiousinstruction.
" 19 Number

" 17 Form " 18 Influence

and and sacred

of the gion reliand mode

of

"" 91-134.
and his Solon
at at

"91

and
92

Sparta

distinguished by peculiarities."
Athens. Athens.

character

of

Draco tribes and Form

" 20 Temples

places. classes
sons.

" 94

Pisistratus, and

and statues. " 22 Priests and Priestesses; " 23 Rites; ablutions. " 24 Prayers. " 25 Sacrifices ; the materials the origin. " 26 Altars. " 27 ; Sacrifices ; the ceremonies. " 28 Gifts and

Images

" 95 The

thirtytyrants.

until death of of government after them Alexander. " 96 Buildings of Athens. free citizens of Athens. " 98 " 97 The slaves. " 99 The The foreign residents. " 100 "102
;

offerings."
" 30

29

Worship

rendered

to

roes. he-

Magistrates.
The

" 101

The

Archons.

Funeral

solemnities.

Burning
Oracles

of corpse monuments. ; and divination. II. Civil Affairs.

" 31 " 32

Eleven; Notaries, "c.

" 104

dors AmbassaOrators; " 103 Athenian

revenue

venues. re-

Officers of the

and of the

Expenditures. " 105 treasury. " 106 Assemblies tyonic council. people. "
The The " 114
107 Athenian
senate. courts

Amphic-

" 33 Early rudeness. " 34 Power of the kings. " 35 Their retinue and councillors. of justice. " 36 Courts and " 37 Laws " 38 The punishment. Cretan laws. forms of " 39 Successive at Athens. " 40 At Sparta. government
==

"" 33-41.

pagus. "108 Areoof

" 109

Athenian
110

justice.
" 111
ferent Dif-

Epheta?. " The Forty.

The

The

Helicea.

Diaetetae.

" 112

kinds of actions. Ostracism. death.

"113 Punishments.

41

Commerce III.

and Military

Navigation.
Affairs.

""42-51. =$42 " 43 Their armies,

how

Early Greeks warlike. " 44 composed.

"
45

of inflicting " 115 Modes and " 116 Public rewards honors. " 117 Attic laws. " 118 Natural situation of Sparta. " 119 Spartan tribes. of children at Sparta. " 120 Treatment " 122 The kings of Spartan slaves. Sparta. " 123 The Senate. Ephori. " 124 and other Nomophulakes magistrates. lic " 125 Assemblies of the people. " 126 Pub" 121 " 127 Judicial Laws affairs. of " 128

Weapons;
" 46 The
of Battle. chiefs.

Defensive. materials " 48

Offensive.

of which

made. " 49

" 47
Order

War-galleys.

Camps.

barous " 50 Division of Spoils. Barrepasts. Punishments. of strippingof the slain. Combat " 51 IV. Treaties. Domestic
=

" 129

Sparta.

" 130 Cretan constitution. " 131 Cretan stitution slaves. " 132 Conlaws; public meals;
Affairs. food. of Thebes. "
133

Constitutions Of

"" 52-63

" 52

Common

Daily

of Corinth

meals. " 53 " 55 Practice the Hair.

Social repasts. " 54 Dress. of bathing. Cultivation of Houses.

;

and of iEtolia, and

Syracuse.
Achaia.

" 134

Argos,

" 56

" 57

Hospitality.
ments. " 60 Amuse-

III. Military

Affairs. warlike character

" 58 Employments "59 Employments

" 61 of children. II.

agriculture ; hunting.
women.

of

" 135-160.

" 135 The

Marriage.
" 63 Slaves.
Later
and

"62

Education

retained;especially by the Spartans. " 136 Persons liable to military duty. Their
support. "
137

Classes

Of
p.

the

more

flourishing infantry."138 Cavalry.

" 139
" 141
Armor.

Use

of troops. The of Elephants. officers. " 142 "143

Ages,

160-223.

" 140

The

divisions

Various of the army.

I. Religious

Affairs. Number
more

"" 64-90.

" 64
a.

" 65 b. Altars.

ensigns. Signals for battle. " 146 Art of besieging. " 67 Classes of " 147 Militaryengines. " 148 Defence ceremonies. Sacrifices and attendant " 69 cities. " 149 Treatmentof captured places. Oaths. posture Im" 70 Oracles. " 150 Division of spoils. " 151 Military Leagues. of Jupi" 152 Means " 71 Oracles rewards and punishments. at Argos. ter; in Crete ; African desert. of conveying intelligence. " 153 Crossing atDodona; of rivers. " 72, 73 Of Apollo at Delphi. of " 74 Of " 154, 155 Ships; Names "156 Trophonius ; of iEsculapius, and others. their principal parts ; Vessels of war.
" 66 Sacred groves. Asyla. of priests. Purification. "68
77

" 65

Temples

Forms of Battle-array.Manoeuvres. of gods creased. inTreaties. Declaration of war. Standards and " 145 splendid. Camps.

" 144

" 75 Arts and Festivals

methods
;

of divination. of the

" 76,

Rowers,

sailors and
of

marines

Manner

of

principal ; of Adonis, of Bacchus, of Ceres, of Minerva. " 79 The " 78 Games. " 80 Leaprace. ing.
notice

placing the seats employed

Naval battle.

" 83

Wrestling. " Boxing. " 84 Four

"81

82

The

discus.
games.

officers. " 160 Naval Naval

ments " 157 Instruin naval battle. " 158 of naval " 159 Manner
rowers.

victories and

ments. monu-

sacred

punishments.

Vlll

CONTENTS.

IV.

Affairs
=

of

Private Food. meals. "

164

Life. Use of wines. c-f

others. " 239

""161-187. "
162 The the

"161 different

" 238 Theatres, Amphitheatres.

Masks,

"c,

Manner Customs
at

spending
table.
at

day

at

Athens.

tainments " 163 Enterat

II. Civil "" 240-274. " 243 " Praetors. " 246
=

Affairs,

p. 248-270.

or

feasts.

" 165 Substances eaten meal. " 166 Officers and

entertainment.

the

cipal "241 Consuls. prinsels. ves-

" 240 Regal government. "242 Imperial government. " 244 jEdiles. " 245 bunes. Tri-

attendants

an

" 167

Drinking

Quasstors.
.

" 247

Censors.

in drinking. Amusements Customs of accompanying a feast. " 168 Customs Officers called Proxeni. Inns. hospitality. " 169 Dress, for the body, head, and feet. Use of silk. Adorning of the person. "170 Bathing and anointing. " 171 Houses. " 172 Commerce and Agriculture. " 173, 174

Extraordinary magistrates; 248, 249 Dictator; Decemviri; Military Tribunes ; Prefects. " 250 suls, ProconInterrex, "c.
and other Tribes. " 254 " 255 Curule
The

provincial magistrates."251
Six

" 252 "

253

classes of citizens. Centuries.

Grecian and

Gold

silver.

notation. Measures.

and coins. Ratio of of " 175 Greek system " 176 Grecian weights. " 177 Social " 178 amusements. money

and plebeians. populace. Patrons and clients. Roman nobility. Right of images.

Patricians

office.

"

256

The

Knights.
The

" Comitia. " 261

257_The
" 260
of

Senate.

Equites or " 258, 259

" 179, 180 Music and musical instruments. " 181 Condition of females. " 182 Laws and customs respecting marriage. "" 183
-186

Government actions " 263 " 265 and

Right of citizenship tions. conquered cities and naJudicial proceedings. Public

offences. actions. " 262 Private " 264 Punishments.

trials.

Funeral of the

rites.

Anniversaries

held games.

in

Penal

honor

dead, with orations and

monuments.

System
267

of laws.

" 187 Sepulchral

ROMAN

civil law.

" 266

Body of Roman Regulations respecting

Saltworks. Commerce. Mines. chanic Me-

grain. "
ANTIQUITIES.

Revenue.
Pursuits.

" 268

Various
arts.

" 269

Introduction, p. 225-229.
"" 188-198. " 189
appearance
=

" 270
the

" 188
events

Origin of Rome.
which affected

Principal
of

Money. reckoning and acquiring property.

" 274 Modes of

Agriculture. Carriages. Coins. " 271 System of Modes oi notation. " 272
" 273 Measures Auctions.
of extent,

fiscations. Con"c.

the

city.

Comparative

Rome. splendor of ancient and modern " 190 Population of Rome. " 191 Extent of the Roman empire. " 192 Proportion of soldiers and time
of the

determiningthe
of
=

Roman

foot.

III. Affairs ""275-309.

War,

p. 270-285.
on

other

citizens.

" 193
194 195

The Most
dition Con-

"275

Authorities

the

of service. " 278 Consular Utility Time army. of studying Roman antiquities. Original Exempts. " 279 System of levy. " 280 Classes of troops. " 281 Subdivision into of information on the subject. " 197 sources " 282 Standards. Music. works and authors. References maniples, "c. to modern " 283 Weapons. " 284 Wages. Rewards. $ 198 Division of the subject. the
emperors.

brilliant era under

" regal government. of Roman history. "

of subject. " 276 Military establishment Persons the kings. " 277 liable to duty.

" 196

I. Religious "" 199-239.

200

Affairs,
="
199

p. 229-248.

" 285 " 287

Punishments. " 286 Order of battle. " 288 Light troops. Modes of attack.

ligio. "

" 289, 290 Cavalry. " 291 Cohorts. " 292 term reAuxiliaries. " 293 Attendants the of the religion upon Order of march. "294 "295 Forms with poli" 201 Its connection Romans. tics. army. The of array. " 296, 297 " 298 and Numa. Camp. " 202 Design of Romulus of soldiers. Watches. Exercises " 299 of the Romans. " 203 Temples. Gods Mounds and towers. Groves. " 205 Sieges. Engines. " 204 Statues and offerings. and other engines. " 300 fices. Altars. Battering ram " 206 Vessels employed in sacriin a siege. " 301 The of defence Modes " 207 Several orders of priests. " 208 of naval battle. "303 fleets. " 302 Method Various Pontifices. " 209 Augurs. thods meand parts of Roman Construction " 210 Haruspices. "211 ships. of augury. kinds Different of vessels. " 304 " 305 " 213 Feciales. Rex " 212 Epulones. Use of the

Origin

of the

sacrorum.

" 214

Flamines.

" 215

Salii.

Rewards ovation.
emperors.

of

generals. "
307

306

Laws

on

the

" 216 " 218

in

Luperci. " 217 Galli and others. Vestal virgins. " 219 Fratres Arva" 221
222

subject. "

" 309

triumph. " 308 The Military system under the

The

les, Curiones, and others.

offering prayers.
rites. of sacred The "

" 220 Customs Sacrifices and " 223

224

attendant

Vows.

IV. dication De-

Affairs

of

Private

Life,
The

p. 2S5-304.

buildings. "

tions. Expia-

" 225 Oaths. " 226 " 228 Divisions of Oracles. " 227 Lots. time. " 231 Public " 229, 230 Festivals. " 232, 233 Ludi Circenses. Naugames. macbia. Ludi Seculares. " 234 " 235 Ludi Gladiatorii. Ludi " 236 Ludi Florales. and

lustrum.

"" 310-343. ="310 the free-made discriminated. of applying proper names.

free-horn and " 311 System " 312 Regulations

" 313, 314 respecting marriage. " 315 Nuptial ceremonies. Marriage contracts. " 317 The " 316 Divorces. right and
power

of the father

over

his children.

" 237

Megalenses, Cereales,

" 318

Emancipation of

sons.

" 319 Adop-

CONTENTS.

IX

tion. of trade.

"

320

Legitimation.
$
324 322

"

321

tion Educa323

333

The and Various

tunic. other
outer

Badges.
garments
garments. for of
339

"
of Use head hair.
customs.

334
women.

The

youth.
"

Slaves.

"

Slave slaves. of

stola "
335 336

Emancipation
Parts and

of
ornaments

of and

silk. feet.

"
a

325

Dwellings.
house. "
327

$
"

Coverings
338

the the

Roman

"
Manner

326

Country
of life.

seats

or

337,

Dress

Personal posure Excessions. pro-

villas. "
328

Morals. ing. BathFurniture

courses

ornaments.

"
of the

Funeral "
340

Daily
"
329

routine Food " Roman and

games 330

of and

employment.
meals. Different

corpse.

Funeral

Eulogy.
at

"

341

Burning.
of
tears.

Place "
342

for
supper.

eating.

of

burial.

Tombs. for the

343

Phials deceased.

hospitality.
at

"

331

a.

Mourning
sacrifices. of

Games
or

and

Drinking
"
3316.

banquets.
Dress. The

Dice.

" deceased

Consecration,
emperors.

tion deifica-

Wines.

332

toga.

DESCRIPTION

OF

THE

PLATES.

I.

Reverse

of

Title. the Oracle

Representation
III.
"

of
Ancient

v.) (Facing Page Cf. P. of Apollo.

c.

Savum.
Arsia.

p.
q.
r. s.

Annenita.
Marta.

d.
e.

Frigido.
Afesia.

Tiberis. Rubicon, Nelurum. Malana. Miso.

Flosis. Tuma.

72, 73.
of

f. Licenna.

2. World
s

Map

Would.

(Page

2.)
in P.

The ray'' MurI. J 3. and

g. h.

t
u. v. w. "x

according Encyclopedia
Plate See Plate of I P. II.

to

Ptolemy, as given of Geography. Cf

14.)
Plans 104-116.

Cleusis.

i. Umatia.

j. Padus.
k. 1. Paala.

3. Rome. 4.

(Page (Page

of Athem Tiber,
II. and P.

I. ti 51-71,

Aninio.

y
z.

Nerninum.
Amo.

City
i 226.
"5 P.

Home,
1.

16.) The Cf. P. symbolized. (Page (Page

Cf.
a.

the IV.
Cities.

i 90;

Sodth

Part.
Cities. 54.
55. 56. 67.

Plate I. i 59.

III.

18.)
23.)
I. i 80.

The

Pantheon.

Cf.

1. Ad

Pretorum
in

(Praetorium Pannonia).

Febralerie. Istonum. Corfinio Marrubio

Tres

6.

Plate

IV.

Plain

and

lis Acropoat

2.

Servitium.

(Corfinium).

ofPhilippi.
.7. of the Plate IV

P.

3.

(Page

30.)
and
;

Ruins that III. of

Athens

4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

(Prcetorium in Dalmatia). Mursa Major.

lndenea.

Ad

Pretorum

(Marrubium),
(Carseoli?).

58. 59. 60. 61. 62.

Tabernffi.

Carsulis Ostia Pinna.

Temple
IV

of Cf.
b.

Neptune
P. I. i 107

Minerva

iEterni.

Pandrosos.

P.

t 98.
at

6. Plate
Ct. 9.
tra

(Page
(Page

35.) 37.)

Ruins

Corinth.

Tittoburgo. Ragurio.
Siclis. Salona.

Castro-Novo
vum,
on

the

(Castrum NoHadriatic).

P.

I. i 120. Plate
near

63.

Praneste. Roma.

IV the

c.

Village of
Cf. P.

Mis-

10. 11. 12. 13.

Epetio
Marona.

(Epetium).

64.
65.

; 10.

ancient

Sparta.
.39.)
I. $

I. i 126-

Hostis

Sirmium.
Narona. Tauruno Ad

66. 67.

129. Plate V.

(Ostia). Chartagine (Carthago).

Ad

Maxula.

(Page
Cf. P.

Cabirian P. II.

Temple
i 129.
P. 2. Statue IV.

14. 15. 16. 17.

(Taurunum).

68. 69.
70. 71.

at

Thessalonica. II. Plate Sun.

1.

80;
P.

Matricem.

Misua

Aquas. Clipeis.

VI. Cf. P.

{Page

42.)

Colossal II.

of

the

I. i 147;

" 72;

Singiduna (Singidunum). Epitauro (Epidaurus).

Stanedi. Lissus. Viminatio.

Gurra.
Ad

Horrea.

18. 19.

72.
73.

Lepreminus(LeptisMlnor)
Thiforo Ad Col.

i 180.
12. ancient 13. the

Plate

Via.

(Page
Cf. P.

45.)

Valley

of

the

20. 21. 22.

74.

Thebarma. Plate VI Brusa. VII.

that
;

6.

(Page
Cf. P.

I. i 154 4. View 49.) I. t 160.

Dyrratio
Aulnnia
Osa

(Dvrrachium). (Apollonia).

75. 76. 77.

of Broosa,

23. 24.

Col.

ancient 14. Plate

Sabrata.

78.
79.

(Page

50.)
Sun
at

at

Rome,
15.

and

of
P.

the

Temple of Janus Cf. Heliopolis.

The

25. 26. 27.

28.

Regio(RbegiumcrRegium).
Caulon.
Lacenium. Castra

SO.
81.

Aquas. (Taphrura). Tsparura Tacape. Drepanis (Drepanum). Lilybeo (Lilybceum). Agfigento (Agrigentum). Siracusis (Syracusae).
J2tna
Messana.

Mods.

P.

I. i 166, { 60 Plate "c.

IV.

i 234.

3.

Minervse.

82.

VIII. Cf. VIII Table.

as

(Page
I. i 177
a.

55.)
;

Egyptian
" 96.

29. 30. 31.

VibonaValentia.
Temsa

Rivers.
a.

Sphinx,
16.

P.

P.

II. J 117,
A

Tarento

Plate

(Page
Cf. in P. H.

58.)
V.

Portion It is

of

the

32.
33.

(Tempsa). (Tarentum). Brindisi (Bruodusium).

Nerulos

Danubius. Drinum. Savum.

b.
c.

Peutingerian
here of which

i 497.
vols.

sented pre-

Gratie.

d.

Margum.
Genesis

given
the

Murray's
1838, 3

paedia Encyclo4), from

of the

34.
35. 36.

(Nerulum). (Salernum).

e.

(Genusns). (Apsus).

Geography
letters of form

(Phil.
the in

Salerno Nuceria.

f. g. b.

Hapsum
Tanco. Crater. Silarum.

is taken and
that

following
on

explanation
with
no

37. 38. 39.

40.

Oplontis.
Benevento Venusia.

figures
except

Plate;
of Part. the

change
the
mon com-

(Beneventam). (Neapolis). (Cumae).

i.

adding
of
some

parentheses
names.

j. Color.
k. Aveldium.

Latin

41.

Neapoli Capua.
Cumas

1. Aufidenus.
m. n. o.

North
Cities.
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 1 1
.

42. 43.

Larinum. Clocoris.
Sannum. Cremera. Nernum. Arno.

Cities.
44. 32. Bononia. 45.

Sylla.
Aeras.

Siscia. Sardona.

Pretonium

Laucrianum.

33.

Aquinco
Rriuantio

(Aquincum). (Bregetio). (Ragondo). (Carnuntum).

34. 35. 36. 37.

(Clusium). Volsini (Vulsinii), Aquas-Passaris.

Clusio Ravenna.

p.

46. 47. 48.

Siponto
Esernie.

(Sipontum).

q.
r. s.

Jadira.

Ragadone
Sabarie. Carnunto Celeia.

Ari Graoisca. Centum Celte.

51.

TeanoScediciuo(Teanun) Sidicinum).
Sinuessa. Minturnis Fundis

Tiberis.
Safo. Vullurnus.

t.
u.

49.
50.

38. 39.
40. 41. 42.

Aquas-Tuari.
Ancone

(Minturnse). (Fundi).

v. w. x.

Himera.
Niranus. Ausere.

52. 53.

Terracina. Ferentinum.

Vindobona. Tarsatica.
iEmona. Pola. Silvo Pareutio

(Ancona).

Castro-Novo vum).

(Castrum

No-

y.

Gerin.

12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21.

t" 18.

Plate

IX.

(Page
Seasons. II.
a.

62.)
Cf.

43.

Aquas-Apollinaris.
Soleto.

(Silvium). (Parentium).

44. 45. 46. 47.

of
IV. (Castrum

the P. IX

P.

Symbolic Representations I. i 191a; P.

View
;

Pollentia.
Reate.

i 188.
19. Plate the

2;
foot

i 105.

Fonte-Tumaia.

(Page
Cf.

80.)
P.

of Athens,
from

Aquileia.
Ovilia.
Alt
i

CastelloFirmani

from

of

Mt.

Anchesmus

reduced

Firmanum). (Altinum). (Regina). (Tridentum). Populoniae.

Tuscorum. 48. 49. 50. 51. 52. 53. 54. 65. Ad Roma. Sem.

no

Petrum.

Hobhouse's
20. Plate

Albania. X.

I. i 105.

Regino
Tndente

(Page
1. Saturn cf. P.

82.)
;

Mythological
cf. P. II.

trations." Illus-

22. 23.
24. 25. 26.

Placentia.

(Ostia). Chartagioe (Carthago).

Hostis

Fig.

i 14-17."
cf. P. II.

Aquse
Sena

TJtica Colonia.

Fig.
cf.

2.

Cybele
II.

II. i 19-21." 4.
:

Fig. 3. Pluto;
;

Florentia Julia.

Bituriba.
Verona.

Aquis. Ipponte Diarito. Capsa Colonia.

Ad Medera. Theleote

P.

i 32-34." Fig.
5.

i 51-54."

Fig. Neptune
;

Vulcan cf. P.
;

II. cf. P.

i 29-31."
II. i 47-

Fig.
49"

6. Venus,

with Diana

attendants cf. P. II.

27. 28. 29.

30. jl.

56.
57. 5S. 59.

Mantua.
Mutina. Cosa.

Col.

Fig. 7.
;

" 38-40."

Fig.

8.

Theneste, Sicca-Veria.
AH

Bacchus 21.
Csesaris.

cf. P. XI.
"

II. i 57-60.

Plate

(Page
1.

92.)

Mythological
II. i 26-28.

lustrations. Il"

Adretio
Rivers.

(Arretium).

60.

Aquas

Fig.

Juno;

cf. P.

Rivers.
n. o.

a.

Danubius. Drinum. X

Umbra. Pallia.

Fig.

2.
;

Mercnrv;
cf. P.

cf. P.

II. i 55, 56."

Fig.

3. Jupiter cf. P.

b.

II. i 22-25"

Fig.

4.

Apollo;

DESCRIPTION

OF

PLATES.

XI

Fig. 5. $ 35-37." cf. Fig. 6. Minerva;

II. cf. P. II. $ 44-46." 9.

Ceres

cf. P.

II.

$ 61-64

"

some

cf. P. of

HI.

156."

Figs,

P. II. $ 41-43." Fig. 7. Mars; Fig. 8. Janus ; cf. P. II. $ 18. II. $ 50"

forms 36.
to

: cf. P. prows XXIV. Plate

III. $ 155.

"Fig.

Cupid

; cf. P.

Fig.

10. Vesta; Hindoo

Household

cf. P. II. $ 65-67. XII. 22. Plate

(Page (Page

97.)

The

cf. house; cf. P. key;

(Page Affairs." Fig. 1. Plan P. HI. $171. 1." Fig.

III.

b, c. Different 3, 4. 205.) Pertaining

a,

of 2.

Grecian Grecian
man

$ 171.

2."

Fig.

3.

Young
"

Triad.
23.

Cf. Plate

P.

II. $ 25. 4. XIII.

wearing
A cf. bride P.

the HI.

petasus

The Avatars 103.) Cf. P. II. $ 25. 4; $ 37. 2. of Vishnu. Festival XIII 24. Plate of a. (Page 111.) Cf. P. II. $ 59. 4. Juggernaut. XIV. 25. Plate 121.) (Page Mythological Illustrations." Fig. 1. Sol, as represented on a coin of the Rhodians Fig. 2. ; cf. P. II. $ 71-72" Nox, as represented on a gem ; cf. P. II. $ 76. cf. P. II. $ 73." Fig. 4. Hebe; "Fig. 3. Luna; cf. P. II. $ 90. 4a P. II. $ 27." Fig. 5. Flora; cf. P. II. $ 84." Fig. 7. Fig. 6. ^sculapius; II. $ 79." Fig. 8. Spes, or Pan Hope ; ; cf. P. cf. P. II. cf. P. II. $ 95." Fig. 9. Fortuna; $ 86." Fig. 10. Victoria; cf. P. II. $ 93." Fig. 11. cf. P. II. $ 95." Fig. 12. Pax, or Concordia; Peace ; cf. P. II. $ 95. XV. 26. Plate (Page 124.) Representations Cf. P. II. $ 96. from the Isiac Table. 27. Plate XV a. (Page 138.) Table of Greek and Roman Deities classified. Cf. P. II. $ 9, 10. 28. Plate lands, GarXVI. (Page 140.) Crowns, Sec. crowns or Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 Roman bestowed as Fig. wreaths, military rewards. Cf. P. III. $ 284. 1." Figs. 6. Imperial crown. tors by vicor 7, 8, 9, 10. Crowns garlands received in the ; cf. P. III. $ 84-87, $ 233." games
" "

sitting with

169. 3. ; cf. P. HI. mirror before held a

Fig.

4.

her;

$ 169. 6. $ 171. 2." Figs. 5 and 10. sofas; cf. P. III. $ 171. 2." Fig. 6. Peculiar in oriental worn head-ornament, tries; councf. P. III. $ 34." Fig. 7. Grecian lady, cf. P. III. $ 169. 5 ; $ 171. 2. from Boyd's Potter; cf. P. III. $ 171. 2. $ 52." -Figs. 8, 9. Chairs; forms of coverings for Figs, a, b, c, "c. Various the feet; cf. P. III. $ 169. 2; $ 336. XXV. Costume." 37. Plate (Page 211.) Figs, a, b, c, d, Modern Egyptian and oriental
Grecian

dresses; e, /, Greek Bacchantes, tian Egypg, an female fluters ; k, spinner; h, i, Grecian Grecian ancient costume; lady in the more m, peculiar head-dress princess ; n, o, Egyptian in and garments priestess transparent ; y, w,
veils and 1. A head-dresses. box 2.
;
worn on

See the

P.

HI.

$ 169. 5.
cf. P.

"

Fig.

neck;

III.

$ 337."
monuments

Fig.

A from lady's purse, Egyptian and figs.3, 4, toilet-table mirror;

cf. P. 38. Grecian 39.

III. $ 338. Plate Moneys, Plate XXVI. For XXV "c.

a.

(Page
Cf. P.

215.) 219.)

Tables

of
struments. In-

III. $$ 173-177. Musical III. $ 180. P.

(Page

particulars

see

40. Plate XXVI Tabular a. (Page 224.) after Palsestra view Cf. P. III. or of Civil Institutions Gymnasium of Athens. $$97-116. given in Barlhelemy's Anacharrioteer; chaXXVII. sis : cf. P. IV. 41. Plate $ 236." Fig. B. Victorious (Page 231.) Altars and cf. P. III. $ 233." Fig C. A golden Sacrificial Figs, a, b, c, "c. Various Apparatus. articles as given in Montfaucon found in Ireland A. including crown ; cf. P. III. $ 34. ; rig. pons, 29. Plate XVII. from peii; 1, 2, "c, articles drawn sculpture at Pom(Page 155.) Military WeaIII. Sec. For of a sacrifice,from $$ 45, 137, particulars, see P. fig.B, representation 283. the same cf. P. HI. $ 206. crifice source; Fig. C. Saand XVIII. Bacchus 30. Plate to (Page 161.) Tombs ; cf. P. HI. $ 205. 1 ; $ 67." of CySacred rus, utensils from Sepulchral Remains." Tigs. 1, 2, 3. Tomb Fig. D. mains reEgyptian of Cestius; Absalom's pillar, and Pyramid ; cf. P. III. $ 206. 2." Figs. E, H, Altars :

Fig. A. Plan Vitruvius, as

of

"

"

cf. P. P. and

III. $ 187. 5."

5.
"

Fig. 4. Gales
a

of

tomb; $ 341.
e.

cf.

cf. P. 42.

HI. Plate

$ 205.
Cf.

1. P.

III. $ 187.

Figs,

and

dd.

Lachrymatory
III.
or

XXVIII. III.

Fig.
the

cf. P. ungiientary vases; B. Egyptian Psychostasy, cf. P. II.

7.

"

Priestesses. P. V. 43.

(Page 236.) $ 219; P.

Priests II.

and
m;

$ 67

weighing
Funeral Coffin

of

$ 16.
Plate XXIX.
an

soul; cf. P. III. $ 340. 1." Fig. hh. couch; cf. P. III. {341.6. "c; urns,
31. Plate Cf. XIX. P. XX. and XXI

$ 34b.

4."

Fig.

and

taurilia, from

ancient

(Page 240.) bas-relief.

245.)
or

The Cf.

SuoveP. HI.

$ of
Tro-

224. 44.

2. Plate XXX.

(Page 166.)
III. $ 74.

Oracle

(Page
two

Gladiatorial horsemen
;

phonius.
32.

Contests."

Fig.

1,

andabata and footman

Plate

(Page
Priestesses Cf. P.

168.)

of
and 33.

Priests

Representations tions presenting LibaTemples." $ 96, P. IV.

fig. 2, $ 283);
wounded retiarii: Fiff. P.
.

horseman

Sacrifices.

III. $ 24, $ 221.

figs.3, 4, two gladiators on bull; secutores fig. 6, two

see

(cf. P. III. toot; fig.5,

and
two

Plate 1.

(Page

179.)

P. III. $ 235. 2, 3"

at

Fig.

"

cf. P. III. Parthenon; of the 3, P. I. $ 107." Fig. 2. Temple cf. P. III. $ 96, P. I. $ 110" Fig. 3. cf. P. III. $ 96, P. 1. $ 109. Temple of Theseus; of the Fies. a, b, c, d, e,f,g, h, Ground-plans of temples different kinds ; cf. P. IV. $ 234. 2. cles ArtiXXII. 34. Plate (Page 195.) Various cf. Helmets; Figs, a, b, c, "c. of Armor.

amphitheatre
n.

Pompeii;
horseman

of an Fig. 7. Plan cf. P. HI. $ 239.

"

$ 234. Winds;

Dacian

in

scale-armor; 255.)

cf.

III. $ 283. 45. Plate XXXI.

(Page
the 3. P.

Pertaining
Civil

topics noticed under Affairs. Figs. 1 and Egyptian scepters; cf.

to
"

head Roman III.

of Roman
"

fasces, and $ 240. 1. Figs. 2

cf. P. III.

"

and 2."

III. $ 45. Figs, r, s. Mail and breastplate ; cf. P. cf. P. III. $ 45, 139." Fig. u. Greaves; warriors III. $ 44, 45." Figs. 1, 2, 7. Grecian ; P.
"

cf. P.

III.

$ 45."

Fig.
4. in mail,

3.

Persian
;

P. III. $ 45" Fig. 5. Warrior cf. P. P. HI. HI.

Fig.

Trophy
with

cf. P.
an

cf. warrior; III. $ 150 armor-bearer;

"

$255. Figs. 4, 5, 6. Chariots ; cf. P. III. $ 269. 3." and Figs. 7 and 8. Steelyard weight ; cf. P. III. cf. P. III. $ 255. 2." $ 270. 1." Fig. 10. Sedan; Fig. A, a kind of stocks ; fig.B, the Mamertine HI. $ 264. 1. prison at Rome ; cf. P. 46. Plate XXXII. (Page 265.) Pertaining
to

9.

Roman

official

chairs;

Agricultural Affairs. Fig. 1, house; figs,a and b, a key bolt from and cf. P. HI. Pompeii; $ 325. 6." trations." IllusJVaval 35. Plate XXIII. cf. 201.) P. IV. Fig. door; 231. 1." Fig. (Page $ c, Egyptian E (including 1, 2, 3, "c), or Fig. 1. Pinnace light boat for rapid d, Couch ; fig. Lamps ; from cf. P. HI. $304." Fig. 2. Vessel a cf. P. IH. moving; $ 325. 7." Fig. ii. Roman plow; fig. cf. P. III. $ 304." Fig. 3. iii. Syrian plows; painting at Pompeii; figs. iv. 6, 7, instruments 4. III. $ 304." Liburnian cf. P. for threshing; Fig. galley; figs.5, 8, sickle, pruning-knife, Merchant cf. P. HI. See P. III. $ 269. 2. "x. $ 155." Fig. 5. vessel; Hexicf. P. III. $ 155" 47. Plate XXXlIa. Fig. A. Tables War-galley; (Page 269.) of Src. $ 155, Roman Cf. V. III. $ 271, $ 274. explained reme as Moneys, by Holwell ; cf. P. HI. relative 156." of the 48. Plate XXXIII. position of Fig. B. Views litary (Page 273.) Armor, Mithe Standards. Src. according to the explanations of Figs. 1 and 2. Legionary rowers,
;

archer $ 283." Fig. 6. Egyptian in $ 45, $ 288. 1." Fig. 8. Soldier mail; cf. P. III. J 283.

cf.

Household of
a

and

"

plete com-

plan

Roman

"

DESCRIPTION

OF

PLATES.

soldiers cf. P.

and sword, baggage, "c. from Fig. 3. A Medo-Persian, mer, sculptures at Persepolis ; bearing a sort of hamof some battle-ax, probably a token or however of some civil military rank, perhaps III. } 283." office
;

with

shield

of

consular and Plate

camp; ; XXXV.
see

R,
P.

sectional

view

of the

aga-er 50.
to

fossa
and

III. J 297 1.

the
same

two

hands token
;

of another

are

seen

ing bearthe and

"

the

sculptures
other

at

fig.4, another a Persepolis, with

Cf. P. IV.

from sword

accouterments.

$ 171.
and of the

A variety of standards A, B, C, "c. cf. P. III. $ 282. 1" Part Fig. E. on procession represented Titus ; cf. P. IV. $ 188. 2. 49. Plate Roman XXXIV.

Figs. flags;
umphal triof

the Arch

; fig.2, 4, 5, 10, batteringtower; 3, movable 6, scorpio ; 7, balista; 8, pluteus; 9,falx ram; muralis P. III. } 299. Figs, a, b. Archer ; see and slinger; cf. P. III. } 288. 1" Fig. P, plan

Camp,

(Page 279.) fyc. Fig. 1, testudo

"

gines, War-en-

(Page 301.) Pertaining Fig. 1. Plan of Wine. cf. of a triclinium found and view at Pompeii; for P. III. $ 329. 2." Fig. 2, carriage and vessel used in patera, transporting wine ; fig. 3, a libations Fig. 4. Two sons per; cf. P. III. J 331 b." interchanging the pledge of hospitality ; cf. P. III. $ 330. 3" ing revelFig. 5, a Bacchanal from remains at Pompeii ; fig. alone, taken from monuments 6, a wine Egyptian ; press, fig.7, two glass cups elegantly cut or cast ; figs, various and vessels ; a, b, c, d, e, f, "c, cups
Feasts the
use
"

cf. P. 51.

vinem

Plate

III. J 331 b. XXXVI. dedicated

(Page 302.)
to

tal Monumenpresentations ,* Re-

Structure, 110, 113.

the

Dii P.

Manes II.

"

of Death, S^c.

Cf.

$$ 76, 83,

EXPLANATIONS.
The

following
and

statement

will

enable

the A

reader
star

to

know
to

in
the

general what
number of
a

is from section

the author

what

from

the translator.

annexed

always indicates that the section is added

denotes
so as

by the translator.
whose
number

The

Italic letter t
be

always

that
to

the section
more
or

or

paragraph to
the

it may

annexed

is altered

differ

less from

four may

sizes of type have

one
or

is translated

in the largestof the original. All the matter from Eschenburg, directly excepting such sections as
marks.

the other of those the

All the

matter

in the smaller
or

type is added
from burg; Eschen-

by

the

translator, with
u

following exceptions: (1) sections

to
mere

paragraphs having

the Italic letter

and of which

annexed of the from

their number, references As

to to

which books

are

all

translated

(2) part
are

and

authors, a majorityperhaps
not
seem

taken

him.

these

it did references, those

of much and

sequence con-

to

discriminate

between carefully

given by

the

author

those

introduced

of them irrelevant or unimportant, by the translator; if any one should find some he may the translator rather than Eschenburg. charge such upon safely In using this book, the student will find that he is frequently referred from one
another
;

place to

and

the
the

division reference
to

into
very

Parts,
easy;

sections,and
thus,
e.

all sub-sections, abbreviations section Latin

to
a

rately sepa-

numbered,
III. Instead
of

makes

g. the

cf.P.

III.

" 182. 4. direct the reader

the

the
or

paragraph
the

numbered
v.

4, under

182, in Part
viation abbreing turn-

word

see,

abbreviation

(forthe
as

vide),the
facilitate the of

the cf.(for
to

Latin the

is commonly confer) number

or

used.

In order

oh
e.

passage, the top of the even

any g. the reader page;

of

the Part

is continued

sort

running title
above the

will first turn

right-hand page ; in following the reference to Part denoted at III., by P. III. seen
that

given,
that
tion, sec-

top of the
reference
is

right-hand
look

then, under
the

Part, will look

4. with Whenever
the

for " 182; the section in which

then, under
to which
a

for the

paragraph numbered
to
same

is made
the
on some

belongs

Part

section

the

reference

made,
occurs

abbreviation
p. 40

for the Part

is omitted

in " 136 of Part I.,and instances,a subsection is itself divided under (c),
no

e. g. the abbreviation ; it directs the student to " 3 of the same

thus,

cf." 3,
PaTt

I.

In
to

thus,
4. in

P. III. " 268. cf.

4.

directs (c),

the made

paragraph marked
to

the subsection

" 268, of P. III.

The

references

always
to

that the abbreviation Sup. in a separate volume. Supplemental Plates, contained A copious Index was essential and in order to accomplish the design of this book; and time secure at the same give the student the advantage greater copiousness,
the

Plates

need

explanation, except the remark

indicates

one

of the

of

very

obvious

and
:

useful Index
a

four distinct Indexes classification,

are

furnished Words
;
a

at

the

close

of the work Index

;

an

of

Greek Index

Words
;

,"

an

Index

of Latin

graphical Geo-

and
to

General

besides

which, the Contents

(in a systematic

that the inquirer body of the work) are exhibited so fully, ascertain in what When seeks tion informasection is noticed. one easily topic may any that it on a particularpoint from this volume, he is requested not to conclude contains the subject, the Indexes, the until he has carefullyexamined nothing on Statement of Plates. of Contents, and the Description

view

prefixed

the

PART

I.

CLASSICAL

GEOGRAPHY

AND

CHRONOLOGY.

EPITOME

OE

CLASSICAL

GEOGRAPHY.

INTRODUCTION.

"

1.

The for the

earlier
scenes

Greeks of
some

must

have

been

very

ignorant
of the

of

the

neighboring

tries, coun-

within few Odyssey were a hours sail of Greece. The of the still account Argonautic expedition furnishes a described proof of this, for these adventurers departed are having as stronger by the and Euxine and the straits of Hercules Hellespont as having returned through sea, ; whence it manifestly that that time the Greeks believed that there at was a appears,

of the

wildest

fictions

connection
ages

between

the

Palus
to

Maeotis
be
a

(sea

of

Azof)
into
of

and
the

the
ocean

Ocean.
an

In

those

early

the

earth

was

supposed
it and
the the

which
In Their

flowed
later

around

thus

great returned

plain, and
back

immense

stream,

itself
the and

{axpop'pooi).
corrected home
coasts

times, however, ships sailed through

that
we

commercial
seas

enterprise
the these
east
seas

Athenians

these
accurate
as

errors.

to

of

Europe
and of of the
even

find modern

the

description
"

of

the Clearchus

brought neighboring
into gave The the
west

such

mation, infor-

nearly
in

perfect
Anabasis

in

ancient

as

in

writers.

The

expedition
more

Asia,
the of

related Greeks

the

of Xenophon still $243), and (cf. P.V. with distant the becoming acquainted described who had by the Phoenicians,

that of

Alexander,
east. to
"

opportunities
was

of and

regions

Europe

visited

penetrated

British

Islands.

"

2.

All

the

astronomical century after and

and

geographical knowledge
in
two

of the

ancients Claudius
the

was

in the

second

Christ,
the

principal works
limits

by

embodied, Ptolemy ; one

latter the
we

styled MeyaXn
our

Swrafis,
information Greeks

other

Teoiypa^iKfi
the

'""j"fiyn"ns. From
of
the

rive de-

chief of the

respecting
Romans

ancient V.

world, % 206,

and

ments attain-

and

in

geography.
and Asia
;
were

(Cf. P.
known

207,

216,

218,

480"483.) " 3. sketch The of northern India their the

west.

limits

parts their
to must

of

Europe
the south
be

eastward

progress
;

the

dry and
Atlantic
all the

by name ; an parched deserts

ocean

imperfect
of Africa the known limits there
name.

prevented
world
were were
on

advance It

and

the that within

limited within

not

supposed
that
even

countries
narrow

these

perfectly known we ; several nations, of whom

us was

find,
the
which

these knew

boundaries,
but the
of

ancient
would We the
most

geographers
form will
a

nothing
the

Let that

attempt
known

to

trace

line,
of

in

the

time

Ptolemy.
it
was

boundary including one begin at Perm,

land would the
to

whole Insula taken the

the

earth

of
was

the

Fortunate

(Canary
for the
to

Islands),
fixed

which,

because Our line

are

westerly northerly

known,
include of Thule

by Ptolemy
Isles and

his

meridian.

extending

hence

British

Shetland

Isles;

the

latter

d'Anville,
line has would been
case,

the it

some although through pass that this thought

have Sweden
must

designated by probably it was applied supposed and Norway probably:

be the Sea Rubeas
at

the From

ancients,
the the The which
to

according
Isles

Iceland.

Shetland North line

Promontorinm the mouth Thence of said of

around perhaps of Ptolemy. the river

Cape, would,
to

as

in be

either described

be

continued

to

the the known

White
name

Dwina,
extend which

seems

which

under by Ptolemy were partially the the the

same name

Carambucis.

it would ; all
near

the

Ural

tains, Mounlocated
a

by
Georg.

the

name

Hyperborei
to

the

poets

people
mountains

of

{Virg.
pass Imaus.

i. 240),

live

in

possible

felicity.

From

these

line

would

mountains, tary),
Our called line the of
a

ancient

by Ptolemy
be continued Kan wall
or

would modern

of Belur the northern the to part Scythia along through it enters the (in Chinese these, region of Kashgar Crossing of he knew Casio which, however, evidently Regio ; a region ancients is most called the place by the thence Sera; which to
near

Tag
Tarlittle. bably pro-

Kan-tcheou,
China

the

north-west From
to
a

corner

of
or

China it

and
must

the be in the is the

termination carried country

over

the

immense

region, the Sinm;

be the

probably
this

separating unknown wholly

was on

and
to

Tartary.
ancients,
river
we a

Sera

Kan,

the

place
the

called

place

the the

Cotiaris,
coast,

uniting
now

with

Thynm which Senus,

our

of
to

supposed
easterly

modern (that is

point
of

Gamboge. particularly
this
was

On

which is

approach
be Point and

with

line,
the
small

most

mentioned)
called the

thought

to

Condor,
some

southern isles

Cambodia;

Promontorinm

Satyrorum,

extremity sults Inadjacent

the it
was

found whose here, because were monkeys appearance Satyrorum, from this The region is obvious respecting Satyrs. general ignorance turned first to coast the that of Satyrs the Promontory beyond until it joined Africa. From the and to proceeded thus west,

resembled the the

fabled gined, imapletely com-

fact, south,
the

that and

then
or

point
or

cape

just
of
to

named,

the
or

Malaya Taprobana

boundary Malacca, or Salice,

we

are

tracing
the
coast

would of

run

around

the

Aurea

Chersonesus,
Jabadii the

peninsula
pass

take the

in modern

Sumatra,
Thence

Ceylon.

called anciently around sweeping

Insula, and called Maldives,

by

Pto

CLASSICAL

GEOGRAPHY.

strike Africa and at Cape crossing the equator, it would lemy Insula ante Taprolanam, Delgrado, 10 degrees S. latitude. The Promonturium, being about supposed to correspond to the Prasum exclude the ancient Menuthias would as not designates, aa Madagascar, boundary Madagascar Zanzibar. It may be impossible to trace has been probably the modern conjectured, but most which ancients of interior of the knew than the would the line across more one Africa; suppose, of the line would moderns the of the south on subject. The judging from the ignorance pass mentioned Mountains of the and are Montes, which by Ptolemy; also, in part, of Moon, Luna in the time known of Herodotus. river was even On the remarks, Niger, which, as d'.lnmlle of Sierra Leone at Cape St. Ann's, about the Atlantic the line would out come a little south coast ancient JVuii Cornu, to the Southern 10 degrees latitude; this oft' N. Horn, point answering From this cape called Insula line passes our Hesperidum. against which lay the islands up the shore From of the this
to

Atlantic it is

to

the

Insula the been has of

Fortunate.

'

obvious,
known,
of square

that

portion
been

of

the

earth

known

to

the

ancients it
was

was

small

the
now

whole.

It has which

said, with water,

probable
as

of the

the 155

land,

estimated

that accuracy, 42 or 44 millions

rest

scarcely

in proportion one-third of
thing. no-

of

millions

miles

covering
Jaum.
see

the

of

the

globe, they
For
the
*s.

miles : and square knew almost

On

the

knowledge

of the ancients

the earth, Class. respecting

v.

103.

ix. 133.

helps principal
"

in studying Classical

Geography, consult
cf. P. IV. " 27.

the references

given in P. V. " 7. 7 (4) ;

also P. V. "" 206-208, 371

On

the history of

Geography,

division of the earth into the largeportions,Europe, Asia, and Africa, is " 4. The been of very have ancient date ; but although the names preserved, the boundaries the Asiatic in several particulars differed. Egypt was formerly reckoned among esteemed was kingdoms : at present it is esteemed part of Africa : Sarmatia part of

Europe

great part of it now

forms

one

of the divisions has remained

of Asia. unaltered
; but

division of the earth into zones alone were believed that the Temperate cold of the of the Torrid and the extreme

" 5. The

the

ancients heat life.

cluded in-

habitable,supposing that the extreme destructive of animal Frigid zones were

was

Another

division,
between
two

introduced

by Hipparchus,
of

that the

of

climates.

climate

is

space

at one longest days of the inhabitants of the inhabitants of the other Of that by half an hour. these, eight were extremity exceeds the Alexandria in The known. on Nile, Sienne, successively through Meroe parallels pass in the Troas, the middle of the Euxine Sea, Mount Caucasus, and Egypt, Carthage, Alexandria

parallels

latitude,

so

that

the

British
"

Islands.
it is indispensable to
success

NOTE. for the

In studying this Epitome, The editor of need

that

some

Atlas
an

should Atlas

be

used.

That

of Butler

is very

suitable here of the

purpose.
"

this Manual commit

has it in contemplation
to memory

to prepare

adapted

to the

Epitome

of Geography
names as

presented.
countries
on

The

student

not

in the usual next

way.
over

Let

him

first learn the

general divisions and

as

or

provinces included
For which

in the lesson,and

carefully read
on

the whole of the

lesson,fracing every thing,

on

far

possible,

his maps.

let the Teacher recitation, will be far better.

him question

the maps

or Atlas,

large maps

in

mere

outline,prepared for

the purpose,

I. OF " 6. Europe,
division

EUROPE.
for many the

though the smallest,is,and has

been

ages,

most

ant import-

of the

sciences,as well as over degraded Asia and barbarous daughter of Agenor, a Phoenician

It has attained this rank from the superiority in arts and earth. in government and religion, that its inhabitants have long possessed
"

Africa. from It derives its name Europa, the king, who being carried away, according to the mythological tales (P. II. " 23), by Jupiter under the disguise of a bull, gave her of the globe. to this quarter name of ancient boundaries those of modern " 7. The Europe were nearly the same as Africa a part of Europe ; but we learn from Sallust that some geographers reckoned called by the ancients the Icy or Saturnian, bounds it The northern Europe. ocean, the north ; the north-eastern on part of Europe joins Asia, but no boundary line is traced

by

ancient

writers

the

remainder
sea,

of

its

eastern

boundaries and

are

the

Palus

Euxine Bosphorus, Meeotis, Cimmerian and iEgean sea ; the Mediterranean the western boundary.

Thracian

pont, Bosphorus, Propontis, Hellesthe Atlantic

ocean

sea

is the southern
be
;

" 8. The
in the

countries

of the

mainland

of
in

Europe
a

may

arranged, for convenience,

present The southern.

geographical sketch,
islands

may
to

be

threo considered m
been

divisions

Europe
ambition

can

scarcely be said
From

have

known

of the Romans

stimulated

unnoticed.
overran

Europe,

these and punished

them to seek countries, in after times,

the northern, middle, and north of The separate division. until the unwearied to the ancients in lands previously for new conquests
came

the

severely the

excesses

of

barbarian hordes Roman ambition.

"

who The dis-.

southern
The
"

the countries, which, in ancient division contains tinguished in Europe for their civilization and refinement.

times, were
names,
were

the

most

Northern

countries, with

their ancient
;

and

modern

the following
or

Scandinavia,

Norway

and

Sweden

Chersonesus

Cimbrica, Jutland,

Den-

CLASSICAL

GEOGRAPHY.

middle
into

ages.

It had

70

mouths

and discharging,

with

more

water

formerlythan

now,

It was in part the eastern Caspium. boundary of Europe, separating river next in size was the Borysthenes,called in the Scythia.1 The middle its modern Danapris, whence Dnieper. Just at its entrance into name ages the Ponlus Euxinus, it was joined by the Hypanis, calledin the middle ages Bogus, and the Bog. beach The now of the Borysthenes was at the mouth long narrow called Dromus Achillei. the Between Borysthenes and the Rha the Tanais, the was separated Sarmatia Europea from Sarmatia Asiatica,and flowed present Don, which the Palus Masotis modern its mouth into of Azof ; near or sea was a city of extensive called Tanais strait connecting the Palus The Masotis Emporium. commerce, with the Euxine called Bospkorus Cimmerius. river was Another discharginginto the Pontus the Tyras, the modern Dniester: it, Euxinus, was between flowed Sarmatia and in part the southern Dacia, and formed is included in our boundary of what northern division of Europe. Two those of the Tyras, rivers, from sources near flowed in a northerly course to the Baltic, the ancient Sinus' Codanus the ; they were The Vistula, still so called, and the Viader or Oder. principal streams discharging
" " "
"

the Mare from Sarmatia

into the Oceanus Germanicus formed the western boundary Germania and Gallia.

were

the

Albis, Elbe,

of the

division

and of Eurooe

the
now

R^enus,
under

Rhine, which notice, dividing

II.

THE

COUNTRIES

OF

THE

MIDDLE

OF

EUROPE.

$ 16. We
The the of Romans

will

begin with Gaklia, which

is

at

the

western

extremity of the division.

province
where

called this extensive Gallia Transalpina, to distinguish it from country of Gallia Cisalpina in the north of Italy. The Greeks it the name gave the Gauls had

western Galatia, to distinguishit from Galatia in Asia planted a colony. Ancient Gaul comprehended, in addition to France, the territories of Flanders, Holland, Its boundaries of Germany. Switzerland, and part of the south-west the were the the Atlantic British sea, the Rhine, Alps, the Mediterranean, and the ocean, The Pyrenees. country,in the time of Julius Cassar, was possessed by three great

Galatia,and subsequently

Minor,

"

nations, divided
most
numerous

into and

number

of subordinate

tribes.

Of

these

the

Celtas

were

the

reached from the Sequana, Seine, to the powerful ; their territory Garonne the Sequana and lower Rhine, where Garumna, ; the Beiges lay between tribes ; the Aquitani possessed the country between they united with the German the Garumna and the Pyrenees. " 17. Augustus Csesar divided Gaul into four provinces ; Gallia Narbonensis, Aqui and Belgica. tania, Gallia Celtica, Gallia Narbonensis, called also the Roman province, extended along the sea from the Pyrenees to the Alps ; including the territory of the modern coast provinces, Languedoc, Provence, Dauphine, and Savoy. It contained several nations, the principal The the Allobroges, Salyes, and Volcae. of which were principalcities were Massilice (Marseilles), founded by an Ionian Narbo (Narbonne); Martius, the capital, Sextim (Aix) ; and Jtdii (Frejus); Aqua colony, from Phocsea, in Asia Minor ; Forum Nemausus (Nismes), whose importance is manifest in the grandeur of its still existing remains.
Among
of the
Doric the monuments interesting at Nismes are,

the Square
masses

House,

and

the with

Arena;
wonderful

the latter

being

an

amphitheatre,

or

circus,

order, with

walls

composed

of enormous ; the

of stone
a

united

1200 skill, 42

feet

in circumference, capable with

30

it is said, 16,000 or of holding;, Corinthian columns.

17,000 persons
and

former,

temple, 76 feet long, 38 broad, and

"

high ; adorned

beautiful

(Cf. Seynes

Menard,

cited P. IV. " 243. 3.

Millin, Voyage

dans

les

Departements

du Midi.)

Aquitani
nations Porlus Gallia
were

Lemovices,

from the Pyrenees to the extended a the Tarbelli, south of the Garumna, and The chief towns north of that river.

Liger (Loire).
the
were

The

principal

Santones,

Pictones, and Mediolanum (Saintes) ;

"

Santonum

(Rochelle)
or

and

TJxellodunum.

Celtica,
"

country along the and warlike. The Rhedones. The Plancus after the Alesia

coast

the Liger and The Sequana. lay between called Armorica, the inhabitants of which were very fierce the Segusiani, iEdui, Mandubii, Parish, and principalnations were (Lyons), founded principal cities were Lugdunum by Munatius

Lugdunensis,

was

(Autun)
Portus
Lutelia

death of Julius Caesar ; Bibracte, called afterwards Augustodunum of Csesar ; and (Alise), the last city of Gaul that resisted the arms Brivates (Brest), near the Promonlorium Gobasum (Cape St. Malo).
;
Parisiorum
the

(Paris) was Emperor

built by the
went

Parisii, on

swampy

island,before the time

a

of

Christ, but

was

of

no

importance

until A. D. 360, when

Julian

into winter

quarters there, and erected

palace for himself.

The This remainder of Gaul was included in the province Belgica. contained of powerful states ; the Helvelii occupying that part of modern zerland Switgreat number Lacus Lemanus between included (the lake of Geneva) and Lacus Briganti(the lake of Constance) ; the Sequani, possessing the present province of Franche "".us 'That part of Belgic Gaul adjoining inhabited Holland. Comte ; and the Batavi, who
a
"

the Rhine

below

Helvetia

was

called Germania,

from

the number

of German

tribes

P.

I.

EUROPE.

MIDDLE

COUNTRIES.

who

the settled there, and was divided into Superior or Upper, the part nearer its mouth. The the part nearer of the Rhine, and Inferior or Lower, principal of the Nervii. In the country the Treveri, Ubii, Menapii, and of these tribes were stillremain. of which the Treveri extensive forest Arduenna was (Ardennes), traces had
sources

" 18.

The

principalmountains

of Gaul in Lorraine;

were

Gehenna

(the Cevennes),
"

in

doc;

Vogesus (the Vauge),

is

and

Alpes (the Alps).

;

The

LangueAlps were

subdivided

into Alpes Marilimce, joining the Etruscan sea supposed to have passed ; Graces, so called from

Collide,over
the passage

nibal Hanwhich of Hercules ;

of their tops (from perina, awing) ; Ehceticw, Fennina, so called from the appearance Julia, the eastern joining Rhastia ; Noricas, bordering Noricum ; and ; Pannonica (Bay of Carnero), in Liburnia. extremity, terminating in the Si7ms Flanaticus

present

its mouth, at Ehenus (the Rhine) ; this river, near ; the streams, the Waal, the Leek, and the Newlssel mouth of of Drusus last was formed by a great ditch cut by the army ; the ancient of concussion choked the Rhine, which been some has by passed by Leyden, up in history ; Bhodanus (Saone) ; mentioned (the Rhone), joined by the Arar nature not united with the Duranius Garumna (Dordogne) ; Liger (the Loire), (Garonne), which The chief rivers of Gaul divides
were

itself into three

joined by the Elaver (Allier) ; and Sequana (the Seine). islands on the coast The of Gaul were Uxantos (Ushant) ; TJliarus (Oleron) principal Ccesarea (Jersey) ; Samia (Alderney) ; on the south coast (Guernsey) ; and Eiduna
were

the Stmchades
The government their was

or

Ligustidesinsula
of ancient of

(islesof Hieras).
to

1" 19. and

so

Gaul,

previous
that those The of the
was

the
were

Roman
even

great

hatred

royalty,

who

invasion, suspected
whom
were

was

of

aristocratical, reign aiming at sovecalled

as

and in

were instantly put to death. power, knights, possessed the whole authority of the states most annual an magistrate

priests
state ;

and

nobles, peasantry

they
esteemed
to

Druids slaves the man Ro"

the with

elected

consul, but it was

In

ordained

that

both

the been

the Gauls said have to are person, their is sometimes hair, whence country of as they are described irascible,and

long and ruddy fair-complexioned, with In disposition called Gallia or Comata, Hairy Gaul. their first onset was fury when provoked; ungovernable the fight with equal steadiness. impetuous, but if vigorously resisted they did not sustain very invasion of the Romans in obscurity; we the is involved $ 20. The history of Gallia before hordes times that it must been who at different have only know populous from the numerous very of Italy, which north in search of new the settlements. on emigrated from Gaul They seized from them was called Greece; part of Germany Cisalpine Gaul ; they colonized ; they invaded and tribe penetrated to Asia, where, a one on even vince, promingling with the Greeks, they seized from the command thence called Galatia Gallo-Gr;ecia." Another or body of Gauls, under of Brennus, routed seized and burned Rome subsequently itself; and though they were by Camilformidable and looked their most the Gauls kis, the Romans designated a ever on as opponents, Gallic war as Tumultus, dangerous as a civil war. by the word implying that it was furnished Romans the the alliance between the people of Massilia; J 21. The (Marseilles) and latter people with for intermeddling in the affairs of Gaul, which a pretext they eagerly embraced. refused into Spain; The first nation had them whom the Salyes, who a passage was they attacked after his name, called the Salyes were subdued Aqua? a colony Sextius, who planted by Caius Sextise;
Martius about four

magistrate generally

and

similar powers should the electors

those

of

be of noble

birth.

Rex, who After province.

"

years founded

after, the
the

greater

part

of Gallia

Karbonensis

was

subdued

by Uuintus
of the Roman until annexed

the

the it to

time the

of Caesar, who Roman

made Marlius, and colony Narbo the Gauls Narbonensis, subjugation of Gallia after innumerable difficulties conquered the

it the

capital
country,

remained entire

unmolested and

dominions.
the

Though
are

grievously oppressed by
for

Roman
in
an

governors,

the

Gauls A

under
curious

the

emperors
circumstance

made
of at

rapid advances
the

in civilization ; they
these studies
were were pelled com-

particularlynoticed
is recorded

their

success

eloquence
annual write

and

law.

mode and

in which

pursued

to blot out Arar." See

by many historians; their own compositions,

des

contest
new

in eloquence

took

place

Lugdunum,
else be

the vanquished
and

and

orations
3

in praise of the

or victors,

whipped

plunged

into the

Histoire Thierry,

Gaulois.

Par.

1828.

vols. 8.

$22.
Ehenus

The

(Rhine),

called V in de country and the Danubius

lici
or

was

situated

between

the
town

sources
was

of the

Vindelieorum

(Augsburg,celebrated
Melancthon
"

Ister (Danube). for the confession assembled and the there

Its chief of the

at

Augusta
faith, presented
of the

protestant
commencement

by
more

to

the

Diet

the

Reformation).
than
the

Between present

Vindelicia

Alps

was

Rhjetia,

Its chief towns were territoryof the Grisons. the last general council was assembled. 'Vindelicia and Rhaetia were colonized originally by the Tuscans, and for a long time bravely their independence. maintained They were eventually subdued during the reign of the brother of Tiberius. Augustus Cagsar, by Drusus " 23. Noricum lay to the east of Vindelicia, from which it is separated by the rive terri JEnus inhabitants made (Inn). Its savage frequent incursions upon the Roman tories, and were, after a severe iron of Caesar. The struggle, reduced by Tiberius Noricum made in that country was celebrated, and swords highly valued. were very and Tridentum

containing rather Curia (Coire),

"

(Trent), where

"

East

of Noricum

was

Superior, the chief Sirmium, capital was

Noricum " 24.

town

Pannonta, of which

also
was

subdued by Vindohona

Tiberius.

It

was

divided

into

(Vienna); and

of great importance in the later ages a town is now called Austria, and Pannonia. Hungary. The boundaries of Illyricum have not been precisely ascertained

Inferior, whose of the empire.

"

"

it occu

CLASSICAL

GEOGRAPHY.

shores subdivided of the Adriatic, and was into the three pied the north- eastern It included the modern provinces of Japydii, Liburnia, and Dalmalia. provinces, The chief towns Croatia, Bosnia, and Sclavonia. Salona, near were Spalalro, where Dioclesian the emperor retired after his resignationof the imperial power; Epidaurus Dioclea or (Ragusi Vecchio), and Bagxisa.
"

The

captives;

infamous Illyrians were they possessed great

not a

for

their

piracy

and

the and
"

skill in

little to

Augustus's
of the

ship-building, victory at Actium.

the

which cruelty with they treated light galleys of the Libuntians Romans who had declared been
on war

their
tributed con-

The

against
massacred

the

Illyrians, in

consequence

murder

of their ambassadors,

The Teula, qiseen of that country. Illyrians were conditions, but having again attempted to recover

obliged
their and

to

beg

former made

by

the

pra?tor

Anicius,

who

slew

their

kingGentius, Hmmus

by humiliating they were finallysubdued power, Roman the country a province.

a

basely
most

peace

the

" 25.

Mcesia

lay between

Mount

(the Balkan)and

the

Danube,

whichafter

its

divided into Superior, the junction with the Savus was usually called Ister. It was cal'ed Bulgaria. Part of Mcesia Supenow rior present province of Servia, and Inferior, which district to tribe ; next was was a possessed by the Scordisci, a Thracian called
the of the Danube Dardania that part of Mcesia mouth Inferior near was ; called Poittus, which is frequently confounded with Pontus, a division of Asia Minor. The ence Singidunum principalcities in Mvesia Superior were (Belgrade), at the confluof the Save and Danube his victory ; Nicopolis,built by Trajanto commemorate

"

the Great. (Nissa), the birthplace of Constantine Dacians; and Naissus the capital; Tomi, the place of Ovid's banishment Inferiorwere Marcianopolis, south of Tomi, the bridge built by and JEgissus, near which was ; Odessus, in his expedition against the Scythians. Darius the Danube and " 26. Dacia the Carpates, or lay between Alpes Bastamicce (Carpathian sylvania. or Krapack mountains) ; including the territory of the modern provinces, TranThe celebrated Hercynian Forest, Sylva Hercy?iia Moldavia, and Wallachia.
over
"

the

In 3Iresia

(cf." 14)

stretched
,

over

the north
at

and

west

part
a

of it.
time

Dacia

was

inhabited effort
to

by

two

Scythian tribes,the Daci and them of their freedom ; they

After
exist.

Geta, who
were

for

long
a

resisted every
the

deprive
still than

length subdued
by

by Trajan.
over

having conquered
His successor, the

the

cour.try,Trajan joined it to Mcesia

magnificent bridge

Danube,

traces

of which
to contract

Adrian, influenced
of the of

either by jealousy of his predecessors glory, or down

the

believing
This

il more
was

expedient
of

to extend

bounds
on

empire,

broke

bridge, and

left Dacia

to i!s fale.

"

country
of Roman

considerable
was

importance
in
one

to the Romans these mines.

account IV.

its gold and

1 18.

silver mines.

In 1S07, an

interesting monument

writing

found

of

(Cf. P.

"

3.)
the

A
to be

people has been found

descended
means

among

Wallachians,
"

that

now

speak
he

language very
so a

similar

to the

Latin,
to the

and

are

therefore
the J.

supposed

from
of the

the

Roman
he

colonists.
converse

Mr.
on

Brewer
common

says

found

many

words

common

Latin

and

Wall-chian, Brewer,
dence Resi-

that by

Latin
in

could

subjects with
12.
"

Wallachiao

merchant

at

Constantinople."

at

Constantinople

1S27, "c

New

Haven,

1830.

Cf. IVahU's

Journey from

Constantinople.

III.

THE

COUNTRIES

INCLUDED

IN

THE

SOUTHERN

DIVISION

OF

EUROPE.

% 27.

In

treating of this division

was

we

will
name

also

commence

with modern

the

most

western

kingdoms of Spain The also called Iberia, Hesperia, and (to distinguishit country was from Italy,sometimes termed situation.) Hesperia Ultima. Hesperia, from its western side of The Romans first divided it into Hispania Citerior, or Spain at the eastern at the fberus, and side ; but by Augustus Caesar, the Hispania Ulterior, at the western Like divided into three provinces; Tarraconesis. Bcetira, and Lusilania. country was the provinces of Gaul, these were inhabited by several distinct tribes. raconensis " 28. Tar exceeded the other two provinces together,both in size and importance. It extended from the Pyrenees to the mouth of the D urius, on the Atlantic, and to the Orospeda. ceived reMons ; and separating it from Ba?tica, on the Mediterranean its name Tarraco from its capital, (Tarragona), in the district of the Cosetani. The other principaltowns siege by were Saguntum, on the Mediterranean, whose Punic remains of ihis city still exist,and Hannibal caused the second are some war; called Murviedro, a corruptionof Muri (old walls) ; Carthago Nova veteres (Carthagena),
country, which and Portugal. Hispania. This included
the

built by Asdrubal, north-east of the defeated Pompey's the Durius, when the
unable whose
to

the brother

of Hannibal,

also
the

on

the

Mediterranean
the

in the

interior,
Cossar of

Ilerda capital,

(Lerida)

capital of
;

where Ilergetes,
near

lieutenants, Afranius

and

Petreius

Numantia,

the

sources

inhabitants made a desperate resistance to the Roman hold out and the citysooner themselves longer, burned

invaders, and,
than

yield to

the Celtiberi; Ccesarea Bilbilis, the birthplace of Martial, among conquerors; (Alcala), Augusta (Saragossa) capital of the Edetani ; Toletum (Toledo); Comphdum and Kibora (Talavera) ,in the same district ; Calagurris,in the territoryof the Vascones.
,

whose
to

inhabitants suffered dreadfullyfrom famine such straits, that the inhabitants (as Juvenal Near the modern of Segovia, retainingthe town
are

in the

Sertorian
site of

war,

being reduced
each

says) actually devoured

name

other.

Arevaci. the mouth

the remains
of the

of the

the Segovia among splendid aqueduct,built by Trajan. Calle (Oporto) at

and

Durius,
hence

was

also called
name

Portus

Gallorum,

from

some

Gauls The

who north

settled there, and

of the present

kingdom

of

Portugal.

P.

I.

EUROPE.

SOUTHERN

COUNTRIES.

ITALIA.

9
for
a

of

Tarraconensis resisted the utmost

was

possessed by the Cantabri,

efforts of the Romans
;

fierce tribe,who
the

long

time

their

is territory

modern

province of

Biscay.
" 29.
called this
town

The

southern the

Baetica,

from Colonia
are

the Anas and Mediterranean, was called part of Spain, between river Baetis. Its chief towns Corduba were (Cordova), at first of the two Patricia, the birthplace Senecas, and the poet Lucan ; in

it is more

by

800

built by the Moorish the remains of a splendid mosque, king, Almanzor; 500 feet long, and 400 wide ; the roof is richlyornamented, and supported columns of alabaster, jasper,and black marble : Hispalis (Seville); Italica,the than

cityof Trajan, Adrian, and the poet Silius Italicus ; Cuslulo, called also Parnassia, south-western it was founded colony; all on the Baetis. The by a Phocian extremity of Baetica was possessed by a Phoenician colony, called the Bastuli Poem, to Gades distinguishthem from the Libyan Pceni,or Carthaginians; their capital was
because
"

native

island at the mouth of the Baetis ; near it were the littleisland Tartesan Promontorium Junonis At (Cape Trafalgar) part of the continent, and the entrance of the straits of Hercules Gades, stood Carteia, on mount or Calpe, which is now called Gibraltar, a corruptionof Gebel of Tarik, the Tank, i. e. the mountain first Moorish invader of Spain. Mount Calpe and mount Abyla (on the opposite coast
on
,

(Cadiz)
now

sus,

"

the pillarsof Hercules, and supposed to have of Africa) were the boundabeen named ries of that hero's western North of this was Munda, where Caesar fought conquests. his last battle with Labienus, and the sons of Pompey. which Lusitania, occupied the greatest part of the present kingdom of Portugal, contained but few placesof note ; the most remarkable (Merida) were Augusta Emerita

and

said to have been founded by Ulysses. Iberus The (Ebro) ; Tagus (Tajo) ; Durius principal Spanish rivers were, the north(Douro) ; Bcetis (Guadalquiver) ; Anas The western (Guadiana). at promontory Celticum named Artabrum that or extremity of the peninsula was (Finisterre); because the chariot of the sun at the south-western, Sacrum, was supposed to rest there ; it is now called Cape St. Vincent.

(Lisbon), Olisippo

" 30.

"

centuries. ing Durpeninsula for several devastated by the contending parties. Here of Marius, assembled the fugitives of the popular party, and for a long Sertorius, after the death time resisted of Sylla: here, Afranius and the arms of Poinpey, made Petreius, the lieutenants of Pompey, his sons a made gallant stand a against Julius Caesar; and here, after the death fruitless effort to vindicate their father's misfortunes. their own rights, and avenge Upon the overthrow of the Roman of the to one empire, Spain was conquered by the Vandals, who gave provinces the name corrupted into Andalusia. Vandalusia, now

first made known Spain was became masters Carthaginians who kept expelled by the Romans, the civil wars of Rome, Spain the

$ 31.

to

the the

ancients

by

the of

of

greater

possession was frequently

part of the

of Hercules. conquests the country; they were

In

later

times
turn

in their
"

"

ancient The the

denominated the garden of Europe both by " 32. Italy, Italia, has justlybeen and modern writers, from the beauty of its climate and the fertility of its soil. Italian

remained unaltered ; on the north are the Adriatic, or upper the Sicilian strait, the South and on sea, the west the Tuscan, or lower sea. called Saturnia, on By the poets the country was named Ausonia, and CEnotria ; by the Greeks it was it lay to the Hesperia, because of their country. west

boundaries, like those of Spain, have

the
east

Alps,

on

Italy
each

has

always
We

been shall

subdivided
treat

other.

it

as

southern;
more

of the of the

and the chief as city and particular description of Rome northern portion of Italy ; 2. city of Rome.

into a number of petty states, more less independent of or in two and the northern parts, denominated comprehended into a capital of the country is of such celebrity, shall enter 1. The following arrangement; Geography ; adopting the of the southern The portion; 3. The Topography Geography

"33. (1) Geography of the Northern portionof It alt a. sions of this part, were Gallia Cisalpina,Etruria, Umbria,
Gallia Social
the
war,

The

principalancient divi
and Latium.

Picenum,

Cisalpina,
the toga,
It
was or

also Togata, from the inhabitants distinctive dress of the Romans, lay between

called

river Rubicon.

divided

north side of the river, and several smaller districts. North of the Padus, or Po,

by the river Eridanus, or Cispadana at the south

was

adopting, after the the Alps and the Padus, into Transpadana, at
; these
were

subdivided

into

Augusta Taurinorum,
towns principal
were

is

now

called

where

Mediolanum first defeated the Romans, after his passage of Brixia inanni, possessing the towns (Brescia); Crsmona; the Euganei, whose of Virgil chief towns were ; and Hannibal

of the Taurini, whose the territory chief town, Turin ; next the Insubres, whoso to these were (Milan) ; and Ticinum (Pavia), on the river Ticinus,
over

the

Alps

; the

Ceno-

the birthplace Mantua, Tridenlum (Trent) ; and and

Veneli

Verona,
chief
nor, towns

the

birthplaceof Catullus.
were

"

'Next and

to

these

were

the

and

Carni

their

Palamum of

of Livy, built by the Trojan Ante (Padua), the birthplace

after the destruction

2

Troy;

Aquileia, retainingits former

name

but

noi

10

CLASSICAL

GEOGRAPHY.

former Huns. South

on

consequence

Next

to

these where

for its desperate resistance to Attila king of the ; it is celebrated the was province Histria, or Istria; chief town, Tergeste the territories of the Ligures ; chief towns, Genua (Genoa) , of Genoa) ; Portus Herculis Mornzci (Monaco), and territoryof the Boii, containing Bononia (Bologna); Mutina

(Trieste).
of the Po Sinus the

Ligusticus (Gulf
the

Niccea

(Nice);

Brutus (Modena), where was country of the Lingones, whose

besieged by Antony
chief
town was

held their court, when Rome was contained the " 34. Cisalpine Gaul (Di Gardi), and Larius, the celebrated the

and Placenlia; and ; Parma, of the Ravenna, where the emperors possessed by the barbarians.beautiful lakes Verbanus

the
west

(Maggiore) ;
name

Benacus from

lake of Como,

deriving its modern

Pliny's villa. rivers of this province were The the Eridanus Padus (Po), called by Virgil the or king of livers, which rises in the Cottian Alps, and receivingseveral tributarystreams, (Mincio), falls into the Adriatic; the especiallythe Ticinus (Tesino) and Mincius Athesis (Adige),rising in the Rhaetian Alps ; and the Rubicon (Rugone), derivingits from the Apennines, and falling into the Adriatic. source villageComum,
near

5 35. The
power
war

inhabitants

of

Rome;
were

of Cisalpine they joined Hannibal

most

Gaul with the

were, allied

of

all the when in

was

Italian

states,

the

most

hostile

to

the

alacrity
states

lie invaded their seized

they
west

the of

inveterate northern
now

of

the the of from

fell before part

rest

the it is

tribes, this province

Italy, and in the Social the hostility. When empire of whom by the Longobardi, from
"

greater the

called which

independent
of

republics, Europe.

Lombardy. preserved some

In

the

middle of

ages

it

was

divided freedom

into
was

number banished

sparks

liberty, when

extended from the small " 36. Etruria along the coast of the lowej or Tuscan sea, river Macra, to the mouth of the Tiber. remarkable and places in Etruria were and port of Luna, The towns most : the town Pisce (Pisa) ; Florentia (Florence) ; Portus Herculis of the river Macra at the mouth ; which Catiline was Leburni defeated ; Perusia, near the (Leghorn); Pistoria, near obtained his .third lake Thrasymene, where Hannibal victoryover the Romans; Clusium, the city of Porsenna; Vohinii minister of (Bolsena), where Sejanus, the infamous mount born ; Falerii (Palari), near Tiberius, was Soracte, the capitalof the Falisci, while conduct of Camillus memorable for the generous besieging it ; Veii, the ancient rival of Rome, Care, or Agylla (Cer captured by Camillus after a siege of ten years; inhabitants when Veteri), whose hospitably received the Vestal virgins, they fled from made the Gauls, in reward for which Roman the citizens,but not allowed they were

privilegeof voting,whence,
said
to

any

be

enrolled

among

the

Roman citizen who lost the privilege of voting was Cellce (Civita Vecchia), at the mouth of Cmrites; Centum

the Tiber, the port of modern Rome. the Arnus rivers of Etruria were " 37. The (Arno) , risingin the Apennines principal the Umbrian into the sea Pisa ; and the Tiber, which and falling near issuing from westerly (Nera) and Anio (Teverone) running in a southApennines, and joined by the Nar
,

direction, falls into the

The Etrurians
were

sea

below

Rome.

from

said have to come Greeks, Tyrrheni; they are originally of their eastern preserved traces origin, to a very late Romans of borrowed their and From them the of thei" period. ensigns regal dignity, many for this people were to auguries and soothsaying. superstitious observances, remarkably addicted in art of distinguished excellence (cf.P. IV. $ 109, 110); interesting monuments They attained which still exist (cf.P. IV. $ 173). called

by

the

Lydia

in Asia

Minor,

and

to

have

it
to

situated east of Etruria, and south of Cisalpine Gaul, from which Umbria was the Metaurus The was separated by the Rubicon. principalriver of Umbria while advancing off by the consuls Livius and Nero cut was (Metro) where Asdrubal " 38.
was
,

the

town

Senna

Its chief towns (Rimini) , the first ; Ariminum support of his brother Hannibal. of the civil war taken (Pesaro) ; by Caesar, at the commencement ; Pesaurum built by the Galli Senones Gallica (Senigaglia), Spoletium (Spo; Camerinum; Hannibal
was

where letto),
The
a

repulsed after
an

his

victory at Thrasymene.
one

memory

of this repulse is still preserved in

across a

over inscription

of the

gates,thence
as

called

Porta

di

Fuga.

"

Here

also is

beautiful aqueduct carried

valley, three

hundred

feet high."

W.

Fishe, p. 343,

cited P. IV.

" 186. 6.

" 39.
towns

were,

Picenum Asculum

lay to the

the coast of the Adriatic. east of Umbria, on of the province,which must not vAscoli), the capital
; ;

Its
be

principal

ed confound-

defeated with Asculum in Apulia, near which Pyrrhus was the chief town of the Peligni ; Sulmo, the birthplaceof Ovid founded ancient name, by a Grecian colony.
Close retain
Ancona. to the

and

Corfinium (San Ferino), Ancona, retainingits

of Parian

harbor

of Ancona and

is a beautiful

triumphal

arch

erected from

in honor

of Trajan ; the pillars are hands.

The

marble, and still

is near

their pure

whiteness

polish,as exquisite

if fresh

the workmen's

celebrated

chapel of Loretto

South
mer
were

of Picenum
a

and

Umbria,

were

the territoriesof the Marsi

and

Sabini.

The

for

the Lacus Fucinus. Marrubium, was on people ; their capital This lake Julius Csesar vainly attempted to drain. It was afterwards partially effected in cutting a for eleven by Claudius Caesar, who men employed thirtythousand years, for the waters through the mountains, from the lake to the river Liris ; when passage

rude and warlike

P.I.

EUROPE.

SOUTHERN

COUNTRIES.

ITALIA.

11

every games,

thingwas
shows,
towns
near

off the waters, he exhibited several splendid naval prepared for letting his expectations, and the canal, being "c.; but the work did not answer
soon
were

neglected, was
Sabine

choked

up-, and

the

lake
name

recovered

its

ancient
some

dimensions. derived

"

The

Cures, whence

the

Quiritesis by

Reate,

which

Vespasian

was

and Fidence. Mons tumerium, with the patricians, contest was the first enemies in this part of of the Romans, the
river
most

the born; Amitemum, Sacer, whither the plebeians of Rome in the

but

(cf." 53); birthplaceof Sallust; Crusretired in their

were

of territory
about

the

Sabines.

Tin these countries the several

the time

of Camillus

small

states

Italy were
the

subjugated.
important
and have division of
;

" 40.
sea,

Latium,
Saturn

Italy,lay

on

the

coast

of the Tuscan

between

Tiber
to

Liris

it

was

because
The

is said
was an

concealed

himself

called Latium, from lateo, to lie hid, dethroned there, when by Jupiter. Rome
summer on

chief

town

Rome

(Tivoli), built by
near nobility,

Argive

(see " 51 ss). Above colony, a favorite

residence

the 'fiber, stood Tibur of the Roman

favorite country seat (P. III. " 326) : south of Rome, which was Horace's both in ancient and modern (Frescati), remarkable times, for the salubrity built by Telebeen of the air and beauty of the surrounding scenery ; it is said to have Tusculum the
the
son

gonus, where escape,

of

Ulysses;
Marias
town
was

near

it
a

was

Cicero's

celebrated

Tusculan

villa:
nature

east

of art,

Tusculum,

Prcenesle

(Palestrina),

place of great strength both

a

by
while

and

younger when the

in perished

subterranean

passage,

besieged by Sylla :

south

and near it the small towns Algidum, parent of Rome, the Romans artifice of the younger On the coast, at the by the well-known Tarqnin. of the Tiber, stood Qstia, the port of ancient mouth built by Ancus Rome, Martius; south of this were Lavinium Laurenlum, (builtby iEneas and called after his wife La"

of Tusculum, Psedum, and

attempting to Longa Alba, the Gabii, betrayed to

vinia), and
South chief cities

Ardea,
were were

the

capitalof

the

Rutuli, where

Camillus

resided

during his exile.

; their

of these

the territories of the Volsci, early opponents of the Romans where there was celebrated Antium, a temple of Fortune ;

Suessa

Pometia,

the capital of the Volsci, totally and Corioli, from destroyed by the Romans; the capture of which named Coriolanus. Caius Marcius was South of the Volsci, were the town and promontory of Circeii, the fabled residence of Circe ; Anxur and promontory (Terracina), on the Appian Way ; the town Caieta,
name

deriving its
which Marius Marshes

from
was

the

nurse

Cicero

assassinated
near

by

of iEneas, command Pontine

when

Liris, Minturnm,
endeavored extended

which
to

are

the

who there interred ; Formice, near was of Antony of the ; and, at the mouth or Pomptine Marshes, in which the elder

conceal
a

himself

pursued

by his enemies.

The

Pontine

great part of Latium, and several ineffectual efforts have been made The exhalations from the stagnant water have always made to drain them. the surrounding country very unhealthy. On the confines of Campania were Arpinum, the polished statesman; and Cicero, the rude soldier and the birthplace of Marius Aquinum, the birthplaceof Juvenal ; and Siiiuessa,celebrated for its mineral waters,

through

"

the ; the Allia, on slaughter ; and the the family of the Fabii, to the number of three hundred, were stroyed deCremera, where while their own at by an ambuscade, carrying on war against the expense Veientes three rivers fall into the Tiber ; the Liris (Garigliano), which divided ; these from Campania, falls into the Tuscan Latium The named sea. principal lakes were Lacus Albulus remarkable for its sulphurous exhalations, and the adjoin(Solfatara), ing and oracle of Faunus which defeated Posthumius Regillus, near ; Lacus grove the Latins, by the assistance of Castor and Pollux as the Romans believed ; and Lacus
were

called Sinope. originally " 41. The principal rivers of Latium of which
the

the Anio

(Teverone)
dreadful

banks

Gauls

defeated

the

Romans

with

"

Albanus,
Ferias Latinas
The

near were

which

was

Mount

Albanus

where

the

solemn

sacrifices called

celebrated.
in the of Laurentum reign of King Latinus, was but all these were Ascanius, Longa Alba; several subdued were independent states by
; in

capital
in of the

of

Lavinium;

the

Latium, reign
The

the

eclipsed
the Romans

reign of Mne"s, by the superior

in the earlier

grandeur
ages of

Rome.

republic.

The southern (2) Geography of the Southern portion of Italia. part of Italy named Magna of Greek colonies that at different periods Greecia, from the number settled there. divided into Campania, Samnium, It was Apulia, Calabria, Lucania, " 42.
was

and C

Bruttium.

fertile of the divisions of Italy,extended a m along p a n i a, the richest and most the shores of the Tuscan the river Liris to the river Silarus, which divided sea, from it from Lucania.
The

and

chief citywas from its founder Capua, so named soldiers of Hannibal luxury, by which the veteran
of

Capys, celebrated
were

for its riches

enervated
in its

and

corrupted.

North

it were

Teanum,
for olives. the
"

frum, famous

celebrated South of

nestines, after having made

they had endured

utmost

and Venavicinity, Casilinum, where a Capua was garrison of Pregallant resistance, and protracted the siege till a most at last compelled to surrender extremityof famine, were ;
waters

for the mineral

12
this
a

CLASSICAL

GEOGRAPHY.

next
canus a

to

was

Liternum,
time

at

the mouth the Below which

of the littleriver
"

Clanius, where
was

for it the

long
town
was

lived in

voluntaryexile.
Misenum,
"

Farther of the named

were

south from

Cumce, founded
Cumean

colony from
who
;

Chalcis and

in Eubcea,

residence
so

celebrated

Scipio Afriby Sibyl, and

near

JEneas,
Waters to

promontory buried there.

,

the
were

Jupiter is said mer, early inhabitants are said, by HoAfter these we lived in caves. to have come to Parlhenopc or Neapolis(Naples). founded This beautiful city was by a colony from Cumse, and for a long time retained of a Grecian called the traces original; it was Parthenope from one of the Sirens said buried there. Close to the town been to have is the mountain Pausilypus (Pausilippo), has been through which a subterranean cut, half a mile in length and twentypassage feet wide the time of making nor the maker is known said to two ; neither ; a tomb, be that of Virgil,is shown the hill Pausilippo ; here also are ruins called the villa on At the southern of Lucullus. extremity of the Sinus Puteolanus (bay of Naples), for its mineral for its and Surrentum, celebrated Stabice, remarkable were waters, the latter was wines ; near the Promontorium Surrentinum Athenmum or (Capo della of Naples was Hannibal first defeated, and where east Minerva); Nola, where was In the south of Campania Salenu'm of the (Salerno), the capital Augustus died. was Between Piccntini." Vesuvius Herculaneum and Pompeii, Naples and Mount were destroyed by a tremendous eruption of that volcano, A. D. 79.
near

Puleoli

(Puzzoli)

cape the

of Misenus, the trumpeter for its mineral Bairn, famous

where Phlegreei-campi,

have

vanquished the giants ; Cimmerium,

whose

"

The remains
streets

remains

of these

towns
us a

were

accidentally discovered
into to the

in tbe

beginningof
Romans formed

tbe last century, and than could

tbe be

numerous

and "Above

valuable

of antiquity give of Pompeii

are now a

greatersight
restored

the domestic

habits of the
which of

previously
have

obtained.
been

thirty
nificent mag-

(1S40)

light. The

walls

its ancient
and
were a

enclosures of other buried

recognized
been
mass.
"

; a

amphitheatre,

theatre, a forum,

that temple of Isis,

Venus,
as

number

buildings, have
the volcanic

cleared."
See the

Houses,shops, cellars,with
worts
on

all their various

furniture, are

found

just

they

when

under

Herculaneum

and

Pompeii

cited P. IV. " 243. 2."

Cf. P.' III. " 329.

springs being dried up by the eruptions of the Lucrinus, Vesuvius the Sarnus Mount (Sarno). The principal lakes were ; and which changed into a muddy marsh, with by a violent earthquake, A. D. 1538, was the Avernus, near volcanic Nuovo de Cinere, in the centre mountain, Monte a ; and which is a cave of the infernal regions. It was represented by Virgil as the entrance said that no birds could pass over of the poisonous exhalations ; this lake on account
an

" 43. The (Sebeto), now

principal Campanian
inconsiderable

rivers

were

the

Vulturnus

(Vulturno) ; Stbethus

stream,

its
"

whence Upon
barbarous

its
the

name,

from
of
at

(not) and
northern

opvU

(a bird).
became in the the tenth of alternate

invasion tribes
;

the

by " 44.
"

the

length it under Normans, of Latium chief and

towns

nations, Campania seized was by the Saracens founded tbe Tancred, who

century.
the Two

of prey These Sicilies.

different
were pelled ex-

kingdom

East

Campania
were

was

Samnium,
the

Hirpini. The
a

Samnis,

including capital; Be?ievenlum

the

country of the (Benevento), at

the Romans from the severity of the winds, but when sent of superstition from motives colony here they changed the name, ;_near this town of the Samnites, was to the assistance totally Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, who had come which defeated by the Roman near commanded by Curius Dentatus ; Caudium, army, and dangerous defile, in which Furculm the Caudina (Forchia d'Arpaia), a narrow are the Roman obliged to general,Pontius, were being blocked up by the Samnite army, for its manufactory surrender disgraceful conditions ; and Alfenice, remarkable on is the Hirpini, were unpoetical name of earthenware. Among Equotulicum, whose and Herdonia (Ordonia), on the borders of Apulia.' celebrated by Horace ; Trixicum the celebrated markable Herdonia by hills,and reNear valley of Amsanctus, surrounded was and mineral for its sulphurous exhalations springs ; on a neighboring hill stood the temple of Mephitis, the goddess who presided over noxious vapors, whence called Muffeta. the valley is now the Sabatus (Sabato), and Color (Galore), % 45. The principalrivers of Samnium were both tributaryto the Vulturnus.

first called Maleventum,

"

"

The contended years, Rome

Samnites with

were

descended Romans the the

from

the

same

parent

stock

as

the

Sabines,

and

for

the which and

for the Romans Samnites

during

prevailed,

of more empire of Italy ; at length, after a war to were frequently reduced great extremities, almost were totally extirpated, B. C. 272.

many years than seventy fortune the of

" 46. greater

rentum.

Apulia,

called
east

also of

part of the

La Puglia, occupied the Daunia and Japygia, but now Italy,extending from the river Frento to the Bay of Ta-

of the same it from a town Teanum, named : Apulum to distinguish from Campania; Arpi, said to have been built by Diomede, after his return the Trojan war of Arpi is Mount ; north Garganus (Saint Angelo) in the spur of the the boot to which Uria, which gave Italy is commonly compared ; "east of Arpi were ancient to the Simis name Urius, and Sipontum (Manfredonia, which gave tothe Sinus
Its chief towns in
name
'

TJrius

its

modern from

name,

Jbacerii, celebrated
it distinguish
a

the borders Gulf of Manfredonia) ; on for its wool; Salapia (Salpe); and Asculum, Near of the same town in Picenum. name
"

of Samnium
called the

stood
to

Apulum,

river Aufidus

PLATE

I-

PLAN

OF
to

ANCIENT

ATHENS.

(According

that

given

in

Barthelemy's

Anacharsis.)

PLAN

OF

ANCIENT for the Diffusion

ROME. of Useful

(As published by the

Society

Knowledge.)

P.

I.

EUROPE.

ITALIA.

TOPOGRAPHY

OF

ROME.

15

celebrated

school

of
was

exercisey, that it

famous for their skill in athletic philosophy ; the people were so said the last of the Crotoniates is the first of the commonly
*'

south of this was celebrated the Promonlorium Greeks"; where Lacinium, a very she is frequently called the Lacinian temple of Juno stood, whence goddess ; from the remains of this temple, the promontory is now called Capo della Calonne ; Scylacceum founded (Squillace), by an Athenian colony on a bay to which it gives name ; Caulon with (Costel Vetere), an Achaean colony, almost destroyed in the wars Pyrrhus ; south the Promontorium of it,Neryx (Gerace), near Zephyrium (Burzano), the capitalof the at a Locrians, who early period settled in this part of Italy. 'The cape at the very southern named Promonlorium Herculis, now extremity of Italy was Spartivento. The rivers of the Bruttii were the Crathes (Crati), and Neceihes "Neti), which principal received its name the Achaean from women having burned their husbands' ships to prevent their proceeding further in search of a settlement.
"

$ 50.
on

great
return

proportion
from thrones the
were

of

the

Greeks

who

colonized

the

south been

their that

and

their

found that Trojan wars, occupied by others. the

a

they
The

had

intestine
at

Italy, were generals, who, forgotten by their subjects, that almost wars continually
times, by
their and under had been laws
;

of

devastated

Greece,
to
"

increased

number

of

exiles, who
that

different

various denied but

an

leaders, sought
them
annual at

obtain, in
These similar
to

foreign

country,
were

home.

different the

states

tranquillity and internally regulated

council of

liberty that
own

communities in one great confederacy. it was to have the leading state, but after a bloody war, Sybaris seems been, at first, destroyed by the jealousy of the people of Crotona Sybarites did not yield to despair ; five limes they ; the rebuilt their city, but at length it was leveled its wretched to the ground, and inhabitants, forced Crotoniates to relinquish their native The did not town at Thurium. long place, built a new their for the vices of the introduced into their city, and preserve supremacy, Sybarites were To Locrians. their superiority, the Locrians the to they consequently fell an secure easy prey entered into an alliance with considerable the obtained kings of Syracuse, who by this means influence in the south of Italy, until the attempt of the elder to himself a part Dionysius to secure of the country gratitude and still more the inby building a wall from the Terina;an gulf to the Ionian sea, of the connection. After for the them a distaste breaking Dionysius, gave younger
" " "

united

congress the several

Amphictyonic

Greece,

assembled

at

Heraclea,

and

off
war

their with

alliance

with

the

Sicilians, the
the

Locrians fortunes
at

united of

themselves Rome ambition with

to

the
most

Romans unshaken

during

the

but

to Pyrrhus, they adhered afterwards becoming justly alarmed

"

the

the

restless

of their
states

fidelity ; allies, they readily joined

people
Locrians embraced the the the division

Hannibal.

It is remarkable,

that nobles

in all the sided

other with the

Italo-Grecian

the

Carthaginian
of

side, while* the

ruled the
to

Romans,

but

among

parties
The

was

directly the contrary.

shores put
were

Tarentines

luxury, they
secure

obliged
from monarch the

themselves

their

city

the

Romans.

campaign,
of

that

returned

and by riches bay, but being enervated protection of Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, to Italian of Pyrrhus's After the disgraceful termination command the home, leaving a garrison in Tareilfum, under of the Tarentine under
the

Milo, who
After the of Roman

betrayed
termination

city to
the their

the

Romans. Punic laws

war,

of

second
own

Rome,

retained

and

these states, though acknowledging the latest to private jurisdiction, even

the

periority su-

periods

of

the

empire.

it is stated,nearly in This citywas " 51. (3) The Topography of Rome. originally, In the time of the form of a square, and its whole scarcely one mile. perimeter was been said to have Pliny the walls were nearly 20 miles in circuit. The wall built by The 14 miles in circumference. Belisarius to resist the Goths, stillremaining, is about
"

four; in the time of the elder Pliny, there were originally the most The following were thirty-seven; in the reign of Justinian only fourteen. Lalina, Capena, FlaCarmentalis, Collina, Tiburtina, Ccelimontana, noted; Porta
Gales

(Porta) of Rome

were

minia,
For about
a

Ostiensis.
plan of
ancient

Rome,

see

our

Plate

from I.,

which

the reader

may

learn

the position of many

of the

important objects

to be

noticed.

Via of the principal were centered Some in Rome. " 52. Thirty-one great Eoads These public roads "issuing from the Sacra, Appia, JEmilia, Valeria, Flaminia. tiers terminated Forum traversed only by the fronItaly,pervaded the provinces,and were in the middle of the forum, called of the empire." Augustus erected a giltpillar Milliarium reckoned.
p. 39.)
"

aureum{Tac.
"

Hist.i. 27),
monument

from
was

which

This

curious

discovered
the hill of

distances on in 1823."
which with

the

various

roads

were

Butler's

Geogr. Class.
and

in the

as

raised some They usually were height above straight a line as possible, running over principles of engineering. They consisted
stalumen to

ground
and

they traversed,
a

proceeded
for all

valley
distinct
or

sovereign

three

layers of
small

contempt materials ; the

lowest,
a

mixed with stones, cement, level and unyielding surface of

receive

of neighborhood roads, defined which foot-ways, margines, protected by curb-stones, water The latter was barrelled, that, no of the central for carriages. the extent part, av"rer, united They it." "The were by mile-stones. public roads accurately divided might lie upon but their primary object bad distant intercourse; the subjects of the most by an provinces easy facilitate the march been to of the legions. The advantage of receiving the earliest intelligence, their throughout of conveying the emperors and with to establish, their orders celerity,induced erected where of posts. Houses institution extensive were only the regular dominions, every of them the distance of five or forty horses, six miles; each was provided with at constantly in a day along the Roman hundred miles and to travel a by the help of these relays, it was easy

large

masses

accurately

fitted

and upper together. These

; the the

middle,

gravel
most

stones,

rudera,

to

important

structure, especially in the

which

prepare consisted

cities, had,

on

both

sides, raised

"

16

CLASSICAL

GEOGRAPHY.

of the posts was claimed The it by an allowed who use to those imperial mandate ; but fur the public service, it was sometimes to the business indulged 01 though originally intended three' of private citizens." noticed Roman Dr. Robinson mile-stones his route on conveniency from Beirut of in "a column Latin 1838) with them, large a inscription (in Tyre to Syria; one of Septimius and Pertinax." Traces Severus still exist of a Roman containing the names arid road thence The ancient and to Petra, to Ailah. most brated celeeven leading from Damascus of all the the Roman Vis called of Roads. was Appian way, Regina Viarum, the Queen It was constructed extended by the censor, Appius Claudius, in the year of the city 441, and 360 miles. from Rome Afterwards it was continued to it Brundusium, A.t Sinuessa to Capua. threw off a branch which called the Domitian to ran JBaiK, Neapolis, Heralong the coast way, culaneum, and Pompeii. roads.
"

Ar.

Bergier, Hist, leading from

des

grands chemins
the

des

Romains. Inscr. vol.

Par.
xxx.

1792. 2 vols. 4. p. 198.

"

"

D'AnvilU,

on

the

extent

of ancient

Rome

and

the grand
as

roads cited

it,in

Mem.

Acad.

E. Robinson,

Bibl. Res.

vol. iii. p. 415, 432 ; vol. ii. p. 562,

"117.

" 53.

There

were

eight principal bridges

;

city from
or

the north

Pons
some

Milvius
arches

the Tiber, which flowed over through the latinus JElius, stillstanding ; Fubricius ; Ceslius ; Pa;

Senalorius,
was

of it stillremaining
or

Sublicius

or

JEmilius

Janihills.

cularis, stillexisting ; Triumphalis

Rome These were Viminalis.
The
on

Vaticanus.

called Mons

from Septicollis,

having

been

built

on

seven

mountains

or

Palatinus,
commencement
or

Aventinus, Esquili?ius,Ccelius, Capitolinus,

of the

Quirinalis,
accounts,
the

foundation Mons

or

city was
Romulus

made,
had

according
his
to

to

the

common

the

Palatinus and

Palatium. the
term
was

Here

residence.

Here
a

emperors

usually abode, The dwelling.

a

hence called and double

Palatium,

palace,
the

hill first added

probably

Sabine the

settlement Romans The

this addition Quirium; before the death Sabines, Janus

on

applied Quirinalis, on being made

of

designate
it has the the

which when and

royal or princely been supposed was

was

union Romans
to to

formed took the this

name

tween be-

Romulus,
is

of

Quirites.
was

the

earliest

coins

by

some

supposed
is supposed the close of

refer have

to

union.

Next The

added

the hills

hill
were

other

four

a Tuscan Cwlius, on which successively added, at

settlement least before of the

been of

planted.
Serviua with the

the

reign
a

Tullius,

sixth

king
the there

of

Rome.
was

Two fortified

hills

on

the

north

Tiber

were

also

connected
sort

city. The and joined

uttered the Peter's

Janicalum
to

by

Ancus

ancients, but church, and

was

city by a bridge. The by soothsayers, vates, was is now the principal place
the into celebrated the Vatican Aurelian.
Tiber
was

as Martius, fourth king of Rome, other, the Vaticanus, so called perhaps

of out-post, the disliked

from rather

added in Rome, library.

at

later

period
seat

it of

was

being
A tenth

the

the

Pope's

predictions by palace, St.

called also

hill,Collis hortulorum,
says,

Pincius,
On
the

taken
of the

city by
the

side

Capitoline hill towards

the

Tarpeian

Rock.

Johnson

(in his

Philos.

of Travel,

cited

P. IV

" 190), "of

of its summit

all that tremendous

now

precipice, painted in such terrific colors by Seneca,

dust

immensx

altiludinis filth of modern cautious

fee aspectus, only thirty hovels." estimates

"

overlook

the consolidated

of ancient

temples
of

and whom

the accumulated

The both

spot

wa

visited in 1829 by two

American been

gentlemen,
about
SO

eminent

scholars,one
about

writes, " after very

be

we

judged

the originalheight to have

of feet,

which

twenty may

filled up, leaving about

60 for its present altitude. "

" 54.
there the
names
were

Rome

was

divided originally The order

were

fourteen.
convenient

most

of the
or

districts

into four districts. From the time of Augustus last division is followed by most topographers, and affords for mentioning the objectsworthy of notice in the city. The follows; 1. Porta Capena ; 2. Ccdimontium as ; 3. Isis and Pads
or

Serapis
Viminali Txberim. trespass them.
A

IS'Ioneta ; 4.
;

Templum
; 7.

Via

Sacra

5.

Esquilina
; 9. ;

cum

turri

et colle ;

6. Alta
;

Semita Circus

Via

Lata;
;

8. Forum

Romanum Publica

Circus

Flaminius
;

10. Palatium To
on
our

11.

Maximus

12. Piscina

13. Aventinus

14.

Trans

describe

only the most designed limits, and

objects included
in the

we

remarkableobjectsin each region or district would be content with merely naming some of must
regions is given in KennetVs
Rom.

tabular statement See

G.

of the

fourteen Stadt the

Antiquities, ch. ii. as cited engravings.

The

P.

III. " 197. 2.

the

C. Adler's of Sextus

ausfurliche Rufus and

Beschreibung
Publius Victor
anew

der

Altona,
of

1781.

4.

with
others.

basis,mainly, is
3 and

arrangement
NardinVs novamente di Roma
into

with
.3.

additions

Nardini

and

fCf. Grscvii Thesaurus, vols.

"

4.^

Italian
con

original was
le Autorita
e

published

by

Nibby, Rome, 1S20, 4

"c.

vols. 8. with

plates. Descrizione
1697. and
2 vols. 4.
"

di Roma

Antica

forma

di Bart, Rom.

Marliani,
1820. 3 vols

Onof. Panvinio,
8. with
"

with

plates.

Rom.

C. Fea, Nuova

descrizione Transl
Piali's

antica

moderna.

plates. C. Burton, Monuments

Curiosities of Rome.
ed.

Oxf. 1821.

German Rom.

by Sickler,Weim.
1824.
2 vols. 4."

1S23. 8."

Venuti, Descrizione
and

topografiadelle antichita di Roma.

Lond.

by Visconti, 1S03, with

Notes.

Burgess, Topography
and

Antiquities of Rome.
der Stadt Rom.
4

1831. 2 vols. S."Ficoroni,

Vestigia di Roma
a

"Plainer,
Number

Bunsen,

Gerhard,

Rcstell,Beschreibung

Tubing, and
On
the

Stuttg.1829-37.
monuments

3 vols, with

Bilderheft (or
cf. P. IV.

of plates)." F. Blume, Rome

Iter Italicum,
in the

Halle, 1836.

vols. 8. Yk.

remaining

of ancient

Rome,

"" 186, 188, 191, 226,243.

Nineteenth

Century. N.

1827. 2 vols. 12.

of the peoplaces in the citv, designed for assemblies ple, termed Of the nineteen also for games, Campi. which Martius the largest and most It was mentioned, the Campus famous. are was the Tiber ; thence called sometimes Tiberinus, but usually Martius, as consenear crated It was the property of Tarquin the Proud, and confiscated to Mars. originally after his expulsion. In the later ages it was surrounded tures by several magnificent structhe citizens could erected, under which exercise in rainy porticos were ; and
were

" 55.

There

large open

and

for martial

exercises, and

weather. and
there

It
were

was

also

adorned
or

with

statues

and

arches.

Septa
and

Ovilia

(P. III. " 259), constructed

" 56. The main blocks of houses

streets

of the city were vice. termed buildings : these being separated

Comitia held here ; were for the purpose. On connected each side were and by streets by intervening

ill

P.

I.

EUROPE.

ITALIA.

TOPOGRAPHY

OF

ROME.

17

lanes,
424.

or

would alleys,

by buildings and thus

They

pied separate divisions, or a sort of squares ; the portions occucalled Vici; of these there were, it is said, separated were had particularnames; e. g. Vicus albus,jugarius, lanarius, Tibertinus,

form

Junouis,

Minerva,

"c.

for the of Fora was " 57. The name given to places where the people assembled transaction of business. acted Although at first business of every sort was probably transin the same convenient to place, yet with the, increase of wealth, it became divided into two make Venalia. a sorts, Civilia and sep^r^tion; and the Fora vere The Roman Fora
not
more

were

not

the breadth

than

like the ayapai of the Greeks, nearly square, but oblong ; the length two-third3 of the length ; the difference between
at

discoveied and breadth of the chief Forum Until the time of Julius Csesar there was class ; that generally called Forum Romanum, This gave to the 8th region (" 54), and name

Pompeii
but
or one

Forum

is greater. of the

first mentioned

simply, by way of eminence. between the Capitoline and Palatine was and adorned hills ; it was all sides, by Tarquinius on 800 feet wide, built by Romulus, the public buildings around Priscus, with porticos,shops, and other buildings. On that it the Forum so expended in the architecture and ornaments, were great sums the Basilica, Curia, presented a very splendid and imposing spectacle: here were and Tabularia rous public granaries: here too were placed nume; temples, prisons,and
statues
was

Forum

(cf.P. IV.

" 182. 2), with

to

other thus
sort

monuments.

In the it to be

centre

of the Forum

place called the Curlian mysterious gulph or chasm, and

the
were

Lake, where
have
a

Curtius caused of
the

is said to have

plunged into
On
one

closed which

up.

side

the

elevated

seats

(or suggestus,

from pulpits),

magistrates and
adorned

orators

beaks

with the from the inhabitants of Antium. of ships, taken in a sea-fight Near the by was of the legislative called the Corhitiurn, where assemblies some were part of the Forum
;

addressed

the

people

usually called

Rostra, because

Curiata. In or near the Comitium the Puteal held, particularlythe Comitia was little space surrounded and Attn ; a puteal was a by a wall in the form of a square, roofed over such a structure struck was usually erected on a spot which had been : the Praetor's Tribunal, for holdAttii was ing with lightning. Not far from the Puteal
,

courts.

There

was

in
with
to

the

Forum,

near

the

Fabian

arch, another
near

structure

marking
bankers has

a were

place struck
accustomed
been

lightning,the Puteal
meet

Libonis,
The

which

usurers

and

iFLor. Sat. ii.vi. 35).

four
with others the built

milliarium

in the Forum

already
this

mentioned
Forum,
Forum the

(" 52).
there
were

Besides for civil the the Forum

ancient
;

by

different

emperors,

and

designed
war;

purposes Rome

the

Julium,
adorned the and

built

by Julius Nervte,
Forum

Caesar, with
of the

Jlugusti, by Augustus,
on

statues

spoils taken kings of Latium

and the
most

in the
on

Gallic
one

side

and

kings of having statues The and

cow

other;

Forum the

of all the

emperors;
were

by Domitian Trajani,by Trajan,

begun
; among

finished

by Nerva, splendid of all.

Fora

Venalia

fourteen
with
a

in number
brazen

them

the Forum

Boarium,
;

ox

market,

adorned

market swine ; Suarium, the first place belongs to the Capitolium. " 58. In speaking of the temples of Rome, of the oldest, largest, and most The Capitol was grand edifices in the city. It one first founded was by Tarquinius Priscus, and afterwards from time to time enlarged adorned with and embellished. Its gates were brass, and it was costly gilding ;

vegetable

bull ; market, "c.

Piscarium, fish market

Olitorium,

the Capitoline the epithetsaurea and fulgens, applied to it. It was in hill, on called arx. from the sometimes The ascent highest part, of the city,and was 200 forum in the form of a square, to it was extending about by 100 steps. It was feet on each side. Its front was decorated of pillars, the other sides with three rows Three included in this structure with two. temples were ; that of Jupiter Capitolinus in the centre, one sacred to Minerva the right,and one the left. The to Juno on on minor temples or chapels, and the Casa Romuli, or Capitol also comprehended some also covered the ascent the Capitol was with straw. Near to cottage of Romulus, the asylum, or place of refuge. the
"

hence

This war, with has

See

cplebrated B.
;

structure

was

C. 83, but

rebuilt

by Sylla
time than

thirdly, about
masnificence much
Diet,

the

greater
been
Smith's

destroyed, or nearly so, by fire, three times ; first,in the Marian rebuilt pasian A. D. 70, and by Veswar, ; secondly, in the Vitellian it was rebuilt of Vespasian's death, after which by Domitian remain A few there ever. vestiges only now ; respecting which
and
works there

discussion.
of

Antiquities,art. Capitolium,

cited.

" 59. The the Pantheon, built by Marcus Agrippa, son-intemple next in rank was law of Augustus, its name and consecrated imports, to all the to Jupiter Ultor, or, as gods (navrav detov). It is circular in form, and said to be 150 feet high, and of about walls the same The the inside breadth within the walls, which 18 feet thick. on are either solid marble covered with front on the outside was incrusted. The are or with lead. brazen it is covered and the top with silver plates; but now plates gilt,
but only of brass, of extraordinary size and work. It has no windows, gate was opening in the top, of about 25 feet in diameter, to admit the light. The roof ia curiously vaulted, void spaces being left here and there for the greater strength. The
an

b2

18

CLASSICAL

GEOGRAPHY.

"

The

vestibule is supported by sixteen

and

Corinthian

columns,

fourteen

feet in circumference,

feet in height, each shaft being an entire block of red oriental thirty-nine The of white marble." Pantheon is one of the bases and capitals having granite, It is now called the Botunda, most perfect of the ancient edifices remaining at Rome. consecrated by Pope Boniface 4th, A. D. 607, to the Virgin Mary and having been all the Saints.
Dr.
now

Adam,

in his

account
as was

of

the

Pantheon,
this entered
statement

they
two

statement

go down it that steps ago,

On many." originally
enter

point
by

says, the
seven

"they used gentleman

to

ascend

to

it

by
At

12

steps, but
one

mentioned

in $ 53,
correct.
can

writes, "the
present been took Plate
true

ascends four under

to

it. the who

The

of
to

is doubtless steps twelve steps of descent the

"

only

have This
see

centuries

before

place
was

anterior

Pantheon For
a

was

cleansed.

place
III.

Pope

Eugene
were

IV.,

elected

in 1431."

view

of the

Pantheon,

(cf.P. III. " 203), which temples in ancient Rome many famous The here be described. cannot as temple of Saturn was particularly serving of the strongest places in the one for the public treasury; perhaps thus- used because that in the golden age, under ascribed it to the tradition, Saturn, city; although some also kept the public registersand records, In this temple were fraud was unknown. them the Libri Elephantini, or ivory tablets containing lists of the tribes. among built, or finished at least, by Numa; a The edifice, temple of Janus was square each side ; which in time of on to be with two were kept open gates of brass, one
" 60. There other
war, So in the

and

shut in time
the

of peace.
in wars, that the gates of the first Punic close the of Janus war, B.
were

continually was reign of Numa;

of Augustus; under
were see

city engaged secondly, at the

last under formal time
near

seldom three

shut times

first,
the

C. 241;

in

reign
once

the
once

Nero,

Vespasian,
ceremony

gates
Sainte

opened
Plate VII.
Sur

with

times birth; and three afterwards, and about Constantius, A. D. 350. The lastly,under JEn. vii. of For view the a nus, 707). (Kirg. temple of Ja-

epoch

of Christ's

"

Croix,

la cloture.du

temple de Janus,

the Mem.

Acad.

Inscr. vol. xlix. p. 385.

celebrated of its library, account on temple of Apollo on the Palatine hill was The " 126). temple of Vesta yet exists in a small circular church, on the side 'Besides these, we the temple of the Tiber. hill towards of the Palatine name may Concord ; of the goddess of Peace {Pact ceternce) ; of Castor and Pollux; of Valor, built by Marcellus. The

(P. IV.

"

"

The and within "61.

Romans
to

were

accustomed,
As many
as

like other
230

ancient
groves

woods
the

the

gods.

sacred

nations, {luci)are

to

consecrate

groves

enumerated,

chiefly

city of Rome.

and appropriated, Curim or public edifices, were parts of public edifices, of the senate and civil councils, others for assemblies for meetings of rites. To the former the priests and religious orders for the regulation of religious have the Curiae ; to class the Senacula belonged. The following were seem among Vetus, Hostilla, Vallensis, Pompeii, "c. viz. Curia Romana, The
some

of them

The

term

Curia,

as

designating

an

edifice

or

apartment,
a.

seems

to have for

been

originally applied

to the halls or

places

where

the

citizens of the hall

or

respective Curix

(cf.P. III. "

219

" 251) assembled

religiousand other purposes;

each

of the

thirty had

its common

place of meeting.

were buildings of great splendor, devoted to meetings of the senate, Here counsellors received their clients, and here bankers judicial purposes. There fourteen for transacting then business. were also had rooms (according to them, Basilica Conor vetus, twenty-one) of these buildings ; among twenty some, the Both Basilicae and the Curiae were stanliniana, Siciniana, Julia, "c. chiefly

The

Basilica

and

to

"

around
It should resembled

the
be the the

Forum.
that the
term

remarked Basilicx Ccelian

on

Basilica The
on

was

applied

to many

of the
this name

ancient
were as

Christian erected
the most

churches,
under
ancient

because He

they
gave

so

much
own was

just described.
hill to construct

earliest churches

bearing

Constantine. Christian

his
Next

palace
that about

on

its site a

church, which 324,

on

is recognized
and

Basilica. Mars

of St. Peter twelve

the

Vatican
was

hill, erected
then

A. D.
down

the

site

with
on

the

ruins of the temples of Apollo and arisen the Christian

modern church

; it stood
name.

centuries,and
of the

pulled

by Pope Julius 2d, and

see

its site has the

of the 1841.

same

"On

the structure

earlyChristian churches,
were

L.

Coleman,

Antiquities of

Church.

And.

8. chap. \x.

fighting with wild beasts. angles with the sides, and

and to appropriated to public spectacles,to races, end at generally oblong, having one right the other curved, and so forming nearly the shape of an ox-bow. A wall extended quite round, with ranges of seats for the spectators. There in another described eight of these buildings,besides the Circus Maximus, place, were P. III. " 232. of the Forum. of these, see For an account situated in the vicinity in racing, but The of a similar form, designed for contests Stadia were structures of the same less in size and cost (cf. P. IV. " 236.) character, and Hippodromi were sometimes been built for private use. to have seem Rome had also a number of large edifices constructed for the purpose " 63. Ancient Those for the former of dramatic shows. exhibitions, and for gladiatorial use were % 62. The Circi
structures

They

were

"

The that erected termed (cf.P. III. " 238). theatra first,permanent, was by Pomnity of hewn this, in the vicicapable of accomodating 40,000 persons stone, ; near pey, and that of Balbus; hence the of the river,were others, that of Marcellus two

p.

I.

EUROPE.

ITALIA.

TOPOGRAPHY

OP

ROME.

19

phrase appliedto them,

were

irla thealra.

termed

Amphithealra (P.
a

Coliseum, stillremaining,
in form, and musical skill after the
manner

most

ornamented
were

with

shows The structures designed for the gladiatorial the the most remarkable III. " 239), of which was buildings circular stupendous ruin. The Odea were and where trials of pillars, numerous seats, statues,
" "

held, and
of the
most

poeticaland
(P. IV.

other

literary compositions
Those established

Greeks

" 65).

exhibited, were and by Domitian

Trajan
" 64.
numerous

were

the
; such

celebrated. of

of bathing (bahiea) were for the purpose very called lherm.ee. In the time public character were Maecenas is said to have been the first of the republic, the baths were usually cold. then called thermce,,and and hot ones for public use. erect warm They were to sedile,increased ihe placed under the direction of the cediles. Agrippa, while he was The

buildings constructed
as were a more

number 800

of thermce

to

170, and

in the

course

of

two

centuries

there

were

no

less

than

The thermce JDiocletiani were especiallydistinguishedfor their imperial Rome. of Nero, Titus, Domitian, and and magnificence (cf.P. IV. " 241. b). Those extent also of celebrated splendor. especially Caracalla, were the in which of Ludi schools was name or " 65. The given to those structures various athletic exercises were taught and practiced; those most frequently mentioned also several There the Ludus were are Magnus, Sadttinus, Dacicus, and JEmilius. Aucalled Naumachice for exhibiting naval engagements, structures ; as Naumachia (Cf. P. III. " 233.) gusli, Domiiiani. large edifices sacred to the nymphs, and called Nymphce.a; one Finally, there were adorned and was noted, which contained artificialfountains and water-falls, particularly with numerous of these imaginary beings. Cf. P. II. " 101. statues covered Porticos or Piazzas These " 66. The were were numerous. (porticus) very with statues, and designed as places for meeting and walking for colonnades, adorned with other connected sometimes pleasure. They were ; sometimes separate structures that theatres, and the like. The most splendid was large buildings,such as basilica?, the one called Milliaria or of Apollo's temple, on Mount Palatine; and the largest, sometimes Courts held in porticos; Milliarensis (i.e. of the 1000 columns). were and goods also of some kinds were Cf. P. IV. " 237. exposed for sale in them. of with Triumphal arches (circus triumphales), The adorned to the number city was of them in bas-relief (P. IV. % 188). Some and various ornaments 36, having statues Titus, Trajan, Septimius Severus, were e. magnificent ; as very g. those of Nero, and Constantine. These of the finest marble, and of a square figure,with a were in

largearched
" 67. There

gate in the middle, and

were
or singlepillars

small

one

at

the sides.
commemorate

of the Ruins particularvictories, e. g. those last has been first, as supposed, were 1). The reckoned still standing, and are the most two are precious remains of anti among removed from quity (cf.F. IV. % 188. 2). With Egypt, great labor, obelisks were and those stillexisting,having been of which conveyed there by Augustus, Caligula,
"

columns, columnce, also erected to of Duillius, Trajan, and Antoninus. discovered in 1560 (cf. P. IV. " 133.

Constantius Innumerable

the second, also were

are

the

most

remarkable.

also in many size are mentioned. likewise There were of marble, sometimes

the statues, which found not were public places, in and upon large edifices. More erected of wood,
at
on

only in the temples, but than eighty of a colossal

were

Rome which

a were

few

trophies,tropcea. These hung the spoils taken from

trunks
enemy,

the

of war. There trunks of marble decorated like trophies are two especiallythe weapons and supposed to have been still remaining at Rome, erected for his by Marius victories over Jugurtha, and over the Cimbri. the memorable " 68. Among things of Rome, the Aqueducts, aqucp.ditctus,should be mentioned. Their design was to furnish the city with a constant supply of water, 14 of and trreat expense laid out in constructingand adorning them. There was were the largersort, besides others of less importance; the Aqua Appia, Marcia, Virg". known. The smaller reservoirs [lacus) Claudia, Scptimia, and Alsielina, are the most with statues and carver's work. were commonly ornamented
Some and
over

of

the

aqueducts
to

hronght
on

water

more

than above

60

miles,
100 feet

through
high.
were

rocks The
care

and of

valleys, supported
the tediles aquarian.

arches,
the

sometimes emperors,

belonged
enratnres
R.

; under

particular

officers

appointed
of

mountain!!, nally origicalicd for it,

these
(he

Fal'yclti.Ve Cf.P.

Af|ua*ductibus veteris Roma?.

F. B. Tower, The

Rnm.

1680.

4.

"

/. Rovdclet, French
an

Translation

Frontinus and

on

Aqueducts of
N. Y. 184J.

Rome.

V.549I."
were

Crolon

Aqueduct
cost

; with

Account

of similar Works structure.

Ancient

Modern.

The
sewers

Cloaca;
or

also

works

of

of them drains, some various impurities into the Tiber. under the of officers were charge styled curatores built by Tarquinius and Maxima, Priscus, cleansed and
See

of very durable great the large, passing under very stood private houses Many and cloacarum.

whole

a sort They were city, and discharging

of its

30

feet

high,
I) ict.of

formed

of blocks
P.

of hewn
IV. $ 238.
3

stone.

directly upon the cloacte. The the principal was 16 feet repaired by M. Agrippa; it was The Pantheon it. over ($ 59) was
Hist, of Rome,

These Cloaca, broad

Stuart's

Architecture, cited

NUblthrh

Eng. Trans!.

Phil. 1835. vol. i. p. 299.

"J69.

Splendid

tombs

and

monuments

to

the

dead

were

sometimes

erected

P. III. (cf.

20

CLASSICAL

GEOGRAPHY.

" 341). vVe may here particularly name the Mausoleum of Augustus, of a pyramidical form, 385 feet high, with two obelisks it; the Moles Hadriani standing near the ; and Tomb ox Pyramid of Cestius (cf.P. IV. " 226, P. III. " 187. 4). " 70. The number of private buildings amounted, in the reign of Theodosius, to the domus and 48,382, including the insidce ; the former of which classes comprised, according to Gibbon, the " great houses," and the latter the "plebeian habitations" (cf. P. III. "325). Among these buildings were of great splendor, partly of marble, some
and adorned
more

with

statues
were

and

colonnades.
Junius

I. The the pabce the most

was on

celebrated

the palaces of Julius Caesar,Mamurra,

Scaurus.

Verus, Cicero, and Augustus, the golden house

"c"
"

of

Nero,
was

of Licioius

Crassus, Aquilius, Catulus, .aEmilius

was

Trajan, Hadrian, hill,and

gave
the
name

The

Imperial palace (Palatium) region

and of the

distinguished. It
the Via Sacra, endeavored and

built

by Augustus planted

upon oaks.

the

Palatine
the

to the

tenth

city.

The

front

before
the

it were

Within The
all the He the be

palace lay

temple of Vesta,
extended also the
with and

also that of
this that

Apollo, which

Augustus it,but

to make extent

chief temple it not

in Rome.
embraced

succeeding
Palatine

emperors

beautified

palace. Nero. "jurat

and the

rebuilt

it of such
even a

that

only

hill,but
it so

plain between

Coelian

and

Esquiline, and
and ;

part of these

in its limits. hills,

it received

ornamented
name

richly
aurea.

precious stones, gold, silver,statues, paintings, following emperors stripped

it of its ornaments In the

treasures

of every

description,that
caused
some

of domus

The

Vespasian and Titus

a

parts of it to
burnt ; but

pulled down.
restored
a

Domitian
and
on

afterwards
his
successors.

destroyed the main

In the
time

building.

reign of Commodus,
stillfurther
the 2.

great part of
this

it was

it was became

by him

of Theodoric

it needed

repairs ; but

huge edifice subsequently

ruin, and
"

its site now

stand

the Farnese

palace

and

gardens, and

Villa Spada." Before and the conflagration of the city under

some even

Nero, the

streets

were

narrow

and
the four

irregular,and
of three

the private houses

In the

were

modious, incomof Nero,

more

dangerous
the

from burnt

their imperfect architecture Of the fourteen

and

height

lofty stories.
The
were

time

more

than

two-thirds

of

city was
and

districts, only
xv.

remained

entire.

city was

rebuilt with

regularity, with

streets

broader

less crooked

(cf.Tac.

Ann.

43)

; the

areas

for houses

measured

out, and

the

height

restricted to seventy feet.

71.

The

suburbs

of but

ancient
at

Rome

were

so

extensive

that

its

neighborhood

was

almost is
a

one

immense desert. has

village ;
Modem very of the

Rome

the vicinity of Rome called present, Campagna is built chiefly on the ancient Martius. The Campus the soil of the

di Roma, said

complete
of ruins the

accumulation

raised

sensibly
Pantheon Rome,

entrance
For

($59), and
see

from city,as is evident the height of the Tarpeian

di Roma,
2 vols.

what rock

has

been

respecting

($53).
Rome, in in the

notices of Modern

Piranesi, Vedute

fol. (Cf. P. IV.

" 243. 2)"

under

Nineteenth
the

Century.
there

"W. cited

Fish,

as

cited P. IV. " 186.

6." Encyclop. Americana,

under

Mod.

Some,

and

Travels

Italy

; and

works

" 72. We
" 27)
not

and

we

remains to what to proceed now might include the whole under

in which

be

described
term

in the south

of

Europe (cf.
prehensive comcover

the been

sense,

it has and

sometimes

used.

Grcecia.,taken in a very For it has been made to

Proper, but also Epirus, Thessalia, Macedonia, Philip having procured him a vote in the Amphicdominions and Macedonian were tyonic council, his Thessalian consequently ranked the Grecian The valor and policy of the Epirote kings procured the states. among Thrace honor for Epirus not long after; and finally, raised to the same was same dig-i it became But Graecia is rarely the habitation of the Roman nity, when emperors. ancient Thrace separately,and used in so large a sense and we shall first consider :
Greece and
even

only the Peloponnesus

Thracia. The

victories of

include

the other

countries bounded
on

under

Thracia was it from Mcesia which river divided

Grmcia. the north by the chain

sea,

of

mount

Strymon,
district

the east by the Euxine it from Asia ; on the south it from Macedon. dividing
; on

Thracian

Haemus, which separated Bosphorus, and Hellespont,

sea

by the iEgean
In consequence

the river Nessus the the

Bay
wars

" 73.
or

boundary of Thrace the latter country. The between peninsula contained of Melas and the Hellespont was called Thracia. Chersonesus in ; celebrated between Philip and the Athenians. The Byzantium, capitalof Thrace, and at one time of the civilized world, was
became

the mutual
to

the west on by the ; and of Philip, of the conquests and Macedon, the intermediate

being annexed

"

built Constantinopolis, of

on

its beauty

Chrysoceras,or
but

dispute ;
in the

it was

extremity of the Chersonese, called from founded is a matthis citywas ter golden horn. By whom the Great, greatly enlarged and beautified by Constantine
the north-eastern

the

hither from

of government the seat transferred of the Christian era, century the capital On the division of the Roman empire, this citybecame of the Greek until from eastern or years, part ; it retained this distinction for many the vices of the inhabitants, and the imbecilityof their rulers, it was captured by the Turks the 29th of May, A. D. 1453. on

who,

fourth

Rome.

On

the topography
De

of Byzantium

and

the changes made

"

by Constantine, see Banduri,

Ducange,
seu

Histor. Byzantina.

Par.

16S0.

fol.

"

G. Co1711.

dinus,

Par. 1655. Antiquitatibus Constantinop. works

are

Ans.

Imper. Orient,

Antiquitates Constantinopolilanee.
P-

Par.

1 vols, fol." These

included and

in the

Corpus of Byzantine
Lond.

History, noticed
Amer.
Rett.

V. " 239
or

"

Cf. Gibbon,

ch. xvii." James 433.

Dallaway,

ancient Constantinople,

modern."

1797. 4. North

16th vol.

7th of New

Series, p.

The Asia

other

principaltowns
and
;

were,

Tht/nia,a
Minor

town

promontory, Apollonia, called

for shipwrecks ; Thyni, who colonized Bithynia in built by afterwards Sizopolis(Sizeboli), and Mesembr^a, celebrated Salmydessus (Midijeh),
came

whence

the

1.

I.

EUROPE.

SOUTHERN

COUNTRIES.

GR^CIA.

21

and Penntlms, colony of Megarensians ; all on the Euxine sea. Selymbria (Selibria), Heraclea the Propontis. Callipolis(Gallipoli), at the (Erekli), on junction of the where the little Madytos and Cissa, near Propontis and Hellespont ; the small towns of the battle in which Lysander deriver JEgos Polamos stroyed joins the Hellespont, the scene
a
"

or

"

the naval his

power
across

of the

Athenians
"

and

Seslos and

(Zenunie), where

Xerxes

built
are

bridge of

boats

also celebrated
The On
the

the Hellespont. Sestos for the loves of Hero and Leander.

across

Abydos
it was

on

the Asiatic

side

of swimming possibility doubts here

alluded

the la

Hellespont
and

was

for

a as

long time doubted, but

cited P. V. " 49. 4.

performed

by the late Lord

Byron.

"

to,see

Be

Name,

Mahvdel,

On that

the

bay of Melas,
built
a

so

named

from
to

Cardia^ destroyed by Lysimachus,

he had
"

procure
;

the river Melas, that empties itself into it,were inhabitants for a new town ; Lysimachia, and

little farther south

were

Eiou, which

was

burned

by its governor,
cessful suc"

Boges.
east

Trajanopolis,built by Trajan ; and Adrianopolis, its the second At rival, built by Adrian, and now empire. city of the Turkish
'In the interior

the the

of the Hebrus, mouth of the Cicones; territory

armament erous

stood
on

JEnos, said to have been founded by iEneas, reviewed the west Xerxes side, Doriscus, where
his army the mouth
near
were

near

his immense
so

sus

was

passing the Hellespont, and it is said that At as completely to drain the neighboring river Lessus. Abdera, the birthplace of the philosopher Democritus,
after fed his horses
were on

nu-

of the
were

Nesthe

which

who is said to have stables of Diomede, The "74. principalrivers of Thrace

human

flesh.

the

clearness

and

of rapidity
were

its

waters

Nessus

Hebrus for the (Maritza), celebrated The (Nissar), and Strymon (Jamboli.)
"

in a western sea extending from the Euxine the Euxine direction between Mcesia and Thrace the to sea ; Rhodope, extending from It of the Nessus to the north of Macedon. sources ; and Pangaus, extending thence ascribed to the lyre of Orpheus were the Pangceus that the wonders said to have was on called Castagnas, been performed (P. V. $ 48). Two precipicesof this mountain, now approach to the sea nearly opposite to the island Thasus, and form very narrow passages, defended and bays adjoining this extensive which by walls.1 The principalseas were maritime Pontus Euxinus, Bosphorus Thracius, Propontis, country were, Hellesponlus,

principalmountains

Mount

Hcemus,

"

Melanis
J 75.

Sinus
Thrace
was

(Gulf of Saros), and

Strymonicus Sinus
several

(Gulf of Contessa).
; to
one

being
the first

hard

independent tribes anciently possessed by to pressed by the Absynthi, their neighbors, sent Delphiwar.

of these, the the person the who

Dolonei,
about should

consult

oracle

event

of the them

The his

ambassadors While

were

directed

to

choose

as

leader

they were passing through Athens hospitably entertained him to them to the immediately requested accompany consulted and the oracle invitation. at Delphi, accepted the Miltiades, having On Chersonesus, his arrival after defeated. he was He soon immediately created king, and the Absynthians were fortified the Isthmus, and after a prosperous the Chersonesus across by building the long walls his nephew the crown to Stesagoras. reign bequeathed Stesagoras dying after a short reign, from his brother Miltiades Athens his successor. He sent had as not was by the Pisistratidae Phoenicians Darius, a fleet of king of Persia, sent reigned long, when against the Chersonese, effective and The after to make Miltiades, unable Chersonese, resistance, retired to Athens. any the defeat of the who colonized all the Persians, was principally possessed by the Athenians, interior of Thrace The remained coast. subject to the native princes, until the whole country united was to Macedon by Philip and Alexander.
invite
to

house.

by Miltiades,

the

son

of

Cypselus;

they

"

"

"

remains shall include,as already remarked to be described in Europe we in what is commonly its most considered Gr-ECia, using this name extensive (cf.P. III. $ 2). The comprehensive sense region thus included in Greecia which are obviously suggested by the natural face of presents four general divisions,
76.

What

({ 72), under

the country.

The which
are

1st

Cambunii,
2d

connected

is the part between mountains the south, which on the Sinus Ambracius and the the
on

is that part which lies north of -"the chain of mountains called with the Aero Ceraunii the by the Stymphcei Montes the Cambunii the north, and another line of highlands and on
.

chain

be traced from the Sinus Maliacus the east, to on in its eastern mopylae, extremity it forms the pass of Theris in this portion of it called CEt.a ; as it stretches back in a may

the

west

northerly and then westerly direction, it is called Pindus;

sources

thissends down a spur from of the river Achelous where it forms another pass to the Sinus Ambracius, the corresponding to that of Thermopylae on the east : the 3d is the part between mountains just traced and the gulfs on each side of the isthmus of Corinth, Sinus Corinthiacus and Sinus Saronicus and the 4th is the peninsula connected to the main : The the second, Epirus and Thessalia; the by that isthmus. first is Macedonia;
third, Hellas; the fourth, Peloponnesus. " 77. (1) Macedonia, considered as including the first of the natural
divisions above sia; Mce-

described,
E.

was

bounded

W.

by -the
it was

Mare

Hadriaticum

N.

by Illyricum and

separated by Mt. Rhodope and the river Nestus Montes and the flowing fromRhodope Mare, the Cambunii ; S. by the iEgasum other mountains 'formingthe chain already mentir;ed, which terminates in the Aero Ceraunii the western on extremity.

by Thracia, from

which

22

CLASSICAL

GEOGRAPHY.

that Mt. Ilcemus noticing the physical features of Macedonia, it will be observed stretch along on its north in a single Rhodope, meeting on its N. E. corner, from Orbelus will be noticed called Orbelus Mons chain; this was running ; a spur wiih the Stymphcei, or Mons south through Macedonia, down and forming a connection the Cambunii and Aero Ceraunii. The waters east Stympha, already named, between of this spur flow to the iEgean ; those west of it,to the Hadriatic. " 78. The the Drilo (Drino), which through was principal river of the west runs Lake Lychnidus, and empties into a bay of the Hadriatic, north of the point called One Pronxontorium. of the most Nymphaum important places in this western tion porin the Roman of Greek was Apollonia, on the Hadriatic coast, celebrated age literature (P. V. " 9) for its cultivation, and said to be the place where quired Augustus acAnother his knowledge of Greek, and finished his education. place is worthy the of notice, Epidamnus, further north, called Dyrrachium by the Romans, place of the where This travelers from portion,west Italy to Greece generally landed. taken from Illyricum by Philip (Rollin, B. 14. " 1). was spur, of the spur is principally notice three most " 79. The east champaign. We country considerable (Platemone), in the southern part, flowing east to rivers; the Haliacmon the Sinus Thermaicus (Gulf of Thessalonica, or Salonichi) ; the Axius (Vardari), rising in the heights between Macedonia and Moesia, and running S. to the head of the same tributaries, and uniting with the Erigon on the west gulf,receiving on its way many before its discharge ; the Strymon, risingin Mt. Rhodope, and flowing to the Sinus the the two Between (Gulf of Contessa). gulfs or bays just named, was Strymo?iicus called Chalcidice, and peninsula sometimes presenting peculiar features, having a cluster of mountains its neck, and being split into three smaller peninsulas by two on Sancto). The (G. of Monte bays, the Toronaicus (G. of Cassandra), and the Singeticus of the of these smaller peninsulas was Pallene western or Phlegra, the fabled scene marked battle between was Jupiter and the Giants (Ov. x. 151); the eastern by Ml. celebrated and projecting into the sea, and was Aihos, extending several leagues upon In and
Mt.
"

"

for

canal

said

to

be

cut

across

its neck

by Xerxes

to

avoid

the passage

around

Mt.

having proved so fatal to the fleet of D arias. of which are had " 80. This portion of Macedonia subdivisions,many numerous if they Could be accurately traced. in the northern Paonia was not important, even southern The the Strymon and Nestus called Edonis. was part. The part between Athos, that
passage

part on the and of the Emathia

west
same

of the Sinus

Thermaicus

was

Pieria.

Emathia

was

north

of Pieria,

gulf.

ginal situated Edessa, the orithe most was important province: In this was capitalof the country, on the Erigon; also Pella, on the Lydias, subsequentlj the father of Philip.Further the Sinus Ther made the capitalby Amyntas, east, on maicus, was Thermce, afterwards called Thessalonica, the place of Cicero's banishment and the capital of the country as a Roman province.
At

Thessalonica

there

still remains

an

ancient

structure

which

is supposed

by

some

to

have

been

Cabirian

temple (cf.P. II

"

129.

2)

; a view

of it is given in our

Plate V.

On the peninsula which has been described (" 79) were Fotidcea, or Cassandria, on the memorable neck of Pallene, celebrated for its splendor under kingCassander ; Olynthus, labor captured it by treachery ; Chalcis, which for its siege by Philip,who after much totle. of Aristhe eastern on to the region; Stagira (Stagros), name coast, the birthplace gave In Pieria, of the most memorable Olymone places was Pydna (Kitra),where murdered pias was general Paulus iEmilius made by Cassander, and where the Roman the the last king of Macedonia, North of this, on B.-C. 168. a prisoner of Perseus In Edonis were was Methane, at the seige of which Philip lost his right eye. coast, island in the river Strymon, an two on important towns an ; Amphipolis, originally from dope. RhoAthenian further east, near Mons colony; Philippi, Panga?us, a branch
"
"

The
to
secure

latter the

was

built

valuable and

by Philip, for the same gold and silver mines

Cassius
were

built Amphipolis ; for which the Athenians purpose for the battle found It is celebrated in this region.

in which
as

Brutus

defeated

by Augustus
"thrust

and into
unto

Antony,
the God."
most below

B. C.

42;

and with

memorable their feet

the

fast
The

and Paul place where Silas, having been in the stocks, (.Ads xvi. 25) at midnight sang
site of Philippi is stillmarked
or

inner

prison,
Grecian
our

praises

by ruins (Miss. Herald, Sept. 1836, p. 334)." Like

view

of the

it was cities,
Plate

at the foo. A
on

of
on

hill

mount is
a near

on

which
on

was

its Acropolis. A the road from

of the Acropolis and

to

of the

plain
a

is given in Turkish

IV.

traveler his right

was

horseback
under

advancing

Neapolis

Philippi ;
on

he

is

just passing beyond

modern at the

burying-ground
base of this

hand

hill ; the the

Acropolis, with
and south-west

its ruins,appears

the

eminence

right ;
on

at the the

eminence,

the lower

city,on

south

j farther to the south

is an

open

plain ; the mountain

left is the southern

extremity

of Pan^mus.

J 81. The
B. throne B. O.

kingdom
814;
but C. 360.

of

Macedonia
not

was

said

to

be

founded

by Caranus,

descendant

of

cules, Herthe

it did

acquire

It has

been

stated,

until the reign of Philip, who consequence nations tribes were that 150 different or

ascended

finally included

Within

its limits.

% 82
out

(2) Epieus
are

and
to

Thessalia,
noticed.

embraced

in the

second extensive

natural

division

pointed
in

(" 7b),
Thessalia

next

be

is described

by. Herodotus

as

very

plain, embosomed

PLATE

TV.

24
mountains.
east coast ;

CLASSICAL

GEOGRAPHY.

The
on

Cambunii the
west ;

and and

Olympus
CEta
on

were

on

the north
: so

; Pelion

and

Ossa

on

the

Pindus
between
;

the south the Sinus

a

that

only the small

is without

the Sinus and

even

and Pelasgicus
a

3Ialiacus

portion of the guard of

mountains strikes
The Thessalians used
were

this has Pindus

of first who to

guard
were

little in the

interior, by Ml.
to

Othrys,which

across

from
the

Pelion. peculiarly
the the and and
to
use

extensive
were

plains

Thessaly perhaps,
been late half

favorable of

introduced
arose man

for

their

Hence, draught. supposed to have superiority to a very

fable half them

cavalry, horses of the Centaurs,

The
was

horse.

breeding of horses ; and the having been, at first, only a people of Thessaly, who Thessalian cavalry maintained
for many of his victories.

the

period,

Philip

indebted

called Pelasgiotis,from the Pelasgi, an Thessaly was Asiatic wandering tribe, who supposed to have been the first inhabitants of Greece are (P. IV. " 33). The principalcities in Pelasgiotis Larissa, the capitalof the were and Gyrtona, near the entrance of province ; Gompki, destroyed by Caesar ; Gonnus the vale of Tempe, so celebrated for its natural beauties; Scotussa, near which are defeated hills,called, from their shape, Cynos Cephale,where some Philip was by Quintus Flaminius which, in a plain called Pharsalia, Pompey near ; and Pharsalus, The overthrown named eastern was Magnesia; by Caesar. part of Thessaly was the most remarkable of the same places were Sepias, a small villageon a promontory received of their final overthrow, being where the fleet of Xerxes an omen name, shattered in a storm; Demelrias (Vloo), built by Demetrius Poliorcetes,and which, from the commercial advantages of its situation, almost depopulated the neighboring the residence of Jason and Medea towns ; Melibcea, the city of Philoctetes ; Iolcos, ; the Sinus the ship Argo was built, from which times Pagasce,where Pelasgicus is somethe Argonautic called Pagasceus: Aphetce (Fetio), whence expedition sailed; the river Amphrysus, Pherce,the residence of the tyrant Alexander ; and Thebce, near where In the southern Apollo fed the herds of king Admetus. parts of Thessaly to the Maliac Malia, which were bay; Larissa, called Cremast.e from its gives name sloping situation, the capitalof the kingdom of Achilles ; Alos, at the foot of mount the combat the Centaurs between and Lapithae took place ; Phywhich Othrys, near lace on the musical the sea of Protesilaus ; Dorion, where test concoast, the residence between for the magical took place ; Hypata, famous Thamyris and the Muses of its women arts (Hor. Ep. 5) ; Lamia, where Antipater was fruitlessly besieged by for its desperate resistance when the Athenians; and Trachis (Zeiton), celebrated beseiged by the Romans. The above have been mentioned remarkable " 84. The mountains most (" 82) the Peneus, which flows through the vale of Tempe into the iEgean sea. river was This river is said to have overflowed Thessaly, until Hercules opened a passage for the waters between The mounts principalinlets of the iEgean sea, on the Olympus and Ossa. Thessalian Sinus Pelasgicus or Pagascsus (Gulf of Volo), and Sinus Macoast, were " 83. The
northern

part of

liacus $ 85.
recorded
to

(Gulf of Zeiton).
The in been inundation of Thessaly, during the profane history; all the inhabitants, to discover Perplexed destroyed. consulted the oracle became
seems occurrence

reign

of

Deucalion,
the
to
women.

is and

one

of wife

the

first

events

have

Deucalion, except means by what

were

his human

Pyrrha,are said race stored might be rebehind fable the them

;

they
those of
some

of

Themis,
men

and those

ordered

throw In of under
was

stones

thrown

by

Deucalion

and

by Pyrrtaa
with the

partial inundation
next

to

be
was

confounded the

tradition

The bravest

remarkable of he after

Argonautic
son

expedition
Achilles the and

heroes

Greece,
would

in

the
;

ship Argo
was

(P. II. } 127)."

of Peleus the

history the universal deluge. aided Jason, by the remarkable the most
Thetis
to

this

Thessalian had foretold

prince
that

Jason

he

the

perish

if he

accompanied

Greeks

sea-nymph to Troy;

an

oracle

prevent

of Lycomedes, of whose concealed him at the court king of Scyros, by one afterwards Achilles last at was king of Epirus. begat Pyrrhus, or Neoptolemus, he was of the sons of Priam. slain by Paris, one Ulysses and brought to Troy, where of Athens of little importance. and been to have Sparta, Thessaly seems During the supremacy The annexed It was of it was his successors. to Macedon greater part cruelly by Philip and devastated in the wars between the Romans and and fered the Macedonian Syrian kings; it also sufbetween Caesar and Pompey. severely in the civil wars very mother

this, his daughters he discovered by

" 86. We
Aero between
;

Under

Episus
as on

greater

extent

than

have

suggested Ceraunii, and

the Aero

its natural boundaries the south, the Sinus

have assigned to it is often included. Cambunii the north the mountains and Ambracius ; but the region called Orestis
we
on

Ceraunii

and

'nother

Acamania, province. In

while the Mare

Ionium the provinces Chaonia, Thesprotia, and Molossis. $ 87. Chaonia the portion under the Aero Ceraunii on the south, said to be was named from Cbaon, the brother These mountains of Helenus of Priam. were so son called from their summits ("Kpa) being often struck with lightning (xcpawos) ; they were remarkable

and the river Aous is commonly termed a province of Epirus within the proper limits of Hellas, is also often considered as all descriptions, it is separated from Thessaly by Mt. Pindus; Within the compass here given, it included bounds it on the west.

and were for attracting dreaded by mariners ern storms, ; the rocks at the westcalled infamous extremity of their southern branch, Acro-Ceraunia, were {infames). "The the Oricum in the extreme the coast between *"?wns principal north, on were

26

CLASSICAL

GEOGRAPHY.

its eastern
on

and extremity,

there

the isthmus, and with Mons of the straits of Euripus. The

"

and Mons Oncius connecting with the Geranii Monies Cithceron, which proceeds directlyeast to the sea south includes probably the part of this line joining Pindus

ancient Dryopes dwelt. The first part of the branch which the west, is the Coras chain, and the termination the of this branch at called Taphiassusand Chalcis. In the main line bending to the gulf is in the summits south-east occur first Parnassus, which for its celebrated although of barren soil was suited for meditation ; then Helicon, with its fountain valleys and shady groves green it sends off
to
"

mountains

in which

the

the stamping of Pegasus to fable) from eastward, appears Citharon, which has a summit in the eastern In the territory south of these, were part, called Fames. several summits, particularly Pentelicus,famous for its marble, north-east from Athens ; Hymett.us, celebrated for its honey, east and south-east of Athens ; Laurius, containing

Hippocrene, which

started

into

(cf.P. II. " 117./).

"

existence After this, as

(according
you
turn
"

the

silver

mines, in the
contained
on

southern

extreme

of Attica.

"

Aracynthus

was

chain

in

iEtolia.

" 91.
were,

Hellas

beginning
two

the west,

eight small, but independent provinces or districts. These Acarnania, JEtolia,Boris, Locris, Fhocis, Baotia, Meand
a

garis, Attica.
The other noted
western nature

districts Acarnania

JEtolia

were

very

inferior aspect

to

the

rest

in

fame, although
"92.

presented herself in
was

grander and
and

sublimer

than

in

some

districts. Acarnania

marked
to

for its woods

forests, and

its inhabitants

were

pleasures. We have alluded (" 76) to the natural this district and Epirus, viz., between boundaries and the spur of A.mbracius the Sinus mountains down to that bay. This line of highlands is now running from Pindus which called Mahrinoros is also given to the narrow name pass under their abrupt and the bay, a pass similar to that of Thermopylae. The near boundary steep termination Acarnania and the next between district of Hellas, iEtolia, is the river Achelous, rising the valleysof Mt. Pindus and flowingto the Mare Ionium. among Of the places in Acarnania, we mention Argos Amphilochius on the river Inachus a Anactorium, on emptying at the eastern extremity of the Sinus Ambracius; peninsula of the district ; Actium, a littlefurther to the east, on forming the north-western corner the Promontory of the same At this place Augustus gained his great naval name. called Nicoand to commemorate victory over it,built a town Antony and Cleopatra, celebrated Leucas third year, called Actia. was on polis,and instituted games every the northern point of the island Leucadia, which was a peninsula before the Peloponbut after that separated by an nesian war, artificialchannel. On the south part was a temple of Apollo on the Promontory Leucale, from which the despairing Sappho is said have thrown herself (cf.P. V. " 54). Stratus, once its metropolis, was the to on
,
.

for their attachment

sensual

"

"

Achelous
% 93. iE

which
t o

is

now was
a

called
east

Aspro-potamo.
separated by the river Achelous
to ;

1i a

of Acarnania,
was

it is

now

called this and

Vlakia, from
Its the Achelous

tribe of barbarians the the

whom

other chief river

are

Evenus

this vince. prointo the Corinthian (Fideri),falling bay

the emperors gave
,

Greek

largestrivers of Hellas. The following are the chief places ; Calydon on the Evenus, under Mt. Chalcis of the king of associated with the story of the Caledonian boar (destroyed by the son said to have been preserved in Greece until Augustus carried iEtolia),whose tusks were in the interior,or between them to Rome curiosities ; Thermits, the ancient capital, as
,

the

Trichonis. Naupactus, on the Sinus Corinlhiacus, under Mt. included in the proper limits of iEtolia, but was given to this province it was cause from vavs and irfiyvvyn, besaid to have its name by Philip of Macedon; the Heraclidas built here their first ship to invade Peloponnesus. OEta on the east " 94. D oris, a very small district, lay under Mt. Pindus, between and the south-west and the mountains of the Dryopes on the west, having Parnassus on Evenus and Lake
not
"

was Taphiassus,

south-east ; thus wholly surrounded of Deucalion, ancient son situated monarch of Thessaly. It was were region. Its towns a rocky, mountainous the river Pindus, a branch also rises in the hills of Doris. of the Cephissus, which on called Tetrapolis From it was its four towns Pindus, Erineum, Boium, and Cytinium, ; and sometimes Hexapolis,the two places Lilceum and Carphia being added.

being separated from

Phocis It

by elevated

by mountains.

was

hills on called Doris from

the

Dorus,

was

of two largerpart, parts separated from each other." The the east the west, and Phocis Corinthiacus iEtolia on on having , (partlyseparated from it by the Sinus Crissceus). The inhabitants of this part were of the latter Of the origin called Western Locri, or Locri Hesperiiand Locri Ozolce. different accounts name, are given; the people are said to have disliked the name One of their principalplaces was exceedingly. Amphissa, in the interior, where

" 95.
on

Locris

consisted

the Sinus

was

% 96. the waters from

belonged to them. temple to Minerva. Naupactus (" 93) originally The other and smaller part of Locris was of Hellas, on the opposite coast on It was north-east of Phocis and Boeotia, divided separating it from Eubcea. them (Eta on the north to by a chain of mountains, and extending from Mount
"

P.I.

EUROPE.

SOUTHERN

COUNTRIES.

HELLAS.

27

Platanius, a small river flowing to the channel of Eubcea, and separating Locris inhabited This part was Bcsotia,on the south. by two tribes. The Opuntii in the southern were region, so called from their principalcity Opus, which gave also to the bay adjacent, Sinus OpunLius, containing a small island, Atalanta. name The north of it, on the bay. The other tribe or port of Opus, called Cynos, was named from Mount the Epicnemidii, Cnemis. On people were this there was so a small of the same other places of note town were : name Naryx, the city of Ajax,
the from
"

"

son

of Oileus
a

; Thronium

and
or

Antkela, where

the

Amphictyonic
she

council
was

assembled

annually in
in allusion Close
name

temple of Ceres
the council.
were

Thesmophora

{the lawgiver) as
straits of

here

called,

to"

to

Anthela
some

the

ever-memorable

Thermopylce, derivingtheir

there. This celebrated springs and fortified gates that were the key of Greece, is about sixty paces wide, and is situated pass, usually reckoned between the ridge of Mount (Eta and the Malian gulf, at the junction of the three of men, countries, Locris, Phocis, and Thessaly. Here Leonidas, with a handful bravely resisted the countless myriads of Persia, and died rather' than violate the Spartan law, which forbade flightto the citizens. In the same place Antiochus, king of Syria, was defeated by the consul Acilius.
During
the

from

hot

strugglesof
oppressors
on

the

modern
same

Greek,

revolution
A

(of.P. IV. " 85. 2),two

signal triumphs were

contest

obtained Leonidas

by the Greeks
and
the

over

their Turkish

the

inspiring spot."

the plan of the pass, illustrating

between

Persians,

is given in Barthelemy's

cited Anacharsis,

P. V. " 153. 2.

"97.

Phocis the borders

extended of

between
the

the

two

parts of

Locris, from

the

Corinthian

gulf to
The awakened

Thessaly.
on

capitalwas
the

Elatea,

river

Cephissus, the capture of which

to

by Philip first

attention

of the Greeks

the

dangerous

ambition

of the Macedonian

of Elatea was monarch. West Parnassus, celebrated for the oracle Delphi,on mount of Apollo (P. III. " 72), and for the annual council meetings of the Amphictyonic sus Parnas(P. III. " 105) held in the temple. It is now village called Castri. a mean Bacchus sacred to to summits, one Apollo, and one (Haliocoro) had two ; the
on a neighboring Pythian games were of Apollo's victory over celebrated, in memory Cirrha, on the Python. esteemed the port of Delphi ; small river Plistus, falling into the Corinthian gulf,was this was inlet of the Corinthian the Crissa, from which gulf, and sometimes near an for the production of helwhole called Crisseeus ; and Anticyra, celebrated lebore. gulf, was which the Cephissus, is sometimes The principal river of Phocis was founded con-

town

stood

at

the foot of the

to

mountain,

and

the

temple

was

built

eminence^, close

the

fountain

Castalia.

Near

the town, the serpent

the

"

"

with
a

river of the
and

same

name

in Attica.
Frontispiece of this Manual,
as

view

of

Delphi
"

the heights of Parnassus

is presented in the

given by Socage,
60.

in Barthe*
4.

lemy's Anacharsis.

is found plan of Delphi, with explanations,

in Dissen's

Pindar, vol. ii. p. 628,as cited P. V. "

$
common

98.

At

the

time

of of

the

Persian
;

invasion,
in

the

Phocians

liberties

Greece the

and country earthquakes

rose en

plunder
and
masse,

temple
the

Xerxes revenge, of Delphi. The

despatched
greater

strenuously exerted a large army

part
these of the
men

themselves
to
were

for the the

lay waste destroyed

a

by

lightning;
and the command
to

inhabitants, encouraged by completely destroyed the remainder.

of defeat

appearances 280 About and

were

of B.

divine
a

ance, assistcumstances cir-

0.,

large body
under

of

Gauls,

under

Brennus,
of Xerxes.

invaded

their

country,

defeated

similar

the

"99.
The

Bceotia
narrow

occupied the north-east

strait between

of

Grsecia

Propria,
and

on

the

shores

of the ters letwas

a Eiiripus,

the island of Eubcea

capitalwas
Greece

into

the Thebes, built by Cadmus, (cf. P. IV. " 45). The city stood

the continent. Phoenician, who first introduced

on

the

river

Ismenus,

and

ornamented with seven it is called Heptapulos. It was the birthplace gates, whence of the demi-gods Hercules and Bacchus, of the poet Pindar, and of those illustrious warriors and statesmen, Pelopidas and Epaminondas. The citadel was, from its founder, called of this was the Persian Platma, where were totally army wards aftervalor of the Athenians, Spartans, and Plateans : it was mention also LeucWe destroyed by the Spartans in the Peloponnesian war. the Spartans were lake Copais, where defeated by Epaminondas tra, near ; Coronea, and Helicon ; Chwronea, where mount near Philip, having defeated the Athenians
"

Cadmea.

South

destroyedby

the united

for the temple remarkable Acidalian fountain, sacred to Venus. Near the Corinthian gulf was Thespice,sacred to the Muses, having a port named Creusa On the Euripus were ; and Ascra, the birthplace of the poet Hesiod. of the Grecian fleet in the Trojan expedition,and the scene of Aulis, the rendezvous the celebrated born was Iphigenia's sacrifice ; Tanagra, where ; and poetess Corinna from the temple of Apollo, built in imitation derived its name Belium, a villagewhich of that at Delos, and was the place where Socrates, in the Peloponnesian war, saved the life of his pupil Alcibiades.

Thebans,
"

became

absolute

master

of

Greece which

Lebadea,
the

of

Trophonius

and

Orchomenus,

near

was

"

" 100. and

The

chief mountains
to

of Bceotia
;

were

Helicon, with
on

the fountains of

Hippocrene, sacred

the Muses

Pimpla,

the

borders

Aganippe Phocis, dedicated

28
divinities ; Bacchus.
of Boeotia
were

CLASSICAL

GEOGRAPHY.

to

the

same to

Dirce,

near

Thebes

; and

Cith"ron,

on

the borders

of

Megalittle of
posing ex-

ris, sacred
The

people
;

usually
to

described of

justice
accused have

for

it gave

birth

children, common of nourishing

been
one

in
a

many the rest

men

of

as naturally stupid, but wilh superior talents, and the barbarous here Greece, was totally prohibited. causes. trifling

apparently
custom

They
Thebes

have
seem9

been
to

of

the truth

most

deadly hatred powerful

for of the

In but

the its

heroic

Grecian

discovery
and

of the civil the

discords

difficult. It is very of the posterity of

certainly
Cadmus

states, declined had

history
the

ages, is so

involved,

that

the

in after

times;
power

weakened

tunes probably the misforand destroyed the

spiritof
"S 101.

people.
e

g aris

was

small

said territory, the isthmus and taken their

not

to

be

more

south Sinus other

very

of

mount

Cithaeron, near
between

of Corinth.

situated

midway

Corinth
was

Saronicus;

its port
was

Nisaa,
near

Athens, built on and destroyed by Pericles.

the
name

than eightmiles square, Its chief city was Megara, cliffs not far from the two
The

only
to

place of

note

Crommyon,
have derived

Scironian
from

rocks

these

were

said

be

dangerous, and

to

Sciron, a notorious

pirate and

robber.

Attica, east of Megaris, and south triangularshape, not 30 miles wide at the north, and tapering until it terminates in the point called Sunium, its base on jecting proSaronicus into the Myrtoum ISIare, east of the Sinus (gulfof Engia). It was from its maritime also called Acte situation. The (d/cri?) Athens, a more capitalwas lull descriptionof which shall give below. we
" 102. The of Cithaeron.
was a

remaining province of Hellas

The district
so

named

was

of

miles north of Athens is Marathon, where the first Persian invaders, ten of Dads and Artaphernes, were the command completely routed by of this was the Athenians, commanded North the villageBhamnus, by Miltiades. where formed of the marble that the Persians had brought to raise a trophy a statue, " 103.
About

under

erected to the goddess Nemesis little to the east a anticipatedvictory, was : was occupied by Thrasybulus, in his expedition Phyle, a strong fort, which On the Euripus was against the thirty tyrants. Delphinum, and Oropus, where there Nearer celebrated the north side, was to Athens, a was on temple of Amphiaraus. the Lacedemonians AcharncB, where encamped when they invaded Attica ; and DeEast of Athens was Brauron, they fortified by the advice of Alcibiades. celia,which of Diana, brought from where the statue Taurus preserved until by Orestes, was taken and promontory south-eastern at the by Xerxes ; and Stmium, a town away (from the ruins of extremity of Attica, celebrated for a splendid temple of Minerva it is now the scene called Cape Colonna), and is in modern times remarkable which as of the shipwreck beautifullydescribed West of Athens was by Falconer. Eleusis, where the Eleusinian celebrated. There two mysteries in honor of Ceres were are remarkable temples at Eleusis ; that of Ceres and that of Triptolemus. The founded "104. was city of Athens Topography of Athens. by Cecrops, an called Egyptian, who led thither a colony from the banks of the Nile. At first it was of its founder ; and afterwards 'ASijvai, Athens, in honor Cecropia, from the name the Greeks called 'A^f/vn), of the goddess Minerva because she was the pro(whom tectress of the largest and most of the city. In its most one flourishing state, it was been a day's journey in beautiful cities of Greece, and is said by Aristides to have about it ; according to other and exact more one computations, it was going around than twenty-two Roman miles ; and hundred and seventy-eight stadia, or rather more man Dion stadia, about twenty-five RoChrysostom reckons it to haye been two hundred Col. Leake considers the ancient miles in circumference. city to have been much less than 19 miles at not as larger than the modern, and estimates the circumference number and walls. The of gates is not least, reckoning the sinuosities of the coasts named called MnvXov, and was known are by Eobinson near ; the largestwas ; thirteen that leading to Eleusis. the Ceramicus; the 'Itpa was
was
"
" " "

of their

"

For

plan

of

Athens,

see

our

Plate I.,by which

the reader

may

learn

the situation cf the

principal parts

and

buildings. The
"

description here

given, is drawn

chiefly from
a

Robinson's

Archseologia Graca. mount

" 105.
Sinus

Athens

lies in
on

valley,extending from

Pentelicus

on

the

east

to

the

the north, and Hymettus on the west, between Fames mount on the south. In the plain of this beautiful valley thus surrounded by natural ramparts, we rocks standing in regubehold the very singulargeologicalfeature of six insular mountain lar from Pentelicuswestward to succession, and gradually diminishing as you descend Saronicus the
sea.

The

one

nearest

the
one

sea

is called the hill

to

of Musmus.

On

the

next

is the Acropolis

is Mt. Anchesmus, on the smnrnit the east in honor observer of Jupiter; from this eminence of which a an temple and statue was of Athens Two furnished could the whole their and its environs. streams survey the Ilissus,which flowed the east to and south of the to the city. One waters was and from the allusions of its channel city,and which is supposed, from the appearance

of Athens.

The

next

this

on

"

of the
times. may

poets,
The

to

have in

been

anciently much

larger than
ran

it has
on

been

seen

in

modern Athens of the

other, Cephissus, was

two

be described

still smaller and parts ; the Cecropia, built

the other
on

by Cecrops

side. the summit

P.

I.

EUROPE.

HELLAS.

TOPOGRAPHY

OF

ATHENS.

29
the

hill termed built

The page

and called the Acropolis (dicpfaoXi;), the lower city. afterward, h koVoj iroXig, or
or

upper

f) aVco 7n5Xi? city, ; and

in the View

part
on

hill

Acropolis, as
is taken Grecian

distinguished
from J. C. of thus

from

the lower

seen part, is distinctly

of Athens

given in

onr

Plate IX a,
Lond.

80 ; which
"

Hobhousets

Journey
an

through Albania
with

and

other

provinces of Turkey,
illustrated by
our

"c.

1S13.

2 vols. 4.

The

method

connecting

Acropolis

their towns, is also

Plate IV.

cf. " SO.

% 106.
with
on

The

wooden the south the

citadel, or upper pales, or, as some

side by
a

city,was
say,
was

sixty stadia in circumference, and

surrounded
was

was was

fenced fortified

with

olive-trees. the
to art
son

It

strong

wall, which
war,

built which

by Cimon,
was

of

Miltiades,
The

from

spoilstaken in the Persian

and

called

Ki^toi/tov rzTxos.
some,

north wall was built many before by Agrolas, or according ages the and Hyperbius, two brothers, who first taught the Athenians This wall was denominated IleXaayiKdv or TleXapyiKdv, from the its founders.

by Euryalus

of buildinghouses. of Pelasgi, the name

it is sometimes beautified with nine This wall was gates, from which called 'Evvedirv'Xov ; but though there were several lesser gates, there was one grand entrance into the citadel,the IIpoTriiAa/a, the Athenians ascended to which by steps covered

Over built by Pericles at great expense. this enmarble, and which was trance is one of those enormous slabs of marble called "marble beams" by Wheeler, and Pausanias alluded when, in describing the Propylasa, he to which particularly in his time, nothing surpassing the beauty of the workmanship the or says that, even used in the building had ever been magnitude of the stones seen. with
white

citadel was with innumerable ornamented the ancient stories were fullydescribed. Pericles, Phormio, Iphicrates,Timotheus, and other Athenian intermingled with those of the gods.
The monuments,
on

inside of the

edifices, statues, and

The

which

noble

statues

of here

generals, were

constructed of white marble, temple of Minerva, called N"ij or Victory, the right of the entrance into the citadel. the the middle of the citadel was " 107. About statelytemple of Minerva, called that goddess preserved her virginity it was Parthenon, because inviolate, or because called napSevot, virdedicated gins. by the daughters of Erechtheus, who were particularly Here
was

the

and

placed

on

It It
was

was

also denominated

because 'EKar6p.TT"Sov, but

it

was

one

hundred white

feet square.
on

burnt

by the Persians,
It
was

restored

by Pericles,who

feet enlarged it fifty marble the was

each

side.

of the Doric

order, and

built of that beautiful

found

of Attica. Within this temple in the quarriesof Pentelicus, a mountain statue of Minerva, so celebrated for its size,the richness of its materials, and the exquisite The figure,the work of Phidias, was twenty-six cubits beauty of the workmanship. feet in of antiquity,being 229 high. This temple still remains a noble monument

length, 101 in breadth, and

A view On of the Parthenon the works is given in
our

69

in

height.
fig.1. cf. P. HI. " 96.
On the bas-relief taken from it by Lord

Plate XXI.

Elgin,cf. P.

IV.

5 190.

of Phidias, cf. P. IV. " 179.

Here also was the temple of Neptune, surnamed Erechtheus. Tins was a double contained the salt spring called 'Eptx^eii,which building,and, besides other curiosities, was feignedto have sprung out of the earth from a stroke of Neptune's trident, when he contended with Minerva for the possession of the country. This part of the temple consecrated The other part belonged to Minerva, surnamed to Neptune. IloXta;, was the protectress of the city,and HdvSpoo-os,from one of the daughters of Cecrops of that
name.

Here,

so

late

as

the second

century of the Christian

sera,

was

the sacred

olive-

said to have been was tree, which the foundation of the citadel. Here in the have fallen from heaven to

produced by Minerva, and to have been as old as also was said the image of the goddess, which was reign of Erichthonius,and which was guarded by and had a lamp always burning with oil,and an owl before dragons,called oiKovpol d"j"eig, whole structure called 'Epex^aou. it. The Both these buildingsstillremain. was The 2] feet smaller edifice,which is an entrance to the other, is 29 feet in length, and The 3 inches in breadth. The roof larger is 63" feet in length, and 36 feet in breadth. Ionic pillars. See Plate IV a. is supported by channeled the temple of Minerva Behind stood the public treasury, which from its situation was called 'Ojr"r$o'"5""/Ltos, and in which, besides other public money, talents were a thousand deposited for any very great exigency of the state. In the citadel were also several other edifices, the chapel of Jupiter "Zoirhp, and of as Minerva nerva, Soirstpa; the temple of Agraulos, the daughter of Cecrops, or rather of Miin the front and who was worshiped under that name, steep side of the rock ; and the temple of Venus, 'hrnoKvrtia, consecrated by Pheedra, when in love with Hyppolytus. that surrounded the citadel, $ 108. The lower city,which contained all the buildings with and Piraeus, was Munychia, Phalerum, encompassed with walls of unequal The principal strength,built at different times and by different persons. parts of the the MaKpa tz\xv, which joined the harbor of Piraeus to the city,and which walls were sometimes called Max-pa o-ke'Xi?, being about five miles in length, were long legs, and The wall on the north side brachia longa, long arms. sides. They consisted of two and continued built by Pericles at great expense, was fortystadia. That on the south
c2

IV

o.

iiiii

li

P.

I.

EUROPE.

HELLAS.

TOPOGRAPHY

OF

ATHENS.

31

it from the south wall called Hdnov i*""rovreixn, to distinguish rtXxot, or *apa side was because it included the port of Phalerum. tsTxos "t"a\rtpiK"v, of the citadel, and sometimes built by Themistocles, of huge square It was tar, stones, not cemented together with morthe outside by iron and leaden cramps. The but fastened on height of it was forty wished to raise it to eighty cubits. Its length was cubits, but Themistocles thirty-five

stadia. Upon the Athenians into and side Roman

both
became

of the
so

walls
numerous

was

erected that the

great wall

number
not

city could
or

of turrets, which, contain them, were

the

after
verted con-

dwelling-houses. The

Mowvyov,

that

encompassed

Munychia,

joined it to the Piragus, contained sixtystadia; and the exterior wall on the other has been before observed, as was forty-three stadia in length; and hence it appears, of Athens circumference 178 stadia,or rather more than 22 that the whole was
miles.

remarkable Of the buildings of the lower city,the principaland most were in which a statelyedifice, were kept the sacred utensils following.' TloinreTov was prepared all things necessary for solemn procesused at festivals,and in which were sions. and Minerva, far from situated not The the temple of Vulcan, or of Vulcan the temple within the city,was to this building was Ceramicus a public prison. Near Athenians had two deities of the name of Venus, of of the Heavenly Venus ; for the the former presided over which designated Qvpavia, and the other Vla.v"rip.os: was one the patroness of lust and debauchery. 'Av"kciov love; the latter was chaste and pure called avaKss. In this place slaves were a temple of Castor and Pollux, who were was exposed to sale. erected in the middle the of the city,near The by Cimon temple of Theseus was in wrestling and other bodily exercises. place where the youths employed themselves for slaves, and for all persons of low condition that fled This temple was a sanctuary in power, in commemoration of Theseus, who, when, the persecutionof men from

" 109.

the

"

"

"

"

alive, was

the

guardian and protector

temple
of Theseus, Dr.

of the distressed.

that this beautiful Doric observes, temple more Speaking than of Minerva in the Acroresembling, in the style of its architecture, the temples of Prestum of any entire of the remaining of ancient for structures it not Greece, were polis* and the most be considered have entire which the sculptures still perfect. The sustained, the damage as may and marble and east edifice is of Pentelican west, the principal front facing the east; ; it stands in each side of eleven a it has a portico of six columns front, and on each columns, clusive exrange the angles. of the columns on of the
A view of this temple is given in Plate XXI.

Clarke

fig.3.
a

" 110. 'O\vninov,

or

'O'Kvpiwuov, was
was

Jupiterthe Olympian, and

peribolus, within
with
all to than 124 400. ; the

the

most

erected in honor temple of Ionic architecture, in Athens. The magnificent structure area,

of
or

which
rows

double
extent

it stood, was of columns, front

of the

four stadia in circumference. It was structed con10 feet in front, and 21 in flank, amounting in being 171 feet,and the length of the flank more

The
but

foundation it was

had in

Apollo and Pan stood on the north side at the bottom of the citadel, called MaKpai itlrpai, or KeKpoiriaiirirpai. The temple grotto, which was after the birth of their first child, of Diana, surnamed Avai^covos, because in it women,
a

been The temple of

cave or

the majestic ruin of this sumptuous and statelytemple. the work laid by Pisistratus, whose of this edifice was continued sons ; not completelyfinished tillthe time of Adrian, 700 years after the structure commenced. These
are pillars

"

dedicated
TLavSeov

their
was

to girdles
a

united in one gods, who, as they were which called Beo%svia. This wa3 festival, was of marble. On also a very magnificent structure, and was supported by 120 pillars the outside were curiously engraved the deeds and story of all the gods ; and on one carved horses were by Praxiteles. great gate two of marble, on every of eight squares, The was a tower temple of the Eight Winds carved the figure of a wind, according to the quarter whence it side of which was
all the

that goddess. to temple consecrated with

one common

edifice,were

honored

blew.
The model of this building the summit round with
was

furnished
he

by Andronicus
a

Cyrrbastcs, who

placed upon
a

the top of the switch A

or

tower The

small
was

pyramid
so

of

marble, upon
that he turned Plate XXI.

of which

erected

brazen

triton,holding in his right hand

the wand
to the wind

wand.

triton

placed
our

the wind, and

pointedwith

which

blew.

view

of this structure

is given in

2. fig.

" 111.
was

that

Sroott, called

porticos,were

very

numerous

at

Athens;

but

the its

most

remarkable

of curious the brother of Phidias. north of the Acropolis,

once

UeitriavdKTioi, and pictures,drawn by those At

not

afterwards

IIotKfXn, from

great piasters,

containing a variety Polygnotus, Mycon, and Pansnus,

statue
are

the the gate of the UoikiXyj was far from the temple of Theseus, have mistaken
was

the

of Solon. ruins of
"

To
a

the

ture struc-

evidently very
Porch. Some

splendid,supposed by Stuart
travelers them

Stoa

or

Jupiter Olympius
the fountain
I"ovgcTov
was a

already described, which

fort
near

to be the ruins of this celebrated of the temple of for the remains in the southern part of the city,near

Calirrhoe. the which citadel,

received its name

from the poet Musaeus,

32

CLASSICAL

GEOGRAPHY.

the scholar buried.

was
"

of

Orpheus, who
was
a

used

to

repeat

his

verses

in this outside

place, where
or

he

was

also

'SlSeTov

music The

theatre, built by Pericles.

of

The
roof

inside of this

building
was

filled with
bent

seats

and

ranges

pillars ; and
was

the

covering
masts

dually gra-

downwards. taken from

the vessels
was

roof, which the Persians, and

of
stone
or

constructed It
was

of the

and
tent at

yards of siege of angle

in its form
was

resembled
burnt

the
the

of Xerxes, the

supported by columns
but

marble.

by Sylla
on

Athens,

afterwards

of the citadel. been with The Atticus has sometimes that of Pericles, but the Odeum of Herodes situated at the south-west angle of was in memory "the citadel. This of his wife, and was last was built by Herodes sidered confar surpassing, in magnitude and in the costliness of its materials, every as
other The

This rebuilt. of Herodes Odeum

Odeum

situated

south-east confounded

edifice of the Ceramicus and

was one

kind

Bacchus
art, which
two

(KipaueiKos) Ariadne ; or more invented of which here

was

in all Greece. received

The

roof of this its denomination

dno rrjs

building was
from

of cedar.
the
son

Ceramus,

of

properly

the city,and contained a great number in the suburbs, was a public burytemples, theatres, porticos,"c. ; the other was ing the Academy, and several other buildings. The Lyceum place, and contained also in the suburbs and the north-east. the Cynosarges were on parts, of
"

by Coraebus. situated within

KepapeTKris tzx""iS" from This extensive was space

the potter's divided into

Respecting the Academy

y

and

other

Gymnasia
were

at

Athens,

see

P. IV. "" 64, 74.

112.

'Ayopai, forums,
the
was

very
new

numerous

; but
was

the
a

most

remarkable situated

were

the it is micus Cera-

old

and

new near

forum.
to

The

forum

in

place called 'Eperpia, which

was

probable

the

portico of Zeno.
was

The

old forum

in the

called 'Apxaia dyopa. It was extremely spacious, and the worship of the gods, or to the service dedicated decorated with "buildings to was afforded sometimes of the state ; with others which an asylum to the wretched, but decreed dividuals, which often a shelter for the wicked statues to kings and inwere ; and with held the public assemwho had merited well of the republic; In it were blies within the

city,and

of the the Thus forum

KvrXos

people

but

was

divided

different place assigned trade had a every into different parts, according to the wares

as

market,

and

exposed for sale.

market; market,
seem

slaves were denotes the place where sold; 'A\0it6xw'\is dyopa, the bakers' Ix-S-udTrwAic dyopa, the market for wodyopa, the fish-monger's market; TwaiKeia men's time when the great number
been

apparel. The
from
have
to

appointed tain day. The Scythians, kept in pay by the republic to mainevery Collectors also attended to encamped in the middle of the forum. order, were sold, and magistrates to superinreceive the duties imposed on every thing that was tend what passed. of tradesmen berated Bov'SevTfipta were public halls, in which each company met, and deliAt Athens trade was much on matters relatingto their trades. raged encouvery the lowest with reproached another, even citizen, one livingby the ; and if any liable to an action of slander. he was profitof his traffic, before the time of the Romans at Athens though not " 113. Aqueducts were common ; albuilt by Pisistratus. The of them was is said to have been want one supplied and others at the pubof which were dug by private persons, by wells ("ppiara), some lic at Athens was frequent quarrels as good water extremely scarce, ; but expense of a statelyaqueduct, which Adrian laid the foundation the citizens. arose among finished by his successor Antoninus, and which was was supported by Ionic pillars. stadium The end, designed originallyfor was an oblong area, semicircular at one
inhabitants resorted and exercises ; and for the accommodation of the foot-race, but used for other games resorted thither in great numbers, it was built with steps above each spectators, who the heads of those placed below other, in order that the higher ranks might look over The remarkable and indeed the stadium in all Greece, was at Athens, them. most (Zrdtiov
telic
even

called TrAijS-ovo-a were dyopa, full exposed to sale was assembled different hours of the day of persons ; and for the sale of different commodities. To this place the

goods

navadjivaiKdv), with such

erected

by Herodes
marble,
mountain
paces in in his brief
a

Atticus,

the river Ilissus by Lycurgus, and afterwards larged enof the richest of the Athenians. It was built of Pen be did not to credited, magnificencethat Pausanias expect
near

one

descriptionof this work, and

marble
upon
or

says

that

it was

wonder
was

to

be 125

taken
metrical geo-

for

of white
in

the 27

banks

of the Ilissus. and

was

It

about

measure

length, and 26 ordinary use among

" 114.

The On

Areopagus
court

was or was

this, the
A

called a stadium, the Greeks, being the eighth part of a Roman mile. little to the north-west small eminence polis. of the Acroa a of the Areopagus usually held its meetings. (Cf. senate leveled for the
out

in breadth,

therefore

P. III. " 108). the steps which

seats

space

conducted and
"

to

neither enclosure originally

for

it,were cut nor roof; but

purpose of the
an

on

the summit solid

of the rock
stone.

and
was

natural
altar to
was

There and
two

merely
court

Minerva,

stone
.

the

accuser

defendant.

The

occasionally protected by

temporary
not

erection.

The the

Pnyx,
Almost

far

from

another eminence, pagus, nwjf, was opposite the Areothe place where citadel, celebrated the Athenians as the whole of the structure,
as

he.d

their

assemblies.

appears

from

34
" 118.
of This

CLASSICAL

GEOGRAPHY.

country
was

was

Pelops

called

called Argia and Pelasgia, but after the conquests originally the island also called of Pelops, IIsAon-os vfjoas ; it was its resemblance that it
to
"

Apia.

Its present name, Morea, is said to be drawn from in shape, or from the number of mulberry trees in six divisions: Corinthia are

berry-leaf mul-

produces.
be

be considered nia. under

coast

Achaia,
sometimes

Sicyoniaand
Achaia. of

Argolis, Elis, Arcadia, Messenia, added to these ; but they may

It may and Lacoincluded

the whole north in the extent have just given to it,includes we Achaia, it is joined to Hellas. Peloponnesus, and the isthmus of Corinth, by which each Exclusive of Sicyonia and Corinthia, it comprised twelve independent, towns, from little territory, which and possessed of its own a early time united were very in a sort of confederacy called the Achaean Dyme, Olenus, Pharos, league ; they were the deputies of the Tritaea, Patrce (now Patras), Rhype, JEgium. the place where In the resistance to the Romans league met, Helice, Bura, Mge, JEgina, and Pellene. made league in the later ages, the citiesof Sicyon and especially by the Achaean

" 119.

Corinth
It
a was

took
from

part.
the in of

to

opposition made subject province by the capture Cf. $ 213. 1. 6. country.

Achaia, that Corinth, B.

the C.

Romans,

when the

Mummius
name

reduced Achaia
to

Greece the whole

146, applied

" 120.

Sicyon
"

was

the

most

ancient obtained

city of Greece, said

greater notoriety: it

to
was

have
on

been

B. C. 2089.

But

Corinth

has from
on

the

founded isthmus, at

the Saronic and Corinthian called once gulfs. It was It had two hill called Acro-Corinthus. ports ; Lec'nceSaronicus. the Sinus the Sinus Corinthiacus, and Cenchrece, on Although on um, it afterwards recovered its splendor, being rebuilt by Julius destroyed by Mummius,

nearly an Ephyra.

equal distance
was

Its citadel

Caesar, and
The isthmus

became
of

more
was

famous
an

than

before

for its

luxury and licentiousness.

been ent Several have made, at differattempts important pass. cut all, "to seas periods, to join these two by a canal, and from the failure of them through the Corinthian for aiming at impossibilities. Here isthmus" become has a proverbial expression the Isthmian of Neptune, here in honor has were a stand : and triennially celebrated games, of the isthmus frequently been made easily admitting against foreign invaders, the narrowness of regular fortification. Corinth

"121.
chief
town

Argolis
was

Argos,

occupied the north-eastern the river Inachus, on

When Perseus had
seat

extremity of the Peloponnesus.

more

Its the

celebrated

in the

heroic

than

historic ages of Greece. the sius, he transferred

accidentallyslain his grandfather AcriMycence ; this latter city retained its after the death of Agamemnon, the Argives, to the end of the Trojan war ; but power through motives of jealousy, besieged, captured, and leveled it with the ground. North of Argos was Hercules slew the Nemean lion, and instituted the Nemea, where Nemean in memory of his victory ; and Tirynthus, a favorite residence of games On the Sinus he is frequently called the Tirynthian hero. Hercules, whence Argoin ancient licus (Gulf di Napoli) were, and modern Nauplia (Napoli di Romania), times the principal port in these countries ; Epidaurus, remarkable for a celebrated the aged inhabitants of temple of iEsculapius (P. II. " 84) ; and Troezene, whither Athens burned retired when their city was by Xerxes.
of government
to
"
"

'

province south of Achaia, on the coast of the Ionian sea. of king Salmoneus, who is said to have provoked the indignationof Jupiter, by his attempts and lightning; it to imitate thunder the Peneus stroyed was (Belvidere or Igliaco), on a principalriver of the province. Pisa, deat a very the Alpheus (Rouphia or Rufeas), a largerrivet remote on period,was Not far from Pisa was flowing from Arcadia. pic Olympia, the place near which the Olymwas a

" 122.

Elis Its chief town

small

was

Elis, the residence

games

were
was

celebrated.
the
was name

Oly?npia Olympian
also
a

not

of

city, but
with
statue

of

the

sacred
monuments

site

near

which

the in
or

games

were

Here famous

the with

Jupiter, hippodrome
xxxviii.
as

Mtis, grove its celebrated

and stadium.
"

splendid
(cf. P.

scattered

it; the
Hill

temple
of

performed. of
;

II. $

24);

the

Cranium

Saturn

ch. Bartfielemy, xIIje. p. 122.

" "

cited P. V. " 153. 2.

where

Choiscul-Goufficr, Sur l'Hippodrome

is
I.
a

d'Olympia,in Voyage

the Mem.

Acad.

Inscr. vol.
v.

Bissen's

Pindar, vol. ii. p. 630,

as

plan with

explanations.
"

PouquevilU,

de la Grece, vol.

p.

401.

/. S.

Stanhope,Olympia, "c.

cited P. IV. " 243.

and being entirelydeArcadia of the Peloponnesus; voted occupied the centre said to be sacred to Pan. Its principal the towns were agriculture was Tegcea, Hercules the lake Stymphalus, where capital destroyed the Harpies, near ; Orclwmenus, the river Ladon, which on flows through Arcadia and joins the Alpheus in the eastern the ruins of which fell, is near part of the province ; Mantinea, where Epaminondas the Helissus, a tributary the metropolis of the Morea to Tripolitza, near ; Megalopolis, the Alpheus, built by Epaminondas the incursions of the Lacedaemonians. to repress the ruins of Phigalia (Paulitza), in the territory From of the Parrhasii, were taken the
to
"

"123.

"

bas-reliefs called the Phigalian Marbles (cf.P. IV. " 179, " 183. 4). The mountains of Arcadia celebrated were greatly by the poets ; the Hercules Cullene, the birthplace of Mercury ; Erymantlms, where slew

were principal

an

enormous

IV

b.

36
boar;
sius

CLASSICAL

GEOGRAPHY.

Atalanta resided; Parrht* Mcenalus, sacred to the Muses; Parthenius, where the hill Nonacris brated From flowed the celeLycceus, sacred to Jupiter and Pan. said to be poisonous. river Styx ; its waters were of which south-western division of the Peloponnesus was Messenia, " 124. The the capital called Ilhome, and Messene, a strongly fortified town, was ; the citadel was from the Pamisus, in the interior, west was supposed to be impregnable ; these were between which is the principal river of the province, and flows from the mountains other principal towns The Messenia into the .Stows Messeniacus. and Arcadia were called Navarin where Philip defeated the Pylos, the city of Nestor, now ; Methone, Athenians; and CEchalia or Erytopolis, conquered by Hercules. and
"

greater when

and the subdued by the Lacedaemonians, Messenians, after a desperate resistance, were their but the city lay long in ruins: country. Subsequently part compelled to leave descendants of the of Sparta, he recalled the had destroyed the supremacy Epaminondas of the country, his death, the Spartans exiles Messene. After masters and rebuilt again became from their restored did not but possessions. expel the Messenians The

Peloponnesus was following sections. The other towns of note the Eurotas, the residence of Leda; river, the birthplace of Castor and Pollux ; Gytheitm, the principal Tkerapne, on the same inhabitants were enslaved by the Spartans ; and ; Helos, whose port of Laconia the Achaeans, by the defeat of Cleomenes, liberated the PeloponneSellasia, where sus
" 125.
c

The

south-eastern

and

most

important division of the

shall describe

o n

i a.

Its

capitalwas

Sparta,which we were, Amyclce, on

in the

from the power of Lacedaemon. Sinus Laconicus bounded (Gulf of Colochina) was was Angelo) and Tmnarum (Matapan). Near Taenarum The poets
The
as

(St, by the capes Malea represented by the cave

is said
to

the
up

entrance

into the infernal

regions ; through this Hercules

have

dragged
Trojan
became Grecian

Cerberus.
were or

states Peloponnesian the Heraclidse, war, masters

descendants

of took

the

different 1104

subjected by Pelops ; but about of Hercules, returned to forms This kingdoms. event, which
C.

first

the

after the eighty years and Peloponnesus, remarkable a epoch in

history,

place

B.

The cityof Lacedaemon, which was anciently called it the latter denomination who by king Lacedaemon, gave from his wife Sparta, though he designated the country and the inhabitants from his own think that this city received the appellationof Sparta name ; but some from the Sparti,who with Cadmus into Laconia. situated at the foot It was came of mount Taygetus, on the west side of the river Eurotas, which runs into the Laconic of a circular form, and forty-eight stadia or six miles in circumference, gulf. It was and was surrounded with vineyards, olive or plane trees, gardens, to a great extent

% 126.

Topography
to have

of Sparta.
been

Sparta, is said

built

and valor

summer-houses. of its inhabitants.

years,

Anciently the city was

hundred

of tyrants, it was

however,
The
on

some

the only defence was for the space of eight this city was without fortifications ; but after it fell into the hands any surrounded with walls, which rendered were very strong. It had, eminences of an which soldiers might be posted in case attack. upon
not

surrounded
in the

with

walls

and

its

Even

reign of Agesilaus, and

highestof
which
were

these eminences erected several

served sacred

as

citadel

its summit this

was

a were

edifices.

Around

hill

spacious plain, ranged five

which towns, each of which

separated from each other by intervals of different extent, and occupied byone of the tribes of Sparta. several streets " 127. The great square forum, 'Ayopa, in which terminated, was or embellished It also contained with temples and statues. the edifices in which the assembled. the ephori, and other bodies of magistrates Of these public edifices senate, the most remarkable the Portico of the Persians, which the Lacedaemonians was erected after the battle of Plataea, at the expense of the vanquished, whose spoils of the prinThe roof of this building was they shared. cipal supported by colossal statues
were was

who were in which the

officers in the army of Xerxes, habited in flowingrobes.

"

who The

had Scias

been
was

taken
a

or

building not

killed in that battle, and far from the forum,

assemblies

of the people dances

were

forum, where

Chorus held. The were was a commonly part of performed in honor of Apollo in the Gymnopaedian

ejames.

had the privithe highest of the eminences stood a temple of Minerva, which lege that surrounded it, and a small house apperasylum, as had also the grove taining The left to expire with hunger. to it,in which temple was king Pausanias the building were built with brass (XoAkioikos). in bas-relief, Within was engraven, the labors of Hercules, and various groups of figures. To the right of this edifice was of brass in existence ; of of Jupiter, supposed to be the most ancient statue statue a the same date with the re-establishment of the Olympic games. The ornamented the Poscile, which, instead of most place in Sparta, however, was being confined to a single gallery like that at Athens, occupied a very considerable The had extent. afterwards Romans took away the superb paintings in fresco which Farther advanced in the city appeared differoeen employed to decorate the walk.

Upon

of

"

38

CLASSICAL

GEOGRAPHY.

ent

ranges

of

Porticos, intended
and
statues
never

only for the display of different kinds

were

of merchandize. crowned
at

" I2S. Columns the Olympic games Statues reward the theatre
the

; but

might be decreed of the soldiers. It

of and him and
were

to
was

bones
;

Leonidas
at

were

of their country. of the people was the only wrestlers; but the esteem tillforty years after the battle of Thermopylae, that not the conveyed to Sparta and deposited in a tomb near also the
on
names a

erected for for the conquerors

Spartans who
of the

had

been

enemies

the
were was

same

time

of the three
"

hundred
was

fallen with forum,

of Leonidas

first inscribed constructed of

column.

The

theatre

Spartans who had in the vicinity of

far from
and

beautiful and

white

marble. Funeral

Not

the

tomb
were

annually given
Of tfie edifices

those of Brasidas these monuments. near

and
monuments

Pausanias.

orations

games

of

Sparta
;

distinguished
pearance.

for architectural

beauty

and

it may be remarked the city had nothing

in

general, imposing or

that

they splendid

were

not

in its ap.

the south side of the city was the 'l^TuSpo/iog, for foot and horse or course stillvisible ; and a little distance from it was are vestiges of which the Platanistas, or place of exercise for youth, shaded by beautiful plane-trees,and enclosed side, by a small river which fell into it on the other, and on one by the Eurotas the third. with both on The Platanistas by a canal which opened a communication entered of which the statue of Hercules, or all-subwas was duing by two bridges, on one law. force, and on the other that of Lycurgus, or all-regulating The place which served Sparta for a port or harbor,- was Gylheium, Tvdeiov, situated of the Eurotas, and distant from Sparta 240 stadia, according to from the mouth west Strabo, and 30 [300 ?] according to Polybius. It was early surrounded by strong walls, and had an excellent harbor, in which the fleets of Sparta rode in security, and where and security. they found every requisitefor their maintenance " 129. On
races,
some

The from

ruins the

of Sparta
town

are

modern

found, Misitra,
;

"is
not
an

uncultivated
not
a

when

insect,
and there the

creature

Palmochori old town, about miles distant name or two called "The whole Chateauspot Magoula. site," says briand, I beheld this desert, not a plant adorned the ruins, not bird, a of lizards, which enlivened millions crawled without them, save the
near a

under

noise here
corner a

up and of

down upon theatre of

and

the

sides

of

the
;

withered
at

and

scorching walls. ; a shepherd Magoula, which gives

grass
Chateaubriand's
Travels
in

the

A
was

dozen

half-wild
a

horses few

were

feeding
in
a

cultivating
name

water-melons

its dismal

to

LacedKmon,
Le

I observed

small
On

grove

cypresses."
ruins of Sparta,
the
see

the topography

Travels Morea.

(p. 94,
Lond.

ed.

N.

Y.

1SI4).
"

Roi, Monumens Dodwell, "c.

de la Grece.
as

"

Sir W.

Gell, Itinerary of

Morea.

"

Leake's

the

1830.

3 vols.

8."

Cramer,

cited P. V.

" 7. (b).

IT.

ISLANDS

BELONGING

TO

EUROPE.

three under

the mainland mentioned " 130. It was (" 8), that having considered divisions, northern, middle, and southern, we might notice the
a

of

islands

Europe under together

Atlantic
or

fourth.
;

The

European

islands

known

to

the ancients
but

were

in the

Mediterranean those

of those

in the Baltic

they knew

little.

We

will

speak first of

in the Atlantic. the most to " 131. Of these, Britannia was scarcely known important. It was exist before the days of Julius Cassar. Being peopled by successive migrations from when invaded, and thus proGaul, the Britons naturally aided the mother voked country said to have been The of Rome. south-western shores the vengeance are

visited by the Phoenicians earlier period ; and that enterprisingpeople have at a much been described and the Scilly as carrying on an extensive trade for tin with Cornwall called the Cassiterides Insula isles,which, from their abounding in that metal, were
or

Tin $
132.

islands.
The enumeration shall of the several few of tribes the and
more

villages being
remarkable.
"

matter

rather

of

curiosity
the
south

than of the
;

utility,we
island and
; in

Partus north of

only notice a their territory were Lemanis (Lyinne),

the

The

Cantii

occupied

Rutupim
where chief Caesar
town

(Richborough),
landed,
was

celebrated
"

B. C. 55.

The

for its oysters by Juvenal Trinobantes the possessed the

most to

country

Cantii;
"

their

Londinum South of their

(London),
and

flourishing
have been
a

man Ro-

colony in flourishing and

defended
:

Britain. warlike

The tribe.

Silures

possessed
one

Wales,

Caractacus.
;

kings,
baffled D.

appear is celebrated the

utmost sent

very mans Ro"

for

having
of
to

bravely
the Rome.

the he
was

liberties
at

of

his

country

and

for

length
were

subdued the

by

Ostorius

long time Scapula, A.

a

efforts in chains

51, and

having been cruelly abused by the Roman tained obto and her country's wrongs deputies, took up arms ; at first she avenge victories several her but was Paulinus, over by Suetonius finally defeated oppressors, of England The A. D. 61. north was powerful and ancient possessed by the Brigantes, the most of the British their principal towns nations; Eboracum were (supposed to (York), and Isurium be JUdborough), the capital of their tribe.
On the
eastern

coast

Iceni, whose

queen her own

Boadicea,

"

% 133. Scotland was known by the general

name

still less known of Meata, of Rome. Roman

than
were

England; five nations on the borders, subdued by Agricola, and became nally nomiwas

subject to
When Britain

the

dominion
a

became

province, it

divided into the

five

following

PLATE

V.

"1. have church erected which

The been of is of A

Thessalonica. of Salonica, the ancient Rotunda Qabirian Temple. By the Christians it was and Peter. which The Turks have turned

It is
a

supposed to
into
a

converted in

Paul

it into

the
seen

minaret,
a

Muezzin,
for the

attached to appears office is to announce whose

it,and
from

; and mosque the gallery of the

gallery

the

hour 2.

prayer.

fountain

Mussulman

ablution

before

prayers.

39

40

CLASSICAL

GEOGRAPHY.

provinces : Britannia prima, comprising the Flavia Cmsariensis, containing the country;
which between Meatse.
IJ134. To settlements,

eastern western

and

southern contained

division
the

of

the

tribes; Britannia
;

secunda,
country

included the

all Wales

Maxima and the

Ccesariensis, which
river Tweed and

former

divisions

Valentia, occupied by the

waste

repel
several of
"

the

incursions walls
were

of built

the

Picts

and the

Scots,
isiand.

who The

frequently laid
first
was

the the

Roman

across

erected

by
great

celebrated
to

Agricola,
the dimensions.

who

completed
the wall The

incursions

the of Britain. But this conquest erected the emperor Adrian barbarians, of Adrian extended from
a

being
a

found

insufficient of

restrain and

rampart

strength
on

JEstuarium north of It consisted

"

Itunm Pons of
a

(Solway
rampart

Frith),
and

the

western on was

to Seiredunum coast, the eastern coast,

(Cousin's
a

House),
of about
at

village

JElii double

(Newcastle-upon-Tyne),
ditch, and

distance erected

70 miles. intervals.
was

after this, the nus AntoniTwenty years emperor nearly parallel to that of Adrian, and had been neglected after that was this is usually called the rampart of Antoninus. built, whence the wall erected $ 135. But the last and greatest of these structures was Seveby the emperor It was situated few of the wall of Adrian, and of the a rus, A. D. 200. yards north was one fortifications of antiquity. The wall feet wide twelve and was strongest eight feet high, built of stone and cement or strengthened by eighteen stations ; it was garrisons, thirty-one castles, and three hundred and whole : the to garrison this twenty-four towers body of forces employed immense of fortification thousand besides ten six hundred were range mariners, appointed men, to guard the points where the ramparts communicated with the shore.

strengthened
rebuilt

by

forts

short

the

wall

of

Agricola,

which

"

Britain were the Orcades (Orkneys), Hebrides " 136. The islands adjoining ("Western Taciti Isles),Nona (Anglesea) Mono, Ccesaris (Man), Vectis (Isleof Wight), and Casknown siterides (Scilly Isles). Ireland was and was to the ancients only by name, called Ierne Juverna, or H i b e r n i a.
,
" .

The

Irish say that

; in

they

are

descended it has latter,

from been

Scythian nation, and urged

that the

that at

an

early period, part of the country

Punic

was

colonized almost

by

the

Phoenicians Irish ; and

to those

proof

of the

specimens of
on

the

language preserved by Plautus, are proved

to consist of 2.

pure

that antique swords, found Punic swords

in the
W.

bogs of Ireland, have

Hamilton in the

analysis been
"

materials

similar precisely

of the

dug up by Sir

field of Cannae.

352. Cf. P. V. tj

in the classical authors An island called Thule is frequentlymentioned distant known, but its situation has not been described, and therefore we certain what

as

the
cannot

most

be

particularisland
have
been

was

meant.

Iceland,

some

of the Shetland

isles, and

Greenland,

named

by different modern

writers

(cf." 3).

" 137. In speaking of the islands in the Mediterranean, we begin in the western part. in slinging and from the skill of the inhabitants The Balearicce, deriving their name

archery, were
Baleans Between
minor

on

the

coast

of

Spain.
Ebusus

Their

names

were

Balearis

major (Majorca) ;

(Minorca), and

Spain and

(Strait of Bonefacio). ancient times, but is celebrated for having given birth to Napoleon Bonaparte. It contained Roman two colonies, Mariana planted by Marius, and Aleria by Sylla. North Matinorum of Mariana (Bastia), the present capital of the island.' was Oppidum cules, from Sardus, an African prince, said to be a son derived its name of HerSardinia at' a very early period led a colony hither; it was called by the Greeks who foot. Neither wolves to the human Ichnusa, from its resemblance were serpents nor found in this island, and told) only one poisonous herb, which caused those are (as we hence the expression, a Sardonic who eat of it to expire in a fit of laughter, and grin.
"

(Ivica). Fosses Italy are Corsica and Sardinia, separated by the Fretum called by the Greeks of little note in Corsica, Cyrnos, was

islands were to the long tributary (now Cagliari). Both in the first Punic war. expelled by the Romans of Italy There several small islands of no were ; the great importance on the coast is of some chief were Ilua (Elba), which interest, as the spot of Napoleon's temporary of the unnatural the scene banishment as Capre"z(Capri),infamous ; P rocky ta ; and The chief
town
was

Calaris

Carthaginians, who

were

debaucheries " 138. south of It

was

of Tiberius.
.

fertile of the Mediterranean islands, lies to the Si cilia, the largestand most Siculum (Strait of Messina). Italy,from which it is separated by the Fretum its triangularshape, terminating in three called Triquetra, or Trinacria, from
"

promontories

Pelorus
on

(Faro),
the
west.

on

the

north

Pacliynus (Passaro),

on

the

south

; and

Lilybceum (Boco),

and one the ancient capital of Sicily, of the most ble remarkaSyracuscs (Siracusa) was cities of antiquity. It was founded colony led by Archias, and by a Corinthian arrived at such a pitch of greatness that the circuit of its walls exceeded miles. twenty It was divided into five parts, which were so towns large as to be esteemed separate ; viz. Ortygia, a small island, on settled ; Acradina the Greeks which originally facing the sea; which that and the following division; Neapc-lis, stood on Tycha, between the great port ; and Epipolae. Syracuse had two by the island ports, the lesser formed here flows into a of the river Anapus, which Ortygia,and the greater at the mouth at its southern large bay, having the island at its northern, and the fort of Plemmyrium of the rock by the tyrant cut out extremity. The celebrated prison called Latomi"z was contrived as to transmit so a cavern Dionysius ; in this was shaped like the human ear,
" " "

all sounds

from

below

to

small

apartment,

where

the

tyrant used

to

conceal

himself

42
include islands

CLASSICAL

GEOGRAPHY.

" 143.
The

We

may

among occupy
"

the

Thracian

Thasus,
was

Samothrace,

in the and with

sea to

by worship of Cybele
" 144. contained
he

time so powerful as to dispute the mastery of the the Athenians, but after a severe of two contest they were compelled years surrender Samothrace derived its name from at discretion. (Samandrachi) Samos, first peopled. From this place Dardanus a colony from which it was brought the
"

and Imbrus. earlier ages of Grecian the inhabitants at were one

all that remain to be noticed. named part of the iEgean, and were Thasus of the Nessus, (Tasse), opposite the mouth iEthria. It produced wine and marhistory named ble,

JEgtan

Islands

the

northern

to

Troy.

"

Imbrus the
a

(Embro)

lies

to

the south

of

Samothrace.
the

Tenedos
but
one

stands

at

entrance

of the

Hellespont, opposite

Troad.

It

city,and

celebrated from

delivered

the inhabitants

cause temple of Apollo, here called Smintheus, bea plague of mice, called Sminthas in the Phrygian

language.
Lemnos (Stalimene),dedicated to Vulcan, who, when thrown was It contained by Jupiter,is said to have fallen on this island. two cities, Farther Thessalian the on Hephaestia or Vulcatia, and Murina. west, coast, was time defended Halonnesus (Droma), which is said to have been at one of by the ijaior all the males the women slain. South of these were Sciathus (Scialone, when were Achilles concealed atia); Scopelos (Scopela); and Scyros (Skiro), where was by his mother Thetis, to prevent his going to the Trojan war. and oppositeEphesus, was South of Tenedos, Lesbos (Metelin),the birthplaceof and Alcaeus, and the poetess the philosopher Pittacus, the poets Arion Sappho ; its the island chief tow:ns from whence were Methymna, celebrated for wine, and JSIiiylene, South of this was Chios (Scio), celebrated for its wine. has derived its modern name. The slaughter of the inhabitants of this island by the Turks, in 1822, excited great South-west
out

of this

of heaven

"

"

public sympathy. " 145. The largestisland of the ^Egean was it was of Boeotia, from which separated by a
this strait Aristotle
a

Eubcea
narrow

(Negropont), opposite the

strait called of
some,

coast

the

Euripics.

Into

(P. Yi$

ebbing and flowing. the Euribridge across Athenian before the Trojan war the on colony, founded ; Oreus, pus ; Erelria, an and promontory of Artemishim, in the northern Euripus ; the town part of the island, the Persians the Greeks where gained their first naval victory over ; and Carystus,in the promontories Geraestus and for the the south, between Caphareus, remarkable Ocha. The is not history of Eubcea quarriesof marble in the neighboring mountain states. subjected to other Greek important, as the greater part was very In the Saronic iEgina (Engia), anciently iEnone, stronglyfortified by gulfwere the monudiscovered at sea period the rival of Athens ments ; here were nature, and at one called the jEginetan sculptures or marbles (cf.P. IV. " 190. 3). The iEgineallies at the battle of Salamis, and the most distinguished of the Grecian tans were the prize of valor. Next obtained to this is Salamis (Elimi), the island of Telemon, the Greek Salamis Near father of Ajax and Teucer. fleet, commanded by Euribiathe immense the Athenian, totallydefeated des the Spartan, and Themistocles navy the coast of the Peloponnesus was Calauria thenes DemosOn of Persia. (Foro), where poisoned himself that he might not fall into the hands of Antipater, the successor frenzy, because
towns
were

fit of

115), accordingto the accounts he was unable to explain the cause

in

threw

liimself, in

of its
a

The

chief

Chalcis, joined to Aulis

Bceotia, by

"

"

the Great. of Alexander of Eubcea the largecluster of islands called the Cyclades, " 146. South-east was the island of Delos. This island,also called from their nearly forming a circle round Ortygia, is celebrated by the poets as the birthplaceof Apollo and Diana ; on which,
near

Mount
were

Cynthus,
made

stood from

(^ xapaXos), was annually sent unlawful its absence it was remarkable islands in this group whither the Roman emperors of Euboea (Zea). and ; Ceos Melos (Milo), south of Ceos
ihe statuaries

the celebrated temple of the Delian god, to which grimages pilall parts of Greece. A sacred galley, called Faralus from Athens with a solemn ing sacrifice,and durto Delos
to

punish any
were

criminal in Athens capitally. The other Myco-nus, Gyarus, and Seriphus, small islands criminals
;

used

to

banish

Andros

and

Tenos,

south-east

Phidias

and

of Attica; Cytlms, Siphnus, the coast and Helena, on for its white marble, the birthplaceof ; Paros, celebrated Ariadne Praxiteles; Naxos, sacred to Bacchus, where was ;

ungratefullydeserted Thera, and Anaphe.

" 147. The
more

by Theseus
eastern

Ios, where

Homer

was

said

to

have

been

buried;

islands in the
to

part of the

iEgean

were

properly belonged
The
;

Asia, but
name

they
were

are

enumerated sacred
to

here

by the Greeks.

chief of these
gave

Samos,

and Sporades, they were possessed Juno, the birthplaceof Pythagoras

as

called the

(Palmossa), where the the Revelations of Harpocrates ; CarApostle John wrote ; and Ehodus to the Carpathian sea; (Rhodes). name patkus (Scarpanto),which gave This latter island contained three cities,Lindus, Camyrus, and Rhodus. Icaria, which
to
"

the Icarian sea ; Palmos Cos, the native country

At D 721.

the

harbor It held

of in

Rhodus
one

stood
a

the

Colossus,
This

an

enormous

statue,
statue

dedicated

to

the
was

sun

(P.
thrown

II

hand

lighthouse.

splendid

(cf.P.IV.$180. ])

Wl

P.

I.

ASIA.

EASTERN

DIVISION.

INDIA.

PERSIA.

43

down Saracens

by

an

when

about earthquake they became

B.
masters

C.

225,
of

and

having

long

lain seventh

prostrate
century.

was

broken

up

by

the

the

island, in the

" 148.

of the Greta (Crete or Candia), at the entrance it is said to have contained island of ancient times:
were

iEgean,
a

was

the

most

brated cele-

of which
on

Gnossus,

near

Mount the

Ida,

on

the

north

hundred side of the

cities,the principal island; Gorlynia,

;

opposite side, where esteemed Cydonia, by some

the
The first inhabitants
arts
"

stood the
were

celebrated

Labyrinth, built by Daedalus

who the the lived
near

and

capital.
the of
to

of Crete

Idrei

Dactyli,
were was

Mount

Ida,

and

exercised attention his laws

mechanical
to

nearly
a

agriculture.
institutions

Minos,
of

contemporary descendant
are

with

these

Jupiter,
have been

directed Cnretes, who legislator of Crete, and The

are

their from fabulous

the

Lycurgus

said

his respecting this monarch, place (cf.P. II. $ 117. (a),and

The
Cretan

wife

Pasiphae,and $ 125).
to have

principally burrowed. his daughter Ariadne,

Gnossus ; but and
some

legends
in another

mentioned

Labyrinth
or caverns

is

generally represented
near

been

near

suppose

it to have

been

found
that
some

in the such

able remarkcavern

excavations
near

Gorlynia, consisting of several chambers

an

gaileries. It
"

is not

improbable
the Cretan

Gaossus
"

gave

rise to the story of

of

artificial labyrinth.
"

See

H^ckh^s

Creta.

Cockercll,on

Labyrinth, in Walpole's

Memoirs.

Smithy Diet,

ait. Labyrinthus. Antiquit.

II. OF " 149.

as

ASIA.

Asia,
the

the

and largest

most

populous of the divisions of the

race
was

globe, is
God
;
was

brated celeshiped wor-

birthplacer"fthe human
the
rest

when
our

of the world

the quarter where the true sunk in superstitious barbarism

;

the

scene

of

suffering"; and for the great monarchies, the Assyrian, Babylonian, and Persian, which possessed extensive sway (cf.% 211) before the commencement of authentic European history. From Asia the first principles of the arts and sciences were imported into Europe, and there civilisation had attained a high degree of perfection, before the western countries had emerged from barbarism. in two "J 150. The of Asia countries naturally be considered divisions,the may Eastern between and Western them or being the river Rha ; the boundary Wolga, the Mare Caspium, and the mountains extending thence towards the Sinus Persicus. division The Eastern includes Regio, India, Persia, Media, Scythia, Sinarum and called Paropamisics The Parthia, with the countries north of the mountains Western the Mare includes Sarmatia, with the countries between Caspium and PonAsia and Mesopotamia, tus with the Euxinus, Armenia, Minor, Syria, Arabia, in the valley of the Tigris. countries
Savior's life and
" " .

I.

THE

COUNTRIES

OF

THE

EASTERN

DIVISION

OF

ASIA.

applied to all the northern and north-eastern part of divided into Scythiaintra Imaum, respecting it. It was and Scythiaextra called Imaus, now Belur Tag, Imaum, separated by the mountains which unite with the modern Altai on the north, and Himmaleh the south. on thia 'Scythe Regio Casia (Kashgar in Tartary), and included Imaum the Regio Seextra rica (the north-west the city Sera, the thoroughfare part of China) ; in the latter was
" 151.
was name

Scythia

the

Asia.

Very littlewas

known

"

of ancient
There des has been

commerce much
the

between
discussion Acad.

eastern
the

and

western
ancient p. 713."

Asia.
Serica.
"

respecting
Inter,

real situation of the p. 573, and xlix.

Cf.

and Gosselin, sur LPJlnville, vol. vi. p. 204. vii. 32.

"

la

Serique

Anciens, in

Mem.

vol. xxxii.

Class. Journal,

Anthonys

Lempriere,

article Seres.

eastern to the ancients ; supoccupied the most portion of Asia known posed the country named Cochin China. Their capital Was now Thynce, on the Cotiaris, a branch of the Senus. " 152. India included called in their the territory extending from the mountains of the river Indus, to the river Serus northern Menan, or part Parueti, on the west to

The

SiNjE
be

Sinus It was divided (Gulf of Siam). by the ancients empties into Magnus intra ing bethem Gangem, and India extra Gangem : the boundary between the Ganges, which discharged into the Sinus Gangeticus (Bay of Bengal). This but littleknown before the expedition of Alexander. The southern country* was part of India intra Gangem, called Promontorium Comaria Hindostan, was or (cape Comoknown. North of the river Chabens rin). Several places on the coast were (Cavery), the Aurea the Regio Arcati, the modern Arcot. In India extra was was Gangem Chersonesus montorium Pro(the peninsula of Malaya), its southern point being called Magnum into India
"

which

(now " 153.

cape

Romania).
more on

Peesia,

in its Media

limited the north

meaning,
and

was

Tisris, between

the Persian

the country lying east of the river gulf on the south. But the name

44

CLASSICAL

GEOGRAPHY.

and is here, employed to comprehend south of the the whole is sometimes, territory Paropamisus chain of mountains, from the Zagros chain and the river Tigris on the and Arbiti Monies Thus it to the Parueti west, separating it from India on the east. includes several provinces. Susiana the most the Tigris, containing the cities Elymais and western was on the latter, called in the Bible situated upon the ; it was into the Tigris. P ersis mountains

Susa;

Skuskan,
river

was

the

winter

residence from

of

the

sian Per-

kings

Choaspes,which

flowed

the

Orontes

Sinus

on

was directlyeast of Susiana, bordering upon the Its capicorresponding to Persia in its limited and proper sense. tal was set represented as a city of great splendor ; the royal palace was Persepolis, fire by the order of Alexander, with wine and when inflamed instigated by his
"

Persicus, and

mistress
The wide and

Thais.
of

ruins 100

Persepolis

still excite

admiration.

N. W. is to S. E. which long from this flowed Bendemir Bend the Jlraxes, now or principal ruin is the palace called by the natives

now

plain six miles villages." Through The Emir Baktegian. discharging into Lake or Chil-Minar, Skehel-JMnar, or Chehul-Minar,
It
was on a

situated

beautiful

crowded

with

numerous

palace
See Lond.
a

of

forty
4." J. E.

columns. plates,in Rob.

Travels cited " 2U. Ker Porter's India Travels.
to
"

description, with

G. Keppel, Journey

from

India

to

England, by Persia, "c.

Lond. IS27.

in 1S24. 4." CC

1827.

.Ihxander,
"c

from VI.

England,

through Persia, Asia Minor, tc. in 1S26.

Herder, The

Univ.

History,
to
on a

Previously
Ccele-Persis,
have
A

the the tomb

erected
monument

founding of Persepolis, the royal residence river Cyrus, flowing southerly into a small for himself, in a high narrow tower.
has

was

at

lake;

here

Pasargada, which king Cyrus

our

was

in
to

is said

still exists,which
4.

been

supposed

to

be

the

tomb

of Cyrus

it is represented in

Plate XVIII.

fig. 1.

"

Cf.

P. in.

" 1S7.

The
on

other

provinces were
Persicus
;

r m

ia

(Kerman),

south-east

of Persis, also bordering

the Sinus

Gedrosia

to India ; extending from Carmania the between the whole the north and east Gedrosia on on remaining territory south the north. latter territory and the Paropamisus This watered on was by the the north, east, and south, on Elymander, which, with tributaries from the mountains flowed into the Aria Palus, a lake or sea on its western limits ; the whole territory was often included under Aria, which properly belongs to the contiguous country north of the Paropamisus.
"

and

(now Mekran), Arachosia

lying on the Erylhraum Mare clude inand Drangiana, which

" 154 Araxes

a.

Media

was

situated south of the Mare

Armenia
or

Caspium;
the south the

itsnorthern Susiana and

limit and

was

the river Its the

a

flowing to that sea from river was the Mardus principal

Orontes
chain
course

on

were

Persis.

Amardus,
the

risingin the south-western

part, where

of mountains
into

is connected

with

Zagros chain,
of the
a

flowing by
Media (now
was

cuitous cir-

the
on

from
on

Armenia
to

in Caspium Mare the west by Mons

on

country

Mardii. Ecbatana

rated sepa-

Imbarus,
The

chain

extending from

Mt.

Ararat

the

north

the

Zagros
the
the with

the

south. termed

capitalwas
Persian

Hamadan),
of the

in the
Parthian
as

region south of
was

mountains
summer

Orontes.
of the Hebrew
or

Ecbatana

made

residence Esther.

Two those
was a

tombs,
of

inscriptions
and
"

in the

monarchs, character, are

mentioned Ecbatana.
et Pers.

and

afterwards
to

still shown in the

travelers book

of

being Tobit,

Mordecai of
some

Rapa,
5."

Rages,
from

apocryphal
cited P. IV.

place

importance,
v.

north-east

SeeRennell, cclm,
as

Geog. of Herod,

sect.

11, as cited P. V. " 241.

Hock, Vet. Med.

Monumenta,

"

171."

Mai

cited " 211. VL

northern portion of Media, lying on the river Araxes, was " 154 b. The formed, after the death of Alexander, into an independent kingdom, by the satrap Atropates, and called Atropatene; thence having as its capitalGaza (now Tebriz or Tabreez), and next perhaps in importance Atropatene or Atropalia on a stream flowing into the Mardus. (lake .of
to

In

the

western
near

Oroomiah),

the Locus part of this province was Spauta or Marcianus its western which side was Thebarma on (Oroomiah), said
or
to

be
This

the native
region, now
among first made
a

place of Zoroaster
the

Zerdusht.
Persia, has
become

part of Aderbijan, and belonging

Nestorian
to

interesting, on intensely
and
and the

account
on

of the American the west, and

"c.
as

mis whose

siou established
existence
was

who Christians,
the II. western

reside in the about

A 8.

plains of Oroomiah
1826.
"

in the

mountains

known

world p. 2S9." Bost

the year

See Smith
or

Dwisfit, Researches,
Tribes. N.

cited P. IV. 12."/. kins, Per-

" 36.

I."

Miss.

Herald, vol. xii. p.

of
a

xxxiv.

Grant, The
with
colored

Nestorians,

Lost

York, 1S41.

Account

Residence

in Persia, "c

1843.

plates. (See Plate VI a.)

$ 155.

Under
sea

Parthia
the

we

include

the

regionlying at
the river
once

the

south-eastern

corner

of the flows
to

Caspian
the north and
made
a

; between
sea on

into

Media the south and on of Aral, although it was

some

Oxus

(Gihon), which

is

so

delineated
to
a

maps.

It

was

supposed to flow into the Caspian, but a part of Hyrcania, a prooriginally vince
after the time

belonging
the
seat

the Persian
new

empire.
which

By Arsaces,

of Alexander,

it

was

of

state,

Ore

considerable empire, and opposed of its principal Nisaa places was

which

his successors, effectual resistance

under

(Nesa),

on

called Arsacidos, grew into the Romans to (" 211. vin.}. northern branch of the river Ockui"

(Margah),
on

considerable a empties into the Caspian. Hyrcania (Corcan) was place, the small river Socanda. But the royal residence of the Arsacidae was Hecatompylos,
"

PLATE

VI

n.

This
modem "c.
'

MAInames in the t

gi of Va

lages, vil-

ley of

THEBARMA.

37
pail of

The
the

Mts.
Kooriis

on

the chain,

West,
are

Zagros

occupied

Curds, the ancient (cf " 170). !"uppnse"l of the ancient firemonuments worship exist in the valley cf, J. PcrUini, p. 8, as cited " i 51 b. by
or

Cardvclri

'"

46

CLASSICAL

G20GRAPHY.

in the south-western

part ;

although the

later Parthian

monarchs

sometimes

resided

at

Ctesiplwn on the Tigris. The between Parthia and Scythia, were remaining countries, Aria, Bactriana, and of Parthia and Media, and north of the Paropamisus, although was east Sogdiana. Aria the name often extended, so as to include (" 153) a large region south of was that chain of mountains. The Artacoana B a ctriprincipalplace was (now Herat). of Aria and south of the river Oxus a n a was east ; its capitalwas Zariaspa or Bactra S o gd ian the includes the territory between a (Balk), on a tributaryof the Oxus. Oxus and the Jaxartes or Sir ; corresponding nearly to the modern country Al-Sogd. Its chief place was Maracanda of the Oxus. (Samarcand), on the Polytimetus, a branch Various tribes occupied this a place founded by Cyrus on the Jaxartes. Cyropolis was the Sacoe. region; in the north-eastern part were
"
" "

II.

THE

COUNTRIES

OF

THE

WESTERN

DIVISION

OF

ASIA.

" 156.
to

Beginning it from distinguish

on

the country
Its

the northern limits of the same

we

notice first Sarmatia,

name

called which

Asiatica,
rated sepa-

in

Europe, from

it was

It was inhabited boundary on the south was the Caucasus. from the uncivilized tribes; particularly the Alani, and the Cimmerii: by roving and of received its name latter,the strait connecting the Palus Mceotis with the Euxine

by the river Tanais.

Bosphorus
west,

Cimmericus.'

"

'South
or

of Sarmatia,

and
on

between east,
were

the

and

the Mare

Caspium

Hyrcanium
was
"

the

Iberia, and JEa,

as on
as

Albania.

Colchis

on

the Euxine
n

Euxinus the Pontus on chis, the three countries, Colof its chief places was one

the river Phasis the river of the

far

passes

the the led

Caucasus
"

of Derbend. from

Caspian, extending south celebrated of the two important place was one Cyrus (or Kur). An northern spur of Caucasus, called Pylce Albania or a Caucasia, between the strong and the Caspian, as is generally supposed ; afterwards city and I b e r i a was between Colchis Albania, a high valley, watered by
(Faz-Reone).
A

1b

was

on

the

Cyrus and
this the

its

numerous over

valley
and
but

which These

river

Aragus
the
90

The other celebrated tributaries. of the Euxine into the declivity ; it was it is flows into the Cyrus; (Arakui)

pass

of the Caucasus the

now

passes,

others
pass

in the from

Pylm
On
these

Caspice;

of the Caspian Sea, vicinity properly so termed, is supposed Teheran.

are

defile through called Dariel. termed sometimes

"

to

be

the

modern

pass

of Gurdock,
et Lit. Anc.

about

miles
Portes
"

passes, cf. Walckeriar, de vol. vii. p. 210, with

was
a

"c. in the Man. Caspiennes, Caucasiennes, et Albaniennes, BiU.

de VInstitut, Classe

cVHist.

map.

Repository,

No.

xxii. p. 370.

" 157. Armenia Masius and the

immediately south of Colchis

Monies
on

Carduchi

the

south, and

and from

Iberia,extending
Media
on

to

mount to

the

east

the

of the Euphrates, which northern branch separated it from Asia Minor. and west that on the three great valleys, extending nearly east ; first, watered

It presents

north-east, by the Araxes, also called Phasis (now Aras), flowing to the Caspian ; second, is the summit the central, separated from the first by the chain of mountains in which rises in called Ararat, and watered by the southern branch of the Euphrates, which
its
eastern

part

and

flows

westerly, containing also the

lake

called

Arsissa

Palus

third, the south-western, smaller, separated from the central by the Nivhates Montes, and watered rises in its western by the Tigris, which part and flows through it in an Some of the principalplaces were cient Artaxata, on the Araxes, the aneasterly course. the sources of the northern branch of the EuArza phrates (Erze Roum), near : capital the Tigris near its source taken by Lucullus on ; and ; Amida, Tigranocerta,
"

in the
The

Mithridatic
called Ararat

war,

and

plundered of
supposed
to be

vast
on

riches.
Noah's ark
rested

summit

is commonly

that

which

; this is said to have

been

for ascended,

the

first time, by Prof. Parrot, in 1829.

See Bibl. Rcpos. No.

xxii. p. 390.

is a term used in the not by classical authors, but invented writers confined the term Asia to the countries general, the Roman intra and iEgean, and divided it into Asia Tanrum and bordering on the Propontis Asia extra Taurum. The of Asia Minor, large peninsula which is known by the name

" 158.

Asia

Minor

middle

ages.

In

included

great number

of petty states, whose

boundaries

varied

at

different

^-The northern provinces of Asia Minor, beginning at the iEgean sea, were periods." The middle Phrygia Minor, Mysia, Bithynia, Paphlagonia, and Pontus. provinces were Lydia, Phrygia Major, Galatia, Lycaonia and Isauria, Cappadocia, and Armenia The southern Caria,Lycia, Pisidia,and Pamphylia. Minor. provinces were
" "

%ee

Rennell, Geography

of Western

Asia.

Lond.

1831.

2 vols. 8.

for the Trojan plains at the en" 159. is celebrated trance Phrygia Minor, or Troas, of the Hellespont. The lapse of ages has produced such changes, that modern travelers are not agreed about the situation of the city of Troy, called also Ilium.
Ilium
was

built

at two

some

distance

from

the

sea,
on

above
mount
a

the

thus, and
citadel
was

Simois,
cal'sd

small

Pergamus,

streams, and was

rising from
erected

Ida, and
little hill

junction of the falling into

included

the

Xanor Scamavder, the Hellespont; the walls. The

within

48
the Hermus Romans.
Within order the limits which
the
we

CLASSICAL

GEOGRAPHY.

was

Magnesia,
have above

where

Antiochus, king of Syria,was

Lydia,
were

overthrown

by the

given
them
"

to

six of the

seven

churches

addressed

the Apocalypse ; viz. in the

; the

in which in Lond.

apostle John
"

introduces

Ephesus, Smyrna,

Pergamus,

Thyatira, Sardis,and Philadelphia

1832.

other, Lao.
Churches

dicea, was
of Asia.

Phrygia Major.
182S. 8." On

See Milner, History of the Seven

Churches.

Lond.

S."Arundell, Visit

to the

Seven

the ruins of Sardis, cf. Miss.

Herald, for 1839, p. 208.

$ 162. East south to the

of

Lydia

was

Phrygia
the north.

Major, extending

from

the river

Lycus
near

on

the foot
was

of

jnount

Sangarius on Dindymus, sacred

to

conveyed thence
celebrated

Rome

at

Its chief towns were of the to Cybele, the mother Punic war the end of the second

Pessinus,

the

gods, whose

image

(P. II. " 21) ; Gordium,

knot Gordian cut Apamea, on the river through by Alexander; brated Apollo flayed alive his musical competitor Marsyas; Laodicea, celein sacred GalloGalatia, or history,on the river Lycus; and Colossce. chief towns formed The a Greecia, lay north of Phrygia, of which it originally part. defeated and made prisoner by TamerBajazet was were Ancyra (Angoura), where lane ; Gangxa, the residence of king Deiotarus, a great friend of Cicero ; and Tavium, South-east of Phrygia were Isauria and Lycaonia. the capital~of the Trocmi. The of the former Isaurm, the capital were tioned principaltowns ; Lystra and Derbe, menof the latter was in the Acts of the Apostles (xiv. 6). The principal town Both of these provinces were Iconium. intersected by the chain of Mount Taurus. Its most able remarkthe Halys and the Euphrates. % 163. Cappadocia lay between celebrated for a temple of Bellona, plundered by Antony ; towns Comana, were Tyana, the birthplace of the impostor Apollonius (cf.P. V. " 255 b) ; and Mazaca, named by Tiberius, Ccesarea ad Argceum, to denote its situation at the foot of Mount for the

Marsyas, where

Argceus, from
name

whose
be

summit,
seen.
"

as

ancient

writers Cabira where his

the
were

assert,

the

Euxine

and
was

the

ranean Mediter-

might both
of Lesser

'The

north-eastern

part of
or

Cappadocia
a

Armenia,

and

contained

Sebaste,

by the well fortified citycaptured

treasure

known

by Pompey ; the strong fortress Novas, built by Pompey, to commemorate copolis,

The
names

Mithridates

kept his
bad

; and

JVi-

victoryover
of the Cretans three and the

Mithridates. Kay-pas,
or

Greeks

described with that

the

Cappadocians
the other

as

worst

nations

whose

began

letter;

two

Cilicians.

C a r i a. Its chief towns province of Asia Minor was were celebrated for having given birth to the historians Dionysius capital, and Herodotus, and for the Mausoleum, of the seven ders wona splendid monument, one of the world, erected by Artemisia, queen of Caria, to the memory of her husband Mausolus to Venus; Alabanda, on ; Cnidus, in the peninsula of Doris, sacred the Maeander; and Stratonicea, on the southern coast. L y c i a lay to the east of Caria. Its chief towns Telmessus, on a gulf of the were called also Sinus Glaucus, from the river Glaucus same name, flowing into it ; Xanthus, celebrated for its obstinate resistance to Brutus, the inhabitants having destroyed themselves by fire to avoid surrendering ; and Patara, sacred to Apollo. Near the gulf of the
,
"

% 164. The Halicarnassus

south-western

Telmessus volcano

by Bellerophon P. II. " 117). Some hills at the Promontorium Sacrum (cf. were usually esteemed the of Mount Taurus and a little commencement beyond it is a part of the same ridge adjoining the sea, round which Alexander's compelled to march up to their were army
to

the chain Chimara, fabled

ran

of Mount

Cragus,
have

sacred
been
a

to

Diana

in this

chain

was

the

by the poets
,

monster

subdued

middle

in

water.
of Discoveries in

See Fellowes, Account

Lycia." Cf.

Amer.

Jan. 1841. Eclectic,

whose

districts, AntiocMa; of the Solymi, a people mentioned Termessus, the capital by Homer Cremna, a ; and The principal Roman in Pamphylia were towns colony. Perga, the capital ; Aspendus the river Eurymedon, near which Cimon defeated the Persian fleet ; and Coracesium, on where Pompey destroyedthe nest of pirateswho had so long infested these seas. C i I i ci a lay to the east of Pamphylia, and south of Isauria, and was divided into called Tracheotis or rough, and the other Campestris or two portions, the western level. The chief towns of Tracheotis Selinus, where the emperor were Trajan died ; Anamurium, opposite Cyprus; and Seleucia (Seletkeh), on the river Calycadnus. In Cilicia Campestris were received Soli, a colony of the Athenians ; Tarsus, said to have from one its name of the wings of the horse Pegasus being dropped there ; the birthplace of the Apostle Paul; Issus, where obtained his second Alexander triumph over
" 165.
Next
to

Lycia
are

were

P i s i d i a and
The

Pamphylia,
chief
towns

two

mountainous
were

boundaries

indeterminate.

of

Pisidia

"

"

the

Persians : and Alexandria to (Scanderoon), erected by the conqueror perpetuate of his victory. On the confines of Syria was tween bethe memory the mountain Amanus, which and the sea were celebrated The river Cydnus is a Pylce Syrice, pass. remarkable for the coldness of its waters, by which Alexander and almost killed, was when for the splendid festivities celebrated its banks on Antony visited Cleopatra.
" "

" 166.

Stria
; on

was

bounded

on

the

north
on

by Mount
the
west

Amanus

on

the

east

by the
It
was

Euphrates

the south

by Arabia

; and

by the Mediterranean.

PLATE

VI

6.

50

CLASSICAL

GEOGRAPHY.

divided
or

into five

provinces, Comagene,

Seleucis, Ccelo-Syria, Phoenicia, and

Judea,

Palestine.

Samosata, on the Euphrates, the birthplace The was principalcity of Comagene of Lucian. In Seleucis, or Hierapolis, the city of the Syrian Syria Propria, were goddess Astarte (cf.P. II. " 48), on the Euphrates ; Bercea, previously Chah/bon (now Christians first Aleppo), on the Chalcis,flowing into a small lake ; Antiochia, where it Daphne, with its delightfulgrove their name, the river Orontes } near received on
"

vated to Apollo ; A-pqmea (Famieh), higher up the Orontes, which risingin the elethe side of Libanus, flows by a north-west to course regions on the eastern of the the city of Heliogabalus, the worst Mediterranean ; still further up, Emesa, the opposite side of the Orontes," the limits of this and "on near Roman emperors; magnificent ruins still attract province, Heliopolis (Balbec), sacred to the Sun, whose sacred admiration.
From
are

the

map

of Syria

accompanying Robinson's
and
oriental
names were

Researches, Balbec
of Syria,

appears
we

to

be

on

the Leontes.
or

"
"

Among
and

the

cities which
or

enumerated Under the and

by Greek
last of

in the geography

may
turrets

distinguish Emesa glittered from

at least to

Hems,
an

Heliopolis
space
their
or was

bec. Bal-

the

Caesars,they

strong
were

and

populous

; the

afar;

ample
;

covered at

with
least

public

private buildings ; and

the citizens

illustrious by their spirit, or and

by their pride
the worship
Not
a

by

riches, or
the
sun

by their luxury.

In the days of paganism,

both been the

Emesa marked
summits

Heliopolis
a

were

addicted

of Baal,

J but

the decline of Emesa,

of their superstitionand
which
was

splendor has

by

singular variety of fortune.

Libanus The J while
measure

vestige remains

of the
to the feet
on

temple
writers

equalled in poetic style to

wonder

of mount traveler.

the

ruins of Balbec, invisible

of antiquity,excite the curiosity and

and
one

of the

European
a

of the

temple
may

is two be

hundred couDted

in

length,
of the Lond.

hundred

iu breadth

the

front is adorned

with

double of

portico of eightcolumns
massy tbe view Lond. blocks of marble.

; fourteen The
"

either side ;

and

each

column, forty-fivefeet in height, is composed

order
"

three
See

proportions and
R.

ornaments of

Corinthian 1757. fol.

express

the

architecture

of

the

Greeks.""

given in Plate VII.

183S.
2 vols.

Wood,

Ruins

Balbec.

C. B. Elliott, Travels was

in Austria, Russia, and so

Turkey.

8.

Ccelo-Syria
mountains,
include rises
to
near

named

because
;

it and also

lay
the the

between
name

the

two

Libanus
the
western

and

Anti-Liha7ius

is sometimes

parallel chains applied so as

of
to

the

valley of the Orontes,

sources

and

whole

Mediterranean. valley, north of mount

the

of the Orontes, and it is limited, in our division, to the upper the principalpeak of Anti- Libanus Herman, But

valley of the Leo?ites, which flows by a south-western course

part of the latter ; including also

the east called Gouteh Orchard of Damascus), Demesk, (now or by the rivers Chrysorrhoas(Pharphar) and Abcna, flowinginto a large lake below which the chief town of the province. The Damascus, and east was territory the Euphrates, is mentioned north-east of these valleys as far as in connection both but more with Seleucis and with Ccelo-Syria; under the general name of commonly be mentioned Syria ; some places in it, on the Euphrates, should Thapsacus ; as (El-Der), the celebrated ford,passed by Cyrus in his expedition against Art'axerxes, at Issus, and in pursuit of Darius by Darius after his defeat by Alexander by Alexander the boundary of the Roman Orouros (Gorur), fixed by Pompey as empire ; and when he reduced Syria to a province ; but the chief place in this extensive region was Tadmor in the desert," said to have been the resibuilt by Solomon, dence Palmyra, or of Longinus (cf.P. V. " 124), and of Zenobia, who so bravely defied the emperor Aurelian by celebrated architectural ruins. ; it is yet marked watered
"

another valley on

"

On

the ruins of Lond.

Palmyra, see
1S22. 8.

R.

Wood,

as

cited P. IV.

" 2-13. 3.

"

The

Modern

Traveller."

Irhy and Mangles,

Travels

in Egypt,

"c. Syria,

the cities of Tyrus (Tyre) and Sidon, famous for their extensive is celebrated for the obstinate siege of Tyre by Alexander defence made of the besiegers. by the besieged, and the unconquerable perseverance the seat of a distinguishedschool for the study Berytus (Beirut), north of Sidon, was
commerce.

Phoenicia

contained The

of law
Beirut and

in the
has been
"

age

of Justinian.
a

for several years

See

very
"

interestingmissionary station.

In its vicinity, on year

mount

Lebanon,
Memoir

dwell
of

the

Maronites

the Druzes.

Jowett's

Researches.

Missionary Herald,

from

the

1S23, passim.

"

Bond's

Pliny

Fisk.

" 167. Judaea, and of Judah. It separatedinto the into

or was

Palaestina,
at

is called in
among

Scripture the land of Canaan,

the twelve tribes ; it was the Romans finally

of Israel, afterwards

first divided

divided it kingdoms of Israel and Judah ; and four regions, Galilaea, Samaria, Judaea Propria, and Peraea or Transfluviana, the beyond Jordan. country Galilaea into Inferior,chieflyinhabited perior, was again subdivided by Jews; and Sucalled Galilee of the Gentiles. which, from its proximity to Ccelo-Syria, was called to distinguishit The chief towns of Upper Galilee Ccesarea Philippi, so were from another town of the same in this province ; its original name name was Laish, afterwards called Caesarea Philippi,by Herod's changed to Paneas, and finally son sieged bePhilip ; Gabara and Jotopata,bravely defended by the historian Josephus, when Galilee were Ace, or Ptolemais by Vespasian. The principal cities in Lower for its siege by Richard Cceur de Lion in the time of the Crusades; (Acre), memorable and A Canm afterwards called Dio Caesarea; Nazareth Jezreel. large ; Sepphoris,
" .

"

lake

in Galilee
was

was

called
at

the

Sea

Chorazin;
was

the

western
"

of Tiberias side were The

or

Gennesareth

; at

its northern Carmel

tremity ex-

Capernaum,

Tiberias, and
were

Bethsaida;
and

on

the

opposite side

Gadara.

chief mountains

of Galilee

'VII

P.

I.

ASIA.

WESTERN

DIVISION.

JUDAEA.

51

ilabyrins or
Samaria

Tabor, the

scene

of

our

Lord's into

transfiguration. Between
"

Galilee

and

stood Bethsan, the chief of the ten of the Jews, entered dreading the power who then governed Judea. princes,

confederate
a

cities called

which, Decapolis,

confederacy against the Asmonean

$ 168 a. Samaria Samaria, the capital, lay south of Galilee. Its chief towns were destroyed by the Asmonean princes,but rebuilt by Herod, who called it Sebaste, in honor of Augustus; Ccesarea, first called Turris Stralonices,a celebrated seaport, the of the Roman dromeda Anresidence south of Cassarea, where ; Joppa, a seaport governors delivered from a sea-monster was (P. II. " 122) ; Sichem, in the by Perseus between in later the ancient the mountains Ebal and Gerizim; it was interior, capital, times called Neapolis ; Lydda, called by the Greeks Arimathea. ; and Diospolis Judaea situated south of Samaria, between the Lake was Asphaltites, or Dead The Sea, and the Mediterranean. capital was Hierosolyma (Jerusalem), which we shall notice particularlyin the next section. North-west from Jerusalem Emwas where the Jews defeated maus or were Nicopolis, by Vespasian; directlynorth was Bethel; north-east was Bethlehem, the birthplace Jericho; south from Jerusalem was buried ; still further, someof Christ ; further south, Hebron, where Abraham what was of the southern limit of the country to the west, Beersheba, often mentioned as
"

Israel

south-west,

a Eleutheropolis, very

flourishingcity in the time of Eusebius.

to
now

taken

? 168 b. Hierosolyma, or who made by David,

on a a more

Jerusalem,
it his

originally belonged
The Arabians hills all around of hills Olives
at
a

the

Jebusites,
Mount around further

from

whom the

it
"

was

residence.

call it El-Kuds,

Holy.
on

It is
east

situated
on

broad

the ain

north of
on

elevation, having higher the Mt. ridge extending from

than
a

it ; the

of

Olives
to

the

;
a

and

bending
distance the

the

west,

at

the of

distance
;

mile Hill

on

the Evil

west,
Counsel

greater

the

south,

the

of

rising directly on

sloping gently, beyond side of the Valley

3innom.
of hewn and with towers stone, by walls presenting a stately appearance, to fifty height varying according to the inequalities in the ground, from twenty feet ; in circumference about formed and half The ancient walls two a a geographical miles. three and Jerusalem a half larger circuit of about geographical miles accordingto Josephus ; and is said to have been be understood must not to anciently fortified by three walls ; but this statement there three around within since that walls the whole the two were mean another; city, one hill inner walls of Zion wall were merely walls intersecting the city and joining the outer ; the within afterwards first of all enclosed with wall: then was a Moriah, added, and Ophel, was wall from extended the old one include these to was as Akra, and a second so ; subsequently Bezetha and this a third wall constructed to protect was was annexed, joining the others. mascus Of the eight former Gate now : the of the Pillar, or Dagates, only the fqur larger are open Gate Gate Gate, on tire north ; the ; the of the Pilgrims, or Bethlehem Gate, on the west vf David, or Zion Gate, on the south; and the Gate of the Tribes, or St. Stephen's Gate, on the The 5ast. now run principal streets nearly at right angles to each other. surface of the ground is diversified The part, by five hills : the largest is Zion, in the southern of this and in the western rising abruptly from the Valley of Hinnom part of the city is ; north from of the Zion from and east Akra Akra, separated by the valley of the Tyropceon ; north-east from in the Damascus Gate is Bezetha, in the north-western this and part of the city ; south-east rises from the Valley of Jehoshaphat eastern Bezetha, city is Moriah, which, with part of the ; of Moriah, and and south the south-eastern of the at Moriah, corner city, is Ophel : Bezetha, be considered extends to the south as beyond the walls. Ophel may ridge which parts of one hills are sides by narrow These three on closely encompassed valleys ; on the. east the Valley of is continued into the on Jehoshaphat ; on the west, the Valley of Gihon, which Valley of Hinnom from the south-eastern distance of the city,the Valley of Jehoshaphat the south : at some corner Kidron and that of Hinnom connected. The is but which Brook the bed of a torrent are during of winter flows the rains south. The to the through the Valley of Jehoshaphat valley in which Zion in the depression between and the bed of the ancient Akra was (near Tyropmon commences Hebron Bethlehem south between the western to the or or gate), and descending easterly bends Zion and Ophel, and meets with the other two point of junction. valleys at their common The hill Zion the and called the city of David." hence was part first occupied by David, within the walls of the is literally"a rest Only the northern ploughed part of it is now ; much citadel, the lower field;" on the north-western partis the present portions of the walls of which is the church of the ancient Tower of Akra are probably the remains of Hippicus.-^On the summit of the Holy Sepulchre, tradition the spot designated on as being the Golgotha and by doubtful is mostly covered with the with low no buildings or hovels, Calvary of the Scriptures. Bezetha of solid obvious of ancient ruins, On traces at the first was Moriah, which apparently a mound built ; the surface for the of the rock was rock, the Temple of Solomon being leveled purpose ; erected from of the and then immense base rock the four walls the were on sides, and the interval built up with between filled in with earth to make the vaults or as on top a large so formed of the grand Mosque of which this the the Court To area of the Temple. area, present called El-Haram-esh-Sherif," Omar, or enclosure nearly if not wholly corresponds ; being a massive walls plateau or terrace nearly in the form of a parallelogram, supported by and within built up from lower the are portions of the walls probably the ground on all sides; the lower which remains of an walls the ancient shown on to be Temple rested ; as seems by some very immense which from the arch the Temple across supported the Bridge that formerly extended Zion. In the northern Tyropceon to a celebrated part of the present Xystus or portico on Mount of the Mosque of Omar called memorable the fortress the Tower area was of Antonia, rendered time in the siege of Jerusalem the Temple captured the city, A. D. 70; at which by Titus, who in the seventh its site was built by Omar was now on utterly destroyed by fire. The Mosque It is surrounded of

battlements,

"

"

"

"

"

century.
The ancient inhabitants

depended
more

house one or having now every Immense cisterns also still exist

for water, excavated the

as

do

the

modern,
rock
area

chiefly
on

on

cisterns the

; almost

in the

limestone the

which

within

space

under

of

the

Temple.

city stands. Large open

52
reservoirs and
on

CLASSICAL

GEOGRAPHY.

or

tanks,
Pool

or

pools, were
; the

likewise former

constructed
west

in and

around

the

city.
of Pool

The
;

Upper
the

Poo,

the the Pool the

Lower

still exist in the

are

of The

the Pool

the
at

south-west, of Bethesda,
north-east in the

names

Valley of Hinnom. given to three

the Haram-esh-Sherif

city, in the Valley the of Balhshtba,

within there the is
no

Gihon

latter, of Hezekiah, and

:

reservoirs
;
name

corner

of

but

present evidence five

walls that

the

latter

is

it is the
"

pool

mentioned Fountains

The only of Nehemiah, probably of the Old Testament the En-Rogel (Josh. 7, 8; xviii. 16), a deep well just below the xv. with that of Jehoshaphat; the Fountain and Pool of Siloam, junction of the Valley of Hinnom the which is in the valley of the Tyropceon, its junction with and just above Valleys of Hinnoin from and the Fountain is some distance that Jehoshaphat; point of juncof the Virgin, which tion, the of the is accessible the Valley of Jehoshaphat: latter water only by descending up
same are

New

Testament
now

by

the

(BnQeaSa), having
now

porches.

of

livingwater

accessible

three;

that

culled

the

Well

sixteen extends distance

"

steps .down
from 1750 it

an

excavation

in

the
to

solid the

rock;

and of

an

artificial

subterranean
so as

through Mount the feet, by which

is said
to

Ophel
waters at

Fountain

Siloam,
from
or

winding
Fountain feet

to

passage make the the of gin. Virthe

of the

Siloam of

proceed
seventy

the

of

Mary
the
area

fountain mosque,

exist

depth

eighty
the

below

grand
An sides mosque. East

artificial passage. flowing by some Aqueduct, supposed to be ancient, carries water of Mount Zion, and it,as is supposed, conveys of

across

to

the

Valley of Hinnom, or Haram-esh-Sherif,

Kidron,
are

around
area

the of the

(cf. P. III. l" 187. 5), and Tomb of Zacharias. South-east of these, on the south-western of Olives, are the declivity of the Mount excavated Those called the Tombs sepulchres called the Tombs of the Prophets. of the Judges, further of north rather from the city. The are west remarkable up the Valley of Jehoshaphat, excavations called the Tombs about from north the city,on the of the Kings, are nearer commonly side of the valley : they are of the mother of Constantine, the sepulcher probably the celebrated of her the latter life at Jerusalem, Helena, who, having embraced Empress Christianity, spent part and died there of eighty, about A. D. 325. at the age
monuments

Moriah, called

on

the

the

Tomb

rocky of

elevation Absalom
or

just beyond
Absalom's

the Pillar

Brook

the

sepulchral

"

"

"

The

above

outlines the

of the

Topography

of Jerusalem of the
see a

will

be the

of service
Romans."

to the See

student

in reading the Scriptures, and

V.

the

intensely
ii

interestingstory of
For

siege and destruction

as

city by
F. G.

Jnsephus (cf.P.
Ersch

" 248).

"

Mi7mar".

as

cited " 211.

E.

fuller details
as

to

the

Topography,

Cromc,
works

Jerusalem, in
on

und
For

Gruber's

Encyclopixdie.
"

Robinson,
with

Biblical Researches, "c

,

cited " 171.

In vol. lit.is "c. N.

full list of

Palestine.

details respecting the

Diet,

Temple,

PlaBS,
242"

see

H.

Prideaux,

Connexions,
Chariest. 1813.

York, 1840.
For

2 vols.

8.

with

engravings"
of the

Calmct,

of the
see

Bible, Fragments

249.

vol. iii.p. 346.

4 vols. 4."

Plan

of the Church

Holy Sepulchre, "c,

also Calmti,

vol. iii. p. 164.

" 169

a.

The
towns

southern
were

district of Judaea

was

called

Idumea,

or

the

land

of Edom

the chief

Seir. But this district, Zoar, and Bozra at the foot of Mount the -principal Peor properly, under Arabia part of it,is included, perhaps more called Philistcsa, or the land of the Philistines, from trcea was (" 171). The sea-coast whom the whole is called Palestine ; its chief tpvvns were Gath, Ekron, now country Azotus Ashdod, Ascalon, and Gaza. or

Gera,

"

" 169 b. chief towns

Perasa
were

is

separated from

the

other

provinces by the river Jordan.

The

rent Gileadites ; Gadara, on the torthe Christians were Hieromas, where severely defeated by the Saracens; Gaulon, the Sea of Tiberias ; and fortress of remarkable Rabbotha strength ; Gamala, near in the district Ammonitis, afterwards called Jordan Ammon, Philadelphia. The rises in Mount and passing through the Sea of Tiberias, falls into the lake Hermon,

Ramoth-Gilead,

in the land

of the

"

whence Asphaltites,
This been lake said is

there
to

is

no

exit for its

the situation
or

waters. of the cities of Sodom and Gomorrah. of R. but animal It has and who and

supposed

occupy

its extreme that, from that neither vegetable life, and visited the region in 1838, states bushes the grow trees, and

saltness fish that

nor

other
are

properties,
found in its

it is destructive
waters.

weeds
water
was

Dr. bitter birds

:

Robinson,
that
trees

the vapor

by
some

it ;

no

pestiferous
the

flyingover

waters.

is intensely salt and perceived, and many Bibl. Rcpos. Apr. 1839,

were

singing

among

p. 419.

between of Armenia, the rivers Tigris and Euphrates, " 170. was it derives its name. whence Its chief towns Nisibis, on a branch of the were the great bulwark of the Romans Tigris, Syria ; againstthe Parthians ; Edessa, near Seleucia, now tes Bagdad, on the confluence of the Tigriswith a branch of the Euphra-

Mesopotamia

south

and
the the the

Carrhce, called
scene

in

Scripture Charran,
overthrow
where

for

lime

the

residence
the

and
were

of

the

miserable Greeks
were

of Crassus.
was

On

borders

of Abraham, of Chaldsea and

in

plains of Cunaxa,
ten

Cyrus

where

thousand and Their

commenced
town

that

slain by his brother memorable retreat so from

the
most

Artaxerxes,

Babylonia
to

Chaldsea

districts separate
was

Mesopotamia,
ancient

history. it lying below

remarkable

the south-east.

chief

Babylon,
near

and

city of antiquity.
Belus,
is called of its founder, after his commenced
name

his
to

building
the

the widow

tower

of Babel, his of brick

which

but She

Semiramis,
enclosed ornamented
more

the

of
a one

descendant

Babylon
city
had until

is attributable.

city with
it with

wall

by profane writers the grandeur cemented by bitumen, of

Ninus,
The circuit gates. its length, that when
were

almost of the

incredible
was

dimensions,
said
to

and been

hundred and
so

brazen
was

have

than the The

sixty
the

miles

great
the

Cyrus
event

captured
the

one extremity following morning.

of
"

city,
river

inhabitants

of flowed

other

ignorant

of

the

Euphrates
led made his

having
a

diverted the in

the

river

into

another

channel,
their monarch

troops but

through the through

were at

the
vacant
moment
"

city, and Cyrup prised bed, and sur-

fepet

Babyluiiiiuis,who, with honor of their gods, and

Belshazzar,
a

that

celebrating
The Chaldscaiig

consequently

feeble

resistance.

54

CLASSICAL

GEOGRAPHY.

limit between termed Nile. One

Egypt

and

Lybia

on

the

west

was

the limit

great declivityand
was

narrow

pass

Catabathmos of the
most

("cara/?a0^ds). Its southern

features striking

the

smaller

cataract

of the

of Egypt was its river, Nilus. This has two cipal princalled Abysof the country rising in the mountains now sinia, in the Lunce Montes, or Mountains and the western Having passed of the Moon. terranean through the ancient Ethiopia, it flows through the whole length of Egypt to the Mediand at for the last 1000 miles of its course, receiving a single tributary ; not and forming the triangularisland called Delta from last dividing into two great arms the Ostium mouths its shape. It had seven western was Canopicum ; the ; the most the others in their order proceeding towards the Balbytinum, Sebenmtieast, were inundations Its annual Mendesium, Phatnicum, Taniticum, and Pelusiacum. cum, of fertility, in great numthe great cause and reservoirs and canals were formed were bers the water the whole to the land was over too high to country ; where convey allow lage, vilit,pumps canals to convey used for raising the water were ; almost every it is said, had its canal, although there were in the narrow valley of Egypt many cities and villages. thousand three divisions of Egypt ; the northern diterranean " 175. There were principal part on the Mesources

the

eastern

"

was was

called

JEgyptus Inferior;the

southern

part

on

the confines

of Ethiopia
"

these, Heptanomis. JEgyptus Superior or Thebais; and the portion between The of Indian merchandize Egypt was Alexandria, the great mart capitalof Lower ; caravans (Suez), continuallypassed from thence to Arsinoe during the middle ages, In front of the harthe Red bor Sea, whence goods were on conveyed by sea to India. island named built ; south an was Pharos, on which a celebrated lighthouse was the lake Mareotis, in the vicinity of the citywas of which the best Egyptiin wine was the celebrated made. In Alexandria burned was library,said to have been by the Saracens. (Cf. P. IV. "-76). In the interior of the Delta was. Sais, the anc;ent capital, for its numerous remarkable the Delta and Sinus Arabicus temples. Between were Heroopolis, the city of the shepherd kings ; and Onion, founded by a colony of fled hither under their high-priest Onias, from the cruelties of Antiochus, Jews, who and, by the permission of Ptolemy, built a city and temple.
" "

In Lower
on

Egypt,

east

of the

Delta,

was

the

land

of Goshen, according

to the

views

of the

best

modern

authors.

"

Cf. E. rriinson,

the Exodus

of the

"c. Bibl. Repoi. vol. ii. 744. Israelites,

Also, Researches, vol. i.

" 176.
near

In

the

middle

portion or Heptanomis,

one

of the
was

chief

the

Egypt;
was an

Grand Cairo now stands jj, it spot where in its vicinity the stupendous pyramids. are

the Arsinoe

ancient

places was Memphis, metropolis of all of Memphis south-west

this was lake Moeris, said to have been the famous vated excaimportant place ; near of the Nile by order of an Egyptian king as a reservoir to contain the waters and believed to have the lake Birhet-el-Kurun, conveyed into it by a great canal, now of nature end of this lake was the been southern wholly or chieflythe work ; at the celebrated Labyrinth. considerable still more a place, said to have Oxyrunchus was from a sharp-nosed fish (""!% ijvyx"s) derived its name worshiped by the inhabitants." of Thebais to In Upper Egypt, the most Thebes, which gave the name important place was stroyed this division ; called also by the Greeks Diospolis,and Hecatompylos ; although deby Cambyses 500 years before Christ, its ruins stillexcite admiration, occupying of 27 miles in circumference, including the, modern Karnak, Luxor, and other a space nortk it was the famous of Memnon. statue villages; near Tentyra (Denderah), was of Thebes, and also presents interestingruins ; especiallythe large temple of Isis, the ceiling and of which taken Zodiac from the famous was transported to France the made speculation (cf. Amer. Quart. Rev. vol. iv). Between subject of much the former and Tentyra, nearer Thebes and on the eastern side of the Nile, was Copthe desert constructed by Ptolemy Philadelphus across tos; from this place a road was Ombi was the Sinus Arabicus. to Berenice on Considerably to the south of Thebes made notorious by Juvenal (Sat. xv.) for its quarrels with Tentyra respectingthe wor the extreme the borders of Ethiopia ; the town on ship of the crocodile. Syene was the summer its the well sunk to mark solstice, place of Juvenal's exile ; where also was bottom perpendicular over directly being then illumined by the vertical rays of the sun ing interestthe island on which it. Not far from Syene was Elephantine stood, of which of touchstone, also the Mons ruins stillremain. Near Basaniles, mountains Syene was of Syene the Egyptians used South from which ornamental to make vases. the bed the Cataracts of the Nile ; mighty terraces of red granite (Syenite) cross were In this region of the river,and throw its waters into an impetuous and foaming torrent. and blocks of the Egypthe quarrieswhence the vast obelisks and colossal statues tian were There three Arabicus, which taken. were temples were places on the Sinus be mentioned should extremity of Egypt ; Arsinoe (now ; Berenice, in the southern of the Red Sea; and arm Suez), at the head of the Sinus Heroopolites,the western them commercial Myoshormus, called also Portus Veneris, midway between ; they were A canai, called Fossa Trajani, places,goods being transported from them to the Nile.
"
"

"

"

connected

Arsinoe

with

that river.

"Vrri:

P.

I.

AFRICA.

ETHIOPIA.

55

In the inhabited

deserts on the western the cultivated and or Lybian side of Egypt were spots called Oasis Mag?ia, and Oasis Parva, the Great and the Little Oasis. The in the division latter was termed The Great Heptanomis, south of lake Mosris. Oasis is in the part that was It was called Thebais. in the time a place of banishment
vast

of the later Roman called

" 177. in the traveler and of

empire ; yet said to have been by the Greeks, the isle of the blessed. of Egypt have The ruins and antiquities
the scholar. Besides
the various

delightful residence,and
awakened the

times some-

ever

deepest interest
of which edifices,

temples and other

rank the objects splendid remains are found in various places,the following high among removed of to curiosity. 1. Obelisks and Pillars; several of these were Rome; the Pillar of On the remaining, the most noted are at Heliopolis,the two obelisks called Cleopatra' An at Alexandria, and Pompef s Pillar, also at Alexandria. s Needles obelisk, nearly 70 feet in length, was brought to Paris in the year 1836, to be erected in that city,by Louis Philippe. 2. The Pyramids, ranked the by the Greeks among wonders. Cairo and the ancient Gize, near seven at Djiza, or They are numerqus brated. celeThose at Gize are the most Memphis, and at Sacchara, 18 miles south of Gize.
"

Several used
are

One of them has been open from the earliest times of which we have account. times. others have been opened in recent They all contain chambers evidently for sepulchralpurposes. (Cf. P. IV. " 231. P. II. " 96. 3.)" 3. Catacombs.' These

subterranean
are

near

burying places. They Thebes, at a place now

west

are

found Called

in several

places ;
tract

Goilrnou,
excavated

of the mountains

of the Nile.

The

tombs

are

but the most markable reof rocks at the foot in the rocks, and extend,

for the dead ; over these was as repositories ruins of this structure lake Mceris pileof splendid buildings. Some near 4. Colossal images and discovered. One of the most statues. markable re(i?176) have been of the colossal images of the sphinx (cf.P. II. " 117) is near the great pyramids. A very celebrated colossus is that commonly called the statue of Memnon (cf. P. II. " 74. P. IV. " 169. 2. " 231. 1)." The covered with Egyptian monuments are P. IV. " 16). in Hieroglyphics (cf. inscriptions
an

it is said,over the space of two miles. From which Herodotus considered The labyrinth, subterranean chambers designed numerous immense

these', many
more

mummies
than

have

been

taken.

"

wonderful

the pyramids, included

"

Much awakened detachment

research in

has

been

employed

in modern

times

upon

and Egyptian Antiquities

Remains.

new

degree of interest
took with
purpose.

was a

the whole
no

subject by the celebrated

one

expedition of Bonaparte in 1798.

had
an

In this invasion (savans)

with

of Egypt, he for the

him
"

of

less than

hundred
ever

men

who

cultivated

the arts
was

and

sciences

selected

Tbi9

body, the first of the kind

and all the
means

which

accompanied
several

invading army,

liberallysupplied
"

books, philosophical instruments,

the emperor's

of

prosecuting

the

departments
was

of knowledge."

The

splendid work, published under

patronage, Many
some

and

styled Description de VEgypte,

valuable
of works

the result of their labors

monuments

(cf.P. IV. " 169).

have
holds been
a

other

the his'ory and illustrating of

savans

of Egypt of Denon
"

published during the present century,

rank

from

members

the company

above

named.

That

high

; entitled Travels

in Upper

and

Lower

Egypt
"

during

the

Campaigns
"

of Bonaparte

; with
de

folio plates.

The

following

works

relate to this subject. Leigh's Travels

sur

in Egypt,
"

Belzoni's View,
Per.

Travels.

Jomard's Modern

Description

l'Egypte.

"

Hamilton's

JEgyptiaca." Letronne, Recherches

No.

I'Egypte.
en

RusselVs
"c.

of Ancient ISI4."

and

Egypt, in Harper's

Fain.

Library,

xxxiii."/.
of

Miot, Memoires
Lond. 1635.

de

I'Expedition
G.

Egypte,
Manners Pococke. p. 139.
"

/. O.

Wilkinson, Topography Egyptians.

Lond.

of Thebes, and

general View
We

Egypt.
the

8.-7.

Wilkinson,'

and

Customs

of the
to

Ancient

1837. 3 vols. 8."

"

may

add,

Travels

of Clarke,

Norden, Shaw,
also references I. Oxf. 1821.

Cf. Supplement Jimer.

Encyclop. Briiann.
No. vil.
"

article Egypt.
Nos.

Lund.

Quart. Rev.
xxxiii. Pillar
"

vol. xiii. 1. xvi. 1. xvii. 181. xix. 178. xxiv, Bibl. Repos. No. xxiii.
"

Quart.
1.

Rev.

For.

Quart. Rev.
3

xxxii.. and

Am.

See

given

P.

IV. " 216.

1. "^230.

" 23S. 3. " 243.

was

history of Pompey's

is given in J. White's

Part Egyptiaca,

"
were

178.

Ethiopia
of
"

the

lying south
included.
;
on

Egypt
were

Various

to the coungiven by indefinitely try very modern countries of Nubia and Abyssinia particularly uncivilized tribes are represented as dwelling here in ancient
name

the

ancients

; the

times

the

coast

the

Troglodytm,said

to

inhabit

caves

of the earth.

It

seems

also to have The most

contained

inhabitants of the

important places were

on one sources

(Axum)
the Nile. of
a

was

in refinement with the Egyptians. equally advanced and Adulis. Auxume Napata, Meroe, Auxume, of the Astaboras branch of (Tacazze), the eastern
"

Its ruins stillexist.

"In

one

square,

Bruce

found

40

obelisks, each

formed

but no hieroglyphics.One singlepiece of granite,with sculpturesand inscriptions, of the obelisks was Here was 60 feet high." found the monument usually called the P. IV. " 92. 5.). Adulis on a (cf. (Arkiko) was of Axum Inscription bay of the Sinus there found Arabicus; having some (cf.P. IV. $92. celebrityfrom two inscriptions the Nile south of its junction with the Astaboras near the was on or 5). Meroe ; near modern the capitalof a large tract these between Shendy, as is supposed. It was and was celebrated in ancient times, being the grand rivers called by the same name, trade between emporium of the caravan Ethiopia and Egypt and the north of Africa. remains of temples and other edifices of sandstone stillmark The its site. Napata was
" " " "

farther north
These The
of

or

lower
also been of the
; of

down

on

the

Nile, and
on

was

next
have

in rank
been found

to

Meroe.
valley ot
\t,e Nile.

regions have
are some

explored in modern
sources

times, and splendid ruins

the subject.

scattered along the

following
Salt and

of information
:

Bruce's

Travels

in Abyssinia, cited P. IV. " 118. I." Cf. Lond.

Travels

Lord

Valentia 174
"

Burckhardt Travels
we

Franc.

Gau

(P. IV. " 243. 3), and 1835,

S.

especially of Cailliaud."

Quart. Rev.

vol. xvi. 13. xix.

Hoskins'

in Ethiopia, Lond.

" 179.

Under

Libya

include

the

whole

extent
an

from

SyrtisMinor

(Gulf

of

Cabes), together with

indefinite

JEgyplus portion on

on

the

east

to

the The

the

south.

56

CLASSICAL

GEOGRAPHY.

by the ancient poets to signifyAfrica in general. In its strict and most only the region between Egypt and the SyrlisMajor (Gulf of Sidra). In the latter sense, it comprised on the coast marica only the two districts Marand Cyrenaica. We include under called Libya also the portion farther west Hegio Syrtica, from the two Syrtes on the coast already named. Marmarica the east The inhabitants were said to on nearest to was Egypt. charm of them, secret named some some against the poison of serpents; possess Psylli, made it their profession to heal such as had been bitten,by sucking the venom of the Wound. In an El Wah, south of Marmarica, out stood the celebrated now Oasis,, it the fountain of the Run, (P. III. " 71), and near temple of Jupiter Ammon hot in the evening, said to be warm in the morning, cool at noon, whose waters were after having encountered and scalding at midnight. Alexander, ceeded sucgreat difficulties, this oracle, and was of Jupiter. in visiting hailed by the priestas son
term
was

used

limited

sense,
"

it included

"Belzoni,
Oasis. wells He of sweet

previously
found,
water
as

to

his

Hornemann

rising

out

tour to El a leaving Egypt, made had, thctops of the hills of the of a surface overspread with masses

Wah desert

(the bushes),
encrusted of salt, as has been

the

northern

with

salt, and
related
as see

Herodotus considered
to

centuries two-and-twenty temple of Jupiter Ammon of the infidels,' 'work as whose

source

ago. ; but

He the

found natives had

as

also
were

the
as

remains

of what and
as

the this

jealous
to

unwilling
fine rivulet which

let him of
sweet

Hornemann describes cold is stated

at

found in
a

them grove warm, that the

was

be.

The

this traveler
was

being

of date
was

by
he

the

people,
the much

sometimes of what
so

and

sometimes

trees, and also visited is

warm

Brown

was

water, told says and possessed had 95.

proved
a

truth
more

evenings, changed,

by Herodotus, midnight, and cold in

have found
sun

this

spring
of the

who by Belzoni; in the mornings Had of Mr. the Belzoni air which Rev.

middle the the

day.
"

thermometer,
while that

he of the

would fountain

,that it
remained

of the

temperature same." Lond.

Quart.

xxiii.

Marmarica and the Syrtis Major, Pentapolis (Barca),lay between or five cities ; Cyrene, founded Philseni. It contained colony, by a Greek celebrated the birthplace of the philosopher Carneades a ; Apollonia, seaport ; Ftolethe which mais, at first called Barce ; Arsinoe, and Berenice or Hesperis, near were of the for their golden apples, and the residence gardens of the Hesperides famous

Cyrenaica,

or

altars of the

(Cf. P. II. " 115. Ed. Rev. No. 95,,p. 228)." West Regio Syrtica, also called,from its three cities, Tripqlitana (Tripoli) ; of the same its cities were name Leptis, called major, to distinguish it from a town Carthage ; CEa, the present cityof Tripoli near colony; and ; and Sabrata, a Roman the Lotophagi dwelt on this coast Tysdrus, now Elgem. A people called by Homer ; the lotos, a fruit so delicious, that whoever he says that they fed on tasted it immediately On the coast the Syrtes, two were forgot his native country. dangerous quicksands, the lake which frequently proved fatal to hapless mariners ; here, also, was Gorgons,
was

so

celebrated

in fable.

of this

Tritonis, sacred
'

to

Minerva.
remains
as

interesting ancient is described situation of Cyrene 800 feet of hills, rising about
There
are

in these

regions, particularly
beautiful. of
terraces.
"

at

Leptis
on

and

exceedingly
a

"It table The feet

is built

the

above

fine

sweep

high
1800

land, forming
of the the above

Cyrene. edge of a the" summit

chain the and of

"

The range of

lower be

chain,

to at

which
1000
an

it descends feet ; so that extensive stretches has the These

are

estimated

by a series of Cyrene stands

view about taken
over

elevation

lower

about table
to

level
east

may sea, of
as

which far
to as

it commands the eye

can

the

the

coast.

reach, Advantage
face of

five of and

miles the

land, which, the northward,

terraces,
some

extending
and
to

west

then the

descends

abruptly
into roads

been

natural

shape
been

leading along

the

mountain,

of steps in the rock. cut of Cyrene, of the citizens the facades. ornamented

smooth,
been
outer

stony
sides

very surface.

roads, which plainly indented

The

in communicating be supposed may with the

most

instances have of

ledges b# narrow
wheels,

flights
drives rowing fur-

to

the

favorite

marks

chariot

deep

rock, in
where

instances

galleries, has
The

excavated of and

into the

innumerable

roads,

tombs, they descended

tombs
;

rising perpendicularly from these with architectural generally adorned

from whole
one

range

to

another, between

were

with

sarcophagi

monumental
structures.

and

the

sloping

space

the

galleries was superior very

ornamented excavation.

similar filled up with execution. and taste flowers several of and the In

with

well excavated the as These, as tombs, exhibit of white In two instances, a simple sarcophagus marble, found in a large was figures in relief of exquisite workmanship, excavated tombs
were

discovered

remains

of

paintings,

senting repre-

of those of Hercuin the manner historical, allegorical,and pastoral subjects, executed In the several caverns taining conlaneum and region of Cyrenaica are Pompeii. (Cf. P. IV. $ 226). various fantastic It has been that supposed stalactites, presenting of course shapes. of the ruins and in the vicinity of Cyrene, may excavations the existence this fact, together with of Ras the name have given rise to the story of the petrifiedcity,of which, under Sem, marvelous
"

accounts
See

have

been

related
F. W.

to

travelers

in Africa."
Coast ;
one.

Modern

Traveler."
are

Sr B. Beechy,Expeditionto Northern ruins

rows

of Africa.

Lond.

1S28. 4.
a

At
"

Tysdrus
inner feet
area

still found of four

to

of Roman of columns

structures

particularly of
above 105

spacious amphitheatre,

consisting formerly
is said
; the ;

in tiers and been

.

The 1570

be

300

feet
to

in

length
have

200
at

another, and sixty-four arcades." and the whole circumference in breadth;

feet. The upper tier of columns is

height
the

is estimated lower
A
are

least

nearly
See

fallen

three Diary.

preserved.
is given in The

Bev.

C. F. Ewald's

drawing

Penny

Magazine,

Jan.

13, 1838.

" ISO.
was

Next to Tripolitanawas Carthago. This citywas

commerce

the

founded

by its extensive
citadel
was

became

called

Byrsa, because

Propria, of which the capital province Dido, and by a Tyrian colony, led by queen of the most opulent cities of antiquity. Its one it was said that Dido, on coming here, purchased
of Africa

P.

I.

AFRICA.

NUMIDIA.

MAURITANIA.

57

as

much hide

ground
inco
is

as

she

could in by
The younger,
set
on

encompass

with

0ipaa,
covered
account

or

hide,

and

then,

having

cut

the

strips, took
immortalized the Romans. the
;

the
poets last B. fire

space
and of C.

originally
historians these 146. the
wars on

by
of in
to

the
the

city.
three
wars

Carthage by
in
A

which
of

it the

tained sus-

against Scipio
circumference
new new

resulted

the have

total been

destruction above

city
miles

Africanus it

The

city

is the

said

twenty
seventeen

being by
the

by

Romans,
at
a

conflagration
distance A. D. It from

lasted the and site for

days.
ancient.
a tury cen-

city
afterwards

was

built
was was

the

emperor from of the the

Augustus
Romans Vandal

small

of

the than

The

Carthage
towards in modern

taken

by

Genseric,
in Africa.

439,
was

more

capital
of the

empire
A

finally
is said
to

destroyed
be the chief

by

the

Saracens of it found

the

end
times.

seventh

century.

single

aqueduct

trace

The

other
was

remarkable defeated
;

towns

in

this

district
;

were

Tunes
near

or

Tuneta Promontorium

(Tunis),
and
river

where

Regulus
(Cape
Ucica,
where "
181.

and

taken

prisoner
where

Clupea,
Caesar
near

the

Mercurii

Bona)
where

Adrumetum;
Cato the
an

Thapsus,
younger
enormous

defeated Utica
was

Scipio
the
many

Juba;

and

slew

himself;
that into under into
on

Bagradas,
soldiers. ruled
;

slew Regulus Numidia was and Punic Certa.

; ;

serpent,
time

had the the

destroyed kingdom
government
under
were

of

his

at

one

divided

of

the of

Massyli, 'Syphax

by
after

Massinissa,
the third
was

that
war,

of

the
were

Massaesyli,
united
towns

but

they Regius,

one

kingdom
sea-coast

Massinissa.

The

tal capifor Saint nibal Han-

The

principal
near

the river
were

Tabraca,
the

remarkable
seat

its groves

Hippo
and

the the On

small interior the

Rubricatus,

episcopal
and

of

Augustine
was

Rusicade.

In

Vaga;
of Numidia part received
was

Sicca;
desert

Zama,
Thala

where and

defeated Mauritania
were

by

Scipio.
was

confines from
eastern

the

were

Capsa.
"

'

" 182. chief

towns

separated
whence which the .the

by

the called

river

Ampsagas.

Itg and This

Cmsarea,
from from
the
coast.

Csesariensis; Tingitana.
Numidia,
over

Tingis
country
on

(Tangiers),
extended the in
traces

western

the

name

river

Ampsagas,
The

separating
after constructed Roman Atlantic. the chain their

it from conquest fortresses settlement The of

waters

to

some

tance dis-

Atlantic them yet

numerous

Romans,
and southern of the from and

these

regions,
of called this which Extory terri-

planted
some

colonies,
The
on

and
was

roads,
that of

remain.

most coast

ploratio
were

ad

3'Ler curium, named Oceanus Mauritania northern

the

west

Atlanticus,
on

mountains
at two

called different

Atlas,
on

which the

bounded
coast,
"

the

south,
termed

terminated Atlas
near on

points
the the

the Mons and

ridge
was

being
elevated and

Mi?ior,
the

and

the

southern

Atlas terranean Medi-

Major.

Abyla
the

the

summit

strait

connecting
side formed

Atlantic.

This

Calpe
of the
any

the

European
be

fabled

pillars of
" 183.

Hercules All
to

(Herculis

Column").
countries
to
are

the

remaining
it is

land

may

included
"

under The it. Deserta called

Afkica

terior, Inand

which and
about

impossible
tribes,
river
west

assign
The

definite
as

boundaries. within called

Gastuli,
The

Garamantes,
were

other the the

coast

represented
Great the
some

dwelling
was

placed
from modern the

Niger.
of this

Desert Insula
suppose,
were

NigritcB Libya? Inalso Canathence the

dern mo-

terioris.

On

were as

Fortunatce;
found the the the Insults
upon

ria,
their

number
name

of

large
"

dogs,
South

them,

and

Ca?iaries.

of
some

these have

Hesperidum,
of the

Cape
(cf. " 179).
have existed
as
"

Verd West
once,

islands,
of and than
the

on

which the
been

placed
also

gardens
island
in the

Hesperides
said It
was

this
to

coast

ancients afterwards

placed submerged

Atlantis,
ocean.

to
presented re-

have Asia
whole

larger
considered

and

Africa,
of

and
Atlantis
once

as

very
as a

fertile
mere

and
; vast

powerful.
others island continent
must

Some that and

The Ancients,

have the

account

fable of
a

have thus

conjectured
described;
of
he

Canaries,
have opinion
an

Madeira maintained
is maintained American

Isles,
that
in
an

and the

Azores,
land
entitled
of
a

formed
to
:

parts have
to

others
fatter

referred
as

must

been
show New

the
that

America.
hnown Some to the

Essay

follows in

An Boston.

Attempt Boston,
sur

America

8,-c. by
that

Englishman,
was

Pastor the Northern

Church

England,
de

MDCCLXXI1I.

"

have 8. in

imagined
See the

this

island

situated

in de

regions
Essai
sur

; Bailly,

Lettres Atlantide.

1'Atlantide Par. 1804.

Flaton,
"

"c.

Paris, story

1779.

Malte-Srun's Critias
or

Geography."
Atlanticus of

Bory
Plato.

St.

Vincent,

1'antique

4.

The

ancient

is given

VIII

a.

"lavj

Hxaojsj

iHV"J

HXQOg

fcW

Smdfoi%

Circular

a*\th list and

prices.

GUYOT'S

political Ijpuahni
It is

impossible
Phenomena all Natural this

to

overestimate of the

the

value

and with

importance
reference
to

of

thorough occupants.
for the

knowledge
On it

of

the

Physical
not

earth, regarded
but it is also be

its

depends
of tory. Histhat

only
In

Science,

the

only
the

sure

foundation

Philosophy
of the forces

knowledge
of mankind. of be

must

sought

true

key

and

explanation

shape
The that How

the

career

best

mode

communicating
said to have

this received

knowledge
a

to

the

young solution

is

an

educational to the

problem
time. date eluci-

can

scarcely
it stands

satisfactory by
the

up of

present
made number to

high
the

in

general

estimation,
of

is shown and conviction

variety
while series

attempts
very

Elementary

Principles
nature of each.

Geography
Under
a

History,
that
a

their of

proves

the

unsatisfactory Geographies,
meet the of The. the with Publishers immortal of

Maps

and and

Text-Books

on

prepared
the most

on

comprehensive
and

views,
support
with

combining
of all interested

simplicity
in the the

accuracy, of cation, edu-

would

ready

hearty

cause

concluded

an

arrangement
prepare such. and for

Professor

Guyot,

eminent

cessor suc-

Humboldt,
are

to

spt!.3*

Maps
the
most

now

completed, scrutiny
to

on

scale

of

magnitude
and has

before

unattempted.
of mechanical tested

They

challenge
Their
most

minute

scientific in the

accuracy class-room

perfection
been

execution. with The the

adaptation
and of of the the the

practical

use

thoroughly

pleasing
feature

satisfactory system
earth's lessons Studied and learner. and

results.

"

main

followed surface of

by
with

Professor that of the

Guyot,

is

the

connection that

of

the

physical configuration
it, thus
and Civil

living organisms Geography,

is and
no

inhabit,
Nature
,

blending
and crude to

together

Geology,
in this

Physical
manner, to the

Animated

Political of of the

nistory.
names

Geography
memory,

longer, calling
up

as

usually
no ciations asso-

taught,

mass

figures, fatiguing
Aided Man New
"

the

mind of

the "Earth

by
and is

these its

splendid

Maps

(and

Text-Books), evident,
of and the

the and Past

mutual their the

relations

natural

productions
into the

become bones

dependence teachings study,

of

one

on

another. take
new

life and

breathed what

dry
a

History
in its is

visible form
exact

shape,
the

was

formerly

tedious scholars. the United

tive unproduc-

attracts

lively interest
copy
so

of all

intelligent Map
may of be

The of the

annexed

Map
size 6x7 of

an

miniature is

of

Guyots
idea and

States
of the

(one

series,
new

ft.). coloring

It

presented, engraving,
river lines

that

some

formed

original.
of each dis

By

system
the

and

the

physical
marine indicated. found. the the

political peculiarities "c,

reference
are

country,

mountains,
while the

plateaus, political
of in the

systems,
are

currents,

all to

rendered

tinctly visible, Map),

The
a

clearly
will be

By

the

key

(on

tho

full

explanation
are

coloring, "c,
of

Text-books issue the

course

preparation;
and

Publishers Teacher's

hope
Guide.

during

the

Spring

of

1865

to

Primary

and

Intermediate,

CHARLES 124 Gkand

SGRIBNEB,
Street,
Netv Yoek

INTRODUCTION

TO

CLASSICAL

CHRONOLOGY.

Preliminary
" 184.
is

Remarks.

comparatively

computation of time and of the dates of events. It the ancients there was Among scircely any systematic attention Yet it is a highly important science. to the subject. Accurate chronology is essential from to all reasoning historical facts ; the mutual and dependence
treats
a

Chronology

of the

modern

science.

relations called
to

be

it ; with the greatest propriety it has been with geography said equal propriety has been the other. if properly conChronology is also an important aid to the memory, sidered, in studying history and biography.
events cannot
one

of

be

traced

without

of the

eyes

of

history, while

In

treating
from the in

yet

science

subject, although our of the subject we We shall general. explain

nature

this

design
must

requires
introduce and

some

special reference things which

divisions will need
as

to

Classical

Chronology,
rather
to

belong
time and

tha

the

Greek the

Roman

of

modes
to
a

of full

puting com-

of

the

it ; and classical

endeavor historians

to

present
of

all

that

student

preparatory

study

and

ancient

history.
as

Chkonolo"t
time and and

may

be

considered

consisting of
the
second

two

parts;
dates

the of

first, measuring
historical
events

adjustingits

various

divisions;

fixingthe

arranging them

in order.

I." " 185.

Of measuring Time

and

adjusting its

divisions.

The obvious and divisions of time those most suggested to all measures are of the heavenly bodies. These three ; days, months, and by the revolutions are the revolution of the earth on her axis, or the apparent revolution years ; the day from of the sun around her ; the month from the periodical changes in the moon ; the year
men

from
are

the
not

annual

motion

of the earth

in her

orbit the

round chief
so

the

sun.

"

These in with
actual

three

divisions science other of in

and this has caused commensurate, Chronology ; it has, in point of fact, been system of

embarrassment
to

the

difficult

adjust them
and the

each time

measuring
or

time

as

to

have

the

computed

time

perfectly

tinguished, disThis was undoubtedly the earliest division, and originally was day. it is likely, from the night ; extending from sunrise to sunset only. It was afterwards considered and sunrise. sunset including also the night, or time between as But been the beginning of the day has reckoned differentlyby different nations, for civil purposes; inhabitants of at sunrise, by the Babylonians, Persians, Syrians and India ; at sunset, ancient Chinese at by the Jews, Athenians, Gauls, and ; midnight, and moderns in their calculations by the Egyptians, Romans, generally. Astronomers consider after the manner of the Arabians the day as beginning at noon, according to "The vision dihave also been various modes of subdividing the day. There Priestley. of time into hours ancient is shown is very (CEdip. iEgypt. t. ii. as by Kircher : Herodotus serves obThe ancient hour is that of the twelfth most part 2). part of a day. the Egyptians that the Greeks learnt from [Babylonians, 1. ii. c. 1091 among other things, the method the astronomers of dividing the day into twelve parts ; and of Cathaya still retain The hours division of the day into twenty-four this method.
" "

in agreement " 186. The

coincidence.

was

not

known The his poems

to

to

the

Romans in the

before time

the

Punic

war."
seem

(Tegg.)
not to

" 187.
hours
noon

Greeks,

of Homer,

have

used

the

division

into

the more with us present Ttiiap), and {vl'mjov evening ("5aA";). But
;

obvious

before of the of the

(ti"s), parts of the day, morning the lime of Herodotus, they were

accustomed

the

division also and

of

the

day, and
division
custom.

They were according

The

acquainted
to

with Roman the

the

night also probably, into 12 parts. day and night into four parts each,
into four the

the Jewish

Eomans

subdivided

watches. or vigils (vigilice) into 12 hours; three

day and night each They also considered

of
course were

parts, which
the

were as

called each vided di-

day and
in
a

night
"

hours

included

vigil. The

day vigiU
59

60

CLASSICAL

CHRONOLOGY.

designated simply by the numerals prima, secunda, tertia, quarta; but as the with the third hour, the third vigil with the sixth hour, and the commenced vigil also used to are fourth with the ninth hour, the terms prima, tertia,sexta, and nona, The of the day. veswere designated bytthe names night vigils signifythe four vigils media gallicinium,conticinium. nox, pera,
were

second

ca!! of the day commenced first hour at what we the first vigil and (hora sexta), at 12 o'clock, noon ; vigil (vigiliatertia), and sixth hour night. P. M., and 12 o'clock, midcall 6 o'clock of night, at what the corresponding we vigils and hours that in general ; but it must be reniemberpd, This be sufficientlyaccurate statement may of unequal and rise, the Roman hours watches were length; the first hour of the day began with sunof the and the first hour ended and the at night began at sunset, and the twelfth sunset; of the day in summer Of course, twelfth ended the hours were at sunrise. longer than those of Cf. P. III. $ 228. shorter. the night, and in the winter they were It is sometimes
A.

stated, that
third

6 o'clock

M.

the

" 188. these

the

Different parts of the from

the

devices

day.
were

The

been have sun-dial was

to

employed
used
announce

for
the

marking
time. The

and

making
Jews
;

known and

by the Babylonians and

Greeks

by

latter,watchmen
sun-dial shadow

maintained

borrowed

the
the

the

(yvd/iuv); but the

on

mon Gnoor Babylonians, and called it the Heliotrope (nXio-p6Trtov), cast latter term properly designates the needle or index which
"

dial.' The

Romans,
some

besides

the

dial
see ;

solarium), (horologium,
^

ployed em-

also the
Several

Clepsydra,for
of the ancient

account
are

of which
still

P. III.
one
"

228.
to

specimens

sun-dial

preserved

is said

be

still

remaining

Upon each side of the nearly in its original situation, on the rock of the Acropolis at Athens. sun-dial also placed a vertical called the toioer octagonal ; building commonly of the winds, was lines indicating the hour the gnomon index the the cut were side, while or projected from upon
the wall. The the lines of the dial upon the the wall
are

distinctly extant
where

at

the

although
Besides tica.

gnomons Diet,

have the

disappeared,
ancients had vol.
a

places

stationary dials,
(Cf. Stuart's
use

portable
"

ones

inserted they were of metal, which were

present day: and still visible." are termed

was

Plioremain have D. derable consibeen 1477.

"

of

Architect, of

in

some

invented
See G. H.

by

the

parts Arabians
de

Europe
A. D.
du Temps

instrument called ii.) An a water-clock few centuries ago. Striking clocks are said
"

to

about

800.
les

Watches
Par.

were

first made
2 vols. 4."

in

Germany,
Sur

A.

Birtlioud, Histoire

la Mesure
von

par der

Horologes. Leipz.
p. 440. found

1802.
"

in his Opuscula Emesti, de Solariis,

Martini, Abhandlung
de art.

den Sonnenuhren

Alten.
xx.

1777.

Saltier and

Falconet,
on

les horologes des Anciens, in

the Mem.

VJlcad.

des

Inscr.
"

vol. iv. p. 14S ; and

on a

vol.

Cf. vol. iii. p. 174, in Italy,Archxologia

as

the

Gnomon."

Smith,

quities, Diet, of Antix.

Horologium.
"

Gough,

Roman ancient

Horologium
see sun-dials,

(as cited P. IV.

" 243. 3),vol.

p. 172,

with

plate,

For

delineations

of several

Calmet,

cited " 163 b. vol. iii.p. 363.

" 1S9.

The

month.

This
in the
two

division, without
It included
moons,
or new

much the
two

doubt, had
time of the

its

origin in the various

revolution round

phases
the

or

changes

moon.

moon's

and conjunctions of the sun considered moon. mean to be period is 29 days, 12 hours, 44 minutes; it was 29i days ; and the ancients commonly reckoned the month as consistingalternately of 29 and 30 days. The Greeks thus reckoned their months, and had 30 days, termed those which nhripeis (full), and StKauSdivol (ending on the 10th day) ; those of 29 days they termed kolXoi and iwatpOivol (e?idingon lunations the 9th day). Twelve (hollow or deficient), thus computed formed 11 days the year ; but it fell short of the true solar year by about and a quarter, making in four years about 45 days. To reconcile this and bring the calated interand years to coincide more computation by months exactly, another month was and in the first two of 22 days ; and in the month two a every years ; years of 23 days ; thus after a period of four years next the lunar and solar two, a month would called the Tsroasrr/pis. But the effect of this begin together ; this was years months another to change the place of the to the seasons was relatively system ; and the supposition that the solar year was 365 based on was adopted. This was system 354 ; which would days and a quarter, while the lunar was in a period of 8 years give of 90 days; the adjustment was a difference made of the in the course by intercalating, of 30 days each; the period was called 'O/craerrifiU- Its invention period, three months attributed to Cleostratus of Tenedos was followed universally adopted, and was ; it was in civil matters, even after the more known perfect cycle of Meton was reason ; one have been the reciprocaladaptation between and the Olympiad, the the Octaetens may former includingexactly two of the latter. " 190. The of the Grecian months, together with those following are the names of the corresponding Julian months, as near as they can be given. In this list Scalihas been followed, which, upon the whole, we believe the most ger's account rect. corAs the first month of the Athenian comprised but a few days of the latter year will be given as the June, and the greater part of July, the latter month pari of our 1. 'EKaTo/jfiaidjv, of Hecatombs corresponding one. July; so called from the great number which were 2. Ncraysirvidiv, August; called so usuallysacrificed in this month. from the sacrifices which then offered to Apollo Meraysirvto;, because this were on
between

earth, or The

successive

"

"

"

month

the inhabitants which called

was

of Melite
so

September;
October;
feasts of the
were so

called

left their island and removed the festival termed from

3. BoriSpopucov, to Attica. Bor;Jpdyia. 4. Uvaveilndiv,

" "

because

served up, food of Theseus

in this month, after the fruits of the year were gathered, the chief of which coneisted in boiled pulse [eaten in memory from Crete]. 5. Mot/Ka/cr")picoy the last day of his voyage on
"

P.

I.

DIVISION

OF

TIME.

THE

MONTH.

61

November;

in this month the Jupiter Mai^a/crryc, the boisterous, because 6. noceiosuv, December; in which month sacrifices offered to Hocreidtiv, called Neptune's month. were 7. TapriXtiov, Neptune; as if it were sacred to Juno TaprjXios, the goddess of marriage. 8. 'Affco-rjjJanuary; which was
so

called from

weather^wasvery
February;

tempestuous.

"

"

"

pi(ov,

which

took

its

name

this was for hunting stags. the month 10. Novvvin which sacrifices were offered to Diana from the harbor of Movwxia, this name, in which in which she had a temple. 11. Qapyri'kiwv, fices sacrimonth May; offered for the ripening of the earth's fruits. 12. SKipfiodxipitiv, were June; so called from a festival of the same in this month celebrated in honor nerva. of Miname
"

"t"riPo\t"Zv, March; so called from 'E\a(pri06\og, the huntress, because

the festival of the the festival 'EAa0";/?dAtn, which

from

same was

name.

"

9.
to

'EAa-

sacred

Diana

X^i

April;

"

"

Every month
firstof which
was

was

divided
decade

into rpia fcxfjpepa,three

or

decades

of days.

The

called

pwos

dpxopsvov

second,

pnvoc

peoovvros,

the

the decade 'lorapivov, of the beginning ; the or of the middle; and the third, pnvfc (ptiivovros,

navopivov, the decade of the end. first day of the first decade The called veoprivU, was because it happened on the new moon so on to ; the second, Sevripa larapivov, and ScKariq Icrapivov,the tenth day of the month. The first day of the second decade, or the eleventh day, was called tpwti? the the.firstof the middle, or -rrpuTr, IttI Rtica, peoovvroc, and so on to the twentieth firstafter ten; the second, Stvripa peoovvroc, day Uixas), or the last,day of the second decade. first day of the third decade was The called ir/"w-;/ in' eixaSi, last day of the month and so on. or The denominated was "f"Qit,ovTog, npcorri koI by Solon 'ivr\ one as via, the old and new, part of the day belonged to the old, and the other to the new But after the time of Demetrius moon. Poliorcetes,the last day of the month
On

received

from

him

the

name

of "ripnrpiac."

(Cleaveland.)

the Attic months, cf. Classical

Journal, ix. 324, 559."

L. Ideler,cited P. V. " 7. 7. (c).

" 191
Numa formed other

The Romans a. introduced the

only
year.

lunar

said to have had under Romulus are only 10 months division into 12, according to that of the Greeks. But than 11 days short of the solar year, an a little more year,
"

;
as

but this

ordinary extra-

month The

(mensis intercalaris, called also Macedonius)

was

to

be

inserted

every

of dividing the year was of this and the whole trusted enintercalating care the Pontifices to (P. III. " 228), and they managed, by inserting more or fewer days, to make the current might year longer or shorter as they for any reason choose ; and this finally caused the months their stated seasons, to be transposed from
so mer

into sum into autumn, and the autumnal inend to this disorder, by abolishing the tercalation of months, and adopting a system which will be explained in speaking of the following; Martius, the year (" 192). The of the Roman months names were in whose of the March, from Mars, the supposed father cf Romulus, arrangement

that the winter

months

were

(Cic. Leg. ii. 12). Julius

"

carried back Caesar put an

year

month of

this month in which

was

trees

the first ; Aprilis, derived and flowers open their buds

by

some

from

the verb

aperio,the
mother

; Mains,

May, from

Maia,

Mercury; Junius, June, from Juno; Quintilis,the fifth month, afterwards named sixth, afterwards Julius, July, from Julius Cassar ; Sextilis, Augustus, August, from cember, Augustus Caesar ; September,seventh month ; October, eighth ; November, ninth ; Detenth; Januarius, January, from Janus; Februarius, February, so called from the purifications Ftbrua (P. III. " 230), being the last of the performed in this month
year.
The
a

ancient
account
are

Greeks

and

Romans

further

of these

personified the Months personifications is given in P.

the

and

the

Seasons

as

well

as

the

Hours
,

11. $ 105.
of Severus

In Plate IX.

representationsof

Pour

Seasons, as sculptured

on

the Arch

(cf.P. IV. " 188. 2).

Kainto three parts by the points termed The Calends were always the 1st of the month the Nones the 5th, and the Ides the 13th of each month, excepting March, May, were the 7th, and the Ides on fell on the Nones July, and October ; in which four months counted backwarus the 15th day. In marking the days of the month, the Romans

" 191 b. The

or

Romans

divided

the month

lendm

Calendar,Nonas, and Idus.

from
e.

points,includingalways the day from which the reckoning began : from the Calends called the second was thirty-first day of December ber, 30th of Decemof January, pridie[ante] Kalendas or Januarii; the last day but one of January, tcrlio [die ante] Kal. called the third from or before the Calends was called Idus; the 12th was Jan.; and so on back to the 13th day, which was pridie the 4th, by this plan of the Nona; back the 5th, which Idus, and soon to was
these three fixed
g. the last-or

reckoning,would
Cf. La A Roman

be of
Romain,

course in the

Pridie
Mem. Acad.

Nonas.
Inter, vol.
and

Nauze,

Calendrier

xxvl.

p. 219. notes

Calendar, compiled from

is
as

Ovid, Columella,

Pliny, which

the rising and in Smith's

settingof

the

the Roman stars,

"

vals, reviSee

"c, Fosgini, The the

given in Pauly't Encyclopadie(citedP. III. " 13. 6) ; it may

cited P. IV. " 133. 6.

be

seen

Diet, of Antiq. art. Calendar.

also

ancient had

Greeks their

and decade

Romans of

had

no

division
; and

properly answering
latter and the their

to

our or

weeks market had

a

although
ring occurseven

former

days

190)

the

nundinm,
nations

days
week of

every days. This

ninth

day (P. III. J 229). division (Jiebdomades) was

But

the

Egyptians
among

oriental

introduced

Romans,

it ia

said, not

far from

"he"

62

CLASSICAL

CHRONOLOGY.

named The after the planets or pagan beginning of the third century after Christ. days were Solis, Sunday; Martis, Tuesday; gods: Dies Mercurii, Wednesday; Luna, Monday; Jovis, It is worthy of notice that our for the Veneris, Friday ; Saturni, Saturday. names Thursday; their Saxon derivation by observing days had a similar origin, as is seen ; Sunnadsg, Sun's day ; (i.e. Mars); Monand."Eg, Moon's Wodensd"g, or day; TuesdtEg, day of Tuisco day of Wodin to of Odin, a northern Thor, a deity answering deity ; Thorsdag, day Jupiter; Frigdag, day of the of of Sealer Venus north Saeter the (i.e. Saturn, cf. P. II. $ 16. 2.) or Frigga, ; Salerdmg, day

" 192. advances which

The had

year. been

This made
to

division

was

probably
science

not ;

formed it was
"

until

some

considerable

in astronomical
any

and

long after its first adoption

form. The ancient of most thing like an accurate year consistingof 12 months supposed to contain 30 days each, thus amounting to 360 days. It has been that this gave rise to the diviconjectured sion of the ecliptic into 360 equal parts or degrees, which is still preserved. But it
we

before

it attained
was

know,

that

was

soon

found and
an

earth;
and quarter.
The
mariner

addition
to

that this fell short of the actual year, or the time of a revolution of 5 days was made, so that the year consisted of 365

of the

this is ascribed

continued

days; the Thebans. The Grecian lon established however, as by Soyear, and even consisted of 365 days and a to the time of Meton after,
Greeks made their computation

in which

the

by

the

lunar

months vol.

to
xxxv.

agree

with

the solar year, has

alreadybeen

expU.ned

(" 1S9).

Cf. Gibert, L'annee

Grecque, in the Mem. to

Acad.

Inzer,

p. 133.

The Caesar.

Roman The

year

seems

have

consisted

of 365 of

method

employed
which

by the Romans

days until the time of Julius putation previous ages to adjust their commentioned

by lunar months
the V.

confusion

has also been to the solar year resulted from it. This Cagsar
a

(" 191), and

to

wise like-

attempted

remedy

(cf.P.

of 365 days 6 hours. To the error of 80 remove of 445 gained of actual time, he ordered one year called the Year of confusion. And to a secure proper allowance for the 6 hours which had been in 4 amount disregarded, but which would additional day should be intercalated in the reckoning to a day, he directed that one years of every 4th year ; thus each 4th year would have 366 days, the others 365. This is called the Julian year. In the Roman calendar the intercalated day was placed after " 528.

4).

He

instituted

year

days, which computed time days (365 plus 80), which was

had

"

phrase bissextile
But in this plan there

of March, the 6th (sextus) of the Calends year stillin use.

was

and

therefore

called

bissextus; hence
day
had been

the

still an

error.

The
a

day

was

intercalated

too

soon m.

; i. e. before and

whole

gained ; because
23

compnted
48 44
sec. m.

time, instead of gaining 6

so sec

hours

year, gained only 5 hows

too
soon

48 and

57 sec, 12 seconds
a

in four

years

would

gain only

h. 15

m.

;
12

the intercalated every

would to

day
or

was

inserted
m.

by

44

minutes

; of course,

computed

time, by this plan, lost

one

four years,
be
one

11

sec

every

year.

In 131
D. to

years
15S2

this makes

loss of computed amounted

or

time, of days, and

day ;

i. e.

puted com-

time

day behind
a new

actual

time. This

In A. was,

this loss had

the

to

ten

Pope Gregory 13th

1001b

attempted
each

remedy
year.

the evil by

expedient.

drop
m.

intercalary day
a

the bissextile, every about

of

year years;

ing exceptping dropon

400th

By the Julian year, computed

on

time

loses 11

3 sec.

year, which

makes
a

19 hours
5 hours

in 100 ;

the
next

day intercalary

the 100th

year makes
5 hours to

up

this loss of 19 hours, and time ;

so

gives also

gain

about

dropping it
time

the

100th year

gives another
years,
19 hours

gain of
15 hours ; but
to

computed

of the third 100th i. e. the

year ; and

in this way
be

computed

gains
time

of actual

time, in 300 century

the amount the

; if
meet

on

the next

100th

year, in

fourth, the

intercalary day gained

inserted, computed
in each, and

loses for that

this loss,it had

at the In

the three

preceding centuries

5 hours between

in all 15 actual calary inter-

hours,
time

so

that

loss is only (19"15)

to
a

4 hours

end

of 400 years.

By this method Gregorian

the difference
the

computed

and
are

cannot

day
the

in 2500

years.

this system, called the

not."

Calendar,
was

years

1600, 2000, 2400

; and and

years

1700, 1800, 1900, 2100, 2200, 2300, "c,

same

The

Gregorian year

immediately Germany

gal, adopted in Spain,Portuand to be

Italy; and during

1753. In

year

in France

; in Catholic
act

Germany,

in 1583 ; in Protestant

Denmark, styled the

in 1700 ;

in Sweden,

England
the

it was

adopted in 1752, by
was was

of Parliament Old
to New

directing Style.
"

the

3d of September
was

14th, as

computed
where Dec.
the

time

had

lost 11 days. This

or

called the
used.
see

change from

In 1832, Russia and

a

said to be churches. P. M.

the onlycountrj

Julian

year
"

Old

Style

It is,however, Ch.

retained

in the Greek Calendarii

or

Armenian

{Miss. Herald, foi

1S35, p. 454.)

On

the Gregorian

Calendar,

Clavius, Romani

Gregorio XIII. The

restitati Explicatio. at
one

Different considered 25th the

nations it
as

have begun the year at different afterwards but beginning in March,

at
was

seasons

months. The

Romans

time
mencement com-

in and

January.
Christian the

in Hecatombseon, the
on

the

summer

solstice. in

The

placed its to begin clergy used

Greeks colonies until A. D.

it at

of March.

The Old

same

change

from

to

New

practiced Style, when

England
the

American
was

1752,

first of

January

adopted.

" 193. of
time

of computing time, or the division Cycles. In adjusting the different methods into days, months, from the invention and years, great advantage is derived

from the Greek of time so denominated These kvk\os, a periods are certain Under the term in their compass revolution is completed. a of 4 years ; the Octaecycle we properly include the Grecian Olympiad, a period may Lustrum, a period of 5 years ; and also the teris, or period of 8 years ; and the Roman Julian year, or period of 4 years as just described. The period of 400 years, comprehended of

Cycles.

circle, because

in

the system
Besides

of

these, it seems Cycle,the Cycle of Indiction, and

Gregory.

"

Gregory already explained, may important to mention

the Julian Period.
Romanorumque

justlybe termed
the Lunar

the

cycleof
Solar

Cycle,the
Lond.

See F. Nolan,

as

cited " 205.

"

H.

Dodwell, de veteribus Gnecorum

"c. Cyclis,

Dissert, decern.

1701.

4.

"

flkbuhr,

on

the Secular

Cycle, in his Hist, of Rome,

vol. i. p. 209. ed. Phil. 1835.

" 194.
and lunar

The

Lunar The

Cycle is
by the
nearest

computation of time
years.

moon

the Its object is to accommodate years. computation by the sun, or adjust the solar division of the year by months is into twelve; but twelve

period of
to

19

the

XX

64

CLASSICAL

CHRONOLOGY.

that the

principalhelps or sources are four. First, we will notice that furnished by successions on or of Kings. It has been supposed generations of men that the average be estimated length of a king'sreign, or of a generation of men, may When is taken, and this average of facts. we are by comparing a sufficient number told by a writer how two kings reigned, between generations lived, or how many many
observations
" "

events,

we

can

at

once

find the

time

between

them

and

if the

date of either
the

event

is

known,

the

date of the other

will follow.
The

This

is the

only Chronology of

earliest

used it. Generally Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans a length ; three of them reign as of the same of ascertaining Sir Isaac Neiuton employed this means dates, and equal to 100 years. for reigns of kings is only 20 years ; and for generations, maintained that the average 29 or 30 years, On these if reckoned by others. by eldest sons, and 33, if reckoned ancient date, events a chronology, giving to many principleshe attempted to rectify

writers, and is used in the Bible.

they reckoned

generation and

more

recent

than

other
to

authors.
a

It may be desirable date of of the return

give

further
to

explanation
Peloponnesus
between

of

this is
two

method
;

by
but

two

illustrations, date of the

(a)
Battle

The of

the

HeraclidtB C. 480. Now

disputed
events

the

cession reigned at Sparta a sucof 17 kings; 17 multiplied the events, the return making by 20 gives 340 years between of the Heraclidee 280 years than B. C. (480 plus 340) 820; later chronoa date as given by other of the Argonautic date Expedition is disputed ; but the beginning of the Pelologers. (6) The War Now it is found, that Hippocrates, ponnesian living at the beginning of settled, B. C. 431. 18th from descended the the Peloponnesian JEsculapius was War, side, and 19ih from by father's Hercules that iEsculapius and Hercules both were side, and Argonauts is, by mother's ; that 18 in another, there line and between the 17 generations in one two events. were Taking the date of the Argonautic medium the 17i and multiplying by 29 gives 567; making Expedition, B. C. (431 plus 567) 998 ; 326 later than by other chrpnologers. But of ascertaining dates. there two First, the inaccuracy are grand objections to this method and be very satisfactorilyor exactly determined. uncertainty of the average ; it cannot Secondly, of kings the fact that ancient or a succession writers, in naming giving a genealogy, often omit of reducing of the series. This is done in Matthew, ch. i., for the sake of several the number the great epochs mentioned in the 17th verse, to exactly fourteen. generations between

Thermopylae

is settled, B.

these

there

"

in

and cha?iges. This method help is found in celestial appearances is certain, as it depends on strict astronomical principles perfectly settled. The employed are eclipsesand the precession of the equinoxes. appearances ancients to as were corded, resuperstitiouseclipses. Many are (a) Eclipses. The very time with important events in history, and mentioned as happening at the same be and described so that they may who calculate recognized by the astronomer, can with perfectaccuracy the time of every eclipsethat has happened.

" 199.

second

general

more

safe and

of the Athenians the Syraon Thucydides, in relating the attempt reinforced himself and in danger, determined Syracusans but when everything was ready for sailing,the moon was the Athenian soldiers filled with were by this appearance to alarm, and a man besought Nicias not to proceed ; and in consequence they almost perished. about This been B. C. 413. Now is generally it is found event supposed to have by calculation, 27th of that the moon full B. C. and at the that there have 413, must was August, Syracuse day been from total eclipse there, visible a the soldiers beginning to end, and likely to produce on the effect which mentions. The date of the of Nabonassar, B. C. 747, is also era Thucydides in Ptolemy's determined of an eclipse of the moon Almagest (cf.P. V. $ 218). by a record

We

will

give

illustrations.

that Nicias, finding the says of the harbor of Syracuse; out full moon then eclipsed, for it was ; cusans, to sail

"

In

similar
that

way,

Ferguson, in his Astronomy,

was moon

proposes
before

to fix the the

time

of the

birth

of Christ.

It is evident ch.

from

Matthew learn
that

ii. 13there

15, 20, 21,

was an

Christ
the

born at

only
the

some

months

death

of Herod

; aud

from

Josepbus (B. xvii.

shows that about most the the

8)

we

eclipse of
year 4710
"

time

of Herod's
the

last sickness

; astronomical
could not

calculation have been

eclipse occurred
close

March
4709th

13,

in the Julian
as

of the Julian
The the
same

Period

; hence

birth of

Christ

later than
of
a

of the

of the
the
sun no

Period.

author of the
the year

refers to the mention

202d

made

by Phlegon (cf.P. V. " 239) employ

it as
a

extraordinary eclipse of
date of Christ's death

occurring in

4th

year

Olympiad,

and

would

help
to

in

determining the
to the 4746th

; since

natural the event

eclipse could
mentioned

occur

which specified,
the

corresponds, according
darkness
were

Ferguson,
the

of the

Julian
In

Period, he thinks

by Phlegon
7. 7.

was

supernatural

that marked observed

Savior's Christian
xv.

crucifixion.

Play/air's System of

Chronology, cited P. V. "

Mere ft would
Lunar
seem

(c),is a list of eclipses that

be

before the

era, also, in Ferguson's Astronomy. Luke zxiii. 54. from and

John

appearances evident iii.ch.

that

may
the

employed
was was

in the
on

same

way.
and

By comparing
time
of the

Mark
Passover
moon

42.

xviii. 28, Jose(cf. says he

crucifixion
the

Friday,
on

at the the

; it is known

other

sources

phus,
found

Ant.

B.

10) that
that
"

Passover

kept
full

the that

day of
feil on

first full

after the vernal

years before
or

equinox.
after the

Ferguson

by calculation
on

the only Passover

moon

Friday, for
Cf.

several

disputed year of the

crucifixion,was

April 3d, in the 4746th

year of the Julian

Period.""

as Fergnsoii,

cited " 203.

the equator (b) Precession equinoxes,being of Ike Equinoxes. the same but they move from year to year; the ecliptic, not ward backare precisely 1 degree in 72 years. or (i.e. to the west) 50 seconds If, then, the every year, is stated, we of any event at the time determine place of the equinox in the ecliptic may the date of the event, receded from the place by noticinghow far the equinox has now it then is held, and allowing 72 years for a degree. The only objectionto this method the difficulty, of deciding what point the equinoxes actually did perhaps impossibility
crosses

The

the points where

occupy
Sir formed the

at

the

time

of

events particular

in ancient
to

history.
the
"

I. Newton for the

applied
the

this

principle
with In

also the

sphere, representing
middle

heavens

Argonauts,
in the

point

by Chiron sign Aries.

; on

of the Argonautic time A Expedition. writers have constellations, is said by ancient to been this sphere, it is also said, the equinox was placed in settle year

the

1689, the equinox

had

gone

back

from

that

point

P.

I.

'EPOCHS

AND

ERAS.

65
of 2645
as

36 the

degrees
year

44 minutes 1689 and the

this,allowing 72 years it Expedition ; making

author. may have be

for

B. C.

degree, gives a period 9^5; nearly the same

how
a

by

between years the calculation

to

from
sun,

generations by the same trieplace of the equinox

Isaac Newton and others

If it be

stated dates

star

rises in the

or

sets

in relation

the
"

found,

and

ascertained,

Sir
a

passage after the

place
means

of

this to ascertain the time employed in the that Jircturiis Works and rose Days [vs. 564], Hesiod says, from entered the the winter sun solstice, a point 90 degrees distant because the with be settled equinox cannot certainty in this way; whether
or

way when

just
at

mentioned. lived. 60
"

Hesiod sunset,

In

days
the
tainly cer-

equinox.
it cannot
or

But be

known
true

the

ancient

writer
even

means

his p. 2.

own

time
or

and he

residence
means

not,

whether Cf.

he

in the

rising,or Philosophical Transactions,

apparent

what xlviii.

constellation

star

exactly.

Costard,

vol.

and help in the fixingof dates is found in the coins, medals, monuments, These often throwwhich are inscriptions, preserved for the benefit of succeeding ages. historical events, and afford important aid in ascertaining the time of great lightupon first made their occurrence. facts are sometimes known, and the period Interesting when they took place is often indicated, by the face of a medal, or the representations As of still greater service. of the most a on are one public monument. Inscriptions the chronicle valuable of these we mention must of Paros, which fixes the date of the the time of Alexander. chief events in Grecian to (See historyfrom Cecrops down

" 200.

third

"

the state by the testimony of historians, who and an epoch. The early historians paid until a comparatively late not very littleattention to the subject of chronology; it was The period, that they began to think of dates and distances of time. ments principalfragstill to be of the earlier writers, Eratosthenes, Apollodorus, and Thrasyllus, are is furnished
or

P. IV. $91.4.) $ 201. The fourth source distance between events,

between

events

found

in the

Chronicon

of Eusebius,

and

the Stromata

of Clemens

Alexandrhtus.

The

the chronological writingsof the Byzantine Chroniclers are also of service ; particularly from this and the abovework ('EK-Xr/j/f; Xpovoypaipias) of Syncellus. It is chiefly work of Eusebius, that the details of the commonly received Chronologyhave mentioned
been

" 202.
exact

gathered. (Cf. " 205; and P. V. " 236, 239, 288.) (B) Epochs and Eras employed in Chronology
"

It is essential

to

correct

and

be fixed epoch, to which all events chronology that there should be some may referred and be measured by their distance from it. But it is of comparatively little what the epoch is, provided it is fixed and acknowledged, as it is perfectly consequence in a retrograde manner the time before it,as well as in a direct manner easy to compute the time after it. An epoch is distinguishedfrom an era. Epoch is the point of taken time which is taken cause from which as a to reckon, and starting-place usually beEra is the space of time, that follows the signalized important event. by some be interchanged epoch ; the series of years computed from it. The two terms as may because has its epoch and every nearly synonymous, epoch its era. era every " 203. The followingare the most important eras, which are noticed in Chronology. Greeks for a long time had no fixed epoch ; but afterwards ("z)Era of Olympiads. The reckoned A new by Olympiads, periods of 4 years. They began 776 B. C. into use under the Roman Olympiad era, however, came beginning A. D. emperors, 131.' The Romans often reckoned (b)Era of Rome. by lustrums, often by the year of the consul or the emperor. The their grand epoch. This buildingof the citywas 752 B.C. 753 or 754.) was (It is placed by some (c) Era of Nabonassar (or Belesis). Used historians ; the commencement of Nabonassar's by some reign at Babylon, 747 B. C. the reign of Seleucus From and his descendants in {d) Era of the Seleucidce. used this. The stillcompute from it. (Researches Nestorians Syria. The Jews chiefly of Smith and Dwight, vol. ii.p. 257.) 312 It is usually dated B. C. when Seleucus recovered of the kingdom of Syria. Babylon, 10 years before the real commencement This was founded the persecution of Christians in the (e) Era of Diocletian. on It was used by Christians until the Christian reign of Diocletian. era was adopted. It began 284 A. D. Era of or (/) The Mahometan Hegira ; founded on the flight Mahomet from Mecca to Medina, A. D. 622. {g) The Persian Era, or Era of Yezdejerd; founded on the reign of a Persian king, named Yezdejerd, A. D. 632. (70 The This era is founded on Christian Annus the year of our Lord. Era; Domini; the birth of Christ, but chronologers are not agreed as to the year of his birth ; some before the received epoch, others four years. This, however, is placing it seven years of no consequence in chronology, because of the era all,who as respects the utility date ; all numerical adopt the Christian era, agree to call the same year by the same The the same meaning (e. g.) identically era began to be used year by A. D. 1836. A. D. 360, according to some about that it was writers ; but others state invented by Dionysius, a monk, A. D. 527.
" " " " " " " " "

On

the

Christian

Era,
ortu

see

/. Priestley, Lectures
"

on

History, L. xiv.
on

"

J. Guil. Jani, Historia 32rae Dionysianae.

" "

G. Hambergcr,

Ue

Epochae Christianas
vol. ii. p. 796."

et auctore.

Marine, Dissertation by
D.

the

Birth of Christ.
2

of the Gospel, "c. Cf. Lardner, Credibility

Fart I.

Ferguson's Astronomy,
mention
a

Brewster, Phil. 1817.

vols. 8. i. 460-65.
the

Terhaps

we

6hould

here

the Era

of the Trench
Sabbath and

Republic, which
of the hebdominal
was

revolutionists attempted to establish.

This

was

duced intronomen.

in 1793, with
clature

formal The

rejectionof

the

week, and

novel

arrangement
The ten
year

and

pedantic

of the of

months.

twenty-second of September
were

fixed
but

as

the beginning of the year. of or decades, periods

consisted of
As this would

twelve
com*

months

thirty days each

; which

not by weeks, divided,

into three

days.

f2

06
prise but 360 days^oe
fourth
or

CLASSICAL

CHRONOLOGY.

were a n

added

at the dose the

of the last month

the

of the The

year, called complementary

days;
was

and

at the the

close of every The

those

bissextile of A
u

year,
tu m

sixth, called
were

day of
those of

Republic. Srumaire,

cycle of
;

the

fnur
of W

years

termed

Franciade.

three
of

months

named

Findemiaire,
;

Frimaire

those

i nter,

Nivose, Pluviose, Pentose;

This infidel calendar
was

Spring,
twelve

Germinal,
years. The

Florial, Prairial Gregorian

was

Summer,

Messidor, Thermidor,

Fructidor.

used

about

restored Jauuaiy

1, 1S06.
"

There is a great Chronological Tables. in chronology which have been advocated the oriental nations there was different nations and at different times. a Among strong and hence each carried back its chronolodesire for the honor of the earliest antiquity, gical dates into the regions of mere fable or absolute falsehood, and the Egyptians, Babylonians, Hindoos, and Chinese, present a list of events happening hundreds or thousands noticed of years before the creation. Such need not be particularly systems
and (C) Systems of Arra.ugem.ent

" 204.

discrepancybetween

the various

systems

of

here. other

(Cf. P. IV. " 21.)

There
are

" 205.

two

systems,

one

derived

from

the

Hebrew

Scriptures and
student's
the

the

from

the

They assigns to many

e.

Septuagint Version, which are highly deserving differ from each other considerably ; that drawn
events
a

of the

tion. atten-

from
the

Septuagint
;

date

much
some

more

ancient hundred

than

that

which

follows

g. the former

places the flood

at

and the Creation

been

much

discussion
We

systems.
The

system

further from latter. There has the learned, concerning the respectiveclaims of these two here, that the Hebrew chronology is generally adopted. only remark for chronological of Archbishop Usher is the basis of the principalsystems
years among

least 600

further from years the Flood, than the

the Hebrew Christian era,

tables and accordance and

The

charts
the

which

are

commonly
from

used. the Hebrew

The

system

of Usher

is in

general

with

evidence

drawn

Bible, the Arundelian

Marbles,

the Chronicon
system by him of Sir for

of Eusebius.

Grecian received
On
some

of the methods fcaac Neicton has ployed emalready been mentioned, and some This fixing dates. assigns many important events, particularly of system His first at history, to periods considerably later than other systems. chronology was "some favor, with but is not usually regarded, although Mitford adopts it.

this, see
of the

Mitford's Hist. Greece,

most

ch. the

iii.Append."

Cf. Shuckfords
see

Prof, and

Sac.

Hist.

Conn.
"

bk. For

vi. Fref."

For
refer Rev.

the titles of
to Home's

important

helps

on

subject
"

of A

Chronology,
labored
on

P. V. " 7. 7 (c); $ 299. 6.

of the

others, we by

Intro, to Crit. Study of Holy

Script, vol. ii. p. 730.

"

defence
the

Septuagint Chronology
connection vol. iii. of the 1S37.
"

is made

/. J. their

Jachson, utilityin
v.

in his Chronological Antiquities.

See also

Fred.

Nolan,

antiquity and

early cycles,and
Lond.

settlingthe differences of chronologists,in

"

Trans,

of Royal Soc. of Literature, Egyptian,

and

Lond-

Quart. Rev. vol.

1839. pp.
16."

p. 4.

1. B.

Chapm,

Agreement
Dec

of the
I S3S.
"

true

Biblical,
as

Chaldean

Chronologies.

New

Haven,

Cf. Christ.

Spect. June, 1S37, and

Marsham,
are

cited p. V. $ 236.

the greatest facilitiesin the study of historyand among be presented but grachronology. They bring before the eye, at a glance, what can dually and slowly by description of events and dates on the paper also ; the locality more helps to fix them firmly in the memory. Every student ought to avail himself of the aid of a historical and chronological ter) chart, either by purchase or (which is bethimself. by actually forming one

" 206.

Tables

and

charts

$ 207.
of
one

A
"

great

variety
One of

of

plans
most

for

charts

have

been

utility. (u)
for
events

the

dates.

kind of every Sometimes

simple and obvious ranged promiscuously

a

'adopted, plans is to
of
to

possessing greater
form
two
;

or

less

degrees
responding cor-

perpendicular
the other
"

columns; (6) Another

in order

occurrence

for their for

third

column

is added several

this

plan, for Biography.

columns
;

plan of similar
and each of battles may
sort

the be

but improved, is to form nature, for a class of events: others e.

perpendicular

one events

dates,
in
other, antioned men-

in

another,
for branches

"x.

Such

is the

in one, remarkable g. sovereigns Charts. Both plan of IVorcester's lines. and

"

marked

centuries

ranged in them according to their dates, the earliest Such is the plan of Eddy's Chronology delineated. quests Conat the of this kind, be exhibited in devices into branch by one by a nation may, receiving others states itself, and the origin of new (d) A fourth plan is by branches shooting out from others. into periods, limited side by prominent marked each events, on by the peculiarity of being divided of notice, is that devised skich is Goodrich's Chart. by Emma (e) A. fifth plan, worthy IVillard, of the course of Empire." called sketch It is essentially the Chronological Tree "Perspective inverted stituted events being placed at the top of the chart, and diverging lines being sub; the earliest indicate of the trunk and branches. to the cominstead employed are parative Light and shade of different nations. and (IVillard's Atlas. rank culture Hartford, 1836.) But it is worthy of remark, that in all these two plans there are grand faults ; 1. equal length is represented of time is not 2. duration the chart; on cular by perpendirepresented by equal spaces and line is altogether natural most the most the horizontal lines, while satisfactory representation. with division the into two important improvements, (/) A sixth plan adopts these for different of is the scale columns classes allowing, where events, periods, and the several chief objection in its exact The to be located event large enough, each place in the line of time. all is the difficulty this method of using a scale the to important sufficiently large to include of some convenient size of the chart, and the "vents rendering it inperiods without increasing too much for portable use." logy. plan unites geography with the history and chrono(^) A seventh Chart is exhibited in Priestley's Specimen of a New of History," given in This method of streams rivers is employed in a his Lectures device of a combination or on (ft)The History. recent chart visible, Phil. 1S39, 54 inches by 27. by 1. 1. Hitchcock, called History made
tree,

of

whose

represent bottom.

by horizontal nations;

(c) A
events

third
are

plan is

the

plans contrivance

the

of

"

"

"

"

"

"

"208.

(D) Actual
actual

Dates dates.

of
to

the most the

prominent
found

events.

plexityand

discouragement

student

in classical this
so

Nothing history,than
great
as

occasions the

more

per

Many

have

to

of redifficulty membering in despair. give over

P.

I.

BRIEF

OUTLINE

OF

CHRONOLOGY.

67

But,
and of is

as

has
no
no

been less
so

repeatedly remarked,
to

accurate

it is

the

pleasure, of reading history. And

memory

chronology is essential to the utility, the difficulty complained

invented
over

by

Various

means insuperable. expedients to aid the

have
a

been

($210); but
the

the writer knows of none select a few grand events their

better

which

than to take stand out

glance

whole

as

landmarks,

associate

the whole, on field of past time, these events with

with perfect exactness, them commit to making them as memory familiar as the letters of the alphabet. Any do this ; of common capacity can person and the student who wishes to lay any foundation at all for historical knowledge must do at least as much this. This being done, he will find it comparatively easy to as

dates, and

locate the various

events,

which

he may

read

about

or

learn

from

time

to

time, in their

place between proper these " 209. With

modern
The learner line each
to

whose dates are thus fixed in the memory. grand events it seemed desirable to include views the following outline,in which to memory. chronology,is offered to the student, to be perfectlycommitted these
is advised represent
to

draw

it off
or

on

representing an exactly at the points

events

flowing equal length

the in the line

progress

roll of paper of time. let the dates.

prepared
Let of
to

this

of

time;
under
or

dates

for the purpose zontal horia ; using line be divided into equal spaces, the he events distinctly written this

where
or

they belong according

the

equal

division

and

let

the

also

be

written

directly above Chronology

4004

Brief

Outline.

is Ancient Modern into

Modern. the

Ancient whole the

includes time since

the

whole

time

before

Christ, comprehending
I. Ancient

years. is divided

includes
two

Christ. ages, Antediluvian the

Chronology
the

portions by
the

Flood;
the

Antediluvian flood." ages The

as

portion
ages may

before be The

flood, and
as

Postdiluvian

ages,
one

portion
;

after

considered

containing only
and

period

the

Postdiluvian

containing eight

periods.
Of The the
one

grand

events

periods

are

the

following.

Antediluvian

ages, Creation
.

period

is from
to

B.
,.
. .

C. C.

4004,
2348.

Deluge

B.

Of 1st 2rf 3d 4th 5th 6th 7th 8th

the

Postdiluvian is from from from from from from from from

ages,

the
....

period, period, period, period, period, period, period, period,

Modern

Deluge
of

to
. .

Calling Escape Building Founding Battle Reign Capture Coming distinct the

of of

Abraham
. .

B.
. . .

C.

1921

Calling Escape

Abraham
. .

to to

Israelites of Temple
.

B.C. B.C.
. .

1492; 1004;

of Israelites of of

Building Founding
Battle of

Temple
Rome
.

to to to to

of of

Rome
. .

.B.C. B.C.
.
.

752;
490;

Marathon
.

Marathon
. . . .

of Alexander of Carthage of Christ.

.B.C.
. . .

336; 146;

Reign

of Alexander of

B.C.

Capture

Carthage
is divided

to

II. Fall

Chronology

into

three

portions by
Fall of
;

the
;

Fall Middle

of

Rome

and

the tion porsince the

are

of Constantinople: Early Jlges, the

between the Fall of Rome
"

portion
Fall ages ages of

before

Rome Recent
as

Jlges, the
the
two

and The the

the

Constantinople
be considered The

Jlges,

portion

the

Fall

of ages,

Constantinople. five periods;

early
recent

may

containing
events

periods; periods

middle the Of 1st 2d

and

Jive periods.

grand

and

following.
the

Early

ages,

the
.

period, period,

is from

Christ of the of Rome

to
.

the
to

Reign Fall

of of

Constantine
. .

A. A.
.

D. D.

306;
476.

from

Reign
ages, Fall

Constantine

Rome
. .

Of

the

Middle is from

istperiod,
2d 3d 4th 5th

to
.

Flight Crowning Landing Overthrow Fall of

of

Mahomet
. . .

A. A.
.

D. D. D. D. D.

622; 800;
1066;

period, from period,

from

Flight

of

Mahomet
. .

to

of Charlemagne of William
. .

Crowning Landing
Overthrow ages, Fall the of

of of

Char! William

am

agne
. .

to to

A.
.

period, from period,

the from

of

Saracens
. .

A. A.

1258;
1453.

of

Saracens
.

to

Constantinople

Of 1st Id 3d 5th 5th

Recent is from from

period period,

Constantinople
of Charles of Charles of United 5th 2d

to to

Abdication Restoration Independence Downfall the Present

of Charles of Charles of United of Bonaparte

Fifth
.

A. A. A. A.

D. D. D. D.

1556; 1660; 1776;

1815;

Abdication Restoration

Second States
.

period, from period, from period,

Eut
to

to to to to
to

Independence
Downfall of

States
.

from

Bonaparte
to

Time. here
some

$210.
alluded

it is

perhaps
different

due have

the been

scholar devised of

mention assist in

of

the

expedients,
of dates. We

above wilJ

(} 208), which
three

the

recollection

briefly notice
I. The favorable such
use

systems

artificial Memoria says pers

first is that

of Dr. Grey, whose this method," reception. "As in recollecting dates, I think all

memory. Tichnica "is

has

Priestlev,
ns

so

of

liberal

wilh the generally met and easily learned may education inexcusable, who

mosl

be

of will

68
not

CLASSICAL

CHRONOLOGY.

take

the is to

small

degree
name or

of

pains
for

that

substitute the

letters of with is Dr. the

a

figures, and
the
term

is necessary form date

or

to

make

themselves letters
a

master

of

it."

The and

pedient exciate asso-

of these whose

it with wish
to

persons,

of

syllable or birth, reign, death,

with each
an

word,
or

the
to ten

like,
bered. remem-

you

remember,
The has

prominent

word

connected in which

event

be

following
ei ; 9, re on such

Grey's
y.
as

substitution
or

alphabet,
the
to

of

the

numerical

characters

its consonant
;

and

its vowel To

diphthong; l,ab;
date the
or

2,

d; 3,ti;i,fo;
of Rome represent word, thus it
on

7,
and

oi ;

8, k
the

0,

remember

of above
a

the

founding
alphabet,
of the

substitute

for 752

letters

will, according
to

5, I u; 6,sau; by this system, 752; e. g. p u d,

join

syllable thus

formed

the

word

Rome,
form
a

part word

Rom-;rarf.
the memory. battle of
are

The To

of this combination and oddness uncouthness very of the Deluge, remember the date 2348, we may

will series

sometimes the of of

impress Del-etok;
of barbarous
are

of the

thon, Marato

490, Marath-")"y,
fixed in memory, Hexameter verses;
;
See

or

Mara-/o?tz.

Where the

dates the

successive words
to

events

be in
mory me-

this

recommends system the which, however, memorial lines.

Method

uniting
must

thus

formed
to

student

understand,
(With
Lowe's

be

committed

these

are

called

R. Grey's

Memaria
125.

Teclmica,or

of artificial

Memory.

Mnemonics.)

Lond.

1812.

S.

Cf. Land.

Quart. Rev. ix. 2. The for

room,

second The
some

method

is

system
the

figures.
or

principle
limited fixed

of

in in
a

space

of topical memory, is topical method marked by sensible then whatever

including
to

also

the

substitution number these of

of

letters in
a

conceive

certain conceive

places
as

objects
successive

; and

places

ranged ar-

events to or order; objects one imagination, some pictures of or concerning them, in their proper order, into conceived is the principle of Feinaigle's Art of Memory. these By this a fourplaces. Such wish sided is divided into fifty ideal who a more room capacious memory ; these squares may numbered take also a second one more, ; and up to a hundred may story having 50 squares go stories Nine lie chooses. to be placed on are the on so as ascending through as many squares floor of the room, of the four walls, thus and nine each on making forty-five; the other five on from the 1 to 9; the square numbered 10 is put the squares the floor number : on ceiling above nine from 11 the ceiling over the wall on supposed to be on your left hand, and the next squares under it ; the square 20 is on the ceiling over the wall to 19 are the left hand wall on opposite in front of you, 21 to 29 on under it ; the square and the next nine from that wall 30, and the next nine from 31 to 39 are the right hand the the 40, and on next ; and square put in like manner nine from 50 is placed in the centre of the ceiling. In 41 to 49 behind square you ; the remaining of these visible in 2, a swan; each a picture of some object is located; e. g. in 1, a. pump; squares and of squares, in 3, a man numbers, pictures is first to be committed using a spade. This scheme Then if one would remember to memory. by aid of the system the date e. g. of the kings of England, in his mind with of them, he would each throw create these one a picture in connection order of the regal succession, in the exact and associate pictures in imagination into the squares the picture fixed in the square he falls; in forming the picture pertaining to the king with to which be so conceived casual the new as to have some picture two things are important ; it should of the king, and time or slight association a word suggesting at the same suggesting the name or. which is devised the phrase; along with the ideal picture, and which by the person expresses for of substituted E. remember of date according to an letters to the date figures. alphabet g. for the to ; the Henry 7th, it is said the ideal picture of 7 hens is a good one purpose square is fixed in this illustration he is the of the which (in assigned engraved 29; the picture square bound to be somehow pictures then are system) is a woman spinning on a small wheel; these two it may be thus, the woman together, and spinning s e e s 7 hens ; the next thing is to form a word of the date ; and The oakra.il" or phrase indicative by the alphabet adopted in this system, is such of storage in the is to bind the a step in this process phrase; the remaining memory, be done the to by imagining that the woman phrase pictures, which spinning s e e s 7 hens may The oak rail. The alphabet ; 1,6c; %df; on following is the substitution 3,gh; 4,jkz; 5,1; and 100, St; 1,000, Th; 6,mn; 0, wx; 100,000, Y. 7,yq; 8,rs; 9, Jo;

certain

and

wishes

remember,

throw,

in

"

"

See

The

New

Art
Rev.

of Memory,
as

founded

on

the principles of F

in

i g 1 e, illustrated

by engravings.

Lond.

1813.

8. 2d ed.

Cf.

Lond.

Quart.

above

cited.

of a here, that the ancients, particularly the Roman use worthy of remark orators, made of topical memory. of a system, in which Quintilian the various gives an account parts of a spacious mansion of Feinaigle. the several in the method are as employed somewhat squares The connected with certain were things to be remembered by association being types, and these of the assigned to the different parts arranged in order were house; "they assign," says he, first idea "the to remember to the then to the hall; portico, the second they go round they wish inner do they only commit the these associations bedrooms and courts the to ; nor anterooms, When but even these to the furniture. to recollect associations, they recur they wish mentally in from order the and which sensible to those places regain every they had enbeginning, trusted type, and this connected with it." to each at once type particular spot, suggests the idea 3. The third is the Efficacious Method of Mr. of In this plan a substitution Hallworth. system Its peculiarity consists of forming mere letters for figures is employed. barous barin this, that instead like that of Grey, or words and associated with words, some unmeaning artificially image which is formed, the be states to or event picture, like that of Feinaigle, a significant sentence with and concludes of that remembered, a word or phrase something characteristic expresses the event, and at the same time, when interpreted according to the substitution alphabet, denotes The is the following; 1,6 c; 2, df; the date. alphabet of Hailworth 3, g, h,gh; i,kl; 5,mn; In forming consonants also q x y z. 6, p, r ; 7, s sh ; 8, t, ch ; 9, v w j, used as ; 0, th ph wh, and words the vowels used be convenient, without are sonants just as may having any significancy ; the conin expressing a date ; thus alone ch u rch being considered [chr ck~\ signifies868 ; troop To recollect date the is \t r p], 866. e. by this method following sentence g. of the Flood, the formed die and men die guilty expresses the phrase the date, as the guilty: ; The deluge comes

It. is

system

consonants

phrases,
without worth several
S^e

d g I (represent the plan admits

; e-

2348.

"

For

greater

convenience

and

scope
to

in forming be h t

the 3875. has

istic characterthe
"

articles, prepositions, and

to fell a sacrifice

conjunctions
h
at e

used, like
s

vowels,
Hall-

significancy
has

g. Abel its

Cain's

and of the

sin:

n,

Mr.

taught

his

system
Method

by
of

lectures

in different
are

little books

in which

principles

parts explained and

country,
and

and

published

applied.
Historical

T. HaUworth's

Efficacious

retaining, and communicating acquiring,

Chronological Knowledge.

P.

I.

EIGHT

PRINCIPAL

STATES

OF

ASIA.

69
"o" History,

N. York, States.

ISM."

Hallworlh's

method

applied

to

General

Ancient

Also History."

to

Sacred

Historyof

the

United

" 211,
ancient of ancient the

We and

shall

classical times.
"

complete our history,by kingdoms

;

in design,
a

reference
at

to

the

rapid glance

the

Chronology

actual dales of events in of the principal states

We
or

will mention
were

lirst those whose the

Asiatic

states ;

in Asia. The capitals were cipal prineight; the Assyrian; the Jewish; the Trojan;
;

Lydian

the Phoenician

the Persian

Syrian ;

and

the Parthian.

I. The of Nimrod
In this

Assyrian.
to

This
1945.

is considered The

as

having

commenced

with

the be

building

Babylon by Nimrod,

B. C.2217.

1st

period of its historymay

mother the the
sources

that from

Ninias, B. C.

period reigned the gained its greatest extent including Persia, Media, and
Asia south three Minor
to

celebrated
;

queen
on :

Semiramis,
the
east to
on

of

Ninias. of the

Under Oxus and

her ihe

the

pire em-

reaching
; and

Indus,

Bactriana

comprising
on

the

Mediterranean of Arabia.

limited

by

the

deserts in the

countries

valley
be
about On the

of the

Generally, Euphrates Ninias

west Ethiopia, Egypt, Syria, and only by Mount Caucasus, and on the the however, Assyrian empire included only the and Tigris, viz. Mesopotamia, lonia. Assyria, and Baby-

the

north

The
This said
to

2d

periodmay
of
"

that from
1200 death years, of

to

Sardanapalus,
in great three

who

died B. During
formed

C. 747. kings
of the its
are pire em-

have

long period, reigned.

is involved

Sardanapalus

obscurity. were kingdoms

it 33
out

Nineveh its capital ; the Babylonian, with as ; the Assyrian, with with for its capital. It may and the Ecbatana be Median, proper, still continuing; and as Assyrian monarchy

Babylon however, B.

for
to

capital
the

consider

The

3d

period may

be

that from

Sardanapalus
in

to

Esarhaddon,

C. 681.

During this period of 66 years, 4 kings reigned and 10 kings reigned at Babylon. During this
with three that of the viz. the Israelites. In and

kingdoms, 4th and

this
to

Assyrian

Esarhaddon the last; was Nineveh, of whom time the Assyrian nected history was intimately conB. C. 681, Esarhaddon the year united of the together two Babylonian.

The
At united death
For
a

last
the the

period extends

from

Esarhaddon
to

to Persia.

Cyrus
"

the
the

Great, B. C.
existence

536.

time Persia

united

kingdom was kingdom of Media,

subjected
which had

At its

same

time, also, Cyrus

from the

continued

separate
Elements of

of

Sardanapalus.
of the Assyrian

general view
1823.
5 vols.

history ; Rollin's Ancient

Universal

History, bk. m."Millot's

1779-83.
to

vol. History,

i. p. 62.

(Ed.

EJinb.

13.)"The
N.

English
Testament,

History.
time from

Lond.

60

vols.
"

8. (IS vols. Ancient.) vol. iii." Prideaux,

Connection

of the 0. and

(for the

Sardanapalus
of the

Cyrus.)

Berosus,

"c.

in Cory, cited P. V. " 236. Cxf. 1830.

2

"

fleercn, Historical Researches

Trans!, from
and

into the Politics and Sainte

Commerce

Carthaginians, Ethiopians, Egyptians, "c.

de

vols. 8. For

his Idcen, cited P. IV. " 171." likewise for the several

Croix, La ruine
be

Babylon, in

the

Mem.

Acad.

Inscr.

vol. xlviii. p. 1.

Assyria,
"

states and

empires to

mentioned,we

also refer to Hcercn's

States of

cited "215.6. Antiquity,

Cf. also Meusel, cited P. V.

" 240.

II. The It may

entrance

Jewish. divided Canaan into

into
this

The

be

B. C. historyof this nation begins with Abraham, from Abraham 1st period extends eight periods. The

1921.
to

the

under

Joshua,
a

B.

C. 1451.
nation.

During The During

was

period they

remained

nomadic

2d

period includes the time from

period
the nation
was

Joshua
the

to

the death
of
as

of

Samuel,
and time
some

B.C. priests.
before

1060.
Samuel

this

under first

government
anointed

the such

judges

the

last of the

judges.

Saul,

the

king, was

Samuel's

death.

into the to the separation of the nation The 3d'period is from Samuel B. C. 975. of Judah under Jeroboam, and Israel by the Revolt
This and
was

two

kingdoms
David these

the

most

Solomon,
see

and Christ.

reigns,
The

flourishing period of the Jewish monarchy, at Jerusalem, by the building of the Temple Spectator, iv. 131 ; v. 528.

marked the

by the reigns of capital. Respecting

"

the

include the history from 4th period may Babylonian Captivity, B. C. 536.
two

the Revolt

until the Restoration

from

The tribes the

over

kingdoms
whose Israel, of

continued

separate

until
were

cf

two

tribes
at

Samaria, capital was Judah, by Nebuchadnezzar,

The

Judah

Jerusalem.

seventy

years

The ten by the Babylonians. B. C. 721; captivity by Shalmanazar, nineteen this time B. C. 61)6. During kings reigned of from dated the of the conquest captivity are their destruction into carried

Judah

by

Nebuchadnezzar.

The Jews
throne to

5th

period reaches
B.
the Jews

from C. 332.
had

the Restoration

by Cyrus, to
of
at

the

Submission

of the

Alexander,
this

During
of

period

continued

in

state

least

partial dependence of

on

the

Persia.

The

6th

period is from
under
denth

Alexander
B.
the

to

the

Re-establishment

an

independent
Jews The
were

monarchy
After claimed the

the
of and

Maccabees,
arid

C. 168.
division
to

Alexander

of the

his

empire,
or

made

B.

C.

301, the
both."

by Syria

by E-rypt, and

exposed

invasion

oppression of

perse-

70
cution of Antiochus

CLASSICAL

CHRONOLOGY.

Epiphanes

provoked

the

general

revolt

which

led

to the

re-establishment

of

independence. The
.

7th

period is from
C. 63. period last
the

the Maccabees

until the time

of the Roman

under interference
dissensions.

F*mfey,
During The

B.
this

monarchy

was

maintained,

but

with

many

unhappy
to

8th

and

of Jerusalem
For the Jewish Far.

period is from the first conquests by Titus, A. D. 70.

historical books
of the 0. des better dc

of

Pompey
"

the

tion final Destruc-

history ;
1742. The
10

The

Testament."

Josephus (cf.P. V. " 243.). Haye, 1716.

15

Berruyer, Histoire du peuple da

Connect,
des Juifs

Dieu, "c.
N.

vols. 8." Basnage,

said translation, des

Histoire
to be et

Juifs,"c
than
"c. H

vols. -12."

Prideaux,

of the
et der 1830.

0. and

Testament.

French

the English Amst.

original, is entitled Histoire

5

des peuples
Geschichte 3

voisins

depuis la decadence Nation,

JLmer.
"c.

Royaumes
1800.
2

d'Israel

Juda,
H.

1725.

vols. 8.
of the

"

J. L.

Bauer,

Handbuch

der Hebr. Cf. North

Nttrnb.

vols. 8. valuable."

Milman,

History
Transl.

Jews, German,

(Am. ed.) N. Y. by C. E.
Stouie.

vols. 18. 1828. 3.

Rev.

vol. xxiii. p. 234."

Jahn,

Hebrew

Commonwealth.

from

And.

III. The Its originis involved in darkness and fables, but is placed as Trojan. Of its chronology we can early at least as B. C. 1400. only say that the state was destroyed by the Greeks in the reign of Priam, about B. C. 1184.
The history Greece, ch. i. of

Troy

consists

of

traditions

preserved

by

the

poets.

Cf. P.

II.

132.

"

Mitford's

are

This commenced about B. C. 1400.Three TheLydian. dynasties of kings of the history until the reign of Crcesus to have reigned, yet littleis known ; and under him the kingdom was destroyed by Cyrus, B. C. 536. said
The fate
For
was

IV.

capital
the

was

Sardis.

The battle

decided

by- the
The des

kingdom of Thymbra.

was

in the

time

of Croesus

very

rich

and

powerful
with
a

its

Lydian history ;
de Vjlcad,

English Universal
vol. vi. p. 532,

History,vol.

iv.

as

above

cited.

"

on Freret,

the battle

of Thymbra,

plate,

in the Mem,,

Inter,

V. named

The B.

Phoenician. B. C.
1050.

This The

was

in existence
state

in the

time

of David,

under

king

Abikal,

continued

until the

Capture of Tyre by
have contained several

ander, Alex-

C. 332.
seems or

Phoenicia with
Oh

not

to

have of

formed which

petty kings
the Phoenician

princes,

properly Tyre stood

"

one

state, but
the head.

to

cities

at

history ; Sanconiathon,
Acad.

"c. cf. P. V. " 238. vols, xxxiv-xlii.

Rxs,
"

Cyclopaedia, under English

Univ. Hist.

Phcenice.
"

"

Mignot,

Sur

les Pheniciens Works.

in the Mem, (several dissertations), Gott. 1824.

Inscr.

The

Also, 1 1th

vol. of Heeren's

VI

The

Persian. the elder, B.

Its

history is
We

obscure may
to

and

its power
the

of Cyrus
two

C. 536. from

include

whole

until the time insignificant history after this date in

The

periods. 1st period extends

in the

famous
under

Battle
Darius

Cyrus of Salamis,
Hystaspes,

Xerxes,
C. 480.
of father

who

invaded

Greece, and
empire

was

feated de-

B.

In

this

period,

the

Xerxes,

the

Persian

attained

its

Mount Caucasus the the and on on east, to the Jaxartes greatest extent ; reaching to the Indus The north, and including Asia Minor, Syria, Egypt, and Libya. Babylon, Susa, capitals were and and in one Ecbatana, Persepolis (cf. "5"J being held sometimes 153, 154, 170), the royal court sometimes of these another places.

The

2d

in the
About Anabasis the of

of the Persian period extends from Xerxes to the overthrow B. C. 331. Codomannus, reign of Darius
middle of this
;

ander, empire by Alexdescribed in the the

Xenophon
of Persia

subjugation
For the

the expedition of the younger period occurred Cyrus fell in the battle of Cunaxa, B. C. 401." by the victory at Arbela, B. C. 331.
Anc.

Cyrus,
Alexander

completed
"

Persian

history ; Rollin's

Hist. bk. ix.

"

iv. and

following." Millot's Elements, vol. i. p. 83, ed. before cited.

Persarum.
"c. 1591. cited earliest 8.
"

The

versal Uni-

History, before
Herder's

cited, vol. iv. and

Brissanius, de regno
as

Hyde, Rhode, fyc.cited "

18. i."J.

P. V.

" 183. 3."

of Persia, in

Persepolis, in his Works." Library, No.

lxx."

Heeren,
Sir J.

above

cited."

Grotefend,
from

P. IV.

B. Frazer, Hist, 1829.

2 vols.

Harper's Fam.

Malcolm,

Hist, of Persia

the

"c. period,

Lond.

8. 2d ed.

VII.
battle

The

Syrian;
formed
out

or

monarchies

the of the

Kingdom of the

Seleucidce.
It

This
was

was

one

of the

four

empire of Alexander.

commenced

after the

include its history in two We B. C. 301. of Ipsus, by Seleucus Nicator, may periods. The 1st period is from Seleucus Nicator to the time of the collision with the Romans in the reign of Antiochus the Great, B. C. 190.
The part

capital of this kingdom

was

Antioch.

The
;

territory under

its sway

included

the

northern

of Syria ; all Asia Minor, except and of the Euphrates." the vallev ciallv by protecting Hannibal. His part of his territories and

Bithynia
Antiochus

sia, India, PerArmenia, Media, Parthia, Bactriana, with the Romans into a war brought was espebattle

defeat, in the
the

of Magnesia,

B.C.

190, deprived

him

of

greatly

weakened

kingdom.

72
The
wars

CLASSICAL

CHRONOLOGY.
s,

its Foundation 1st period is from by Dido, B. C. 880f to the beginningof the 480. of Syracuse in the time of the Syracusan king Gelon, B.C.

In

this

aTyrian by
caravans

period colony
like

the

under

following points Dido, in whose

of the interior of

are

worthy
much and
;

of notice fable is

(a) the
:

story

mingled

origin of the city Carthage, by (b) the pursuits of the people;

with Britain world and
;

commercial, conquests;

those the

Phoenicians

with their

Africa,

islands and of the coasts pursuits led Isles and the and also the Corsica, Baleares, Canary Mediterranean, they gained Sardinia, Madeira of Africa; in the Atlantic, and the northern the chief coast places in Spain, and many it effected and were by Mago, and his sons grandsons ; (d) the form of government; conquests chief character; the executive was a consisting of two republic, but of a strongly aristocratic

commercial

by sea they had intercourse the through Egypt with them to seek possession of the

Guinea,
(c) their

eastern

magistrates Jlssembly of
aristocratic
states
or

called the

Suffetes,and

the

legislative consisting
a

of

Senate strife

of

select
a

at as Rome, there was people; its sources (e) the revenue; party; ;

continual

between from
;

grandees, popular
of the

and and

an an

were,

1. tributes and all the

the 3.

subject

cities

and

tribes

2. customs

paid from
with

on

goods

at

Carthage

ports

proceeds

mines

in

Spain. The 2d

period extends
of the
contests

the

beginning of the
in the First

wars

with

Gelon B.

of Syracuse to the
C. 264. struggle
involved
to

beginning
The obtain almost

Rome
the

Punic

War,

principal thing which complete possession

constant
wars.

marks of

Sicily.

history of this period, is the long continued and The were Carthaginians Syracusans with the Romans
to

in

The

3d

period is from
B. C. 146.
between furnished first of Rome

the

firstwar
Carthage
"

the

final Destruction

of
both

Carthage,
The desired
to contests to

and

own,

the lasted

occasion. 23

out grew There were

of

mutual
wars

ambition. called Punic the The and

Sicily, which

three
was

The Carthage. splendid victories about existed

For above.
"

Hannibal;

The second years. ended by the battle of in the entire

marked

by
state

disastrous ; each bold invasion and third lasted

Zama,
of

B. C. 232. the

only
had

three

and terminated years, 700 years. about Carthaginian

Universal

destruction

city.
1664.
a

Carthage
Heeren,
as

the

history; Rollin's History, vol.

xv.

Anc.

Hist. bk. ii.

"

Hmdrich,

De

Repnblica Carthaginiensium.
Lond. 1837. with

"

cited

The

of the

Ancient."

Bottiger's Hist, of Carthage.

map.

213.

The

ancient

states

which

were

seated

in

Without

naming singly the various minor states, our by a glance at the Chronology of Greece
Greece. The whole
be
extent

be mentioned. to Europe remain complished object in this sketch will be' acand

Some. is 15 or 1600 years, Roman a province.

I. Of from This

of time
to

to

be

considered

the permanent whole space

settlements
may very

in Greece

her final reduction

to

six successive

periods, each

limited

conveniently and happily presented by a division into events, and characterized by proby distinguished minent
the whole from its

circumstances.
1. The 1st

period comprehends
War,
1184

history from

the Dawn

of civilization
may be

to

the Trojan

B.

C, and

peculiar characteristic period must

be authenticated.

nated denomi-

fabulous.
Much
a

which few

is related in the
events

accounts

of this selected

rejectedas idle fiction ;

"

Civilization had its yet laid the foundations first impulse in the arrival of colonists from Egypt and Phoenicia, who tle Litof the principal of some cities, as Argos and Sicyon about 1800 years B. C. after the lapse of more than two centuries, advancement made, however, until, was

important

may

be

and

other

the time
progress

colonies were of Moses

must

planted, at Athens
(P. IV.
been

by Cecrops

and

at

Thebes the

by Cadmus,
war

about

" 34).

Between

this time

and

Trojan

considerable

have
some

made

in cultivation.

We
sacred

find

of the
oracles

the particularly
games,
"

the
arts

court

in this period ; peculiarinstitutions of the Greeks originating the mysteries at Eleusis, and the four at Delphi and Dodona, of Areopagus at Athens, and the celebrated Amphictyonic sciences likewise received considerable attention. Letters had studied to enable Chiron to sufficiently Astronomy was The the constellations. artificial sphere exhibiting counts achad been made in that progress and that of Troy show But the whole historyof the period exhibits that war.
"

Council.
been

The

and

introduced

by Cadmus.

furnish

the Argonauts with an of the siege of Thebes

the various arts singular mixture

pertaining to
of barbarism marks what
a

with

cultivation, of
an

savage

customs

with

chivalrous

adventures, which
2.
aar

is called much

heroic age. of

The
to

2d

period includes
time the when
most

shorter space

time, extending from

was

the
about be

Trojan
1050

the From

the

regal

form of

government

abolished,

B. C.

important and

characteristiccircumstances

it may

called the

periodof
The
"without
we

colonization.

such of Greece small monarchies, and they continued were Soon after this encountering peculiar difficulties until after the Trojan war. the people, under a number in which find the country involved in fatal civil wars, first governments

P.

I.

STATES

OF

EUROPE.

GREECE.

73

of petty chieftains hostile to each other, suffered extremely from calamity and oppression. evils seem These led to the change in the form of Government, and the to have substitution of the popular instead of the regal system. The same evils also probably contributed to the the period. The so spiritof emigration, which strikinglymarks who of three separate classes. are as sought foreignsettlements distinguished emigrants the Peloponnesus to the northwestern of which the cities, Smyrna was the Ionians, who from called Attica (originally went principal. The second were in Asia Minor, south of the iEolians, where Ionia), and planted themselves Ephesus of their chief cities. third were The the Dorians, who was one migrated to Italy and the and founded settlements. numerous Sicily, flourishing Syracuse in Sicilybecame notice the originof the four princimost pal important. In the period of colonization we dialects in the Greek language. (Cf. P. V. " 4.)
were

The

earliest

shores

of Asia

the JEolians, who removed from and founded Minor several

"

3.

The

3d

period comprehends
to

the space

abolition In this and from

of monarchy period two

the

the Beginningstates

(offive hundred War, of the Persian

are

and

fifty years) from

500

the

about

B.C.. and
a

of the Grecian

chiefly conspicuous, Athens

to

Sparta;
suitable
as

special attention of these

civil

constitution and political the

provide code, this portion of the history may

states

themselves
be

with

designated

period of

laws.

Sparta found

in

Lycurgus her lawgiver.

not

her character, and were received later, Athens task other

her

His institutions gave a permanent cast to until the last ages of Greece. Many years constitution from the hands of Solon, who executed the abolished
"

(Cf. P. V. " 167 ; P. III. %% 8, 9.)" The unsuccessfully attempted by Draco. incidents in the history of this period are the repeated wars of Sparta principal with her neighbors the Messenians, and the usurpation of Pisistratus and the fate of his sons In the war fered at Athens. Sparta at last was completely triumphant, but suffrom much the devoted skill and patriotism of Aristomenes, the Messenian in this struggle that the Spartans were much indebted to the lame general. It was so poet of Athens, Tyrtseus. (Cf. P. V; " 53.) of regal In the very time of Solon, Pisistratus contrived to obtain at Athens a sort The father used his power to proauthority,which he transmitted to his two sons. mote the glory and welfare of the state. ^Of the sons assassinated at a public one was festival,and the other, being subsequently expelled, fled to Asia, and sought revenge the Persians his native country. to invade by instigating
"

4. 460

The B.

4th
a

period extends
space

from
50

the
years.

beginningto
To of every Persian

the Close

of

the

Persian

War,

C,

of almost from

this age

the Greeks nation have

ever

after looked their favorite the

back

with

and pride, of valor

its history orators

drawn forth

examples

and

patriotism. The
gave
an

invasion
to

called Grecian

highest
It may

energies of the

people, and

impulse astonishing

mind.

properlybe

called the

period of militaryglory. originated in the ambition of Darius the Persian He found a pretext and occasion Cyrus the Great. revolt of his Greek subjects in Asia Minor, in which Sardis, carried on by three sucThe war was cessive pillagedand burnt.

The Greece design of subjugating king, the second in succession from for the attempt the in
a

capitalof Lydia, was kings, Darius, Xerxes, and Artaxerxes, but on neither of them did it confer any glory; while the battles of Marathon, Thermopyla?, Salamis, Mycale, and Plataea, adorns the secured immortal honor to the Greeks. of splendid names A succession historyof Athens during this period. Miltiades,Themistocles, Aristides, Cimon, and Pericles, acted distinguished Sparta also justly gloried parts in the brilliant scene. The brave in the self-sacrifice of Leonidas and his three hundred companions. period of the Persian war the age of the highest elevation of the national character of the was the different Greeks. Before it, theio existed little union comparatively between had alone and successfullyresisted the strength of tillAthens not states, and it was aroused Persia at the battle of Marathon, to effort against the that other states were the nominal which In the confederation head, followed, Sparta was common enemy. in the statesfound men but the talents, which controlled the public affairs, were actually of Athens. To Athens, therefore, the supremacy was necessarilytransferred,
"
"

and
5.

before The

the close of the 5th

war

she the 337.

stood, as

it were, the

the mistress
close

of Greece. Persian
war

period includes
B.C. in

portion from
At the

of

the

to

the

Supremacy of Greece and

of Philip,
were a

beginningof this
But
a

period the general affairs

was

highly prosperous
the influence

condition,and Athens
of Pericles.
"

unrivaled

in wealth ment refineand "hr

magnificence under
soon

of luxurious spirit

10

took the place of the disinterested patriotismof the precedingage, G

74

CLASSICAL

CHRONOLOGY.

manners

of all classes became

be

signallymarked

by corruption and

licentiousness.

This

may

designated

as

the

period of luxury.
several
Athens

The these Pericles

is the
was

history of the period presents between protracted war

stillin power
when it

One of subjects of prominent interest. and the Pelopomiesian. Sparta, termed

"

commenced,

but

he

soon

fell

victim

to

the

terrible

The plague which desolated Athens. cessively unprincipled Cleon and the rash Alcibiades suctermissions with The continued gained the predominant influence. war was slight inand various successes for nearly thirtyyears, and was ended by the battle of iEgos Potamos, B.C. 405, in which Lysander, the Spartan king and general,gained final victory over Athens in the Athenians. lost her supremacy a By this event Her of her own hberties. walls were thrown Greece, and was down, deprived even of thirtytyrants imposed upon To and a government her citizens. this, however, the Athenians submitted but a few years. In 401 B.C. the Thirty were expelled. first remarkable for two other events. The the accusation The same was year was

of Socrates,
for
some

one

of the greatest and

was

the best

men

of which the

reason

delayed

several

the the city and to all concerned The other memorable was (cf.P. event the satrap of Lydia, against his brother, the king of expeditionof Cyrus the younger, Ten Persia. thousand Greelts accompanied him in this enterprise. The march from Sardis to the Euphrates, the fatal battle of Cunaxa, and the labors and dangers of the city. 10,000 in returning to their homes, are recorded by Xenophon with beautiful simplithem the Greeks in this revolt of Cyrus, involved The assistance which gave in another war with Persia. Sparta had, by the result of the Peloponnesian war, in Greece, and the other states, especiallyAthens, Thebes, gained the supremacy They even Argos, and Corinth, refused to aid her in the struggle which followed. the furnished the commander united in a league against her, and Athens to whom Persians indebted for the almost entire destruction of the Spartan fleet. This were terminated and humbled Sparta, war was by a treaty, B. C. 387, which weakened
"

but years, V. " 171).

result

paganism can boast. The trial was utterlydisgraceful to

and

was

alike dishonorable
two
now

to

all the

Greeks.

The
were

states

which for

had

both This

depressed,
a

for ages been and pre-eminent in Greece, Athens afforded for a third to seek and opportunity was
was

Sparta,
cendancy. as-

short time

secured

to

Thebes,
"

chieflyby

the the talents of

two

But a war with Sparta shortly distinguished citizens, Pelopidas and Epaminondas. her strength ; she gained a brilliant victory in consummated her glory and exhausted hi the same the final battle of Mantinea, B. C, but was 363 instant ruined by tha death of her general Epaminondas. The successive downfall of three principalstates, therewith Athens, Sparta, and Thebes, and the jealousiesand dissensions connected The reduced Greece condition. to a miserable general corruption and licentiousness, find the Grecian the degradation. In a few years we already mentioned, increased
"

states

embroiled

in the

Phocian

or

Sacred

war,

B.

C. 357. and

(Cf. P. III. " 72.)

The

This

commenced

Spartans and the Athenians, and ere involved in it. Shortly long the Macedonians, became after this contest Sacred called the Amphissian ; in was terminated, a new war arose, which the council of Amphictyons as appointed Philip,king of Macedon, general and such dissensions, the ambitious leader of then confederacy. Amid Philip eagerly seized for entering the Grecian territories. At Athens the single voice of moment a favorable
lifted to Demosthenes was resistance. them to united The
6.
warn

in the

jealousiesbetween

the Thebans

the Phocians.

the Greeks of his ultimate feeble alliance with Thebes

intentions, and
was

to

rouse

but effected,

in vain.

battle of Chesronea, The 6th

B.

C. 337, made from the

Philip the
supremacy

master

of Greece.

period

extends

of Philip,gained by the battle of

Chaeronea,
ronea

the

to the Capture of Corinth, 146 B. C. By the disastrous defeat at Chteand the subsequent history genuine fire of the Grecian spirit was extinguished,

exhibits littleelse than "jrovince. We

may

the steps

by which

the country

was

reduced
and

to

dependent

therefore

denominate

this the

period of decline

fall.

of and autocrat succeeded his father Philip as king of Macedon, Alexander, who Greece, cast a sort of glory on the first years of this period by his extensive conquests. love to trace the course of conquerors, will follow with interest his march Those, who the Hellespont to the Granicus, to Issus, to Tyre, to the Nile, to the desert of from

Libya, to the Euphrates, and the Indus ; but every reader will regret his follies at PerFor twenty sepolisand be disgusted by his beastly life and death at Babylon. years after Alexander's death the vast empire he had formed was agitated by the quarrels his generals. By the battle of Ipsus in Phrygia, B. C. 301, these contests were among cedonia terminated, and the empire was then divided into four kingdoms, one comprising MaThrace and Greece; second and Bithynia; a third Egypt, Libya, Arabia, a Palestine, and Ccelosyria; and a fourth called the kingdom of Syria, including all the
"

rest

To

of Asia, even to the Indus. the firstof these the Grecian

states

belonged.

Patriotic

individuals

sought

to

P.

I.

STATES

OF

EUROPE.

ROME.

75

arouse

states

and

their countrymen the universal

to

cast

corruption of morals

off the Macedonian yoke ; but jealousybetween rendered their exertions fruitless.
.

the All this

in the proper affairs of the Greeks and memorable at is really honorable league. The Achaean league was nally origiperiod, is found in the history of the Achaean small cities of Achaia, established very twelve confederacy between early, a the popular instead of the regal form. first assumed It took when the Grecian states the other republics, and was neutral scarcely any part in the perpetual conflicts between in the Peloponnesian war. even revived about 280 B. C. Macedonian quently SubseThe kings had dissolved it,but it was and the head it was the presicapital. Under enlarged, and Corinth became dency and reputation,that of Philopoemen, B. C. 200 to 180, it rose high in power so of Asia. of the governments Had the other states its alliance was at sought by some of envy, the independence of Greece the foul and mean this time risen above spirit restored. But unhappily the Romans were requested by might probably have been The Romans of the states to aid them against the Macedonians. gladly embraced one the opportunity, and shortly after this a Roman general led as a captive to grace his 167 B. C. triumph the last king of Macedon, stant inpreserved southern Greece from falling league now an Nothing but the Achaean The ambition. to Roman remaining vigor of the confederacyaverted this prey under the pretext of just punishment for insult destiny for twenty years ; then it came, The of Rome ambassadors. Roman legions poured upon Achaia, Corinth was upon and consumed to the flames to taken, and with all its wealth and splendor committed This of course ashes. became completed the subjugation of the country, which a province of Rome.

that

"

The

helps in principal

the

study of the Grecian

history are
"c.

mentioned, P. V. " 1.
Philad. 1636.
12." A

7.

(d). A good elementary work

"

is PinnocWa

improved
A.
H.

edition of Goldsmith's

Historyof Greece.
from from accession

valuable

text-book 1828. 8."

and

guide

to

deeper research;

L. Heeren, States of Autiquity, translated

German

by

G.

Bancroft,
the

Northampt.

For

the later periods of Grecian Lond. 1782. 4.

"

history ; /. Gast, Hist, of Greece bauch, Geschichte

der Achiter und

of Alexanderiill

final subjection to the Romans.

Breiter-

ihres Bundes.

Lpz. 17S2.

" 214.
years;
1.

II. Rome.
may

The be

history of Rome
from

extends

through a
of

space

of

more

than

1200

which
1st

divided,like the Grecian

the B. time C. 509. It may

history,into six periods.

the Building
the

The

period includes of Tauquin,

City, B. C. 752,
of the

to
or

the Expulsion of

be called the Period

Kings,

Regal
The
very

Power. have

left a particular of this period, beginningwith account and whose descent is traced from Remus, city,Romulus the hero of Virgil. But many have doubted whether this portion of the Roman iEneas have contended that it is altogether credit,and some even history is entitled to much said to have fabulous. (P. V. " 510.)" Seven kings are reigned (P. III. "" 193, 240). of this period, was of the most One a important events change in the constitution effected by the sixth king, Servius Tullius,introducing the Comitia Centuriata. He divided the citizens into classes, and subdivided the classes into centuries, making a of centuries in the richer classes than in the poorer. much (P. III. " 252.) larger number The is remembered, of his influence on account on reign "of the second king, Numa, he instituted many of the religious ceremonies the affairs of religion and several ; as classes of priests. During the period of the kings, 244 years, the Roman territory was often involved of very limited extent, and the people were in war with the several in their immediate states vicinity. Tarquin the Proud, the last king, was engaged in the siege of an enemy's cityonly sixteen miles from Rome, when his son committed of Lucretia, which the outrage upon the person led to the banishment of the family and the overthrow of the regal government. the
"
"

historians Roman founders of the

2.

The
were

2d

period extends
admitted
to

from

the

of expulsion

the

Kings
300

to

the time At

when

the Plebeians

the
was

Offices
a

of state, about

B.C.
at

the

beginning of
come be-

this

period the
a

government

thorough
over

but aristocracy,
200
or

the close of it had

be

full

democracy.
and

It included Patrician

years,

and

may

designatedas

the

period of the Plebeian

Two

contests,

of

Party strife.
almost

consuls, chosen
power.

annually, first took the place of the king, and exercised

preciselythe same people, and

"

forbidden to the Plebeians All offices of state were or common the Senators from filled exclusivelyby Patricians or descendants or The Patres. first step in the undermining of the aristocracywas the Valerian Law, allowed which to a disgracefulpunishment to appeal from tho a citizen condemned the protectionof this law, the people, discontented magistrate to the people. Under in the levies, with their poverty and hardships, ere long refused to enrol their names which the
to
wars

with
a new

the

neighboring

states

demanded.

This

led the Patricians difficulty But the

invent

office ; that of Dictator

(P. III. " 248).

dissatisfaction

76
of the Plebeians
to
was

CLASSICAL

CHRONOLOGY.

Mt. Sacer, Tribunes, who were of

a

not to be B. C. 493.

thus removed. Reconciliation annually from

They
was

united effected

with

the

army

and

drew with-

by creating the
to possess

negative upon
arrangement
oppose upon

to be chosen the decrees of the Consuls to

new

This

only led

object to
The B.

the Consuls the Patrician.

and
"

(P. III. " 245.) dissensions, the Tribunes generally making it their the Plebeian interest gradually enthe Senate, and croaching
"

and

the Plebeians, and the Senate. even

office of the power

In
state

few years

another

fundamental

change

was

effected.

important business
at

of

transacted

the Comitia
that

the time of king Servius had, from Centuriata, or assemblies voting by centuries.

Tullius, been
It
was

now,

C. 471, decided assemblies voting

next

such

business
in which

might
to

be

transacted

in

the Comitia

Tributa, or

by Tribes,
at

the Plebeians
seems

held the control.

The the two

office created

Rome

have

the Patricians parties,

opposing, and

originated in the jealousy between the Plebeians the favoring it. This was
continued
years
"

Decemvirate,

only three people made

Patrician office was

fi. C. 451, which superseded both consuls and tribunes, but then other offices were and the restored. In a few two years,
another
"

the

and

advance, the Senate conceding, that sis; militarytribunes, three three Plebeian, might be substituted instead of the two consuls. Another
"

Censors during this period, the censorship ; two being appointed to of the people every five years, and to watch take the census the public morals, over But this office does not have had it to originated in party animosity ; nor appear influence in healing the dissensions the higher and between lower orders (cf. any

created

object with the Plebeians unaccomplished. They were yet remained the more this disability important offices of the state, and to remove bent all their energies. The for many and occathey now struggle continued sioned years, much in their complete success unhappy disturbance, but terminated they ; as to the priesthood, and gained admission to the consulship, the censorship, and finally virtual equality with the Patricians about thus obtained B. C. 300. a quent During this period, so harassed by internal contests, Rome was engaged in frenot

P. III. " 247) One grand

.

eligibleto

wars.

Three

of them

are

most

noticeable.

The

first was

with

the

Etrurians,

fertile in exploits shortly after the expulsion of Tarquin, "a war of romantic heroism." The second with the cityVeii, a proud rival of Rome. It was The last was at last taken "was by Camillus, B. C. 390, after a siege of ten years. invaded with the Gauls, who Italy under Brennus, and are said to have taken Roma it to the ground, B. C. 385. mors and burned Camillus, who had been forced by the claof the populace to go into retirement, unexpectedly returned, and put to speedy under

king Porsenna,

"

"

the flight
3. The

barbarian 3d

conquerors.

period in the Roman

of

history extends
B. C.
146. with

from

the

final

triumph of

the Pie-

beians Rome

to

the Capture had hitherto

Cartha"e,
distracted
but
a

been
over

intestine
extent

feuds

and

dissensions, and
admission
the

had

extended

her dominion

small and

of

territory. The promoted

soon

of Plebeians and
may

to all the high offices of strength of the republic, and the

trust
career

distinction
was

consolidation This

of conquest

commenced.

be remembered The from

as

the

period of the Punic

Wars,

or

of

Foreign Conquests.
part of settled

the

first important conquest was with the Samnites. war contained the
arts.
a

that of the southern Southern Italy was

Italy,which
by Grecian

resulted colonies

(" 50), and

letters and from
Greece

at

this

time

On time

their

several cities,flourishing, wealthy, and invitation Pyrrhus, the king of Epirus,

a

refined

by
over

mans, Roelephants to aid them finally, being totallydefeated at the battle The allied states B. C. 274, fled precipitately dominions. of Beneventum, to his own thus became mistress of Italy. and cities immediately submitted to Rome, who the island Sicily became and She now an began to look abroad for acquisitions, into contact with Carthage, object of desire. The pursuitof this object brought Rome in which was now Carthaginians had settlements flourishingand powerful. The the dominion island. Hence of the whole Sicily,and desired as well as the Romans the first of the three Punic nies. coloWars. chieflysettled by Greek Sicilywas sprang These colonies preferred independence, but, situated between Rome one on side and Carthage on the other, were in no condition to resist both, and had only the in alternative of joining one against the other. They chose the side of the Romans which ended B. C. 241, by a treaty the first Punic war, began B. C. 264, and was made Roman a cuse, exceedingly humiliating to Carthage. Sicilywas province, yet Syrathe The allowed retain an to principal city,was independent government." tragicstory of Regulus belongs to the first Panic war. of twenty-three years, the second After a peace Punic war began in the siege of in Spain, by Hannibal, B. C. 218. this city, Hannibal Saguntum Having taken down crassed the Pyrenees and the Alps, and marched Italywith a victorious upon with

large army

and

train of

passed against the

and

was

for

successful, but

P.

I.

ST STATES

OF

EUROPE.

ROME.

77

The Romans defeated in three engagements were before the memorable of Cannae, in which they were completely conquered, and 40,000 of their troops the Carthaginians left dead on the field. But after the battle of Cannae vantages. gained no adA king of Macedon to their aid in vain. came Scipio, a Roman general, and carried the war to Africa to the very having conquered Spain, passed over walls
army. battle
"

Hannibal recalled from Italy to defend of Carthage. the city,but was was utterly defeated Punic by Scipio in the battle of Zama, B. C. 202, by which the second war ended more disastrouslythan the first. In this war even Syracuse in Sicilytook part with the Carthaginians, and was that account on It was besieged by the Romans. ably defended by the scientific genius of Archimedes, but at length taken by Marcellus, and made a part of the province of Sicily,B. C. 212.
be considered Punic war the occasion which as ried carmay into Asia. Hannibal, after the battle of Zama, fled to the protection of Antiochus, which king of Syria. This led to a war compelled the king to cede the Romans The interference to nearly the whole of Asia Minor, B. C. 190. of the king of Macedon in the second Punic also furnished the ground for a war war

The

result of the

second

the Roman

arms

"

the first step towards A the conquest of Greece. few years the pretence of aiding the iEtolians,subjected Macedonia, B. C. The Achaean 167. little league preserved the southern portions of the country a of Rome longer ; but in twenty years these likewise fell under the dominion by the capture of Corinth, B. C. 146. with

him,

which

was

the Romans-, after,

on

war,

Carthage fell the same year when the Carthaginians

Numidians. faithlessness The fourth The third in the entire destruction

with
were

Corinth.

The

Romans

had
an

waged

third

Punic nated termi-

greatly weakened
war

by
but

unfortunate three

struggle with
and

the and
4.

Punic of

continued

about

years,

Carthage, under

circumstancesof aggravated cruelty

and

on

the part of the Romans. from the

period extends
Imperial the

Capture of Carthage
by the
a

Corinth B.

to

the
31.

establishment

of the

Government

battle

of

Actium,

C.

During
The
out

this whole This

very may

time

Roman

history is

continued

tale of domestic

ances. disturb-

justly,therefore,be termed
of the
two

the

period of the Civil Wars.

which
to

commencement

of the

growing
both Caius
mere

of the corruption of the attempts

to

Gracchi. zeal and

period is marked by the disturbances They successively endeavored

to

grew

check

the
; but

Senate, and
own

relieve the circumstances hatred their efforts

of the

people

fell victims
121

their Some

the

B.

C.

have

ascribed

ambition.
arose

(Cf. Niebuhr's

Rome,

cited P. V.

of their enemies, Tiberius 133, and ardent to patriotism; others to " 299. 7.) Not long after the fall of of

Gracchus of Rome

the

the Social war, by which the B. C. 90. rights of citizenship,

"

began again Sylla and Marius, this contention. Sylla finallytriumphed, and

and obtained this ended, when the Romans their hands in each other's blood in the fierce war imbrue of to horrible massacres rival leaders in the republic. Two signalized
states

Italy demanded

Scarcely

was

was

made

B. C. 78. his power of four years, at the end by the famous conspiracy of Cataline, detected

signed perpetual dictator, yet redeath of Sylla is soon lowed foland subdued by the vigilance of

The

Cicero, B. C. 62.
Still Rome
a

was

distracted

flames

coalition between temporary of discord for a few years.

possessions : Caesar soon The death of Crassus the bond which held Caesar and broke Parthia, B. C. 53. in the field of battle who should be Pompey together, and they hastened to determine decided in Thessaly, of Rome. The in the plains of Pharsalus contest master was beheaded by the entire defeat of Pompey, B. C. 48. Pompey fled to Egypt, but was
the instant he landed on the shore. assassinated in the Rome, but was Brutus and Cassius, B. C. 43.
A

headed The first triumvirate, by ambitious men. by parties, Pompey, Crassus, and Caesar, repressed the had already added Pompey Syria to the Roman Crassus lost his life in an attempt to conquer added Gaul.
"

For

five years

Caesar

held of

the supreme

power

at

senate,

by

company

conspirators headed

by

tween triumvirate was formed, on the pretext of avenging this murder, benow of Caesar. A horrid Antony, Lepidus, and Octavius, each aspiringto the power A war with the party of the conspirators proscriptionsealed in blood this compact. necessarilyfollowed, and the battle of Philippi,B. C. 42, put an end to the hopes of the nephew Brutus and Octavius, who was of Cassius, at the head of this party. of the triumvirate, Lepidus, a man member of one of Caesar, easilyeffected the removal His other colleague, Antony, infatuated by feeble talents and insignificant character. furnished love for Cleopatra, queen and the of Egypt, soon a hostility, pretext for open be the master of Rome. The fate of battle again decided should who of armament B. C. 31. at Actium, This Antony and Cleopatra was wholly defeated by Octavius with all her possessions, to the powet battle subjected Egypt to Rome, and Rome, established. of Octavius, by whom the imperial government was finally

second

g2

78

CLASSICAL

CHRONOLOGY.

The
a

Roman

from history,

the fall of

Carthage
of time

to

the battle of

Actium, presents
civil war. of the

but

melancholy picture,a blood-stained

5.

record

sedition, conspiracy, and

from D.
306.

We

may
to

include the

in

5th

period the

the

establishment As

Imperial

Government into the world

we

reign of Constantine, period, and

the
was

A.

Christianity was

introduced
ment, govern-

in this

opposed until the end of it by the Roman

may

designate it as

period of the Pagan

Emperors.

The taken by the first Emperor Octavius, has become reign of Augustus, the name It is distinguished, in peace, literature,and the arts. proverbial for an age flourishing fixion also, for the birth of our Savior; as the next reign, that of Tiberius, is, for his cruciThe dius, and death. four reigns succeeding, viz. those of Tiberius, Caligula, Clauand of the emperors, the profliand Nero, are for the tyranny gacy chieflymemorable
"

of their families
On

and

favorites.
A.

the death

of Nero,

D.

69, follows

a" year

of dissension

and

bloodshed, in which
"

Galba, Otho, and Vitellius, successively gained the empire and lost their lives. The Flavian family, Vespasian and his two sons, Titus and Domitian, next in order receive
the supreme
power. Titus

is celebrated
rase

as

the

final conqueror
an

of the

Jews,

whose

obstinacy provoked him to His predictions of Christ.

buried the cities Herculaneum his
own

the exactly fulfilling for the eruption of Vesuvius, which reign is memorable of the and Pompeii in ruins. Domitian, the last emperor their

city to the ground,

event

family,provokes
Passing
the

assassination, A.

D. 96.

reigns of the feeble Nerva, the martial Trajan, and the peaceful Adrian, arrive at a brilliant age in the imperial history,the age of the Antonines, extending we in the midst from A. D. 138 to 180, a space of about Their reigns appear forty years. of the general sterility oasis in and desolation of the imperial history like the verdant the desert. revived under their benign influence. Literature and the arts of peace After the death of Marcus, A. D. 180, there follows a whole century of disorder, the absolute The disposalof assumes profligacy,conspiracy and assassination. army Within the imperial crown, which is even sold at public auction to the highest bidder. of the time, nearly fifty the last fifty are successively proclaimed, and emperors years his reign,and attempted In the year 284, Diocletian commenced deposed or murdered. divided into four departments or of administration. The a new empire was system associated with him, in the government. This provinces, and three princes were tem sysand contention for rivalship in a new form, and in a few only laid the foundation of the princes associated with Diocletian, Maxentius and Constantine, sons of two years decide upon their respective claims to the imperial purple. to appealed to the sword
"

The

former

Christianity. Under the Pagan Emperors, those who embraced the gospel were constantly exposed to persecution and suffering. the first under Ten special persecutions are recorded and described, Nero, A. D. 64, A. D. 303, and continuing ten years, unto and the last under Diocletian, commencing A, D. 313. of the But, notwithstanding these repeated efforts to hinder the progress gospel, it was spread during this period throughout the whole Roman Empire.
This

period is memorable

fell in the battle, and Constantine in the historyof

secured

the throne.

6.

The

6th

period includes
to

the remainder

of the Roman when

history,extending from
the

the 476.

reign of
The

Constantine

the Fall the

of Rome,

captured by
to

Heruli, A.

D.

reign of Constantine
embraced of his

Great

imparts splendor
faith

the

commencement

of this
as

period. He
did also Christian One
on

the Christian
;
on

himself, and
account

patronized it in the empire,

be called the

most

successors

which

this may

period

of the

Emperors.
most

of the

important

events

of his

reign, and

one

which with

had

great
to
a

influence
new

He
name

the subsequent affairs of Rome, the removal of the was selected Byzantium for his capital, and thither removed of and He Constantinople, which it stillbears. two nephews; the youngest son, Constantius,

Government

seat.

his court, giving it the left his empire to five princes, three
soon

sons

grasps

the whole,

A.

D.

By the death of Constantius, his cousin Julian received the purple, which he from Gaui to seize by force. The was already on his march reign of Julian, styled the for his artful and persevering attempts to Apostate, is memorable destroy the Christian and his unsuccessful efforts to rebuild the Temple of Jerusalem, with the exreligion, press of casting discredit on the predictionsof the Bible. purpose the death of Julian, A. D. 363, to the reign of Theodosius From the Great, A. D. little that is important to be noticed, except the jealousies 379, the history presents between the eastern and western of the reout moval portions of the Empire, which grew of the court the last emperor Theodosius ruled to Constantinople. who was both. In 395 he died, leaving to his sons Arcadius and Honorius over separately the and the west. From this time the Eastern and its history east portion remained distinct, no longer belongs to that of Rome.
360.
"

IX
'

o.

'

"s

PART

II

MYTHOLOGY

OF

THE

GEEEKS

AND

EOMANS.

11

PLATE

GEEEK

AND

ROMAN

MYTHOLOGY.

Introduction,

" 1. Among

the

early nations
was

of
the

into general use, tradition knowledge of remarkable

events.

antiquity,before the art of writing had come of preserving and only mode spreading the contributed circumstances to Many give to
The
love of the

allegoricalimages to express appropriated, and a disposition to the exploits of ancestors, all conspired to load history eulogize and exaggerate and fact with a mass of fiction,so that it became impossible for later inquirers to distinguish accurately between the true and false. of this sort the Greeks " 2. Traditions history distinguished from authentic the of their contents the matter by name oimythi (^J^ot), and they termed or the them, as well as or study of them, mythology knowledge {/xv^oxoyua).
to

early traditions tendency of the

ideas for which

fabulous

character.

marvellous,

natural

mind

employ
words

symbolical
have

and

no

definite

been

them, as in modern times, a distinct branch of knowledge appropriately for that branch which considers and the notions and the Greeks stories, particularlyamong Romans, and their their actions, respecting gods pretended origin, demigods, It is often attributes,worship, images, and symbolical representations. names,
was

Mythology, however,
of

not

with

study.

The

term

is

now

used

employed
nations,

also
and

in

wider

sense,

including
with

the

thus

is made

synonymous

the

religious fables of history offable.

all ages

and

these mytholo" 3. It is important to distinguish the point of view in which logical narratives were we are contemplated by the ancients, from that in which to regard them. To the former connected their national with were they closely indeed history and their religiousfaith,were only parts of them ; to us they are
monuments

and

evidences

of the

state

of culture

of the

human

mind, if

we

view

and deity, of nature philosophically. They exhibit the reflections, upon and imagination, affected much guided by sense by external appearances, and mistaking physical effects for independent or voluntary But they powers. afford much valuable the and and even aid in Greek understanding necessary Roman the and in of ancient authors, especially judging opinions, usages, poets,
men

them

and

art.

of mythology, in passing down centuries, through many augmented, and experienced various changes in respect to their general dress, aim, and application. Originally they consisted in part of actual occurrences, in part of arbitrary fiction,springing from fear, reverence, ning, or gratitude,patriotism, credulity and love of the marvelous, duplicity,cunand but it of native ambition. is sometimes origin, probable, They were, and settlers wise. otherfrom introduced more frequently were by foreign sources, into epic song By the poets they were woven ; by early philosophers in mystery clothed and they were allegory ; and by the later interpretedin divers conflicting found while artists in them an ample range of subjects ; ways for the chisel and the pencil. modern and Roman of the writers Greek " 5. Some on mythology have fables tion, stated the ancients. Others the have, in addimerely as reported among of gorical, alletheir either to them trace to sought by making conjectures origin, them from in the historical,and physical meanings stories, or deducing the events traditions of early ages in the Bible. But as these recorded arose
4.
were

"

The

traditions and

multiplied

in

various

system

and often accidentally, there ways, which all to one attempts to refer them

will
common

of

course source

be

error

in every
83

and

purpose.

84

GREEK

AND

ROMAN

MYTHOLOGY.

" 5
which with

m.

The
arose

foundation from the

of very

many

and simplicity

objects of sense ; viz. that every and spontaneity like that in activity
appearance
or

of the fictions of mythology is laid in the idea, only inexperience of the first ages, conversant endued with an appropriate was thing in nature
man.

unusual existence

agency

was

observed,

of this In consequence ascribed it was to

idea, wherever
a

an or

distinct

being

operating directlyor immediately. This creation of personal existences out in all of natural phenomena, this personification of physical objects and events was, for which the stars of the most of fable and of idolatry; one probability, prolific sources
and
Many

the elements
of the pagan

seem
are

to

have

furnished

the first and

the

most
or

common

occasion.
vols. 4.

stories

ingeniouslysolved by referring their origin to symbolical

On the rise of idolatry,we
v."

allegoricaldescriptions of physical principles Idolatry. Lond.

1816.
3

and Cf. also

changes.

Cf. P. IV. " 41." and

Prof.

refer to Faber, Origin of Pagan

Skuckford,Sac.

Hist. bk.

P. V. " 364, 3. .Bam'er, cited " 12. 2. (a)." See references,

The
were

translated

of fable, are the sources on following remarks, has by Mr. Wellington H. Tyler, who

from

the

Traiti
to

des

Etudes insertion

of Rollin. here.

They

consented

their

1.

"

One

source

of Fable

is the

perversion or

alteration

of facts in Sacred

History

The and, indeed, this is its earliest and principal source. family of Noah, perfectly time the worship of instructed by him in religious matters, preserved for considerable

when, after the fruitless attempt to build the tower different family were separated and scattered over of language and abode was followed countries, diversity soon by a change of worship. Truth, which had been hitherto intrusted to the single channel of oral communication, of fixed by the use and which had not variations, subject to a thousand yet become of fables, obscured writing, that sure guardian of facts,became by an infinite number ancient had enthe latter of which in which the more veloped greatly increased the darkness it. The tradition of great principles and great events has been preserved but all nations ; not, indeed, without some of fiction, mixture yet with traces among of truth, marked and easy to be recognized ; a certain proof that these nations had a the notion, diffused among all people, of a sovereign God, allcommon origin. Hence powerful, the Ruler and Creator of the universe : and consequently the necessity of Hence and the uniform external of ceremonies sacrifices. and worship by means exertion of to certain great facts ; the creation of man general assent by an immediate Divine of felicity the golden age, in and innocence, distinguished as ; his state power which the earth, without cultivated by of his brow or being moistened by the sweat painful labor, yielded him all her fruit in rich abundance man, ; the fall of the same of of all his woe, the source followed brought on one by a deluge of crime, which wards aftermountain saved rested upon water race a by an ark, which ; and ; the human the propagation of the human But the from one and his three sons. race man detail of particular less known, actions, being less important, and for that reason was in the be altered by the introduction of fables and fictions, soon clearly seen as may and itself. The historical fact that he was the father of three sons, family of Noah that their descendants after the flood were dispersed into three different parts of the believe the three sons, if we earth, has given rise to the fable of Saturn, whose may them the empire of the world." poets, shared between
the
true

God

in all its
members

purity. But
of this

of

Babel,

the

"

"

On These

several of the
are

with facts in sacred history above suggested by Rollin, the pagan mythology exhibits striking coincldedcsa points Grotius, De veritate Rel. Christ (L. i. c. 17.)" De Lavaur, His pointedout by several writers ; we mention particularly conferee
avec

toire de la Fable Lond.

1809."

l'Histoire Sainte.

Amst.

1731.

"

Faber, Hora3

Mosaicse.

"

Collyer, 7.ectures
1820. 2 vols. 4.

on

Scripture Facts.

2d ed

Stillingfleei's Origines Sacra;." Cf. Maurice,

History of Hindostan.

Lond.

(bk. i.)

furnished was by the ministry of angels in human and his angels with his spiritual nature, his intelligence farther desirous of associating them with his providence in immortality ; and he was of the world, as well in the departments of nature the government and the elements, in reference conduct of men. to the The as Scriptures speak of angels, who, armed with their glittering all Egypt, destroy by pestilence in Jerusalem an swords, ravage innumerable multitude of people, and entirelyextirpatethe army of an impious prince. Mention is made of an the prince and empire ; of angel, protector of the Persian another, prince of the Grecian empire ; and of the Archangel Michael, prince of the people of God (Dan. x. 20, 21). The visible ministration of angels is as ancient as the learn from the Cherubim world, as we stationed at the gate of the terrestrial paradise to guard its entrance. instructed in this Noah and the other patriarchswere perfectly truth,which to them had an intense interest : and they took pains,no doubt, to instruct their families on a subject of such importance ; but these by degrees losing the more and notions of a divinity concealed and invisible,attended spiritual only to the pure it is through whom agents they received their blessings and punishments. Hence that men formed the idea of gods, some of whom the fruits of the earth, preside over others over and so of all the rest ; of and others over rivers, some over war peace, and agency gods whose power confined to certain countries and nations, and who were
2. second
source

"A

of Fable the

affairs.

God

had

associated

"

were

themselves
3.
"

third

of all

people

the dominion God. of the supreme of Fable may be in a native principle deeply fixed in the minds has always prevailed, tha',Providence ; this is the persuasion which pre
source

under

P.

II

INTRODUCTION.

85

sides

over

Divine
number

events all human riences great and small, and that each, without exception, expedetail to which the his attention and care. But men, frightenedby the immense of a to relieve him, by giving to each condescend, have felt bound Being must

of deities some personal duty ; Singulisrebus propria appropriate, particular, numinum. The oversight of the whole field would devolve too officia dispertientes intrusted to one, the mountains to single deity; the soil was concerns a upon many another, the hills to a third, and the valleys to another still. St. Augustin (de Civitate stalk of grain,of which all occupied upon different deities, a Dei, iv. 8) recounts a dozen the first motakes a specialcare at different times, from each, according to his office, ment that the seed is cast into the ground, until the grain is perfectly ripened. Besides duties of such affairs, the crowd of deities destined to perform the inconsiderable there others which supposed to take a were were regarded as of a higher grade,because
"

more

noble part in the government

number for

of the world."
Greek

The

testimony
Warburton which
are

if we Hesiod's take immense, mythology was may there are 30,000 gods on earth, guardians of men. says cited P. IV. 5 12. 3) contends that the fables (in the work respecting metamorphoses, belief of the doctrine of recorded authors, had their origin in the common by ancient

gods admitted authority. He

of

in the

metempsychosis; and Providence, which,

thus, he
in another

the
as

says,
state

of "method of explaining the ways latter he affirms been to have a after;" to be unequal seen here, were supposed to be rectified herethey were of pumetempsychosis naturally suggested metamorphosis ; "as the way nishing was by a transmigration of the soul; so in this, it was by a transformation

of
4.
"

the

body."

the corruptionof the human ever heart, which of passions. The more important and renowned these gods are the very ones buting whom Fable has most disparaged and defamed by attricrimes the most shameful and debauchery the most murders, to them detestable, And incests. thus it is that the human heart has been adulteries, ready to multiply, and pervert the fictions of mythology, for the purpose of palliating and excusing distort, There vicious and frightful practicesthe most by the example of the gods themselves. consecrated been is no conduct so disgraceful, that it has not authorized and even by the worship which rendered In the solemnities of the mother to certain deities. was would the mother of a comedian at which of the gods, for instance, songs were sung have blushed ; and Scipio Nasica, who chosen the most virtuous as by the senate was much in the republic,to go and receive her statue, would have been man grieved that been his own should have made mother the place and honors of a goddess to take Cybele."
A

fourth

source

of Fable

was

strives

to

authorize

its crimes

and

5.

"I

do

not

propose
to

to

introduce
some

here

all the best

sources

from

which And
as

Fable
a

takes

its

rise, but
we

merely

point

out

of those

understood.

fifthsource,

refer to a natural sentiment leads men or to of admiration gratitude,which may associate the idea of something like divinity with all that which attracts particularly their attention, that which is nearly related to them, or which for them to procure seems and the stars; such are parents in view some advantage. Such are the sun, the moon, of their children, and children in that of their parents ; persons have either inwho vented
or

themselves

improved arts in war by an

useful

to

the

exhibition of

human family ; heroes who have distinguished have cleared the land extraordinarycourage, or

by

of robbers, enemies virtue or to public repose ; in short such are all who, by some illustrious action, rise conspicuous above the common level of mankind. It some will be readilyperceived without further notice that history, profane as well as sacred, has Fable has located in the heavens, given rise to all those demigods and heroes whom with the person and under the name of a single individual, actions by associating, widely separated in respect to time, place, and person." Cf. P. V. " 222. 4.
"

"

6. The

the most Greek

advantagesof aside important, is the and history,

Roman
to the

an

with mythology acquaintance

are

many.

One

of

from
better

its aid in reference

to

ancient
one

ligion, rephilosophy,

understandingit

enables

to

obtain of the

and

writers and

of the works

of their artists.

It is

cultivation of classical education.

"

which learning,

is of such

cessary obviouslyneacknowledged

importancein modern

Cf. P. IV.

"

29.
we

On the benefits of studying the ancient cited under the last section.

mythology

add

an

extract

from

Eollin,as

1. "It apprizesus much indebted Christ the Savior, who how to Jesus has we are rescued us from the power of darkness and introduced into the wonderful us lightof the Gospel. Before his time, what was Even the wisest the real character of men ? and most those celebrated those upright men, philosophers,those great politicians,

renowned
were

of Greece, those grave legislators senators all the nations of the world, the most polishedand informs the blind worshipers of some us. They were before

of Rome? the most

In and

word,
the
to

enlightened?
bowed
prayers
even

what Fable knee

demon,

gods of gold, silver,and marble. They offered incense and deaf and mute. and They recognized, as gods, animals, reptiles, did not blush to adore an adulterous Mars, a prostituted Venus, an
H

statues.

plants. They
a

incestuous Juno,

SO

GREEK

AND

ROMAN

MYTHOLOGY.

by every kind of crime, and worthy for that reason the first to hold shoufd fathers were, gods. See what our and what we ourselves been, had not the lightof the Gospel dissipated our darkness. Each story in Fable, every circumstance in the lifeof the gods, ought at once fillus with confusion, to admiration, and gratitude. Another 2. advantage from the study of Fable is that, by discovering the to us absurd ceremonies and of Paganism, it may impious maxims inspire us with newfor the majesty of the Christian respect religion,and for the sanctityof its morals. Ecclesiastical historyinforms us, that a Christian bishops, in order to render idolatry odious in the minds of the faithful,brought forth to the light and exposed before the of the public, all which found in the interior of a temple that had been was eyes
rank have
among

Jupiter blackened

the

"

"

demolished of the

bones

of

men,

limbs

of infants immolated

to

demons,

and

many

other

tiges ves-

render to their deities. This is nearly the sacrilegious worship, which pagans the study of Fable effect which must produce on the mind of every sensible person ; and this is the use which it has been to and all the defenders of put by the holy Fathers the Christian religion. The of St. Augustin, entitled The great work City of God, which has conferred such honor upon the Church, is at the same time a proof of what I now in which advance, and a perfect model of the manner profane studies ought to
'

be
a

sanctified."
This

bishopwis
would

Theophilus of Alexandria; respecting whom, refer

to
a

see

Murdoch's

Translation

of

Mosheim,

i. 392.

able and and moral interesting treatise by Tholuck, on The nature very " the Greeks and Romans. "Whosoever," stands Tholuck, of Heathenism influence on says among should look the morning not a sun' the lofty mountain on merely at the gold which pours grass flowers behind him and sometimes also look into the deep valley where at his feet, but he should
"

We

here

the is

shadows also

salutary
over

still rest, that he may the more sensibly feel for the disciples of Christ, at times, from dark

that the

that

sun

is indeed of

a to a

sun.

Thus forth out with-

it
a

glance
a

the

stage, where
Treatise

men

play

their

part in

kingdom lonely gloom,

light

cast

without

Savior,

God:"
a

See

translation
"

of Tholuck's

by Prof. Emerson,

in Bibl. Repository, vol. it.

3.

Still another

benefit

of very

great importance

may

be

realized

in the understanding
a

of authors, either in Greek, Latin, or even French, in I speak is often stopped short if ignorant of mythology. w-hose natural them

reading which
not

son per-

it furnishes language is Fable ; it is often employed also by frequently with the happiest illustrations, and with strains the most from others, is that drawn sprightly and eloquent. Such, for example, among many the story of Medea, in the speech of Cicero [Pro Leg. Manil. sect. 9), upon the subject of Mithridates, king of Pontus. There is another class of works, whose 4. meaning and beauty are illustrated by a knowledge of Fable ; viz. paintings, coins, statues, and the like. These are so enigmas to persons ignorant of mythology, which is often the only key to their many be added, that mythology, at the same It should time, itself receives interpretation." light from the study of such remains or imitations of ancient art, so that new branches of classical pursuitsreciprocallyaid each other. these two
"

of poets and orators,

merely,

countries, having been settled by colonies from several eastern her religious from Egyptians and Phoenotions particularly nicians, of the Greek the origin of most deities is to he sought in the religious But many histor}rof those countries and nations. changes took place,and derivation was this original obscured through the vanity of the Greeks, greatly "
7.

Greece

and

having

derived

who

wished of the

to

claim This

for themselves motive

and

ancestors to

the merit, of their whole the and history

alter

ligious re-

system.
names

led them

confound

the

primitive gods.
may

Some

traditions
between

have the

come

from

India.

There and

are

certainlymany
and Also
an

points of
des Pontus.

resemblance
See Karl

mythology
Also

of Greece
vor

that of India.
urn as

Hitter, Die Vorhalle

8.

EuropaischerYOIkergeschichten
as

Herodotus

den

Kaukasus

den Works

Gestaden
of

Berlin, 1S30.
cited " 25. 4.

Cf. Kennedy,
On

cited " 12. 2. (f ).

of the

Moore
on

and

Maurice,
culture

there cited.

the

Sir Wm.

Jones,
On

the influence

Phoenicians, "c

the

early

of the Greeks,
as

cf. P. IV.

" 40-42

; P. V.

"

12.

the changes successively wrought

in the mythology

of the Greeks, Mayo,

vol. iii. p. 1-9,

cited " 12. 2. (a).

"

8.

religious system of the in descent, being scarcely any

the

The

Romans

gives clearer

evidence

of its Grecian
borrowed

chieflyfrom
not

Greek

colonies

part of it a native growth, but likewise in Italy. Yet the Romans

of the

changed,

only

in

notions and worship. They also derived some the religious All IV. P. conceptions (Cf. " 109.) usages with their civil policy, and institutions of the Romans were closely interwoven in their system and on this account exhibited peculiarities,particularly some

story, and

the cases many the rites of their the

names

gods, but

also

the

fictions of their

from

Etrurians.

of

and auspices, auguries,

various

omens.

We

find therefore in Roman

mytho-

88
and
to exert

GREEK

AND

ROMAN

MYTHOLOGY.

an

immediate

influence
was

upon

the

condition of

of mortals.

In these

respects, however, their power

limited, according to the

immutable relation

heing controlled by destiny.

"The of far ancient Greeks size and greater than men

an

eternal and

generalopinion, termed fate or things,

form
as as

believed

their and

beauty, strength,
; for

gods to be of dignity. They

size
was

the also

same

in those

times

great

esteemed

shape and regarded them a perfection

being
in

themselves, but of much larger

and

both

man

woman,

of their divinities, to whom all consequently was supposed to be an attribute they ascribed Ichor perfections. A fluid named supplied the place of blood in the veins of the gods They were otherwise not capable of death, but they might be wounded selves themor injured. They could make of men visible the forms of animals invisible to as or as or men they pleased, and assume it suited in daily need of food and their fancy. The of the Like meat sleep. they stood men, their drink Nectar called Ambrosia (ye/crap). The gods was (dufipoo-ia), gods, when they came often partook of their food and hospitality. among men, "Like divided into the gods were two mankind, namely, gods and goddesses. sexes; They married Often enamored of a mortal and had a god became children, just like mortals. woman, of handsome and these form or love-tales a goddess smitten with the charms was a a youth ; large portion of Grecian mythology. To ascribed more make the resemblance to their between complete, the Greeks gods and men deities all human evil. They were capable of love, friendship, gratipassions, both good and tude, all the benevolent and affections hand, they were the other frequently envious, jealous, ; on and all due attention from and to exact respect kind, manparticularly careful revengeful. They were with whom to honor them temples, prayers, they required costly sacrifices,splendid processions, and rich gifts; and they severely punished insult or neglect. The ancient Grecian Homer and abode of the as poets, such gods, as described by the more mountains of Olympus of summit of the snow-clad in Thessaly. the A Hesiod, was on gate unfolded its valves of to the Seasons, clouds, kept by the goddesses named permit the passage the Celestials The their return. to earth, or them to receive term on city of the gods, as we may The it, was the same on regulated city of the heroic inhabitants, principles as a Grecian ages. who of the and children their all the kindred the wives were king of the gods, had separate or also came, when dwellings; but all, when summoned, repaired to the palace of Jupiter, whither
" "

called, those
also in the

deities great hall

whose of the

usual

abode of

was

the

earth, the

brosia day on amand which handed round last precious beverage the lovely goddess Hebe was nectar; in the houses of the Grecian princes maid-servants at meals (Youth), being the usual attendants in early times. of the affairs of heaven and and Here as earth; they quaffed they conversed their with the of his lyre, to which tones the nectar, Apollo, the god of music, delighted them Muses in responsive strains. When the was to sleep in their sun set, the gods retired sang respective dwellings. "The drove each drawn the Sun, and the Moon, who Dawn, day in their chariots by celestial steeds through the air, gave light to the gods as well as men." (Keightley, p. 14-17.)

palace

the

Olympian

king

waters, that the

or

the

under

world. each

It

was

gods by

feasted

"

" 12 f. Before the classes specified, we particularly proceeding to notice more will, illaccordance with our general plan in other parts of this work, present some references the sources of information first to ancient authorities, to the subject ; alluding on and
then
1
u.

giving the titles to

Almost ; all the Greek

more

modern
Roman

works.
poets
make treated We have
use

and

of,
in the

or

at
same

least
manner

touch

subjects
of of poetry, Hesiod

properly mythic poetry in the Theogony of Ovid, and in two (P. V. $ 67), the Metamorphoses Lycophron of Claudian, of Proserpine the Gigantomachy, and the Rape rians histo(P. V. " 366). poems Many introduced into have their narratives mythological traditions, without presenting them, however, also recorded much that as fully entitled to credence, while appertained to they have the worship of the of art connected with gods and to works Herodotus, Diodorus, mythology. also and Strabo, Pausanias, the elder Pliny, may be mentioned ancient were particularly. There writers made who the subject more the at length ; as, among mythology their theme, or treated Greeks, Jlpollodorus, Conon, Hephccstion, Parthenius, Jlntoninus, Liberalise Palmphatus, Heracliand the des, Phurnutus (P. V. $ 221 ss) ; among Romans, Fulgentius (P. V. # 502 ss). Hyginus Notices os this subject are found of some of the also in the works of the early writers church,
and the Cassandra of
" "

although these are not epic, lyric,dramatic,

by
and

means any didactic.

mythological upon, in the different kinds

and

also Of

in the the

notes

of

most

of

the works

Greek
on

scholiasts. the subject more treat Mythology, some subject in an alphabetical order; there
at
are

2?j.
more

numerous

modern

large, others
also works

compendiously ; some with accompanied plates

(a) The
full details
on

present and

the

drawings
which
go

for illustration.
of

following
the whole

are

some

of the works
on

into

more

R. Mayo,
F.

System

Mythology.
und

Philad.
der

1815. 4 vols. 8. Alten 8. 3d

subject,or

particular parts.
Gentil

Creuzer's
der

Synibolik

Mythologie
4

Volker, besonimproved Lpz.

1822.

Lit. Greg. GyralJi, Historia? Bas.

Dat. 1548. 1606.

Deor.

Syntagmata

xvii.

ders

Griechen. 1836."

Lpz. 1819-21.
Same

Bde.

ed. 8.

fol. fol.

Also

in his Opp. Omn.

(ed. /. Jensius).

Lugd.

commenced

(abridged) by
sive de

G. H.Moser.

Ch. A. Lobcck, Aglaophamus,

4.
corum

Theologice mystica; Gree1829. been

2 vols 8.

Pine.

Cartari, le imagini degli dei degli antichi. Lion. 1581.

1581.

causis.
some

Regimontii

(Koningsberg),
of Creuzer
:

posing opmended. com-

Also

in Latin, Lugd. Comitis 1651.

I. 8.

4. oft. repr.
s.

of the views

it has

highly

Natalis

Mythologiae

Explicationis Fabularum

libri /. H.

X.

Gen.
Gall.

Voss, Antisymbolik.
De

Stuttg. 1824. 8;
Grascorum 1817. antiquissima.
Homer

Vossius, De theologia Gentili

et

physiologia Christiana,
Amst.

G.

Hermann,

Mythoiogia

s.

de Ant

origine et progressu Banier,

Far. La

idolatria? libri IX.

et les fables

1668.
par

fol. Phis-

G. Hermann Heidelb.
G.

and
8.

F. Creuzer, Briefe Uber

und Hesiodus,

mythologie
8 M.

expliquees
with

1818.

"dire. J. A.

1738-40.

vols. 12. Schrockh.

In German,

additions
5 vols. 8.

by
In

Hermann,

Briefe

uber

das Wesen

und

die

Behandlung
1805. 8

der

Schlegd and /.

Lpz. 1755-65.
Lond.

Mythologie.
J. A. Kanne's

Lpz. 1819. 8.

theAncients. English,.Z?cmitt",Mythologyof

1739. 4vols.

8.

Mythologie der

Griechen.

Lpz.

By

GREEK

AND

ROMAN

MYTHOLOGY.

89
works

"at7ic, j^ie.

crste

Urkunden
1S0S. 2

der
Bde.

Geschichte, oder
8."

allgemeine
Pantheon 8.

Mytholoaltesten

(d)
of

The

following

contain
with

jects plates illustratingthe sub-

Baireuth,

By same,
Tab. aber

der

mythology,

accompanied

explanations.
et

Naturphilosophie
/.

al'.er Volker.

1811. d.

Bernard d. beruhmtern
1812. 4.
en

de MoiUfaucon. Par.
1719.

L'Antiquito expiiquee

representee
Par. 1724.

L.

Hug,
d. alt.

Untersuchungen Welt,

Mythos Freyb.

figures.
vols.

10 vols, in 5, fol. into

Supplem.
David 2 vols.

VOlker K.
0.

vorzUglicb d. Griech.
zu

fol.
1721.
von

Translated
5 vols.

English

by

Humphreys*
fol. 16S0. fol.

Milller, Prolegomena Gottingen,

1825. S.

einer

wissenschaftlicben

My-

Lond.

fol. with

Supplement,

thologje.
Buttmann, S. A. L.

Joach. 1S28.
des "c. 2

Sandrart, Polymetis,
works
or

Iconologia deorum.
an

Narnb.
the

Mythologus. Richkr,
der add S. les

Bert.

vols.

S.

Spence's
oder
5

inquiry
Roman

concerning
the

agreement
of tbe

Phantasien

Alterthums, Lpz.

Samml. Bde. Lond. 8.

between ancient Le D.

the

of the

poets and
1755. folio. fol.

remains

myth.
We

Sagen
may

Hellenen,
J.

Romer,
New

1708-20.

artists.

Lond. des Muses, Tbe

8.

1747.
a

fol.

Bryant's

System

of Mythology.

Temple Bardon,
4

superb

1807.

6 vols.

"c, Usages, religious, civil,

of the

Ancients.

JDupuis,
R. Art
P.

Origine de tous Inquiry

into

Cultes.

Par.

1822.

7 vols. 8. of Ancient Journal. 9 vols. 4.

Lond. A. Berl. A.
mens

vols.

Knight^

the

symbolical
Nos. of the

Language
Classical 1774-87.

Hirt, Bilderbuch
1S05-16. L.
2

far 4.

Mythologie, Archaologie

und

Kunst.

and

Mythology,

in different
Monde

vols.

Count

de Gebelin, Le

Primitif. and

Par.

Millin,
servir Par. ancient

Galerie
a

mythologique,
de
la 8.

ou

Recueil
de

des

monu-

explaining

fables, traditions,symbols,

language.
Par.

pour
"c. 800

1'etude 2

mythologie, containing

Phistoire

de

Guigniaut, Constant, (b) More

C. T. Damm,
Berl. De

Religions de l'Antiquite.
la

1825-30.
5 vols.

vols.

Part,
about A.

1811.

vols.
"

correct

pictures of

Religion.

Par.

1826-31.

8.

monuments.

Trans. oder

Germ,

by Tblhen.
der

compendious Mythologie
1S20.
8.

or treatises,

manuals. und Romer

H.

Petiscus, Der
und Romer.

Olymp,
Berl.

Mythologie
8. 6th ed.

iEgypter,

der

Griechen

(ed. Leve-

Griechen

1837.
ancient

3010).
M. Hesiod.

with

plates.
der

(e) The Mythologie

aus

impressions

on

gems

are

of much

service

in the

G. Hermann, Berl.

Handbuch
3

Homer

und der

illustrating mythology, following

A. far
works
:

to which

part

of

the

subject belong

17S7-95.

vols.

8."

By

same,
1801.

Mythologie
2

Griechen,

fur die obern

Klassen, "c.
oder

Berl.

vols.

8.

C. Klausing, Schaier.

Versuch 1781. 8.

einer

mythologischen
neat

Daktyliothek
of
en

K.Ph.Moritz,
Berl. 1830. Fictions Fr. 1796.
1S19. 8.

Gdtterlebere,
with

mythol. Dichtungen
trans!, by C. F.

der Alten. N.

Lpz.

(with.120

impressions

plates. Also
Same

Jager,

York,

graved

gems.) mythol ogische Daktyliothek. Narnb.

models of engraved 1805

12.

with

plates.
and

work 12mo.

in

English, Mythological

T. P. RoWs 90 impressed

(with

of Greeks

Romans. einer

stones). (P. IV. " 210).

One thousand
ol

Ramback,
2

Abriss
%

Mythologie

fttr Kilnstler.

Berl.

Also

Hpperth

Daktyliothek belong
which many to

vols.

8.
zu

his impressions

mythology. andBentley mythology

;
have
as

C. A.

Bottiger's Grundrisse
1808.
8." und

Vorlesungen
Amalthea

Uber oder

die MytholoMuseum 1821. Volker.

d.

The

gems

of

IVtdgewood
of

tions, given imita-

jjie. Dresd.
Kunst F. Hal.

By
bildl.

same,

pertain,
Tome

them,

to

also

those

o!.

mythologie

Alterthumskunde. der Griechen

und

Leipz.
Italischen

(P. IV. "210). (/)

of Here
we

Fiedler,Mythologie
1823.

may

name

likewise
tbe

some

works

on

the

logy Mytho-

other

nations

besides

Greeks

and

Romans.

Andrew

Tooke,
the

The

Pantheon;
and
Romans.

containing
36th ed.

the

Mythological
1831.

Moore's

Hindoo Ueber

Pantheon. die

systems of plates. Valpy's

C. K. Bost. T.

Greeks

Lond.

8. with

Rhode,
2 vols.
Elements

religiose Bildung

der

Hindus.

Lpz.

1827.

8. Researches into the Nature and

of

Mythology.

Lond. and

1S32.

18. very

brief.

Kennedy,
and Hindoo

Affinityof

Ancient

Billaway,
12.

Roman

Antiquities

Ancient

Mythology.

Mythology.
Indian View
of

Cf. Asiatic

Researches. 1806. 7 vols.

8.

1812.

Maunce,

Antiquities.
the

Lond.

Kcightley,Myth,
(c) Dictionaries
of

of Greece

"

Italy.

2d.

ed. Lond.

1838.

8. Ward's Hindoos.

History, Literature,and

Religion

of the

Mythology.
Lexicon

B. 1770. P.

Hedtrich, Mythologisches
8. F. A. Nitsch,T$eues
vols.

(ed. I. J. Schwabe).

Lpz.

Montg.
1838.
3

Martin,
vols.
8.

Hist, and
some

Antiquities of good

Eastern

India.

Lond.
thology. my-

with

plates illustrating Hindoo

mythol. WOrterbuch

(ed. F. G. Klvpfer).
C.

Lpz. 1821, 2
K. Ph. 7. G.

8. WOrterbuch
der 3

Coleman, plates.
Pantheon

Mythology

of

the

Hindus.

Lond.

1832.

4.

Moritz, Mythol.
Gruber,
Weim.

far Schttler.

Berl.

1817.

8.

with

WOrterbuch 1810.

altklassischen 8.

Mythologie

und

Hager, worship

Chinois and

(or Parallel
the Chinese).

between

the 4.

religious
Cf. Class

Religion.

vols.

of the Greeks i. 178.

Par.

1810.

n. C. Chompre, Fr,

Dictionnaire
de

abrege de la fable. Par.

la fable,
ou

1818.

12.

Journ. J. C. the

Nnel,

Dictionnaire

Mythologie

Grecque,
"c.

Prichard,

Analysis
the

of Egyptian

Mythology
are

j in whkh with 1819. 8.

Latine, Egyptienne,
Par. 1823.
2 vols.
.

Celtique, Persanne,

Indienne, Chinoise,

of superstitions of the Indians

ancieu! other

Egyptians

compared

those

and

nationsof
essay

antiquity. Lond. Schlegel;

and

PPnu from

Holwell,

A New 8.

Mythological Dictionary,
System
or

"c

(Extracted gy.) Mytholo-

also

1839, with

preliminary
der

by Von

plates. Copenh.

J. BryanVs Lond. 1793.

Analysis of

Ancient

Nyerup,
1816. 12.

WOrterbuch

Scandinavian

Mythologie.

Bell, New Encydopidie

Pantheon.

Lond.

1790.

2 vols.

4.

E.

Davies, Mythology
8. M.

and

Rites

of the British

Druids.

Lond.

Metkodique,

the part entitled

Antiquity,

MythoPar.

1809.
J. For

ogie, Chronologie, "c, 1786,

ss.

which

part consists

of 5 vols. 4.

Kemble,
some

Saxon
on

Mythology.
the

Cf. Bibl. of the

Repos. xi. 247. mythology

to

remarks
to the

resemblance

of the

Biographic
vols. 8.

Universelle,

partie Mythologique.

Par.

1832.

Middle Hist.

Ages Eng.

Classical, cf. Editor's

ss.

Preface 1824.

PTartorti

Poetry, vol, i. p. 25

ed. Lond.

12

P.

II.

SUPERIOR

GODS.

SATURN.
.

91

I. The
the

"

History of the SuperiorGods. Mythological

which
we

" 13.* Gods, are

Cybele,

Divinities

include

in the

class

denominated

Superior
Rhea
nocstSdu;
or

,- Janus; following: Saturn, KpoVoj,XpoVoj, Salumus 'Pia,cPeux,Kvpiht]; Jupiter, Zsv$; Juno, "Hpa; Neptune, ;

Neptunus Mercury,
Etftfta.

; Mars, IIa.X7i.aj

'Art.6%%u"v TLKovtuv Minerva, "Ap-^jiuj; ; Diana, ; Apollo, Vukanus Vulcan, "H$ omovoj, ; ''Apjyj 'A^poSi/f^ ; Venus, ; Bacchus, Atowcroj ; Ceres, A^pj? ^p ; Vesta, 'Ep^j, Mercurius ;

Pluto,

" 14. (1) Saturn.

Chronos
son

This
and

was

one

of the

most

ancient He

of the
was

gods, called
to

by

the

Greeks and

Saturnus
e.

by

the

Romans.
the

said have
was

be

the

of Uranos
first and

Titsea, i.
brethren

the heavens

the

government
his five

of the universe.
were

earth,and His wife was Rhea,

and

to

possessed
his sister.

who

Saturn

Rhea

called Titans, probablyfrom their mother; seized upon the and her five sisters likewise Titanides. Saturn ment governof the universe his father and brothers; yet over by his superiority
to
as rear no as

pledged himself
his
sons

male born.

children

he accordingly

is represented as and
stones

vouring de-

soon

" 15.

But

this fate, three artifice of Rhea children

he
at

of them,

Jupiter, Neptune,
gave him

Pluto, escaped,
to

through the
of the

their mother, who

devour bound

stead in-

their birth. driven from made

war

Jupiter aided
upon

Saturn

in

recoveringhis
and in

throne, after
Tartarus.

had
soon

been
he

it by his brothers the Titans

But

himself

Saturn fiction, According to Roman and acquiredgreat honor by teachingarts and morals to the people. Saturnia), the Greek Under the so-called golden age, which him was poets assignedto the reign of Saturn and described as singularly happy. Probably an idea of the perfection and fecundity of nature, when just newly created,is the basis

Saturn, and seized the government. fled to Italy (thence called now

of this story.
Hts.

Op. etDi.

vs.

199."

Virg. 2En.

viii. 319."

Ob. Metam.

i. 89-112.

"
cause

16.

From

the has

Greek been

name

of this
as

he (zpovoj),

considered His
to

is the word time god, which signifying time, and the first designed to personify
name

of the visible world.

Latin
have

also, as
reference

well
to

as

the

story of his
of time, as

children,seems satiated only by the destruction

devouring his
1
u.

some

the

idea

of what
have
been

it has

produced.

given from the idea of fertility tiveness, producor and the use of seeds. The word Saturnus taught agriculture as- he is said to have is derived from Satur, signifying Saturn is full, satiated, and also fertile. termed Sator, Vitisator, Falcifer(bearing a sickle or scythe),Sterculinus or Stercutius of manure), Canus and Leucanthes (KevKavOrn), uses (having taught the fertilizing traced the fables respecting Saturn have the history of Noah. 2. Some See to
This
name,

however,

may

Tooke's

Pantheon,
among whom
a

" Saturn Pt. ii.ch. i. " 5. he was worshiped by the

"

was name

not

unknown of Seatur
a

to ;

the

ancient

mans, Ger-

standing on
with

fish with flowers."

once

wheel

in

one

fruits and
was

HolwelVs
to

hand, and in the other Diet, cited " 12. 2 (c).

offer to Saturn
the Greek human

is described as vessel of water filled

who

" 17. It
the

customary

among His principal temples among

the Carthaginians,

Gauls, and
the
were

sacrifices, particularly Pelasgic inhabitants of Italy." at Olympia, and at Drepanum in

of
a

served also the purpose Sicily. The temple of Saturn in Rome in memorial, perhaps,of the general security and the community the Saturnian of devoted
1. The
or

treasury,

of

goods

in

the Saturnalia deitywas the Romans, which like the Peloria of the Thessalians, was, (JlsXujpia) indiscriminate to freedom, mirth, and hospitality.
of

golden age.

The

chief festival of this

custom

sacrificing children
the

to

Saturn

seems

to

idol, to
See Jahn, Xviii."

whom "

apostate
"

Israelites
xx.

sacrificed
and

their

identify him offspring.

victimea

with

Moloch,
Jlcad.

the

cian Phoeni-

Bibl. Arch.

211.

Diod.

Sic.

14.

"

Morin,
352.

Freret,Des

humaines,

Mem.

Inscr,

vols. i. and

Origin of human

sacrifices. Class. Journ.

xiv.

xvii. 104.

2
m

u.

one

Saturn was represented by hand, and often in the other of time.

the
a

figure of
are,

serpent

circle, both emblems

this

There

old man having a scythe or sickle in the form of a it's tail in its mouth of however, but few ancient monuments
an

with

deity.

PLATE

XI.

P.

II.

SUPERIOR

GODS.

JANUS.

RHEA

OR

CYBELE.

93
of sickle in

3.

In

our

Plate

X.

1, fig.

he appears
appears

in

sitting posture,
the

with

sort

one
"

hand.

scythe, a long beard, and wings. described : "a decrepit old man, with a long beard He and hoary head ; and thin,his cheeks his shoulders bowed like an arch, his jaws hollow sunk ; his are full of furrows, and his chin turned up ; his right hand is flat,his forehead holds nose his left a child,which he is about to devour." a rusty scythe, and Sup. Plate
3, he of the SuperiorGods of the Romans. They and as reigningover the earliest and soorigin, in the time of Saturn. It was to Janus called aboriginal inhabitants of Italy, that Saturn fled, the golden and under them was age, a periodof uninterrupted To Janus, therefore, Romulus dedicated that celebrated temple,which peace. of closed with much ever in time and was solemnity, whenwas always open war, in Roman which there was the a empire ; happened thing generalpeace P. I. " 60). but three times during 724 years from the buildingof the city (cf. From this deity the month of January was named, and the first day of the

In the is also thus

with

"18.

(2) Janus.
as

He

was

one

represent him

of Thessalian

month
1. He

was

sacred

to

him.
as was

was

considered His
name

the inventor

of

locks, doors, and

which
sort
were

gates, which
sometimes

are

thence
on

called the

januce.

applied to
a

structures

erected

roads where four roads Roman in each of the directions, and called God made
or

divided

of gods.

In

sacrifices, prayers

with an arch opening of gateway Janus. He was termed Father, and sometimes first offered to Janus, and oblations were were
;
a
"

to the gods. to nim, as being the door of access have derived from dies, day. Diamcs, which some

His

originalname
is called the

of Italy. The story of his tween beexplained as referringto the agreement and the immigrating Pelasgi to worship the two the old inhabitants of Latium Janus received among the gods of the Greeks. not was gods in common. He is represented with a double, and sometimes with a quadruple face ; hence 2 m. the epithets Biceps,Bifrons, Quadrifrons. He is also called PatulciusT Clusius, Consivius, Custos, and Claviger. 3. The representationwith two faces in Plate XI. fig.8, and in Sup. Plate 3, gives In Plate VII., on of consular coins. nis appearance his temple, he apon a number pears of the Hindoos with four faces. It is worthy of notice that the Brahma is represented with four heads. See Plate XII. Janus is also represented with a key in hand and a rod in the other, with 12 altars beneath his feet,supposed by some to one of the year. erected refer to the 12 months His statue is said to have had by Numa of days in a year. its fingers so composed as to signify365, the number

Sun-god or God of the Year, friendlyreception of Saturn is by

the
"

He of the originalinhabitants
some

was Djanus Sun, and was

" 19. (3) Rhea Rhea Saturn, was

so same

or or

Cybele.

The the

common

name

of the wife of

and
were

sister of wards afterthe

were

Ops.

Yet

and history

worship

Cybele

interwoven with entirely and although Rhea person, taken The for Gaia
or

those
was

of Rhea, that both were considered said to be the daughter of Earth,

the

each

gods.

the great mother of periodsof mythical story, and hence the confusion in the accounts which are given of her. Cybele, properly speaking,lived later ; and was, accordingto tradition, a daughter of Mason a king of Phrygia and Lydia ; or accordingto others, in an Her invention of various musical allegorical sense, the daughterof Protogonus. death rendered instruments, and her love for Mys, a Phrygian youth, whose her frantic, the most circumstances of her are prominent history.

Tellus,and often called Vesta,and

originof

Rhea

belongs

to

earliest

Ovid, Fast.

4. 223."

de Ca.tv.Vus,

At. ct Ber.

Besides

the

cynthia, and " 20.

That

above names mentioned, she was Ideea,Pessinuntia, and Bona Dea.

called

Mater

Dyndymena,
inhabited

Bere-

this

goddess was
the

a manner

of personification in which
woman,

the
was

earth

as

and

is supposed from fruitful,

1m.

she

represented.
in pregnancy, chariot drawn with
a

Her

image

was

generally a robust
on

far advanced
was

turreted sometimes
2. On

mural

crown

her
a

head. lion.

Often

she

borne

in

by lions

she rested

upon

she is seen in a car drawn by lions, holding in her hand a tambourine. gems, In the Sup. Plate Plate is her appearance, X. fig. 2, taken from Monlfaucon. also 3, she sits in a chair,with keys in her right hand, attended by lions. She was with many formed and breasts, with a key or keys in her hand, sometimes a sceptre, with two lions under In Sup. Plate 5, is a remarkable her arms. frequently sentation, repregiven by Monlfaucon (Ant. Ex. 1. p. 18). Cf. P. IV. " 156. 2. Such
"

94
A

GREEK

AND

ROMAN

MYTHOLOGY.

figure in silver Cybele, was

was

with found

some

at. Macon

parts plated with gold, and the whole (ancient Matisco) on the Saone,
vii.

elegantly finished, representing

in
les

17(54.
statues de

This Acad.

published by Count
v.

Caylus, vol.

pi. 71.

"

Anthon's

Lempriere.

"

Banter,

sur

Cybele,

in

the

Menu

Inscr. vol.

p. 241.

"
as

21.

Her
Asia.

worship
The

was

cultivated especially of her festivals

in
was

through
her about
air

celebration

Phrygia, but spread thence exceedinglytumultuous,

went or Gatti,and the chief one Jtrchigallus) priests (calledCorybantes music and singing, clamorous and filling the acting like madmen with the mingled noise of shrieks,howlings, drums, tabrets, bucklers and

with

spears.
1
u.

The

removal
the

of her
latter

her
Liv.

worship in

image city,was
was 8. 15.

from
a

Pessinus

to event.

Rome,
The

and

the

establishment

of

remarkable maintained

festival called

Megalesia

(from ^ydXrj, the great mother)

Hist. 29. 10, 11, 14."
Vol.

in her

honor.

Max.

said to have derived its name from UeaeTv, to fall, 2. The was place called Pessinus the image of this goddess fell, it was the spot upon which because being like the fabled from Jupiter. Ancile and Palladium down sent before her altar ; the maAt her festival,the Megalesia, Roman danced matrons gistrates

assembled,
the with
3.
nature

assisted in robes of purple ; and Phrygian priestsbore festival called Hilaria indecencies.
appears the the
to

great
the

of people and strangers usually concourse image of the goddess through the streets of in
a

city. The
many
There

was

celebrated

similar manner,
and

and

attended

he

strong
The

resemblance latter is

between

Cybele
as

Pracriti,

the her

goddess
festival

of is

attended
See

among with

Hindoos.

represented
Hindoos.

drawn

by lions, and

beating
"

of drums.
Coleman's

Moore's

Hindoo

FantheoD.

Mythology

of the

the gods was most powerful among that by Jupiter. It would seem, by the Greeks Zsij, by the Romans in general this god was represented nature superior ; afterwards, the originally and finally the supreme existence. Many tales of the early history atmosphere ," of Crete were the He was traditions a son respecting him. incorporated among

"

22.

(4) Jupiter.

The

highest and

called

of Saturn and

He robbed his father of his kingdom, Rhea, educated in Crete. his two brethren, so that Neptune received the sea, Pluto the infernal world, and himself and heavens. of The the earth sons giants, the earth, disputed the possession of his kingdom with him, and attempted to scale Olympus, but he defeated them with thunderbolts forgedby the Cyclops. he destroyed the whole of men, Enraged by the corruption and wickedness and Pyrrha alone "ace by a vast deluge, from which Deucalion escaped. The

and

shared

it with

supposed date
Ovid, Metam.

of this flood is not

Claudian's

far from

1500

years

B. C.

i. 151, 260."

Gigantomachia.

Cf. P. V. " 3h6.

was " 23. The ordinaryresidence of Jupiter of the Thessaly, which the poets, on account represented as a suitable place for the abode

upon
constant

Olympus, gods.

mountain
its

of His

serenity of

summit,
"

of the
it the

(Cf. " 11.)

first wife would

was a

Metis,
was

whom

he

destroyed, because

bear

child that would

Horse and the

goddess
tie

Minerva the

deprive him of produced from his head.

Parcse.
"

foretold him, that she was the kingdom. Afterwards

By his second
most

wife, Themis,

was -Juno, he had his sons and Vulcan. the tales Mars Tradition, particularly by whom Euof Jupiter; e. g. with amors respecting metamorphoses, relate numerous cury, ropa1, Danae, Leda, Latona, Maia, Alcmena, Semele2, and Io3. Apollo, Merother gods and demigods Hercules, Perseus, Diana, Proserpina, and many of son called the children of Jupiter. The name were or daughter of Jupiter, often to however, was employed merely designatesuperiordignityand rank,

begat

The

third and
"

celebrated

and
i

not Ovid,

intended
Metam.

to
2

imply
lb. iii.265

literal relationship.
3

ii. "36.

jh. i. 5S8.

"
were

24.

The

worship
in

of

was Jupiter

erected to his honor.

of

The

that in Olympja
Etatue

Elis, remarkable
His

and numerous universally spread, temples celebrated in Greece was largest and the most for its own magnificence, and for its colossal
for the the

Jupiter wrought
fifth year.

by Phidias, and
oracle in

Olympic
of oaks

games
at

held in Dodona
Greece.
"

its

vicinity every
renowned

grove

was

Rome

the

(cf.P. III. " 71), and considered the most dedicated to him, and Capitolwas specially

ancient he

in

In

had

in that

citymany

temples.

96

GREEK

AND

ROMAN

MYTHOLOGY.

incarnate these human "more

as

had

his
See

Wm. distinct from all the rfvatars Jones, he is considered while Crishna the of Vishnu was divinity ; himself in person In the Hindoo form." sometimes the Avatars pictures, Crishna appears ; be is among than of them, and low wears a rich splendidly decorated as garland of sylvan flowers any adorned with ankles, which are strings of pearls."
to

deity.
only

According portion of

Sir

the

"

Sir Win.

Jones,
"

on

the gods of Greece, Italy,and

India, in
for For.

his

Works

and

Life by Lord

Teignmouth,
and Oct.

Lond

1807.

IS vols. 8. cited " 12.

(vol. iii.p. 31S.)

Cf. Monthly

Papers of the

A. B.

Comm.

Miss., Nos. ii.and vii. May

1SS2."

Ward,

as

and Jupiter, daughter of Saturn called by the was gods and men, Greeks Juno. Her was assigned by the "Hpa, and by the Romans birthplace Greeks to Argos, or the island Samos, and to other spots in Greece, although of Phcenician rather her story and her worship were origin. The chief peculiarities wife and of

" 26. (5) Juno. Rhea, and as wife

The

sister of of

Jupiter mistress

of her character
was

constantly inflamed
she

jealousy
towards with
who

wrought
Hence

love of power, and jealousy; the latter passion of this In consequence fed by Jupiter's infidelity. in the case of Calisto1 and several metamorphoses, as
were

and

"

Galanthis2.
the

also

her

wrath

against Io3
her the

and

Trojans
and

because

Paris denied

Semele4, and her ill-will prize of beauty in the contest

aroused the

Pallas

Venus.

By
to

her

jealousy she

often

anger

of the

piter, Juair

once,

according

Homer's love
to

by
"

golden

chain.

Ixion's

torture, he
Ovid, Metam.
ii.474.
2

being bound
lb. ix. 306.
3

suspended her in representation5, for her was with punished by Jupiter a wheel constantly revolving.
*

lasting ever-

71. i. 568.

lb. iii.156.

Iliad,xv.

15, IS.

"
and

27.

The

worship
was

of Juno

was

far

spread,and
was

the

number

of her
in

festivals

very
her

great.

Her

Samos, Sparta, Mycenae, and

worship Carthage, cities

Elis
name were

cultivated especially which committed

templea Argos,
to a"

themselves

particularly
to

protection.In
the
was

her, called 'HpaTct. This was which Argos and other places,
customary
on

games, also of her called

of

fifth year, sacred every festival celebrated great because ixowojiijSoia,

oxen

likewise
a

it

was

the

occasion
was a

to

sacrifice

hecatomb
at

at the

temple of
and

the

goddess.
lia.

There

similar The

festival

Rome,
took Greeks

called

Junonia
were

Junoiw

From Romans
men

her, tutelaryangels or guardians of females

Junones.
name

called among
in her name,
as as

the the

Roman

women

their oaths and

to

did in the

of Jupiter.
"

Both

Romans

honored
of

her

the protectress of named1 after her.

and
"

marriage. The
"

Romans

dedicated

her the month

as

June,

She

is often

described

by

the

poets

the Queen

of gods

men.

Ovid, Fast. vi. 26.

1. Juno

had

Lucinia "c.
2
u.

or

Lucina,

; as Argiva, Cingula, Egeria, Juga (Zvyia), great variety of names JHoneta, Nuplialis(TaiinXia), Unxia, Opigena, Populonia, Sospila,

Her Her
was

daughters were
messenger

Hebe, goddess of youth ; and

and
servant round
was

births.
3. Hebe

who Ilithyia, presided Iris,the goddess of the rainbow.

at

over

employed
fell to In
"

to

hand

the When

nectar

the
was

feasts

of

the

afterwards his spouse. her side. drink

"

Ganymedes.
XIV.

Hercules

admitted the

to

gods. Her Olympus,

office Hebe bird

of cupbearer became of Jove

out

4, PI. fig.
the

by
the

In

beautiful

she is represented as pouring out design presented in the Sup. Plate

7, she

with the nectar, is also seen

pouring

of the

gods.

" 28.
of Juno the
most

The

ancient

artists endeavored
her. the

to

exhibit the

in their

of representations
was

Among
as

the

haughtiness and jealousy symbols of her attributes,

to

remarkable

peacock, held
chariot

sacred

her figures. Sometimes was by Roman frequently represented often contain the Empresses exhibited

side in many

is drawn

artists upon Junos. as

her; and found by her by two peacocks. She their coins,which, however,

1. She is usually represented as a grave, usually with a sceptre in majestic matron; she with flowers ; sometimes her hand, and a veil on her head and a crown decked has a spear in her hand, or a patera, or vessel for sacrifices. The times peacock is someThus she appears in our Plate XI. fig.1. In the Sup. Plate 2, are at her feet.
seen

two

peacocks and

the

chariot adorned with gems, horses with reins of gold. a golden chariot.
2.

chariot, with Iris flying above. Homer exhibits her in a of silver, and having wheels with brazen spokes and naves But generally she is represented as drawn by peacocks in
"

The

fables
to

attached

those

respecting Juno are interpreteddifferently according to the meaning respecting Jupiter. When typifying, as or Jupiter is considered

PLATE

XII.

98

GREEK

AND

ROMAN

MYTHOLOGY.

representing, the allegorically

Their

quarrels are

then

active productive power in nature, explained as physical allegories.

Juno

is the passive.

division

in the The of the waters of the earth was, (6) Neptune. government of authority piter, (" 22), assigned to the brother of Jualreadymentioned the waters called HoaeiSuv, or Neptune. The idea of a god ruling arose from of that element the surprise of the first observers fore beof the power ; even and husband of the the heavens and of earth, Thetis, Neptune, Oceanus, son Oceanus honored was as god of the sea. accordingto Hesiod, one of the was, considered ruler of the exterior waters Titans, and was as encompassing the and rivers were earth,while the interior seas assignedto Neptune.

"29.

1. A

statue

dug
waves

up

at

Rome the

about
sea,

the
a

sixteenth in

sitting on
ancient

the gem

of

with in
a

he

is

represented of

sceptre similar manner.

his

Oceanus century, represents hand, and a sea-monster In

our

as

an

old On
a

man an

by

hirn. in

Plate

XLIII.

he

appears

bent recum-

posture. 2
u.

The
He

wife

Doris.
with
a

obtained
among

place
were

of Nereus Oceanus or ana Neptune was Amphitrite, a daughter honored the fish Amphitrite by the aid of a dolphin,and in return the constellations. The of Neptune were Triton, principalsons and Glaucus.
The

Phorcus,
the
sea

Proteus,

chief characteristics

of these

minor

deities ol

daughters
number.

the power of divination and ability at pleasure. The to change their forms the so-called of Nereus and Doris were in Nereides, or sea-nymphs, fifty subservient to his will. They belonged to the train of Neptune and were

"

30.

The and

and principal exploits

to

merits
creation
sea

ascribed
the

to

Neptune

are,

the

ance assist-

rendered walls

his

brother of

Jupiter against
; the

Titans

ramparts
from the he

Troy
out

and

taming

buildingof the ; the of the horse ; the raising

of

of the island Delos

a

of the
He
or was

monster

deep.
caused of his

the ; and feared also as

at

destruction

Hippolytus by

the author his

deluges,which
are

checked
names

pleasure by
and

of earthquakes and trident.lowing folThe

some

many

earth;

earth-shaker "Zsoalx^cov,

epithets; 'Ae^catos, upholding the Petrasus, Consus. "irtrtstos,

I1o"tei6c5i/ and Neptune. 1. Various The etymologies have been given of the name the water latter is by some derived from Nubo, because conceals the earth ; covers or the former from toSs and "5"w, as Neptune binds the feet,that is, man walk cannot on be relied on. The government the water. But. such speculations cannot and protection

of sacred allowed
2
u.

ships was
him, and
rest

committed
over

to

him.
at

He

also

presided

over

the

horse, which
all horses

was were

to

horse-races;
to

the

festival of the Consualia

to

from

have derived the worship of this god not from Egypt, the coasts, as presiding in cities situated near particularly their navigation. Thus of Corinth, he had a celethe isthmus over brated at JMisyrus, on Of his temples at Rome, of Taenarus. the temple, and also on the promontory that in the noted was ninth district (cf.P. I. " 54), containing a suite of pictures most victims The sacrificed to Neptune were usually representing the Argonautic voyage. The Greeks
He

labor. seemed

but

Libya.

was

honored

horses Romans

and

bulls.

In honor

of him the

the

Greeks

maintained
were

the

Isthmian

Games,
the

and

the

the

and Neptu?ialia

Consualia, which

afterwards,from

place of

celebration, called Ludi

Circenses.

with the dignity is in accordance figureupon remainingmonuments and serene even him, commanding and majestic,with a front calm in In his hand he commonly holds the trident,or a long antiquesceptre, anger. the waters with which the earth tremble and throws with three tines, he makes the waters, drawn in into commotion. He is often described as moving upon war-horses, and surrounded a chariot by dolphins or by a retinue of attendants.

" 31.

His
to

ascribed

he stands upright in a Sometimes various. The are representationsof Neptune ; as in large sea-shell, holding his trident, and arrayed in a mantle of blue or sea-green he appears Sometimes Plate X. fig.5. treading on the beak of a ship. Often he our is sitting in a chariot, or a shell with wheels, drawn panied accomby sea-horses ; sometimes His image is very frequent on coins by his wife Amphitrite as in Plate XLIII. and medals. He is described as having black hair and blue eyes.
Cf. Virg. 2E-D. i. 124. in the Mem. Acad.
Inter, Horn. II. xiii. 20.

Virg.

Ma.

i. 155.

Stat.

Achil.

i. 60."

See Fontenu,

Le

Culte

des divinites

des eaux,

xii. p. 27.

He brother of Jupiter,and received, as second was " 32 a. (7) Pluto. a his portion in the division of empire, the infernal regions,or the world of shades. of regions situated down Under this idea the ancients imagined the existence far below certain distant and desert lands as the earth, and they represented

P.

II.

SUPERIOR

GODS.

PLUTO.

99

for a path and entrance to the under world. Hence the fictions respectserving ing and Phlegethon, Acheron, Styx, Cocytus, as being rivers of Hell. These considered as the residence of departed souls, regionsbelow the earth were where after death they received rewards or punishmentsaccording their conto duct The place of reward was called Elysium; that of punishment, upon earth.
Tartarus.
It is imresidence of departedsouls was termed by the Greeks aSnc,Hades. portant bear in mind this fact in reading the passages of the New Testament, where this word occurs. The term, although sometimes rendered grave, and sometimes hell, the world of departedspirits, and includes both the placeof happiness properlysignifies and the place of misery. Cf. Luke xvi. 23.
to It
was a

1, The

part of the
he

office of

Mercury

to

conduct
as

the Plate

Hades. gates

Hence

is sometimes

represented

in the

This
xvi.
On p. 539

of a tomb; as on the monument figure is given in Taylor's Calmet 18.

the
ss.
"

given
to

in

illustrate

of the dead in the region called opening or shutting the doors or XVIII. fig.4. and in the Sup. Plate 14. the expression "Gates of Hades," in Matt.
act

shades

of

meaning

of the term

Hades,

see

M.

"c. Stuart, Exegetical Essays,

Ando.

1830. 12.

"

Spirit of

the Pilgrims, vol.

iv

Diss, Campbell,

in his Transl.

of the Gospels.

of Minos and Departed mortals were adjudged to Elysium or to Tartarus by the sentence adorned with ful beautias judges (cf.$ 34), in the Field of Truth,. Elysium is described a..d enchanting groves; birds ever warble where the gardens, smiling meadows, ; where Lethe" winds banks river Eridanus between fringed with laurel, and "divine glides in a quiet the day serene; where the blessed have their dethe air is always pure, and lightful valley; where abode. is represented as a "hideous Tartarus depth, surrounded by prison of immense of flames," the river Phlegethon which rolls with torrents and the miry bogs of Cocytus, and of walls with brazen their wretched torment rows gates ;" here the Furies guarded by "three suffer according to their crimes. victims, and all the wicked Virgilspeaks of seven portions in and the regions of the departed ; Tartarus Although Elysium being the sixth and seventh. of the blessed, its situation is variously stated; considered Elysium was by all as the residence of the earth, adjoining Tartarus; others gions some placed it in the middle replaced it in the center of the air ; others, in the moon; the manmore others, in the sun; sions commonly, however, of the blessed said to be in the Fortunate (cf. P. I. $ 183). were Islands, Insula Fortunatm is also variously located ; Homer Tartarus places it in the country of the Cimmerians, supposed in Spain, and by others been Baite in Italy; been around Tartessus to have to have near by some the entrance in a cave rather lake Avernus in near to it, to Hades, or Virgilplaces the entrance of Tsenarus; others, in Thesprotia. In the at the promontory Italy; others place the entrance the Tartarus of ancient mythology. Charon Sup. Plate 13, is a composition designed to represent and the three Judges appear in the fore-ground, with with his sceptre, in his boat, Pluto several Furies criminals their The to their are mortals sentence. lashing two just given over awaiting their narrated offenders and various the are peculiar punishments as suffering by poets; power; and for which the history of Prometheus see others, especially Ixion and the other offenders under 34 b. mentioned { his fellow
" " " " "

2.

On

the views
"

of the ancients
"

the respecting

state

of the soul after

cf. Homer, death,

"

Od.

in xi."JEsckylus,

his Prometheus

and

Persae.
"

Plato, in his Fhsedo.

De contemnenda Cicero,

morte, and
"

Somnium

Mn. Scipionis. Virgil, of

vi. cf.Tibull. El.

i. 3. vs. 57 ss. 5.

in his Miscellaneous Works. 2Eo. vi., Heyne, Excursuses in his editions Gibbon, on Virgil's Numb. Theologie iu ihrem Zusammenhange. " 362. 4)." C. F. N'agelsbach,Die Homerische

Virgiland Homer
1S40. 8." De

P. V. " 50. (cf.

Fuvrmont,

L'Esfer

Poetique, in'the Mem.

Acad.

Inscr. vol. iii.5."

Class. Journ.

276. xi. 318. iii.

of Pluto is his seizure and " 32 u. The chief incident in the history his wife, and the queen who thereby became or Hspceqi6tiri, Proserpine,

abduction

of

of the lower

of Jupiter and Ceres. The circumstances of this event world. She was a daughter related fully and poetically are by Claudian1 and Ovid2, and furnished the ancient artists for their skill in device and representation3. with frequentsubjects
*

De

L. iii raptu Proserpina^

Metam.
the

v.

341.

See

Montfaueon,Ant. Expl.
are

T. I. pi. 37-41."

See also

our

Plate X. 3.

and the Sup. Plate 14 ; in both which

seizure and abduction

represented.
to

The lower

name

of

Proserpine
Cf. $ 39.

was

sometimes

applied

Diana,

when

considered

as

goddess

of the

world.

both by poets and artistswith an air menacing, terrible, " 33 u. Pluto is represented and inexorable. The latter usuallyexhibit him upon a throne, with a bifurcated seep A rod is sometimes tre, or a key, in his hand. put into his hand instead of his sceptre The instead device which places upon his head a sort of bushel or measuring-vessel, borrowed from the images of Serapis. of a crown, is of Egyptian origin, with 1. He crowned with ebony; sometimes leaves; sometimea cypress appears with flowers of narcissus. He is also sometimes representedin the act of bearing oft' in our Plate Proserpinein a chariot drawn by winged dragons ; such is the appearance 3. X. fig. In the Sup. Plate 11 he appears with a long beard, in a sitting ing posture, resthis head on one hand, holdingin the other a long sceptre, with Cerberus at his feet.
"

2. He

is said the

ring of

to have possessed a Lydian Gyges (cf.Cic. de

which rendered its helmet i. 8). Off. iii.9. Herod,

wearer

invisible; like the magic

universal ; but it was attended with special solem " 34 a. His worship was His temple at Pylos in Messenia nities in Bceotia, at Coronea. particularly consecrated themselves The Roman to Pluto. also celebrated. was gladiators

L.O

,c.

100

GREEK

AND

ROMAN

MYTHOLOGY.

The

victims
names

offered to
were

him

were

usually of

black

color.
Februus.

Some

of his

cipal princomes same was

Ziv$ atvyvoc., Soranus, Summanus,

him
TlXovrcov
as

The from
sense.

Greeks
the

named of the

some

suppose gave him

from him
the

sAotJtos, wealth, which

name
"

bowels
He

earth.

The

Romans
to

Bis, having the

His

is also

in
name was

February, when
of the month. sacred
to

called "A-Snc, Orcus, offered the Romans

Jupiterinfernus, "c.

chief festival

him,

the sacrifices called Februa, whence the The His rites were performed by night or in the dark. cypress of which carried at funerals. branches were the

" 34 b.
of

Under

control
into of

of

Pluto

were

the

three

judges
decided

of the
the

lower th
rea

world, Minos,
all the
first rank.

Rhadamanthus,
were sons

and

JEacus.

These

condition held

spirits brought
They

Pluto's

realms

by

Charon. in Grecian

Minos

Jupiter. They

appear

history as

persons.
1
rus,
u.

At

the entrance three-headed The

most

to

the world that

monster,

world.
2.

memorable have

lav the of shades, in Pluto's vestibule, the spiritsfrom returning to of those represented as punished in Tartarus hindered and and
the

dog Cerbe
the
were

upper

Ixion,
to
duct con-

Sisyphus, Tityus, Phlegyas, Tantalus, the Danaides,

Charon

Aloides. His office

to
was

is said all

to

been in
a

the

son

of Erebus
the

Nox.

the souls of the dead Pluto.

As
were a

boat
pay

over

rivers
an

Styx and Acheron

a

the realms

of

to customary funeral rites.

on

place
a

the
In the

shore

Such hundred

it was small piece of money, before the of the deceased coin for that purpose under the tongue honored with a funeral were had not been compelled to wander as

obliged

to

to

him

obolus,

years

before
seen

they could
sitting in
his

be

transported.
in the
act

mortal 3. The

is 14, Charon Sup. introduced by Mercury. fable respecting Charon Plate upon
across Hist. bk.

boat,
the

of

receiving
had the

the

obolus

from

is borrowed

from

Egyptians,

who

custom

of this

trial

and
were

sentence

their
a

carried
Anc.

before of burial. the honors deceased, allowing them called Charon. lake in a boat, whose helmsman was
2.
"

For

trial all

Eollin, 4.
to

i. ch. 2. sect.

Cf. Class, Journ.

vol. xxiii. p. 7.

"

Bulletin

des Sciences

Historiques, vol. iv. p. 352.

to
a

There trial
or

are or

numerous

representations
of the
were

on

the

monuments to

this

judgment
as

soul.
a

It appears

be

often

of Egyptian art which seem symbolized by the figure of there of of

or

refer of
an

pair

weighing of the soul (ipvxocraaia); to which allusion in the prophet's interpretation of the mysterious writing on the wall Plate XVIII. is a representation (Dan. v. 27). In fig.B. of our dining-room of priests and which the we see allegorical Egyptian balances, and a number
Ecales

balances,

if it

be may Belshazzar's

this

kind;

in sonages. per-

mythical
" 231.
"

This

drawing

is reduced

from

one

given in

the
v.

great French
p. 84.
sur

work la

styled Description de VEgypte, "c.

pesee des ames, with

cf. I\ IV.

See Mem

de VInstitut, Classe

cPHistoire

et Lit, Anc.

vol.

ou Psychostasie,

plate.

"

35.

(8) Apollo.

The

earliest and

most

natural form of

was idolatry

the

ship wor-

of the stars, and

of the especially

sun,

taken as influence upon all nature, were the ancient of a deity. Hence fiction which Phoebus
was

splendor,light, heat,and salutary the supernatural and independent powers

whose

worshiped

by the

to this luminary, ascribing. personality under the of sians name Horus, by the PerEgyptians

under

that of Mithras, by the later Greeks and Romans (*otpoj) and Apollo. The two latter people,however, Sol
as a

under

that

of

considered the

their

"HUoj
many

and

and separate divinity,

not

attached

to

the

history of Apollo
as

circumstances

connected

with

his

character original

god

of

light.
Persian Mithras introduced been at ("Mithras Persidicus"), is said to have with Soli invicto Mithrm. the inscription, Deo being erected Pompey ; altars of the antique representations of this god are Some remarkable. On the stones engraved very with called Abraxas under the a (cf.P. IV. # 200), he often appears figure of a lion, or of a man found lion's head. In the Sup. Plate first is from The a bas-relief representations. 9, are two about the at 1600; the image is a man wings on each Rome, draped below loins, having two of a lion, and head in each hand; a a a shoulder, with serpentpartly that lighted flambeau twines of fillet or around his shoulders and from issues his mouth sort a wings, and ribin, which in the floats is from marble basThe other over a a original monument blazing altar. at Rome in a house of Pompey the theatre relief, found near a vigorous appears ; in this Mithras with his head, his knee bull ; with hand he a turban on one man, resting on a prostrate young holds with the nostrils,and the other a plunges a dagger (acinaces) into the neck of the animal; lies near another pion dog leaps up to catch the falling blood, while by, apparently barking; a scoradheres side of the bull, and is stretched to the lower a slain or at his feet. sleeping serpent The has of which monument several are accompanying images, some given in the engraving, with verted; although not in their original place ; two flambeaux, that of one being inyouths appear with radiated four head chariot with horses a a man occupies a leaping in apparent chariot is a woman with attached horns crescents her to or fright ; in another head, almost thrown out and moon. by the stumbling of her horses ; denoting doubtless the sun The

worship
in the

of the of

Rome

time

"

"

See

Montfauam,

Antiq. Expl. vol. i. p. 367-3S4."

Creuzer, Symbolik und

Mythologie,"c.

vol. i. p. 345

ss."

Cf.

Smith,

Dili

"f A utiq. rj. 6,

P.

II,

SUPERIOR

GODS.

APOLLO.

DIANA.

101

" 36.
and

According to
born the
on

both the

Greeks island

Latona,
and
him the

Delos.

and Romans, He was of the

of bow

the Apollo was regarded as and

and medicine.
arrow,

the

sciences
to

arts,

especially poetry, music,

use sons

Jupiter god of the They ascribed

son

of

greatest skill in the

serpent
incensed

which

he

proved
The

in

killingthe
achievement

Pytho,

the

Niobe, and

the

Cyclops.

last

banished from Olympus. Jupiter,and he was During with Admetus his exile Apollo a as shepherd1 king of Thessaly. He also assisted Neptune in raising the walls of Troy, beguilingthe toil of the abode

His musical contest2 with Pan and Marsyas lyreand songs. of circumstances his history. Other memorable period in his history are his love for Daphne and her transformation3 into a laurel-tree; that of Clytie for him and her metamorphosis4into a sun-flower; his friendship but changed into the for Hyacinthus5, who killed by Apollo's inattention, was for Cyparissus, also accidentallyslain and changed flower of that name ; and into a tree6; the indiscreet Phaeton1, to guide his father's request of his son laborers with his
is referred to the
same
"

chariot for
i

one

day,
2 vi. 382.

and

the

fatal consequences
3

of the attempt.
"
x.

Ov. Met.

ii.680.

xi. 146.

Met.

i. 452.

iv.

206,256.

162.

x.

106.

i.750.

"

37

a.

The
As

worship

of

Romans.

the god of
other the
on

Patara, Claros, and with it, was

the
one

much celebrated among both Apollo was and prophecy,he inspiration gave oracles places. His temple at Delphi,and the

Greeks
at

and

Didyma,
nected con-

oracle

at

Rome

famous and
the

library. The
Romans

celebrated ; next that in Argos, and in fame was the Palatine hill,built by Augustus and adorned with a of Apollo the Pythian ga?nes, Greeks celebrated in honor
most

those

called

ludi

Apollinares and
swan

the

ludi

seculares.

The
raven,

laurel and
crow, 1
u.

and The

olive, the wolf and hawk, the sacred to Apollo. cock, were

and

the grasshopper,

tareus, 2. He

were applied to Apollo : Cynlldus,Delius, No?nius, Pafollowing names Smintheus, Thymbraus. Pythius (Jlvtiios), had also the following names: To%o"p6pos, AXelUaxos; Aortas, Ilatav, 'ExnfioXos, Vulturius, Epidelius, Pelphicus, Actius, Lycius,Delphinius,

the was " 37b. The image of this god, as expressed by poets and artists, beauty, a tall and majestic body, and an immortal highest ideal of human with monuments extant youth and vigor. Accordingly he appears on long crowned in his bow and and with laurel, hand hair, a a lyre, having quiver on celebrated monument is the his shoulder, naked, or but lightly clad. The most

marble
A P. view IV.

Belvidere. statue, called the Jlpollo

of this
monument

is

given

in 4.

our v.

Plate 27.
crow
a

XLIV.

fig.3, drawn hawk the

from

Winckelmann.

See

$ 186. 4.

Cf.

Tibull.

L. iii. Ele.

1. " Sometimes laurel-tree on one

he is

painted with
a

and cock
on

flyingover
other, and

him,

wolf

and

He
seen

his feet grasshoppers he is exhibited in the midst of the Muses: cf. " 103, creeping." Sometimes also appears, with a radiant head, in a chariot drawn by four horses ; thus he is in our Plate XI. 4. In the Sup. Plate 2 his figure is given as represented on many
swan

side and

and

under

here is seen monuments; stood upon the promontory distance at sea.

2. The who form of stories is sometimes
an as

also an altar with a lyresculpturedon it. of Actium, as a mark to mariners, and

"

A
was

statue
seen

of
at

Apollo
a

great

respecting Apollo resemble with painted in company

on

those nine

in the

Hindoo who he
are

damsels,
upon
some

mythology respecting Crithna, into the whimsically grouped

is also in the in the

elephant,
the

which

he

sits and

plays

his flute. views

Crishna is held

frequently represented
of the of his serpent,

which and

is

destroyer of the great biting his foot; in others,

its head Jones,
as

serpent ; in he holds the

folds grasp

serpent

triumphantly

hands,

crushes

beneath

his

foot. Researclia, vol. viii." Calmei's

a Diet. "c. vol. iii.p. 529 of ed. 1813. Charlestown,

Cf. Sir Writ.

cited " 25. 4

Asiatic

on

and was born of Latona daughter of Jupiter, time with Apollo. As in Apollo the sun was deified and adored ; so was the moon in Diana, who called {luna, csTwjm?) was also recognised as the goddess of hunting 6y the Greeks "Ap^s/Mf. She was the chase, of which fond in her youth. she was She or wise likewas passionately viewed infernal regions,under the name sometimes as of a goddess of the As Hecate. the chase, she received from a bow with presidingover Jupiter and a train of sixtynymphs. She also obtained from him the grant of arrows, her petition therefore the goddess of chastity.Hence to live a virgin, and was

"

38.

(9) Diana.

She

was

the island

Delos,

at

the

same

"

12

102

GREEK

AND

ROMAN

MYTHOLOGY.

her

displeasureat

the

of transgression
into
a

one

of her

and nymphs, Calisto1, whom

slew the she

her
was

transformation
not

of Actason2

the was indifferent, from jealousy of her beauty, and Latona was by their mother. slighted

only one, towards stag. She shepherd or hunter, Endymion.

The the

nymph
because

Chione3

daughters
II.

of

Niobe4

Ov.

Met.

ii. 464.

iii. 194.

ix. 321.

vi. 148-312."

Cf. Horn.

xxi\:"Hyg.
to

fab. 9.

The for her the six

story of Niobe embellishments

sons

and of

her

children The

(cf.$ 81, $ 131),

number of others Children the say
an

afforded children
seven,

fancy.

and of
are

as

group

statuary

while daughters; many called Niube arid her Montfaucon Diana

and artists a rich poets is variously stated ; Homer and In the ten. some even

subject gives
did splenseven

(cf. P. IV.

J 186. '2),seven
from
a

sons

and

daughters
found
at

represented.
in which the
;
one

gives
appear
to

engraving
in the her air

most

beautiful
arrows

antique,
upon

Rome,

Apollo
son

and

discharging
a

their

the

unhappy
another In
our

family;
daughter Sup. Plate
and
a

youngest

daughter
lies dead
on

clings

mother;
other

horse
are

is

leaping

in

1", this
of
a

subject
the

is

the plain represented of Thebes.

the
a

children

in attitudes

upon of distress.

fury

in
"

concourse

citizens the
arrows

said
See

to

be

slain, if
Ant.

male,

by
"

of Apollo;
vol. iii. p.

if
109

is introduced, composition, in which Amphion dying by plague or pestilence was person of Diana. a female, by the arrows
ss.

Monlf.

Exp.

vol. i. p. 107.

Mayo,

Mythology,

the worship of Diana nowhere much had was so regarded, this splendid,as at Ephesus. (Cf. P. IV. " 234. 3.) With in Chersonesus the most Taurica celebrated, especially was the of Orestes and through story Iphigenia. Her principaltemple at Rome that erected Tullius on val Mount Aventinus. In Rome the festiwas by Servius of the ludi seculares were sacred to her in conjunction with Apollo, and she the name honored under of Lucina, as presidingover births. was particularly also called by the Greeks In this view she was and Romans Ilithyia (iuhifevia), the name " 27) of a distinct divinity. although this was (cf.

" 39.
a

Nowhere

temple so exception, that

she

1.

The

poppy that

was

sacred
a

to

Diana.
The

The

Athenians

sacrificed

to

white
2

kid, sometimes
were

strangers
u.

pig or ox. shipwrecked on

names were

inhabitants
coast.

of Taurica

offered

her goats, or a her altar on

their her

Among
"

her

Phcebe, Cynthia, Delia, Hecate, Dictynna, Agrotera

statues

(ayporifia) Trivia
over

from (TpioStrts), Chitone

streets;
as

character
"Diana she Luna heavens her power horse her
or

(X'rtDvjj) ; and or month, goddess of the moon

Triformis
names

she preas being placed in crossways sided from her threefold Triformis (rpiixopQos), the chase, and the lower world. though
offices
:

is called three
on

and
as

Tergemina:
well Diana
as

first, because
different

she

is but heavens

one

goddess, yet
she is called

has ; bow

different earth she

three

in the

the she and

is named

enlightens everything
her dart
; and

by
she

in

hell

in hell she is styled Hecate or Proserpina : in tha ; and her rays ; on the earth she keeps under all wild beasts by keeps all the ghosts and spirits in subjection to her by he!, she has, as the left, and a human
to

and
on

the

authority: secondly, right side, of a dog

or new

because
on
:

the

poets head

the heads; say, three in the midst; whence the

moon

head
some

of

call

three-headed

three-faced
moon

thirdly, according
arched fills
a

some,

because of orb

has

three fills
a

phases
circle semi-

shapes
with

the

light ;
names

and
or

the

appears full moon

with whole

semi-circle circle
or

light; the half-moon with splendor."

3.

Other

epithetswere

applied to her

\o%da, Kvvnyds, AptoiicoiTos,lox"aipa.

and

To%o"p6pos.

"
and

40.

As

nimble, with
her
two

of art, tall in monuments goddess of the chase, she is represented a short, and often flowing costume, her legs bare, her light, with
;

feet covered

buskins, with
often with
a

bow

and
near

arrows,

either

alone, or
a

accompanied
chariot drawn

by by

nymphs
white

hound

her

often

ridingin
"

stags.
in her chariot drawn
to

Tn our Plate X. fig.7, she is seen in a beautiful given as represented Apollo Belvidere.
"

by stags.
have
come

In from

the the

Sup.
same

Plate hands

15, she
as

is the

statue, supposed

Sometimes with wings, holding a lion in one 1. she appears hand, and a panther in the other, with a chariot drawn heifers, horses of different colors." two or by two the goddess of night, or the moon, As 2 u. she is represented in long robes, with a her head. on large starred veil, having a torch in her hand and a crescent
See Plate
u.

XLI

"

Cf.

Plate

XIV.

fig.2."

See

} 76.

We

have

figuresof

the

Ephesian Diana, in the Egyptian style,and

numerous

in Greek similar
to

of it, in which she is exhibited with lsis, whereby the fruitfulness of nature seems
imitation
Montfaucon

breasts, and
been
remarkable
;
arm a

very

to of

have
the
most

represented.
is

gives
16 ;
on

several head it

of these of the

figures.
is
a

One double of

presented
lions
;

in

our

Sup.
from tapers

Plate
the to

the

statue two

mural
;
on

crown

large festoon
are

is suspended the is of

neck,
the

and feet

within like
a

are

images
heads views

Victory
into

each

two

Hermes,
second
are

but

is divided

four the of

portions,
third Diana and

the

first of which

body occupied
oxen.

by numerous "4 In the

breasts, the

by
thres

Sup

Plate

12,

of stags, and of a statue

fourth

by

heads

Triformis,

from

Montfaucon*

104
the

GREEK

AND

ROMAN

MYTHOLOGY.

presenting
the
next

three
a

faces
knife

successively;
{cultrum)
hand and
a

the

first face

on

the
a

face, with
a

in the

right hand,
in the

and left.

right with a torch whip (Jlagellum)

in each in the

hand; left; the

third, with

key

in the

right

serpent

"
the

41

a.

(10) Minerva.
of

Under
the

the

name

of Minerva

among
a

the Romans

and deified

of Ilaxxdf and
idea

'A^j/vol among
head. She which

and Greeks, ancient fiction personified wisdom. first

to

and high intelligence his is said

She
have

was

daughter
herself
near

of

Jupiter,
the lake

sprang from Tritonis in Libya, from

1. Some head2. Minerva
at

revealed
was

circumstance the Greek

she

called

Tritonia. the word

tpitu

derive

this

and epithet,

Tpiroyiveia, from

fying signi-

is

by

some

supposed
name

to

have
or

been Netha.

Sais

under

the

of Neith is the

originally the Egyptian deity worshiped Various name etymologies of the Greek
which derives it from thus the
name

been given ; deity, by inverting have

them among of the the order

conjecture
Netha

of the would

particularly 'AOrjvd Egyptian

adnv.

letters; to

(vr/Oa), being

changed,

form

"

41 b.

The

Greeks had
a

ascribed

this

goddess

the

invention

of many

arts

and

She was regarded great influence on their civilization. of the olive, and the use inventress of the flute,of embroidery and spinning, as various of war; gence in short, of most works instruments superior intelliindicating

sciences1, which

or

skill.

Arachne's

contest

with
are

her

in

working

with

the

needle, and

consequent
"

despairand
a

transformation
vi. 5.

beautifullydescribed
to

by Ovid.2
of receiving
to her
was

Ov. Fastor.

iii.815.

Oo. Metam.

"

42.

The
name

cityof

Athens The

was

consecrated
her

Minerva, and boasted

its

from. her.

splendidtemple
to

at that

place dedicated
at Rome.

called Parthenon,1 in reference

virgin purity{jtap^kvoi). She

and
several Her

had

other

temples,at Erythra?, Tegea, and Sunium,2

principal

festivals among the Panathensea, the greater and the less, and the Greeks were the Romans, and contests were Quinqualria, on each of which, games among The owl was sacred held. her images and to Minerva, and is often found on
on
i

the

Athenian
the Rev.

coins.3
see

Respecting Quart.

Parthenon,

P. I. " 107.
3

Cf. P. IV. " 234. 3. " 242.

the Attic

" 243.
XL.

On

the

remains

of the temple of

Sunium,

cf. Mm.

vol. vi. p. 234.

See

coin given in Plate

fig.5.
"

of the When following is the story respecting the name Cecrops built : city of Athens and Minerva in the assemcontended about its name it was resolved bly city,Neptune ; and of the of the two useful to man, deities found the most creature out gods, that whichsoever should the to struck the give the name city. Neptune ground with his trident, and a horse from Minerva issued the earth. caused The the olive to spring up. latter was an pronounced useful Minerva therefore the 'Adr/va. Dr. Clarke more thing, and city her own gave name, covered were once imagines that thi3 story had its origin from the fact, that the plains of Greece which afterwards and removed was water, or nearly so with by evaporation and other causes, soil was thus a cultivable presented to the inhabitants. The
new

Clarke's Travels

in various

countries, "c. Part

II. sect.

ii. ch.

12.

" 43.

Minerva

is

usuallyrepresented

in

military armor,
is

with

helmet, and
with
a

the JEgis, or her peculiar cuirass bearingon it Medusa's and often a shield or buckler in her hand. Her helmet with the
our

head, and

spear

ornamented generally

of figure
Plate

the owl, hut presents various

forms.

fig.6, she appears holding in her left hand an image of Victory, with her rightrestingon a round shield bearing on it a Medusa leans on her ; her spear her breast. In the Sup. Plate 6, she is in a sitting right shoulder ; the iEgis is seen on posture, with her spear and buckler; the owl appearing at her feet. In the Sup. Plate her breast side and a cock is the other ; the iEgis on on one on 20, the owl appears
here
The the
as armor

1. In

XI.

very
term

distinct.
of

cegis (dtyij) signifies literallya goat-skin. Homer represents he distinguishes by the epithet aiyioxos ; yet Jupiter, whom
xviii. 204. xxi.

the he

wgis

as

part of

speaks

of

Minerva

using
2
u.

it (cf. II. ii. 447-449.

400).

much

were wrought by Phidias, and the Palladium of its workmanship P. I. of the perfection (cf. celebrated; the former on account of the superstitious confidence " 107. P. IV. "" 160, 161, 179); the latter on account

The

colossal

statue

of Minerva,

placed in
The about three

it by the
was

Trojans, Greeks, and Romans.

hand in one and in the of Pallas, with a a distaff statue a other, spear into the heaven citadel of Troy or said fallen from have to high. It was Ilium before it was this occurrence, upon completely built,and that the oracle of Apollo being consulted it." that "the within safe be answered, so long as thatimage remained city should When the Greeks therefore this to obtain besieged Troy, it was thought of the first consequence It was said succeeded in getting it by stealth (Vir. JEn. ii. 162). image. Ulysses and Diomedes been afterwards recovered from Diomedes to have by iEneas, carried to Italy, and finallylodgec Palladium cubits in the

temple

of Vesta.

P.

II.

SUPERIOR

GODS.

MARS.

VENUS.

105

u.

Besides

the

names

'Epydng, and Ilapdevos,

often TAauicaiTris
or

often called Minerva, Pallas, and Athena, this goddess was IloXiay ; she is also termed and very 'Epyavri, Musica, Fylolis,

Csesia.

and battles was The of Jupiterand a son "44. (11) Mars. god of war in Thrace. viewed He Juno, and educated rude and was as presidingover the origin of which fierce war, ascribed to him, while Minerva had the was credit of inventing tactics and the proper military art. Notwithstandingthe

high idea
him

which
as

Homer taken

givesof

the

strengthand

heroism

of Mars,

he

sents repre-

des ; it was,
amors

prisoner by Otus and Ephialtes,and wounded by DiomeBesides these occurrences, his however, by the help of Minerva1.
and

with

Venus

his
was

dispute with
put
to

Neptune2 respectingthe

son

of the
markable re-

who latter, Hallirrhotius, in his

i

death

by Mars, constitute all that is

history.
jipottod.iii.14." Pausan.
i.21.

Hom.W.

383, 855.-^2

"

45

a.

He

was
a

of such of the Grecian

"

most worshiped in Thrace, where probablythe whole in god originated.He had however temples and priests

ception con-

most

cities.
a

Mars

was

never

favorite derived
He

deitywith the Hellenic

It is from the
a

tribes of discover

was

comparatively neglected
seems

not

easy

to

the

Greece, and his worship originof this deity;

he

to

have the

been

tribe, rather than Egypt.

probably

was

same

other warlike and barbarous Pelasgi,or some to the northern strikingresemblance Odin, and Tooke's Pantheon, Lond. ed. 1831. deityunder another name."
bears

and

regardedhim as the father of Romulus, and the founder They erected to him many temples, consecrated order of priests, to him the Campus Martins, and a peculiar a largepublicplace, the Salii, celebrated his festival with music and dancing in solemn who cessions. pro"
Romans

45 b. The

protector of their nation.

1. It was business of these prieststo guard the ancilia, or sacred shields ; a special P. III. " 215.' A very ancient hymn sung in honor of Mars 5espectingwhich see by To the Romans Mars offered the sacrifice is stillpreserved ; see P. IV. " 114. 4. was calJed Suovetaurilia of which, as found in an ancient bas-relief,is ; a representation in our Plate XXIX. give," 2. Several animals consecrated to Mars were ; the horse, for his vigor ; the wolf, for his fierceness : the dog, for his vigilance. Magpies and vultures were also offered to him on account of their greediness.
" "

Mars in full manly vigor, with a " 46. The ancient artists have represented rather than vehement or strong but agilebody, and an air calm and collected, sometimes naked; passionate. He commonly appears equipped in armor; sometimes
1. He

in the attitude of
is also

marching, as

Mars

Gradivus.

represented as ridingin a chariot drawn by furious horses, covered with 7. brandishing a spear in his right hand ; thus he is seen in our Plate XL fig. Bellona, the goddess of war, bearing in her hand a flaming torch,drives the chariot over prostrate warriors ; such is the representationgiven in the Sup. Plate 10. Sometimes he is represented as attended with a horrid retinue ; Clamor, Anger, Discord, In the Sup. Plate 6, he appears Fear, Terror, and Fame. as ready for marching ; with his plumed helmet, coat of mail, spear, and shield.
armor

and Sometimes

2. Bellona, and sometimes called

called the

by the Greeks daughter of

which the

'Evua", is
Mars. She threw

sometimes had
a a

said

to at
war

be

the

wife,
and

sometimes before it
was

the
a

temple
when

Rome,
was

sister, pillar

Bellica, over Mars

was

herald

spear

proclaimed.

"Apr/; by the Greeks ; other Strymonius,Enyalius, Thurius, Quirinus, Ultor.

3
u.

called

names

given

to

him

are

Odrysius,
the
an

" 47.
love

(12) Venus.

The

ideal of the in eastern called

common

most

awakened

was by it,

fiction

perfectfemale beauty, and expressed and personifiedin

Venus, and
born from

imaginary goddess; she was "A4"po8"/rt7. According to the

of the
sea;

by the Romans
story, she
was

by

the

Greeks

the foam

(a$p6j)
Dione. of the

in Homer
came

she

After her birth she

presented as a daughterof Jupiterand first to Cytherea,and thence to Cyprus. Many

is
"

gods sought her

1
u.

but Vulcan

obtained

her

as

his spouse.
requited un-

She, however, loved Mars, Mercury, and Adonis especially, althoughwith lamented. passion ; the early death of the latter she bitterly
"

717 sa. x. 500, Ovid, Metam. the story of Adonis recognizing

Bion, Idyl
; the scene

on

the death of Adonis.

"

See also Theocritus, Idyl the time of

a

xv.

which

is a beautiful littlecomedy

is laid in

at Alexandria,

festival in his honor.

14

106

GREEK

AND

ROMAN

MYTHOLOGY.

The

of which
was

of Venus, is, that favorite the being engaged in hunting, young from mortal wound boar. a wild At this Venus a excessively fond, he received restored him condition to life on immoderately of. his spending six grieved, and Proserpina

story respecting Adonis,

he
was

months
an

with

Venus

and

six

with

herself.

It

has

oriental of

title of the of

winter, during
the
women same

sun, which Adonis

signifying Lord ; the productive

until he
was

the

been thus explained to have boar, supposed of nature

Adonis,
killed

or

Adonui,
was

was blem em-

him,
the

the
was

to

lament

loss

powers restored and

being suspended,
life ; whence
"

Venus

said

again

to

Argive
lo
an

be

the

annually deity with

festival contest

mourned the

his death,

celebrated

his renovation."
"

account

of the

viii. 14). (cf. Ezekiel Syrian Tammuz of him at Byblus. Jldonia, held in honor

Lucian Cf. P. to

Syrian and supposed (De Syria Dea) gives

Adonis is

both

III. $ 77. 2.

u.

In

her Hence

with

Juno

and

Minerva,

Paris

awarded

Venus

the

prize of

beauty.

her memorable

zeal for the interests of the

Trojans.

celebrated places of her worship were " 48. The most Golgi,Paphos, and the island of Cyprus, which was to Amathus, upon wholly consecrated her; Cythera, Cnidos, and Eryx in Sicily; all situated near the sea, and in delightful the pretended mother she was honored of iEneas, the as regions. In Rome her the of ancestor nation, although worship was first formallyintroduced from
in Sicily,
1. At
tarte See
or

the

sixth

century
was

after the
a

buildingof

the

city.
of

Hierapolis, in Syria, Mergatis, the Jlshtaroth

De

of

in splendid temple the Holy Scriptures.

vol.

honor

Venus,

under

the

name

of As-

Lucian,

Syria Dea."

Cf.

Mayo, Mythology,

ii."Calmet,vol.

iii.p. 372. ed. Chariest. were

1813."

Class.

Journal, No.
to

liii.

2u.

The The

pigeon
swan

or

dove, the myrtle, and

were

the

rose,

especiallysacred
Her sacrifices
were

the

goddess of love.
3.

and

the sparrow

also sacred

to

Venus.

goats
specting re-

and

swine, with
have the

libations of wine, milk, and

of Venus the worship deluge ; her rising from Bryant's Mythology.
"

honey.
derived
sea

Some

considered universal the flood.

as

the
"

the

waves

of

HolwelVs

from corruptions being a type of the Myth. Diet.

of

the

traditions

world

emerging

from

" 49.

The

poets

and

artists of

endeavored antiquity fullest and

of

in the

and description

the of Venus to embody representation The most distinguished antiquestatue

purest idea of female

Medicean

beauty.
Venus
at

her is the famous

Florence.
Respectingthis statue,see 1.
P. IV. " 1S6. 5.
on

She

is

represented
;

coins
she

and

gems,

various

sometimes ways crowned her head with

is clothed

with

carved, painted and

is attended hand.
In

myrtle and gilded,and drawn

and
sea

roses,

in the descriptionsof the poets, in with diamonds, purple mantle glittering of ivory,finely riding in a chariot made
a

and

with

the Graces the X.

several

by swans, Cupids.

doves,
At
one

virgin,risingfrom
our

and ridingin a shell ; at fig.6, she stands on a wave with two attendant with long Cupids. In the Sup. Plate 6, she stands in a shell, around her. In the celebrated pictureby Apelles (cf.P. IV. tresses, drawing a mantle of the waves and wringing her tresses J 222), she appears her risingfrom the bosom on shoulders. In some hand before her bosom and with the she holds one monuments other presses her limbs ; Montfaucon her mantle close about gives a figurevery similar In the Sup. Plate 7. she is to this, from a statue formerly in the gallery of Versailles. in a reclining her lap, while the Graces seen on posture, with Cupid resting his elbow are adorning her person, and two doves conduct her car on a cloud. In an ancient painting, in her arms In some the dying Adonis. given in the Sup. Plate 8, she supports representations she has golden sandals on her feet, and holds before her a brilliant hand in one and an The mirror. apple in the Sicyonians exhibited her with a poppy and treading on tortoise. She other. In Elis she was a on a goat painted as sitting usually had a belt or girdle called Cestus, in which all kinds of pleasures are said to Plate
"

Sometimes she she appears like a young another, she holds the shell in her of the sea, supported by two tons, Trior

sparrows.

time

be folded.
Heync,
Qber

die Vorstellungsarten der Venus, in his .Intiquar.

Aufsatze."Mamo,

Abhandl.

ttber die Venus, in his Fersuche

iller

mythologische Gcgmst'dnde.

u.

Various

attributes

were

given

to

her, under
likewise

She was Victrix, "c. Urania, Marina, Idalia. Anadi/omene {avaivofievn), PapJiia,
3.
rea,

known

the different characters under the names

of Venus

Erycina,

Her

and epithetswere Cythe; as, Cypria,IldvSnfiog, exceedingly numerous names Verticordia, 'Eraipa, Acidalia, Libertina, Saligenita, "fri\""imdfic, TtXeaaiyayioc,

QaXaaaia, "C.
her common or Amor, Cupid, was goddess, "Epcoj, supposed to influence by his god of love, which he was with and arrows0, often with a burning torch He is represented a bow arrows. ancient of art, and works exhibited on in his hand. He was very frequently in forms*. Often several Cupids appear of 'Aj^spcoj, iv agreat variety company.

" 50.

The

son

of this

companion, and

the

"

P.

XI.

SUPERIOR

GODS.

VULCAN.

107

inferos, who

god
with
a

that

usuallyconsidered despisedlove. avenges Cupid.

Plate XI.

is

the He

god

of mutual

is sometimes

love, was frrn originally represented as wrestling

Plates 7 and 9.

See

our

fig.9

b Cf.

Manso,

as

cited

" 49.

1." See Plate X.

fig. 6, and Sup.

1
one

u.

The

attachment
most

of

of the
J 12.2.

beautiful
is found
"

Cupid to Psyche is the chief incident in his history and forms of antiquity. allegories

The cited

allegory
in terror

(6).

(Psyche
2.

in Jlpulmus (cf.P. V. $ 471. 2). For expositions, cf. KeiglMey, p. 148, as the wings of a butterfly; as in the statue Psyche is usually represented with of Venus) given in our Sup. Plate 8." See also Plate XLVII. 5; cf. P. IV. $ 198. fig.

also one of the imaginary companions of Venus. He presided Hymenaeus was with the amaracus over represented as of fair complexion, crowned marriage. He was sweet or marjoram, carrying in one hand a torch and in the other a veil of flame color, the blushes of a virgin. indicating
In the Sup. Plate is seen 9, Hymenaeus their nuptials. sculpture representing

leading by

chain

Cupid

and

Psyche

from

an

antique

" 51.

(13) Vulcan.
as

In

the unenlightenedperiods, of the

violent

agencies of

the

tonishment heavenly luminaries, excited asfound in the and were of the worship of fire are the Greeks earliest times. The from whom Egyptians had their god of fire, derived the worship of "H$a"ri'o$, Vulcanus called by the Romans Vulcan. or Fable of Jupiter and Juno. On account of his deformity styleshim the son

elements,

well

as

the appearances deified. Traces

his mother hurled chain.

was,
1

thrust

him1

from
he

Olympus;
to

or,

according to

another

story, Jupiter

him He

out, because fell upon

to
i. 590.
"

the

fastened by the golden attempted help Juno when island Lemnos, afterwards his chief residence,and

according
II. xviii. 395.

the later fictions2, lamed

Vol. Flue.

by

his fall.

Bom.

Argon, ii. 87.

"

52.

To with

Vulcan the
the and

was

ascribed

the

invention of metals His and

of all those

arts

that

are

nected con-

smelting and working

as

was

considered

subject
there
are

to

him.

ment eleof fire, which in such helpers and servants

by

means

works

were

Cyclops, sons
of whom These

of Uranus
are

Gaia, whose

residence the Sicilian

also

was

in Lemnos, ropes, and of a later

1.

Pyrakmon. period.

to

commonly mentioned be distinguished from

three, Brontes, Ste-

Cyclops

The

which

of stone, chieflywalls, in epithetCyclopean is applied to certain structures of rough stone large masses are nicely adjusted and fitted together.
Frertt, L'Histoire
des

Cf. P. IV. " 231. 3.

Cyclops,Mem.

Acad.

Inscr. xxiii. 27.

represented as the workshop of Vulcan ; so also Lipara, one was Works isles,called likewise Vulcanian. requiring peculiar art and metals extraordinary strength,especially when were employed as materials, were these were called by the poets Vulcan's the palaces of Phoebus1, masterpieces. Among of Mars2, and Venus3 of Jupiter5, the golden chain of Juno4, the thunderbolts ; the of Ariadne6, the arms of Achilles7, and of iEneas8, "c. crown
2m.

Mount

iEtna

of the

.ZEolian

"

"

Ov. Metam.
5 Ov.

ii. 1. i. 258.

a Stat.
"

Thcb.

vii. 38.

Claud.
1 Bom.

Epithal. Honor,
II. xviii. 468.

et Mar.
a

v.

58.

Pausan.

Att. c. 20.

Lacon.

c. 17.

Metam.

Oo. Fast. iii.513

yirg. 2En. viii. 407. she

was

3.

Vulcan because

is said each 4, is
94.
a

to

have

of the

formed, by request of Jupiter, the first woman; her some gods gave present or accomplishment.
to exhibit

called

dora, Pan-

In the Sup. Plate Works

and

compositiondesigned

the gods assembled

to

bestow

their giftson

the

woman."

See Hcsiad,

Days,

vs.

Vulcan had for his wife Charis, oi According to the earlier fictions, had rejected him. the after Minerva later, Venus, Aglaia; and according to The Harmonia his the of Venus. Giants Mars and was daughter daughter,or Cacus and Caeculus in He was called his sons. were worshiped particularly dedicated to him upon ./Etna. isles. A temple was Lemnos, and the Vulcanian

" 53.

"

At

Rome

the Vulcanalia

were

celebrated

in honor

of him, and

at Athens

the

XaXxEta. Those victims offered in sacrifice to him. the principal pig were especiallyrendered honor employments requiringthe use of fire, dart fire from his The lion, who in his roaring seems to worship to Vulcan. mouth, was consecrated set apart to keep his temple." to Vulcan ; and dogs were of his names 2 u. Some the following are : Lemnius, Mulciber, Cyllopodes (kv\\o1. A
"

who and

calf and a male followed arts and

"

TiW'Jf), Anrphigyeis{a-nQiyvrieic).
3

Some

writers

derive

the

name

and

story of

Vulcan

from

Tubal-Cain,

mentioned

by

Moses

108
iv. 22). Cf.

GREEK

AND

ROMAN

MYTHOLOGY.

(Gen.
Servius

Holwell, Myth.

Diet.

The

ancients the

gave

various of fire

given bj

it was derived from volitans, because says Varro is similar (see # 54. 2).

sparks

etymologies of the name fly in the air; the account

"
and

54.

Vulcan

was

pincersin his hands

indicated
in

as usually represented engaged in his work, than standing. more frequently ; sitting

with His
some

hammer lameness

is not
statues.
1.

any

existingmonuments,

although it was

in

ancient

that Vulcan lame

seen

mire adof these statues, Cicero, speaking of one {Be Nat. Dear. i. 30), "We says he is standing,clothed, and appears of Athens, made by Alcamenes; without
any
our

in
"That the

Plate
by Vulcan

X.

of the deformity." Some fig. 4, and Sup. Plate 6.

"

common

of representations
if believe

this

god

are

2. that
nus,

is understood is derived celestial

fire,the
from
a or

name

itself and

discovers,
violence of

we

word

Vulcanus per
aerem

the vi
ac

force

fire

(Vulcanius,

quod
hat,

ignis

volitat, vel

violenlia

blue

acsymbol of

the

elementary
nervous

covered

with

hairy, and holding a

thunderbolt

sweat, blowing with blackened his forehead in the his anvil and
a

his with
to

smoke.

he ignis); and therefore "Vulcan (Tooke.) fires of his forges. the arms lame Some represented him fire." with
some

Varro, who says quasi Volicais painted with a was represented

His and with breast
was

deformed,

hammer
on

air

ready

strike;
appears cap
on

while
on

the

other

hand with and

he
a

turns

pincers
his hand." Deo

(ukiicov). He
small Lemnos round

monuments

long beard, disheveled

hair, half

naked,
The

his
a

head,

with

hammer of

pincers
with

in

(Lemp.)"
Vulcano.
3. The

medals

of

usually

bear

representation
times
"

Vulcan,
modern.
was

the

legend
on as a were

representations of Vulcan (aKfi6QzTov) ; cf.

and Horn. Od.

show

that the anvil of ancient

was

formed

like the

It was

placed

large block
also the

of wood
hammer

Od. viii. 274. iii.433."

Virg. j*Rn. vii. 629.

Diet. Ant.

In early times, it

made

of bronze,

pincers ; cf. Bom.

Smith's

p. 512.

(14) Mercury. Egyptians, whose Hermes

"
55.

The and

Greeks Roman

borrowed
is
so

the

worship of

this

god from

the

Trismegistus

celebrated

in their
or

early history.

According
the him
son

to the

Greek

fables, 'Ep^j, Mercurius

Mercury, was

of
cave

in the

among Pleione. mother The he exhibited

that

and Maia. Maia was a daughter of Atlas, found by Jupiter Jupiter in and afterwards her six sisters placed by with Arcadia, Cyllene the stars, thus forming the constellation named Pleiades from their of

characteristics principal
even

Mercury
not

were

in

his

childhood, and

always

which cunning and dexterity, in the most praiseworthy

the but
as a

manner.

This
he

was

the from appears considered as

tricks related of him, and from the god not only of mercature,
was

stance, circum-

also

of

theft; although the

as an

in early times latter,

not

viewed

so

much

crime,

evidence "c.

of

power

and

adroitness.

guarded by Apollo,Apollo'sarrows,

the

Mercury stole the cattle of Admetus can, girdleof Venus, the pincers of Vul-

the hundred-eyed Argus, was 1 u. lulled to By his flute the guardian of Io, even of his success i. 668.) The in his feats was his sleep. {Ov. Metam. principalmeans ascribed to him in a high degree. He invented also the lyre, eloquence ; this art was In return attaching strings to the shell of the tortoise, and presented it to Apollo. of which is variouslystated ; Apollo gave him the celebrated wand {caduceus), the origin its efficacy contention. was Mercury carried potent in calming the passions and stilling this rod as the messenger of the gods, and employed it to awaken dreams, and to conduct
"

the shades of the in that world, as well

2 of

dead
as

to

the lower and in

world

; for

he

was

called

to

offices and

labors

on

earth

Olympus.

The caduceus with in the form was a rod end, and" entwined wings at one by two serpents rod adorned with than nothing more a equal semicircles. Originally it was leaves, and green tied knot with a skillfully the symbol of traffic. In a later age these decorations as were changed and Various been by the poets into serpents interpretations of the meaning of it have wings. is generally supposed to be represented and the wings are serpents, given. Prudence by the two of diligence: both in the the and which cury Mersymbol pursuit of business necessary commerce, patronized."
On the mythological character
of

Mercury,

Class. Journal, xvi. 224."

Bottiger's Amalthea,

i. 104."

Boltiger's Vasengem, ii.97.

Mercury usuallyrepresented as a holding his wand, always in motion, either flyingor rapidlymarching, wearing a winged and winged sandals hat (petasus), he holds a purse in (talaria). Sometimes the god of commerce his hand, as tortoise him in a ; sometimes by appears cock was reference to his invention of the lyre. The sacred to him, and appears attribute in the images of Mercury. sometimes as an
"
56
a.

is

slender youth,

almost

1. In another

our

Plate XI. fig. have 2, we similar, in the Sup. Plate 2. Juno." In

our

a
"

common

In

Jupiter and

Plate

XVIII.

representationof Mercury flying; and 7, he is seen attending on fig.4, and in the Sup. Plate 14 (illustrations
the

Sup. Plate

P.

II.

SUPERIOR

GODS.

MERCURY.

BACCHUS.

109

named

Boor of the dead. The 2 u.

of

Hell and Cf. " 32 a. had

Charon), he
1.

appears

in his office of conductor IV. in other

common

of the shades of
were

monuments

called Hermm

(see P.
art
was

" 164)
a

were

Mercury.
afterwards

their retained, and were

They

originwhen
used
to

very

originallystatues imperfect slate, but

men.

represent very

gods and memorable

to

"
and
a

56 b. The

Romans,

worship of Mercury was and many temples were

consecrated

among him.

Egyptians,Greeks,
At

Rome

there

was

festival particular

(festumMercatorum)

held for the

expiationof merchants,
a

in honor
1. At
or
a

of Mercury.
sow

this festival, held in the middle of the day, the votaries sacrificed to him the tongues of animals, and sprinklingthemselves calf, and offered especially

with

in pursuitof gain. forgiveall their artful measures or falsehoods epithets appliedto Mercury are Cyllenius, Atlantiades,Ales, Caducifer. Agormus (dyopaToi), he is also termed 3. Other 'Apys"j"6vrri;, StdKrwp, and bi-nyos; common epi'hetsare because his statues as wealth; rpiKtyaXo;, crafty; presidingover were "5"5Xwc, xepodo;, placed
water, 2

prayed
The

to

him

to

u.

more

common

where

three ways

met.

" 57.
and him
a

(15) Bacchus.
of wine, under

The
the

Greeks
name

and

the

Romans

worshiped the

inventor

god

Aiotdoos.

Bacchus, Baaj^oj; the former also called In the fictions of both, he was of Jupiterand Sem" le, the son

of

In answer to her request, Jupiterappeared to her in daughter of Cadmus. the fiery splendor of which his full majesty and divinity, her death.1 caused saved alive the infant Bacchus in his own not yet born, and carried him Jupiter gists, etymolothigh until the proper time of his birth. Hence, according to some the poets called him as Si"vpa,uj3o$, having been twice born; a name afterwards given to the irregular which was hymns2 sung at his festivals.
"

Ov. Met.

iii.260.

2 Cf. P. V.

" 22.

P. iii." 77. 3.

" 58.
of

The

ancients

ascribed
as

to

Bacchus

manifold

and related offices, he for the culture

tude multifor of the

achievements
the

his advancement vine and

performed by him. and of morals, legislation,

bees
was

was Especially

celebrated

commerce;

rearing of
He

; and

in India. particularly

and militaryexpeditions success, and miracleas a a god, universally worshiped

for his

worker, except in Scythia.

ascribed to him is illustrated in the story respecting Midas, king of The power 1 u. his nurse and preceptor Silenus, and received as a Phrygia, who restored to Bacchus Some compensation the fatal attribute of turning into gold ' every thing he touched.' incidents of his story are, changing the Tyrrhenian sailors into dolphins2; of the remarkable the island Naxos, where he found his residence upon Ariadne, forsaken by Theseus, and espoused her, but likewise forsook her, and after her death placed her
"

crown

among
to

back
i

Olympus,
xi. 85.

the stars3 ; his descent to Hades she was deified under where
*

in order the
name

to

convey

his mother

Semele

of

Thyone.
and

Ooid, Metam.

Met. to

iii.650.

Fast. iii.459.

2. Bacchus The that

is also

said

have

traveled

into
are

India

with

achievements there
u.
were

of different three who

personages bore this name. ;

doubtless Cicero says

an composed of men army Diodorus ascribed to him.

women

Siculus

says

there

were

five.

He

is called

Thriambus, " 59.

The
was

by various names Thyrsiger (cf. Ov. Met.

Lyaeus, Thyoneus, Evan, Nyctelius, Bassareus,

"c.

iv. 11), Liber, Bimater,

East, probably originating very earlyin tne in the Grecian or most general practiced in it, and Lycurgus, who Pentheus refused to participate Roman were punished with death ; and the daughters of Minyas and Orchomenos, for the same were changed into bats. Thebes, Nysa, Mount Citheeron. reason,

worship

of Bacchus,

in India,

among territories.

the

earliest and

Naxos,
Bacchus.
Goats

and
"

Alea The

were

sacred to him. panther were especially usuallyoffered in sacrifice to him, because they aTe particularly vine the

in Arcadia, were and ivy and

renowned

for their festivals in

honor

of

injuriousto the vine.

as 1. The Oscophoria, Epilcenia, Apaturia, Ambrosia, and Ascolia, are named festivals of this god. the Trieterica and the Dionysia (see P. The most eminent of his festivals were 2 m. tions celebraThese commemorated. III. " 77. 3), in which his militaryenterprises were that account wild and licentious orgies,and were on at length became finally abolished (cf.Liv. xxxix. 8, ss.) in Rome by the senate, in the year of the city 568. On the

worship of

Bacchus,

see

Le Freret,

Culte

de Bacchus, Mem.

Acad.

Irucr. vol. xxiii. p. 242."

G. F. Creuzcr.

Diouysus,

r.

110

GREEK

AND

ROMAN

MYTHOLOGY.

comment.

Acad,

de

Rerum

Bacchic,

originibus

et

causis.

Heidelb.

1809. A."Rdle,

Recherches

sur

le Culle

de

Bacchus.

Paris,
Osiris.

3 vols. 8.

3. In There

several is also
as

points thought
$ 13).

the
to

story and
be
a

worship of striking resemblance

Jones

Bacchus between

resemble Bacchus

those and Bacchus

of

the

Egyptian
the Hindoo

the and

Schivu

of India

(cf.
Ra-

Rhode,

cited

Sir

Wm.

to be the same. "The first poet of the the Valmic, and great is an the same in unity of action, magnificence of on epic poem subject, which wayan and of style, far surpasses and learned elaborate elegance the of Nonnus work entitled siaea (cf.P. V. $ 76), half of which, or twenty-four books, I perused with great eagerness I was and should have traveled to the conclusion of it,if other very young, pursuits

(as cited } 25. 4), considers Hindoos," he, "was says

Rama his

imagery, Diunywhen had but

to not
am

engaged
confident been the

me.

I shall
an

never

have

leisure

to

compare
two

the

Diovysiacks
prove

with

the

Ramayan,
and Rama

that
same

accurate

comparison
"

of the

poems

would

Dionysos

have

person."
la Religion, vol. ii.

Cf. Constant, De 4. It is worthy Hindostan. This

of

Voss, Antisymbolik.
of the At
a

"

Asiatic

Researches, vol. viii.

are

remark,
has
a

that

the

abominations festivals. mouth

of

Dionysiac festivals
one

to this

day practiced
"

at the

temple

of

Juggernaut io
a

god

two

annual

the

called

the. ear-festival, his image,

out

block

of wood,
array and

having

frightful
on a

visage painted black, with

car

distended
a

is brought bloody color,''

on

of the temple in gorgeous

placed
with from

pendous stu-

rising high like

the sound
In
our

tower, which

rests

low
the

wheels
shouts

and of
an

is drawn immense
:

by

the

crowd

of

votaries,attended

flags and
and

banners, amid

of

musical
a.

instruments

and

multitude

of piigrims assembled appear

attached

various
are

distant regions. The

car

Plate XIII indecent

is a representation of this ceremony

all over

the

horses, which
car

to the car,

wooden.

is covered

with

figurespainted
songs
and

it. At

intervals the

is stopped, and
as

the priestsand
cause

boys connected
to move.
"

with

the temple render View

worship by

obscene

lascivious actions to please the god,

they say, and

him

See

Ward,

cf the Religion, "c. of the Hindoos.

"
those

60.

The

ancient which

representationsof Bacchus
later artists
were

are

much
to

more

than dignified

degrade him. By the he was exhibited as a handsome agreeable boy, poets and artists of antiquity just on the border of youth, with a form more resemblinga female, than that look. Of no other god have we and with a joyful of Mercury or Apollo, a greater and in statues, bas-reliefs, number or variety of representations, gems, than of Bacchus and Satyrs, and Bacchanals. with his train,Silenus, the Fauns
1.

with

the

accustomed

Among
a

the

various
a

representationsof this god,

He

swollen

cheeks, and
X.

in his hand
our one

bloated body. thyrsus,an iron-headed

fig.8, where he appears attended by a panther. In the Sup. Plate 15, he is a youth holdingthe he appears an thyrsus and leaning upon a column, with a tigerat his feet. Sometimes Sometimes he is on the infant, holding a thyrsus and cluster of grapes with a horn. of Silenus. On the celebrated gem shoulders of Pan, or in the arms (cf.P. IV. " 211) borne he appears Plate XL VIII. which is given in our a bloated man, by Satyrs young Sometimes he is in a chariot, and also attended drawn by Cupids and Bacchanals. leopards, or panthers, surrounded by tigers, by his retinue of Satyrs and Bacchae, and followed by old Silenus on an ass.
Plate

sometimes find him with we with ivy and vine leaves, having is crowned javelin,encircled with ivy or vine leaves ; as in also as a handsome youth, holding a wine-cup in

hand, and

For

various

other

see Montfaucon, Antiq. Expl. representations,

vol

i. Plates 142-167.

2. In Montfaucon and xxxvi.

now

our

Plate
;

XLVIII.

we on

have the hide

also of
"

a a

recumbent
on an

the

other
as

inverted in the
a

goblet.
marble

An

representation of Silenus, as given from an antique by hand panther, with one resting on a skin full of wine, is mentioned image of Silenus by Pliny {Hist. JVat.
of

5),
in the

existing
same

quarry been

Paros,
which lusus
"

said the

to

be

the of the

work Silenus

of

nature.

There
a

is Dr. bas-

Clarke relief
to

demigod is figured in the upper drunkard, with ass's ears, accompanied by laughing part of it as a corpulent and dancing girls. A female figure is represented sitting with a fox sleeping in her satyrs is also introduced, wearing a Phrygian bonnet [see Plate XXII. fig.n and o]. lap. A warrior OAPT2H2 NYMtfAlX." There is this inscription: AAAMA2 are twenty-nine figures; and below
to
a

supposes been have

quarry this

curious
to

bas-relief, of
have
a

image
and

forms
now

image

added

it

by sculpture.

natura, It represents

other

pieces

part. in the

festival

of Silenus.

The

" 61.
common

in

Ceres. 1^16) generalwas of pursuits

of
nature

However
much
men. more

useful the

planting'f

the vine

might be, agriculture

The occasioned

of the earliest and most one so, and formed of its importance and of the proobservation ductiveness
a

the conception of ascribed. discovery and improvement were the Greeks, and Ceres divinitywas A^jtM^p among

to particular divinity,

whom

its

The
with

usual the

name

for this She called

a

Romans.

was

considered

as

one

of the most of

ancient

of

the

daughter of Saturn and sister in a fertile region of Sicily.

instruct

Jupiter.

Her

goddesses,and was native placewas Enna,

to

situated

In this country she is said to have first taught men them in all the labors pertaining to it. To and
her the her

cultivate

and grain,

to

her

is ascribed

also the

of laws, establishing
of her and protection,

favors to other Trintolemus

lands, and

She

associated

parted imshe of civil society. Afterwards regulation boasted the people of Attica particularly instruction in agriculture and the use of the plough. and sent with her as a companion in her travels,

112.

GREEK

AND

ROMAN

MYTHOLOGY.

him
a

over

the

earth,to teach husbandry, and thereby raised him

to Ceres."

to the

rank

of

god.
See Homer,

Hymn

Ovid, Fast. iv. 607-562.

Metam.

v.

642-661.

daughter Proserpine by Pluto has (" 32"). sought for her with a burning torch and good everywhere, and thus diffused universally a knowledge of agriculture morals. She at length discovered that Pluto had borne her to his realms, supplicated Jupiterfor her deliverance, and received a favorable answer, on dition conthat But she Proserpine had tasted of no fruit of the infernal world.
been

"

62.

The

seizure

and

abduction

of

her

alreadymentioned

Ceres

had

just

tasted return
iv. 552."

of
to

the

pomegranate,
De

and

therefore
the year.

received

her

freedom

and

to liberty
Ovid, Metam.

this world

only for half

Claudian,

Raptu Proserpina;.Cf. P. V. " 386.

belong also the followingmythical circumstances ; her into one of the Furies, to escape the pursuit of Neptune transformation of Lyncus into a lynx on of his perfidy1 her account ; her ; and him punishment of Erysichthon, who had violated a grove sacred to her, by afflicting with insatiable hunger2, so that he devoured limbs. at last his own
1
u.

To

the

historyof Ceres
into
a

changing herself

horse

and

Ov. Met.

v.

649.

lb. viii. 738."

Callim.

Hymn,

in Cer.

v.

29."

See

Ernesti's

Excursus, in

his ed. of Callimachus

(cited

P. V.

" 70. 2), vol.

u.

i. p. 262.

Ceres The

bore

several is

names

and

Si" epithets, as Aj/w, Qm[xo"p6pos,

and

Eleusinia,

Erinnys, "c.
3. earth.
See Knight's name

A^rr/p

by

some

derived

from

J"?for

yn

and

y-nrrip,

mothersignifying

Enquiry

into the symbol. Lang. "c.

Class. Joum-

" 63.
which of her of two
was as

One

of the most

celebrated

festivals of this Still

goddess was

the

"sd/xo^6pi,a,

maintained

the Eleusinian

having which Mysteries,

in many taughtthe use

Grecian of laws.
were

in Athens, in honor cities,especially

likewise

sorts, the greater and the less, the honored Besides and Romans these, the Greeks every fifth year. several festivals before and after harvests, e. g. the npo^poswx, and the Cerealia and the Ambarvalia.
On Binia. the Eleusinian

celebrated,however, were to Ceres, and which were latter held annually, the former only
more

sacred

her the

with

'Alwo,

Mysteries,
1619.
les
xv.

see

P. III. " 77. 4. P. IV. " 41.

"

Warburton,
les

in his Divine

Legation

of Moses.

"

/.

Meursii,Eleu"

Lugd.

Bat.
sur

4."Sainte

Croix, Recherches

histor.

et crit. sur

Mysteres
in the

(Silv.de Sacy ed.)

Mem. Mad.
Inscr.

Par.

1817. 2 vols. S.

Ouwarojf, Essai
xiii. 399.
On xiv.

mysteres d'Eleusis.
117.
see

St. Petersb.

1S15. 8." Bougainville,

xxi. 83."

Class. Jourru

165.

the Thesmophoria,

Dutheil,

as

cited P. V. " 65. 3.

On

the

Ambarvalia,

cf. P. III. " 219.

the sacrificing of a pregnant sow, in her worship were and the ceremonies Among A fox was burnt her sacred to death at burning of a fox (vulpium combustio). round with stubble and hay set on rites,with torches tied round it ; because a fox wrapt of the people of Carseoli, a burnt the growing corn fire,being let go by a boy, once of the Philistines." did the standing corn of the JEqui, as the foxes of Samson town 1.

the

"

Cf.

Ovid, Fast.

iv. 681.

"

Judges

xv.

4."

Classical

Journal, vi.
at

325.

2. The
were

ruins

of

the

famous Dr.

temple
Clarke

of Ceres visited

Eleusis,
spot. He

where found

the

statue

conspicuous when of the goddess

exertion that

the

also

great
to See

among traveler

the muldering vestiges of her once of the statue, in procured the removal

Mysteries were celebrated, a fragment of a colossal With splendid sanctuary. order to its being transported

England.
Clarle's Travels, Part ii.sect. 2. ch. 18." Land.

Quart.

Rev.

xvii. 202.

"
corn,

64. and

The

symbolical accompaniments
her usual
ornament. to

to

the

image

of Ceres exhibited

are

ears
a

of torch

the poppy,

She

is often

with

in her In head
ears

hand,

her signify

search
appears
a

after
a

Proserpine.
majestic lady with
one our

some

representationsshe composed of ears of corn,

corn

tall and

lightedtorch in

hand, and
Plate mounted XL

of

Plate

15.

carrying a bv winged
{Ov. Met.

in Thus she appears also appears a as woman country she was basket and a hoe. Sometimes dragons. Her associate Triptolemus She
v.

in the other.

garland on her poppies and 5, and in the Sup. fig.

a

cluster of the

upon

back

of

an

ox,

represented as in a chariot drawn also appears occuDying her chariot

Roman fables respecting

646).

"

65.

(17) Vesta.
as a

The

ideas conceived
and

in the Greekand

and various. exceedinglynumerous goddess were in a general Besides Gaia, the earth taken Tellus, who represented sens" Cybele to denote the earth as inhabited and cultivated: they iiragined the earth person Titaea or

P.

II.

INFERIOR

GODS.

0"ELTJS.

113

of the soil ; and the name the fertility of particularly signified the earth warmed to as was internal employed represent by heat. civil union and domestic happiness, The latter goddess also represented the household hearth. She was called the being supposed to presideover the use of fire. daughterof Saturn and Rhea, and said to have first taughtmen
Ceres
more

Vesta

or

'Eort'a

1m.

Jupiter guarantied her

vow

of
the

perpetual celibacy(Ov. Fast. iv. 249), and

younger,
to

grantedto
2.

her the firstoblations in all sacrifices. her from distinguish is the

was same

who

Vesta She is sometimes termed is also called Vesta the elder.

Cybele ("19),

Vesta

the younger

with
to

"
The

66.

The

establishment
were

of
the

familyhabitations
to

ascribed
or

Ignis or fire. Vesta, and for

of all houses.
were

this, altars
same

usually erected
done Greek
in

her

in

the

interior
that

front

was

buildingstermed
near

which Ti.pvta.veia,
at

usually
was

found

in

the

cities

their center;

Athens

(P. I. " 115)

In her

the most famous. More rarely were Rome the celebrated Palladium was
The of the

temples raised for her. supposed to be kept.

at

temple at
any

temple of Vesta erected by Numa goddess. It stillexists. Cf. P. I. "

a.

Rome

was

round, and without

image

60.

" 67
hand
a

She

was

in represented sacrifical
vase.

lamp, or
XI. Plate
"

It is,however,

long robe, wearing a veil,bearing in her a priestess more frequently of

such

Vesta that is thus

r

represented.
a seen

In

Plate

fig.10, from
3, Vesta
Vesta with
a

medal
as

the

Sup.

is drum

(Vol. i. p. 64).
sometimes also
u.

is sometimes in
one

have given by Montfaucon, we statue represented in a beautiful exhibited hand holding in one hand and an image of Victory in
were

mentioned
a

representation. In by Montfaucon javelin or a Palladium;

a

the

other.

$ 67

much were more virgins, celebrated; the mother of Romulus having belonged to the order,although their first regular institution is ascribed to Numa. and keep (Cf. P. III. " 218.) Their principal to watch duty was alive the sacred fireof Vesta, and guard the Palladium " 43). Their rigid seclusion was (cf. rewarded and a peculiarsacredness was attached to their persons. by various privileges,
1. The and if it of the fire of Vesta sudden and terrible was supposed to forbode disasters, at with was once happened, all business interrupted until expiation had been made The fire was Negligence on the part of the virgins was severely punished. ceremony. of March, by fire produced from renewed of the the rays or replaced, on the Calends year
ever our

Her priestesses the Greeks among under the name of Vestales, the vestal

widows.

But

those

among

the Romans

extinction

great
every
sun.

2. the

In
same

Plate Plate who Vol. is

XXVIII.
seen a

is Vestal
to

representation of holding the cribrum

vindicated her

priestess
or

of

Vesta, holding
a

sieve

from

statue water

a pan in honor

of of

fire. the from

In

tal Vesthe

Tuccia,
Tiber.
On

is said Max.

have

innocence

by bringing
Journ.
xv.

in

sieve

Cf.
and

viii. 2.
"

Vesta

the Vestals ; Livy, i. 20, de VAcad,

Plutarch, Life of Numa.

"

"

Class.

123,257.

xvi. 32."

Nodal,
La

Histoire dont

des les

Vestales, in the Mem.

aociens rallumoient

des Inscr. vol. iv. p. 161, 227. "c. in the Mem. Acad. Inscr.

Lipsius,de Vesta,in
p. 395.

his Worhs.~

Lupuy,

maniere

le/eu sacre,

xxxv.

II. " 68.

The

"

Gods. Mythological Historyof the Inferior

in the class, which here denominated are Inferior gods, Aurora 'Ho"? ; Nox or 'Ovpavdg Sol or "HAioj ; Luna or J.e\f\vn; or Nvl ; Tpis; iEolus or Ai'oAoj; Pan, Ilav; Latona Iris, or or Or/p?; iEsculaA^rco; Themis UXovrog ; Fortuna Tvxn ; and Fama or or pius or 'Ao-KArpriov Qiyxri or ; which ; Plutus and Romans. all common to the Greeks But to thisclass are also to be referred were several divinities, from which were the Romans peculiarto the Greeks as distinguished ; and also several, which from the Greeks as were distinguished peculiarto the Romans
are

divinities included
"

Ccelus

or

" 69.
ancient

(1) Coelus.
and

Although
the Greeks

this

god
not

was

considered His wife

as

one

of the attached

most
to

the father of

Saturn, yet
or

much

importance
was

was

his

worship either among earth,Titaea or Gaia

goddess of the the Titans, the Cyclops, and the Cenwere ; their offspring limani. Through fear that these sons would deprivehim of his kingdom, he them all to Tartarus, whence however, by the liberated, precipitated they were and the Furies aid of Saturn, who himself usurped his father's throne. Venus called daughtersof Uranus, or Ccelus. were
Romans.
the

" 70

u.

The

fictions

respectingthis god perhaps had

K

some

foundation in the history

15

114
of

GREEK

AND

ROMAN

MYTHOLOGY.

v/ould seem of Diodorus1, Uranus to have According to the account early nations. and the author of many a king of the Atlantides2, the founder of their civilization, of the heavenly other things he was useful inventions. a diligentobserver Among beforehand of their changes. Admiration able to announce bodies, and became many the use of his of such knowledge might lead to his deification. Perhaps it might occasion The idea, however, of a deity thus called, ap(Oopavdg) to signifythe heavens. name pears
been
to
1

have
Sic

been
iii.56.
v.

very
44.
2

ancient.
The Atlantides
were a

See

Hind.

people of Africa, living near

Mt.

Atlas.

" 71.

god

and

(2) Sol. Although the and of light, dispenser

another

Greeks
in view

and

Romans

worshiped Apollo
him

as

the

of this attribute named

Phoebus,
cially espesun,

yet they conceived

in the

distinct

under earlier fables,

the literal name

from Apollo distinguished divinity, to applied designatethe

viz. Sol
the and

or

"HAtoj.

These

body in the In the Homeric Hymn personal existence. of Hyperion and Euryphaessa. Eos called the son mentioned sisters. are Many circumstances, which
actual

words, therefore, were employed to express not only heavens, but also a supposed being having a separate
addressed
to

Helius,
are

he

is

and
as as

Selene

called his
are

also related of Phoebus

See

or

Apollo,when

considered

the

to him, pertaining god of the sun.

Ovid, Metamorph.
a.

ii.

of the first and one earlyprevalenceof Sun-worship,which was it that the of renders most probable, worship of this god idolatry, into consecrated to Helius. introduced Greece. was Many temples were early erected his island Rhodes The in particular sacred to him, where was was the Romans celebrated his worship was colossal statue. Among organized who been a priest solemnities had of the same with by special Heliogabalus, god in Syria, and afterwards erected a temple to his honor at Rome.

" 72

The

natural forms

Of

his

splendid

temple

at

Heliopolis

or

Baalbec Cf. P.

in

Syria,

said

to

have

been

erected

by

nus Antoni-

Pius, interesting

remains

still exist.

I. $ 166.
a

" 72 ". Sol

and
the Seasons. bear

or

Helius He

is

represented usually in
surrounded with rays,
a

juvenileform, entirely
attended drawn

clothed,and having his

which distinct
is
names.

head

and

is sometimes

riding in

chariot

by the Horee, by four horses,

1. Helius

crowned
statue

represented on coins of the Rhodians by the head of a young man in our A view of the colossal 1. Plate XIV. fig. ; a specimen is seen of Helius erected at Rhodes is given in Plate VI. reckoned This was among
with
rays
"

the

seven

wonders.
seven

2. The
across

wonders
so

of the world
a

were,

1. The

staiue

of the

Sun

at

Rhodes,

70 cubits

high, placed

its legs; 2. The large vessel could sail between or Mausoleum, sepulchre of Mausolus, 400 feet in compass, surrounded with 36 beautiful king of Caria, built of marble, above of Jupiter in Olympia Phidias IV. P. columns(P.III. (cf. 4. The $ 179); $1S7.);3.The statue ple temby the harbor that of Diana 5. The walls
at

of

Ephesus, Babylon
1);

with

built 6.

Anc.

Hist. bk.

iii. ch.

60 feet in height, with a splendid image pillars, 50 or 80 feet wide, and 60 miles in by Semiramis, The of 7. The pyramids Egypt; palace of Cyrus. 127
was

of the circuit

goddess;
(Rollin's

" 73.

(3)

Luna.

She

called Sftojvj? by the Greeks, Diana who or "Aptfjfuj, was, Luna

said brother
was

daughter of Hyperion and Theia, and descent, and story being distinct in name, however, taken as goddess of the moon.
the
men. common

was

from To
was

ascribed
be
a

to

great influence in relation to the birth of and Jupiteror In Saturn". daughter of Luna
seems

Pandia
with

her

Helius, Luna
Hymn
to Luna.

to

have

been

worshiped by especially

the

tides. Atlan-

"

Cf. Homer,

u.

Both She
the She

the Greeks
of
was

and
as

Romans

consecrated
the
moon

appropriatetemples
was

the

worship

Diana

the the

goddess of
as

much
as a

more

to her, although prevalent among

a

them.

represented like Diana

stars

in this

character,

goddess ridingin
woman

chariot

through
2.

skies, with
seen

is

represented on
in Plate A

her head

; as

her attendants. coins by the bust of a fair young XIV. 3. fig. sister of

with

crescent

on

" 74.
of the

(4) Aurora. morning or

Luna,

of the
the

same

parents,

was

the

goddess
the

day-dawn;

styled by

Greeks

3Ecojor

by 'H^lpov;

Romans, Aurora. By others she is said to have been the daughter of the giant Pallas, and therefore called Pallantias. Orion and Tithonus her prinwere cipal lovers,and Lucifer and Memnon her most The latter sons. distinguished

P.

II.

INFERIOR

GODS.

AURORA.

IRIS.

115 for his famous vocal

is memorable
statue
1. The ruins
to

for the honors

paid to
to
now

him

in

Egypt,

and

at

Thebes.
of Memnon
near

statue

is

supposed
place

be

one

of those Medinet the belief

existing at
Abou.
A

the part

present
of the the and

of ancient
now

Thebes,
British
name a

the

called

day body

the among of it is said which bids

be

in the

Museum. uttered

It is called in the sounds

by
a

Arabians of the the

Salamat,
ancient
sun,

statue
common

good
which
statue

morning,
was,

evidently originating
statue at

tradition;
it. The upon its voice the at if
a person it will

that covered
sun."

this

rising of

when

it shone heard

is

with Mr.

inscriptions by
Wilkivson

rising of
cause a J. G.

the sound

in the

lap

of this
to
a
on

colossus,
the

states, which is in
at

declaring that they had persons from experiment actually made

a

sitting posture,
as

give it
made et

blow

by himself, that with a hammer,

brass.
the Transactions de Memnon,

person

standing
contrivance 1834.
"

its foot
the

if from
of Memnon

an
was

instrument

of

See

Wilkinson,

by which
M.

statue

vocal ; in

of
"c,

the Royal in
same

Society of Literature, vol. ii. Lond. Transactions,

vol.

Letronne, InscriptionsGrecques
No.

Latines

du Colossus

iii. Lond.

1837.^.2mer.

Quart. Review, to

ix.

u.

Cephalus
him away to kill

was

insensible from

the love of Aurora

towards after his

him, although she seized

return
"

and of

bore

his beloved

Procris, whom,

to

her, he had

the

misfortune

a youth was ('Ifyirpa? apirayfi). On

the

early death by her jealousy. The through an accident occasioned frequently called in poetic language, a seizure or theftby Aurora
see

story of Cephalus,

Ovid, Metam.

vii. 661, 703.

"

75.

This
was

goddess was
sometimes
the

considered called

as

the

harbinger of
name

the

sun

and

of the

day, and
whose

by

the

literal

of the

Greeks, 'H^tlpa. By
chariot
was

drawn with

as a poets she is represented by white or light red horses, and

latter among the beautiful young woman,

who

portals of the Sun Po8o"dx'tv%o$.

She colored of the In the is described and chariot,
stars
as

rosy

fingers.
ocean

Homer

designatesher
saffron robe She

opened the by the epithet

risingfrom the the dew scattering

in

in a rose(/cpo/eon-CT-Xoc),
was

upon

the flowers.

called

the

mother

and

of the winds.

panied Sup. Plate 10, she is beautifully represented as driving in her chariot, accomby the Hours, and a flyingCupid with a torch in his hand.

the divinities

The nightwas in ancient fable and placedamong personified On of this early originshe is account daughter of Chaos. ever, of gods and men. called,in the Orphic Hymns, the mother Generally, howshe is an allegorical rather than a mythological personage ; and in such a "c. are called her children. death,dreams, the furies, sense, sleep,

" 76.

(5) Nox.
as

1 t. A black cock also offered to her as 2

u.

was

the

offeringcommonly
of the Furies.

presented

to

her.

black

sheep

was

mother

is exhibited with stars.

a

of poets, and in some According to the descriptions representations by art, she as enveloped in a long dark robe, with her head covered with a veil spangled Sometimes she has black wings, or is drawn in a chariot by two horses with
stars.

retinue of
3.

of Nox, holding in her right hand a white child, and a statue in our Plate left, representing sleep and death ; thus she appears XXXVI. She has also been described with her face veiled in black, woman a as crowned with poppies, and in a chariot drawn 2 of Plate by owls and bats. In fig. from an ancient XIV., drawn her head, and three engraved gem, she holds a veil over above it. In plate XLI. stars with a she makes splendid appearance a more appear large spangled veil,and a torch inverted ; thus she is painted in an ancient illuminated manuscript.
a

Pausanias

describes

black

child in her

" 77.

rainbow, Thaumas,
residence
to the

of *Ipt$ was (6) Iris. By the name designatedamong as and personified imagined a goddess. Her father and her mother of the daughters of Electra, one
was
near

the
was

Greeks said
to

the
be

Oceanus.
as was

Her

the throne

of

Juno, whose

commands

she bore
she rarely,

messenger

rest

messenger,

of the gods and to mortals. Sometimes, but and was by other deities. employed even

Jupiter's

1. Being the messenger of Juno, she was not unfrequently sent, on errands of strife derived from and discord ; whence have thought her name 'iptg, some strife. Others derive it from eipa, to speak or declare. She in reference had also sometimes office,which was to dying females 2u. an usually assigned to Proserpine, to cut off their hair,and thereby effect their dissolution. she descended from The rainbow the path by which was Virg. JEn. iv. 693, 704.

Olympus
3.

and
is

returned

thither.

She

appears

represented with wings having the various colors of the rainbow, and often In the Sup. Plate her commands. sittingbehind Juno as waiting to execute

116

GREEK

AND

ROMAN

MYTHOLOGY.

20, she appears descendingon a cloud. In the and Hebe, attending on Jupiter and Juno.

Sup. Plate 7, she is

both.

seen

with

Mercury
Romans

" 78.

(7) JEolus.

Under

the

name

of JEolus

Greeks

and

and storms. He of called the son was worshiped a god and ruler of winds of Neptune, and by others, of Hippotes,an ancient lord of Jupiter,sometimes the LipariIsles. From the winds, which Jupiter he received his authorityover had formed into mythical persons, and known been were by the previously afterwards considered names Zephyrus, Boreas, Notus, and Eurus, and were the
1
servants
u.

of JEolus. held them

He

imprisoned in
to

cave

of

an

island

in

the Mediterranean

sea,

and

designs or those of others, in awakening storms, He is usually described hurricanes and floods. (Cf. Horn. Odyss. x. 1. -Virg. JEn. i. 52. J by the poets as virtuous, upright, and friendlyto strangers. is thought to have island from JEohis 2. The name aioXos, changeable. The come of called on account where iEolus is said to have reigned was so Strongyle {^.TpoyybXrj), Stromboli. its round figure,the modern
loose

let them

only

further his

own

"

"

See

Heyne, the

Excurs.

ad JEn.

i. 51."

Cf. Pliny, N. two

H.

iii.8.
as representations blowing into a shell a

3. In

Sup.
short

Plate

19.

are

vigorous
while Nettuno of his

man

supporting
mantle

himself is

in

engravings marked the air by wings

wind
;

of

JEolus. like

In
a

one,

is

trumpet
an

Triton,
near

in
one

Italy, with
of the

the

waving in the inscription Ara

perhaps
Eurus

this

is from ; and In b.
"

bas-relief

on

altar, the
a

found

Venlorum
;

it

probably
other,
on corner

is
we

merely
have

winds,

cf. $ 108

the

representation fragment of of the of

a

which in bas-relief stone, originally contained square with its twelve within were sculptured signs, which

representation
circle;
;

of the
outer

circle

Zodiac circle with four

the

the

edge
bust
one

the
man

Jupiter, Diana, Mercury, and Venus wings on the forehead, blowing with inflated cheeks, of the piece having principal winds, the other corners
appear the busts
See

of

in the

is the represents

of

which had

probably
each
a

of

the

wind

represented

in it.

Moiitfancon, Antiq. Expl. vol. i. plate ccxxiv.

One of the most Pan, (8) Pan. singularof the inferior gods, was the god of shepherds and worship was universally regarded. He was and fields,and whatever His herdsmen, of groves pertained to rural affairs. the derived from He be said the to was was son worship probably Egyptians. of Mercury and Dryope; but his genealogy was His favorite variously stated.

" 79.

whose

residence

was

in

the

woods
a

and

mountains

of Arcadia. his

From
led

his love of
seven

to

Syrinx, who was changed into Teeds, and called it by her name.

reed1, he formed
His

shepherd-pipe out
him whose

pride in
invented which

this invention
a

into

his

unlucky
was

contest
to

with

Apollo2.
a

He

also

war-trumpet,
rise
to

sound

terrific
or

the foe ;

circumstance3

gave

the

phrase, panic

fear
i

terror

Sn,/xa). (rtavtxoj'
a

Ob. Metaon.

i. 682. was

lb.

I.

146."

Pausan.

Phoc.

23.

" 80.
sacred

Pan

originally, among
the
name

the

Egyptians,worshiped in
In

the form

of

goat, and
to

under

of Mendes1.

Greece, Arcadia

was

him, and here he is said to have given oracles on Mount called Avxaiu introduced by Evander festivals, by the Greeks, were among called Lupercalia2. Goats, honey, and milk were the Romans, and by them
His the usual
i

especially Lycaeus.

to offerings
a

Pan.

Herod,

ii. 46.

o". Fast name

ii. 31, 267.

u.

His
that

Greek he
was

it

was

derived The

from Romans
of

stance IIoi", signifyingthe whole or all, had reference to the circumconsidered the god of all the natural world ; or, according to others, of shepherds and their niu {to feed), and referred to his patronage called him likewise
of the

flocks.
2.
to
"

Inuus, Lupercus, Maenalius, and

a

Lycaeus.
he appears
some

The

have

figure been originally

believed Homer
or

Pan

(cf. Sil. Ital. xiii. 326) is

a

rude

symbol
Mundi,
directed."
or

of

the

universe, god
does

and

personification
that the entire

jSnima
was

terrestrial
"

soul, by which
not

ancient the poems

nations of

universe

This

appear

in

Hesiod.

His image was 3 u. generally human only in part, having commonly the form of a sharp-pointed and standing erect, with short horns, a flat nose, a body satyr, with ears covered with hair or spotted,and the feet and legs of a goat. 4. Such is his image in Plate XIV. 4, and in Sup. Plate 15 ; in both of which he has fig. in
one

hand In

crooked

staff and

in the

other
was

him.
to

some

representations, his head

pipe of reeds, and an amphora crowned with pine, which

the and

lies beside
was

sacred

him.

" 81.
ranked

She was called A^fw (9) Latona. by of Apollo and Diana, place as mother among the deities. superior She
was

Greeks, and
on

held
was or

guished distinoften
and

this

account

daughter of

Cceus

Polus

P.

II.

INFERIOR

GODS.

THEMIS.

-ESCTJLAPITJS.

117 of

Phoebe, and
Juno
was

one

adjured the goddess of earth to allow Latona no place to bring forth her offspring.Neptune, however, granted the But here she found no island Delos for the purpose. sure asylum, and fled to hindered from quenching her thirst at a lake by some Lycia, where1 she was
excited she

of the objects of against her, and

love. Jupiter's

The

jealousyand

anger

peasants.
severe
was

These her

offenders

wife the

in the vengeance of Amphion king of Thebes. latter

engaged
slew
into
a

both the
stone.
Ov.

her
seven

their arrows,
was
"

changed into frogs. Still more a daughter of Tantalus and the divinity Niobe of Latona, and slighted and her ; they, by to Diana, children, Apollo avenge and seven of who sons Niobe, daughters by grief
were

in

return

"

case

of

Niobe2,

changed
Ov. Metam.

vi. 335.

Melam.

xi. 321.

See also

" 38.

"
at to

82.

This

goddess was
in many

honored of the

in Lycia, on particularly cities. In Crete

a

the

island Delos,
was

Athens, and

Grecian

festival

sacred

her, called 'ExSvaia.

1
u.

is sometimes spoken of as the goddess of night ; and it is possible that originated in this idea, derived from ArjSu, to be concealed, as nature was and Moon buried in profound darkness before the birth of the Sun or Apollo and Diana. with a black veil, so is usually represented as 2. She a large and comely woman vein in the stone. painted, or in engraved gems expressed by a dark-colored Latona her
name

of the most one goddess of justice ("^j) was and Titsea. celebrated To her is Titanides, or daughters of Uranus of oracles,and also the first introduction of sacrifices ascribed the first uttering and 'Eipyp/t], into Greece. She had by Jupiterthree daughters, Auxr], 'Ewo^t'a, called who the Moras which are were commonly represented by the (""2pcu),

" 83.

(10)

Themis.

The

of the

'

but particularly as over goddesses presiding poets in various lights, and

the division
a

distribution of time

(" 105).
a

Astoea

also

was

by

some

called

daughter

of Themis.
1
to
was
u.

Astrosa
account

was

likewise
the

Ovid's

(Met. i. 149),

called

placed among Erigone.

rather of property ; and, according or goddess of justice, the last of the divinities to quit the earth. She was of Virgo, anciently constellations of the Zodiac under the name

and 2. Astraea, who the was was Aurora, according to some daughter of Titan represented Att. xiv. 4) as a virgin with hand (cf. Aul. Oell. Noct. a stem a pair countenance, holding in one of balances, in the other and sword she in the a or or a long rod or scepter ; thus spear appears

Sup.
3

Plate
u.

18, drawn
was

from

an

engraved

gem.

who goddess, Nemesis, Nejkeo-k, was supposed to judge towards respectingmoral actions, and to exercise vengeance unrighteousness. She was that Adrastus called Adrastia first erected a temple sometimes, from the circumstance from having a temple at Rhamnus to her, and also Rhamnusia in the territory of Attica.
4. of the ribin At her
"

There

stillanother

temple
In

in Rhamnus XXXVI.

was are

large

and

beautiful

Phidias. wheel

Plate

two

at her feet; in one appears attached other representation ; in the

Zerstreuten

representations has she wings,

she holds
a

ranked statue, of Nemesis, from and holds in one rod

or

among ancient hand

a

the

best

works in each with

a

gems; branch

scepter.

See Herder's

Blattern, Samml.

2. p. 213.

"

84.

as (11) JEsculapius. In proportion

men

in the
of

earlyages
was

were

rant igno-

of the readiness
viewed
as

and efficacy
who

use

of remedies

for disease, there

the
art

the

of those
to

were

in distinguished

healing, and

miration greater adthe greater

the

Coronis1. celebrated

was iEsculapius,who god of Medicine, and said to be the son of Apollo and the nymph called his daughter, and two Hygeia, the goddess of health, was and physicians belonging to the age of the Trojan war, Machaon

deify

them.

Hence

the

deification

of

called his sons, and Podalirius,were killed with a thunderbolt culapius was
most

honored

like

him

after their death.

MsHis

by
at

Jupiter,at the

request of Pluto.
he
was

celebrated
the
Melam.

under
i

form
ii.591.

and temple grove of a serpent.

2

was

where Epidaurus2,

worshiped

Ov.

Ov. Met.

xv

622. at

1. The of

ruins

of
a

Yero,
the

god
2

health

still visible are temple at Epidaurus corruption perhaps of 'Updv (sacra aides). medical yet may springs and wells, which the
2. ch.

the

place
weie

now

called this

Jero,
seat

There be

at

ancient

pronounced of

traced.
Mead. Inscr, xxi. 28.

Clame's
u.

Travels, part ii. sect.

xv."Frtnt,

Culte

rendu

iEsculapius, in the Mem.

a

The wound

free

or

serpent about

was

usually attached

as

symbol

to

the

image of this god, either

staff,expressing the idea of health, or prudence and

foresight.

118

GREEK

A.ND

ROMAN

MYTHOLOGY.

3. In

Plate is

XIV.

serpent
stands

eating.
;
on

fig.6, JEsculapius holds in In the Sup. Plate 21, lie is

his left is the trunk of
a

one seen

hand
as

round in

vase an

or

patera,

from

which delineated

presented
which

ancient

statue ; on
as

in Montfaucon

tree,

around

the

of jEsculapius, and said to be a son was was Telesphorus, who here, as in all representations convalescents; Telesphorus appears his head. his arms and whole iEsculapius body, with a hood upon thus
on a

winds serpent considered of and in

his the

a him, Telesphorus

robe

right god of covering

gether to-

appear

coin

of Caracalla.

4.

Hygeia
Romans

may

be

considered

as a

the

same

with

the Roman
One

The
near

honored

Salutaris. She was her temple, was right hand and a serpent in her left. Her altar had it. his head upon lifting her
In

Salus with called Porta

temple and festivals.

a

goddess of health, Salus. of the city-gates, being

with
a

represented
serpent
beautiful

bowl

in

twining round
statue;
a

it and

Sup.
with

Plate
one

21,
hand is

we

have raised

rock,
a

and

large serpent

advancing

a representation of Hygeia from holding a scepter, and the other her lap. his head over

she towards

sits

on

holding

bowl,

which

" 85.
rather

(12) Plutus.
His

The

god

of riches, Tl\ovto$,
his
name

was

probably of allegorical
is but the
son

than

since mythical origin,

was was

in Greek

common

term

for wealth. Crete. his usual

as

father, accordingto the fable, was

Jasion, a
birth

of

by Jupiter

Electra, and his mother

as Jupiter,

it
was

beautiful region in represented,deprivedhim of sight,and allegorically

Ceres,

who

gave

him

in

residence
the

low
as

beneath

the earth.

"

By

some

Plutus

is considered this

the

same

personage
case.

Pluto, ruler of the world

of

and spirits,

may

have
1
u.

been

It is not

remarks,
in the in her
2.
"

arms arms.

known represented. Pausanias visibly by what figure he was he appeared in the form of that in the temple of Fortune at Thebes, the goddess of Peace held him as of that goddess, and at- Athens
was

barely
an an

infant infant

Plutus

blind and
come a

and lame, injudicious, He is fearful and

care."

large estates
their
treasures

slowly.
Of
to
a

mighty timorous. timorous, because

was

He rich

is

cause lame, bewatch

men

with

great deal of fear and

"

86.

(13) Fortune.

like
was

character allegorical

Tvxri, Fortuna,

whom

ascribed

the

distribution

the goddess of Fortune, and the superintendence Greeks

she had

of prosperityand

adversity in general. Among

the

temples
Rome,
made

and in Italy, before the building of Elis, Corinth, and Smyrna; and especially at she was honored Prameste. The at Antium, Romans
at

her

worship in general very splendid, and

from different occasions;
as

gave

her various

ginating oriepithets

Fortuna

Publica, Equestris, Bona, Blanda,

of Fortune, of the which
or were

Muliebris, Virgo, Virilis,

1
u.

"c.
were

In

the

temple
gave

at

Antium

two

statues

consulted of the
one

as

oracles, and
Similar richest and
See Horace,

answer

by winks

and
at

nods

head,

divinations were practiced also celebrated. most

Odes,1. i. od.
35.

Praeneste,where

by means her temple was

lot.

of

the

(Ad Fortunam)

Cf. P. in.

" 222.
on

2.

"

The

goddess of Fortune
sometimes
as

is her

plenty and
wheel

two
an

in

in her hand

emblem prow
rudder

wings, and treads

Her

upon
XIV.

the

ancient monuments with a horn of is blindfolded, and generally holds a of her inconstancy. Sometimes she appears with of a ship,and holds a rudder in her hands."

represented
hands.

She

image
;

in Plate

fig.9, is
a

taken ;
a

from wheel
sun

an

Imperial coin;
her.
On

in her the head.

left

hand

is

horn appears

of

plenty
without

her the

right
wheel,

rests

upon with the

is behind and
moon

In

Sup.

Plate

18, she

images

of the

her

" 87.
to

(14) Fame.

The

goddess styled ^fiy, or Fama,

her the

was

also
who

of

rical allegobirth order the

a

origin. Virgilcalls
this she

youngest
overthrow

daughter of Earth,
of her
sons,

gave
in

child, in revenge
She had
a

for the

the of
was

Giants;
honored

that

might divulge universally the

place
was

scandalous
the author

conduct and

Jupiterand
with

other gods.

in

the

Greek
as

Theogony,
and

temple at good and

1
u.

Athens. bad. poets

iv. 173."

She

viewed

spreader of reports

both

The

accompanied by
Cf. Vxrss.Ma.

vain

represented her as having wings, always awake, always flyingabout, fear, groundless joy, falsehood and credulity.
xii. 39." Stat. Theb. iii.426.

Ov. Met.

2. In

the

Sup.

fly,with

her

18, is a representation finger pointing upwards.

Plate

of

Fame

with

her

wings

extended

as

just ready

to

common

" 88. (15) Dailies peculiar to the Greeks. and Romans, each to the Greeks
be

Athough
nation

must

included

in the

class of

Gods. Inferior

deities were generally the same some peculiarto itself. These Those peculiar to the Greeks were had

120

GREEK

AND

ROMAN

MYTHOLOGY.

of plenty in the left."" In the Sup. waist, and holding in his right hand fruit,and a crown 23, the horn is in his left hand, and the fruit in his right; he is fully draped, with the head and This be supposed to hanging from his shoulder. leg of a swine correspond to his statue may mentioned (Verr. i.) and by Horace by Cicero (Epis. 20) as standing in a street of Rome. ancient In the same Plate is a representation of Pomona, from monument an ; she is without in one in the hand and of a other, resting against the trunk a melon drapery, holding a flower which of fruit is suspended. a basket tree, from the Plate

Flora. The Romans had also a particulargoddess of blossoms and flowers, of Flora. She is said to have been the same as they worshiped under the name the Grecian but a nymph Chloris; although others maintain, that she was originally been But this goddess seems Roman courtezan. not to have to the wholly unknown of her made Greeks, since Pliny (N. H. xxxvi. 5) speaks of a statue by Praxiteles. She was She had a represented as very youthful, and richlyadorned with flowers. of April, called festival and games celebrated at Rome, (Ov. Fast. v. 283)*in the month of unbounded licentiousness. Floralia; they presented scenes
4
m.

whom

The however have In horn

indecency
to

of this rather

festival than of

was

checked it

on

one

occasion Max.

by
name

the

retire

witness
an

(Valer.
woman

ii. 10).

By
of

some

presence the Flora.

on

of Cato, who festival

chose
to

is said and

been
our

instituted Plate XIV.

on

in honor

infamous

by
with in
a

the

of

of

plenty
a

fig.5, Flora her left arm;

statue, Farnese Flora

is
as once

represented
she
at

appears

several

given
with

from the

beautiful

Rome,

and

garland antiques. copied by Le Brun;

flowers In

her

head,

Sup.
not

Plate

23, she
identical

is

however

celebrated

(cf. P. IV.

$ 186. 11).

the Romans, groves, among rich temple on Mount also was Soracte, where a sacred to her. honored the patroness of enfranchised She was slaves as specially grove in her temple. received their liberty It was (P. III. " 324), who ordinarily pretended
5w.
was

Feronia.

Another She

nurseries, and goddess of fruits,

a

Feronia.

had

very

that the real votaries of this derived according to some was

to

goddess could walk

from
a

unhurt

on

burning coals.
near

Her
:

name

town,

called Feronia,

Mt.

Soracte

ing accord-

her whom

producing trees,

6m.

rural
On
a

to the slave ; or from that of bringing relief(fero) causing them to bear fruit. Pales (from pabulum), to Pales. Another class, was goddess of the same assigned the care of pasturage and the feeding of flocks. In her honor a was of April, called Palilia or festival ( Ov. Fast. iv. 721) was held in the month
or

others, from

the idea of her

Parilia.
the festival distance of the of Pales the

shepherds
of

certain
rest

the
to

they danced ; then the fume cattle with

and

in a particular order and at placed little heaps of straw then them; leaped over they purified the sheep and The laurel, sulphur, and the like. design was rosemary, drive of
as

the appease to cattle.

goddess,
Milk,
Pales

that

she

might
made

away

the

wolves,
offered surrounded

and
to

to

prevent

the

diseases render

dent incithe

and

wafers is

pastures 7.

fruitful.

represented

millet, were old lady, an

her, that she might by shepherds.

rural recognized gods and goddesses of inferior character were find Bubona, having the care the minor rural goddesses, we Among of seed planted in the earth ; Hippona, preof oxen ; Seia or Segetia, having the care siding of the valleys; Runhorses; Collina, goddess of hills; Vallonia, empress over watch over cina, the goddess of weeding ; Volusia, with several other goddesses, who the corn in its successive vented insteps to maturity (cf." 5. 3) ; Mellona, the goddess who the male deities of the same find the art of making honey. class, we Among of manuring ; and Pilumnus, Occator, the god of harrowing ; Stercutius, the inventor the inventor of the art of kneading and baking bread.

Numerous

other

by the Romans.

period of the Republic and during the first ages of the Empire, Almost of divinities was augmented. profession and system greatly every thus became employment and condition in life had its tutelar god or gods, whose names obtained a universal worship. For a knowledge of these, innumerable, but who never mainiyindebted to the writings of the Christian Fathers,especially Augustinus we are 'Kde Civitate Dei, 1. iv.), againstpolytheism. To this class belong, for example, Bellona,
" 92 m. the Roman In the latter the Greeks (" 46) ; goddess of war, corresponding in some degree to 'Evwj among the goddess of succor and Anculce, deities presidingover servants ; Anculi ; goddess of leisure ; Strenua, goddess of diligence ; Laverna, goddess of theft; Cunina, goddess of cradles, "c. the

Juturna, Vacuna,
Diseases

were

exalted she

into
not

deities.

Febris and
so

(fever), e.
of others of

worshiped
noxious

that

might
Tac.

hurt;

her altars and g. had this species. Mephitis

"

temple, and was was goddess of

exhalations.

Hist.

iii. 33.

consideration at Rome. mention Victoria, a deity of much The adorned senate was by her altar, and a statue in which she appears as " female, standing on a globe, with flowing garments, expanded wings, and a majestic the altar of laurel in her out-stretched The senators hand." on were a crown sworn between the pagans of this goddess to observe the laws of the empire. A contest arose the removal and the Christians on this subject,the latter finally of this altar effecting

" 93.

Here we hall of the

should

of

Victory.
Advers.

See Pmdentiw,

Symmachum,

cf. P. V.

" 387.

In

our

Plate

XIV.

fig.10, and

in the

Sup.

Plate

18,Victory is

seen

as

represented

in the

statue

mentioned

above.

PLATE

XIV.

122

GREEK

AND

ROMAN

MYTHOLOGY.

add those To the gods already mentioned, we Emperors. may Thus and their favorites. by the apotheosis of the emperors elevated the to a Ca3sar, an Augustus, a Claudius, an Antinous, and others, were in their lifetime Sometimes this was done rank of gods. by the vilest adulation,but frequently after death, in order to flatter their descendants. more 94 which
m.

Deified

were

constituted

It would
our

division. of
m.

probably They
the Roman

be

as

should

rank to proper be mentioned

the in

deified this from

emperors Greek.
were

place,

however,

(cf.} 133) in the as belonging

fourth

class

of the

strictlyto

number

divinities,in and Vices.

distinction

to give a personal reaccustomed presentation to virtues and vices ; and qualities, which ever, howin this way originated a multitude of divinities purely allegorical, were, with honored sometimes mingled with the mythological, and were temples, vidiam, Such were Virtus, Honor, Pietas, Inrites, and significantimages and symbols.

" 95

Virtues
to

The

poets

abstract

ideas, especiallyto

moral

Fraus,
Virtus
was

and

the

like.
in the habit of of
an

worshiped
stood bare of bands close heads. Fides and

elderly
and
was

woman

of Honor Honor The covered with

by

that

Virtus,

sitting on a approached by it.

square The

stone.

"

The

ple temto

priests

sacrificed

temple
their and

(good
heads

faith) stood
with
a

near

the

white

cloth.

Her

Capitol. The priests in sacrificing to her hands a white symbol was dog, or two
Her of image is on some lightly the skirts the in likeness XIV. of
a

joined,
The is in the

sometimes of of

temple
form

two virgins shaking hands. in the herb-market. Spes (hope) was a woman standing, with her left hand
a

the

coins.

She

holding
to

of her drawn

garments,
with this
a

and in her right inscription, Spes medal A of of Titus.

plate, with
P. R.

sort to

Similar

this

of cup it fashioned on is her appearance

flower;

Plate

fig.8,
who fed

from

temple
her
own

to

Pietas

was

dedicated mother altars. in

in the

place
Cf. held
on a a

where N.
bowl

that H.

woman c.

lived 36. hand,

with of

the

milk in

breasts had Such

her

Concordia the left.

from XIV. a state, in Plate fig.11, taken hands coin. Her two consular symbol was joined together and a pomegranate. had of Rome, Pax finished In the later periods a magnificent temple in the Forum, by very The In Plate Vespasian. or goddess of peace security is often represented on Imperial coins. from of XIV. coin of she with Titus, a as a woman a spike resting on a column, appears fig.12, appearance,

many is her

prison. Her image

sitting

Plin. chair

vii.

in the of

right

and

horn

plenty

wheat Fraus

in the
was

left hand,

and

represented scorpion's sting.

Invidia snakes. is described Ov. Metara.

with

like the scepter face a human

wand and
a

of Mercury

in the

right, held
in the end of

over

tripod.
was a

serpent's
in
a

body
and

her and

tail

a meager as ii. 761.

skeleton, dwelling
to

dark

gloomy

cave,

feeding

on

" 96.

worship
1.

Gods. It is Foreign introduced partially was the

proper
at

notice

here

some

whose Egyptian deities,

first

of Jupiter by Niobe, and to have ruled He is said to have son illustrious an Argives, and afterwards, leaving them, to have become is by many said to be the same with Isis, who king of the Egyptians. His wife was the Io, daughter of Inachus, who was according to the fables changed by Jupiter into in a chest and concealed Osiris was and his corpse at length slain by Typhon, a cow. into the Nile. thrown Isis, after much search, by the aid of keen-scented dogs found The island near the body, and placed it in a monument on an Memphis. Egyptians the ox to represent and chose him, because as some paid divine honor to his memory, after the body of Osiris was interred, or according to appeared to them say a large ox Osiris had instructed them in agriculture. others,because Osiris.
over

Rome. been the

Osiris
a

was

generally represented
left hawk. Plate

with

a a

cap

on

his

head three

like

mitre,

with

two

horns he

he

held with

stick head the

in his of
a

hand,

and

in his

right

whip
marked

with

thongs.

Sometimes of Osiris. Isis. in

a as

appears

the In

Sup.
to
a

26,

are

two

engravings

as

colossal

another Cf. that Plate of

sculpture,
Ant.

statue, and shows

dug

and up at Rome, the hawk's head.

"

taken In

representations for an by some

XV.
a

The

first is

cording ac-

The
a

second

is from
"

Plate

he

is

seen

sitting posture.
on

Montfaucon,
the VIII.

Exp.
a

vol.

ibis with

serpent

2. p. 278, 290. The image of in its bill,have been taken

haiok

with

vessel emblems

by

some

its head, and of Osiris j see

2.

Isis.

She
over

was

the wife of

of Osiris.
come

Io
to

after her
of

metamorphosis
the

is said, after there

she
was was

wandering
restored
the
to

the

earth, to have
a woman. cow

the banks

the form

She
was

deified by the
sistrum.

Egyptians. The
as

reigned after her employed as her symbol,

in her of
net.

Nile, husband's

and

murder,
more

and

but

commonly
of
corn.

Isis is often

represented
appears

holding
in

a a

globe
sort

hand,
On deities
on a

with
some

vessel

full of she is

eaTS

Her

body
In

sometimes
son

enveloped
who is also is
seen

monuments

holds

in her

lap

child, her
the
:

Horus. Plate head In

as

ranked into

Sup.
her
own

26,

she

among holding her of

a as

the
son,

of

Egypt.
head
on a

whose hawk
on

cap

surmounted surmounted
the
same

globe
a

is formed Plate
on

that is
seen

cow,

with

the Isiac

forehead,
Table. In

by a by
Plate

Horus

singular cap. is given

have of Venus and and

XV. that
Isis
as

she

represented
sun

the

found
Osiris

Table. representing
the
"

Some to that of the

considered

and

and

the

moon.

Their
have been

story is by pointed
Germ.

others out

viewed

as

corresponding
Isa~
a

Adonis.

(Cf Knight's Enquiry, "c.) goddess .worshiped among

numerous
the

Some

resemblances tribes of

between
"

Isis and Creuzer's

deity

Hindoos,

Disa,

northern

Europe
were

(cf.Tac

9).

See

Symbolifc.
re-

The

Egyptians had

festivals which

connected

with

the

fables

P.

II

INFERIOR

GODS.

FOREIGN

GODS.

123

specting Isis and

Isia
;

Osiris.
nine

The
senate.

chief festival
was

adopted by the Romans

with such

was

termed
as

the be
at

which

lasted

days, and
monument,

attended

licentiousness

to

length prohibited by
The Isiac Table is
a

the

curious

which

receives obtained where

its
at

name

from A. D

its

the mysteries of Isis. The represent original was time into the cabinet of Mantua, of the duke some

Rome,
at
near

it remained

until Turin. the

being supposed to after 1525, and came the pillage of that

It is described
as a

city, A.
tablet "covered is divided of

D.

1630;

it is said
or

to
"

be almost

now

(1839)
four feet

in the

royal gallery

copper with into

bronze,

silver three

mosaic, skilfully inlaid equal compartments by

subdivided in the

long, and of pretty ground-work ;" "the

two

same

breadth

;"

and

horizontal lines
at

lines of

compartment
a

being
larger
are one

by

two

perpendicular
a

It being a black enamel." hieroglyphics; the middle hieroglyphics into three compartments, of of it. The five whole in of
our

center, with with In

and

smalier

one

each

side

thus

formed
a

crowded crowded this Table.

figures,with
figures and
that Plate

by
in
A "It

border,

also

all drawn
a

from

hieroglyphics interspersed. The hieroglyphics. The engravings Isis is given as seen in the center
Ant.

compartments is surrounded Plate XV.

are

the

Table, sitting
as

splendid gate-way.
fine engraving of the is given
"

whole

Table

with

some

explanation, is given by Montfaucon,

Expl. vol. ii. p. 340,

cited " 12. 2 (d). Prof. Hist. Con

also

in

Caylas,Recueil
vol. vii. 83.
"

des Antiquites, vol. vii. p. 34, cited P. III. " 13. 2."

Cf. Shuckford, Sacr. and

bK. vii).

Encycl.Jtmeri.
the
most

Mayo,

Mythology,

vol. ii. 82. at

Among
which and
on

remarkable it
are

ruins

discovered

Pompeii,
The

is

Temple
was

surrounded the outside

was

almost with

entirely preserved.
a a

temple
had
was

itself form

of Tsis. entirely
a

The built and and which

columns of brick,
was not

covered surrounded weather.

covered,
for
a

but

by
"In

It solid stucco. very covered gallery, which this

the

of

square,

supported
all the the

by columns,
instruments had been

served tain apper-

shelter
to

in bad

temple
the in the

have middle

been

found of

the

of their of the occupations which candelabra, lamps, sistrums, the vases lustral the in the of kettle the to preserve libations, a kind water, paters employed intestines of the victims, cushions which of the goddess Isis when on they placed the statue they offered sacrifices of the divinity with which to her, the attributes the temple was adorned, "c, have of a lotus ; the figure of an Many of these vases ibis,of a hippopotamus, are, still shown. vestments, contained the cinders and coals
on

and

buried

religious ceremonies, and of cinders by the shower

even

skeletons

priests, who

surprised ministry. Their

the

altars, the

still more in which them found important, they were exactly in the situation be no doubt The walls now to their as used, so that there can reality and their use. of the temple were adorned with paintings, relating to the worship of the goddess; there were of their order of white vestments were linen, the heads : their figures of priests in the costume with the of the officiatingpriests were a fine thin lace, through which shaved, their feet covered muscles might be distinguished." Stuart, Diet, of Architecture, article Pompeii. and what
were

renders

they

3.

than
was or

This is the name Apis. distinct deity. The a

of the
ox

ox

in which

Osiris known
on

was

thus

sort

all black, excepting a square of half-moon his right side on

honored was spot of white

; on

supposed to reside, rather by certain marks ; his body

a an

his back

his forehead, and the figure of was

white
of
was

crescent

eagle ; under
hair upon
then
season balmed, em-

his tongue a sort of knot resembling a beetle {cantharus) ; and two sorts his tail. This ox was His body permitted to live twenty-five years. solemnities. placed in a chest, or Zopo;, and buried with many
"

of

mourning then followed, until a new Apis, or ox properly marked, was brought to into the sight. It is a curious fact that Belzoni, who succeeded in finding an entrance second of the great pyramids of Egypt, found in the corner of a large and high chamber in the interior of the pyramid a Sopdc, which, on being carefullyopened, presented
the bones Mnevis
at In each Plate

of

an

ox.

is the

name

of the sacred is described

ox
as

consecrated

to

the

Sun, and worshiped

to

cially espe-

Heliopolis. He
XV.
are

being white.
the head Isiac of

is attended the

perhaps
Cf. Lond. iii.84."

two representations, by two priests; under eating-trough of the sacred

"

from the

Table, supposed
is
a

each

standard

be Apis and Mvevis; supporting something!

animal.
les Egyptiens Mem. rendoient
aux

Quart. Rev. xix. 201. Blanchard,

Des

Bonier, L'Orig. du culte que respectes en Egypte, in

the

animaux,
as

in the

Mem.

Acad.

Inscr.

Also

animaux

$-c ix. 20."

Prichard,

cited " 12. 2 ( f }.

4.
same

of the Egyptian deities, considered This was Serapis. one with Osiris. Magnificenttemples, generally called Serapea, of
an

by
were

some

to

be
to

the him

erected

tale of the reTacitus relates a marvelous moval Canopus, and Alexandria. shore Enxithis god from Sinope, on of the Pontus the southern The to Alexandria. worship of the god existed, however, in Egypt at a much nus, the emunder introduced earlier period. The Rome perors, at mysteries of Serapis were
at

Memphis,

of effigy

from

body
In of the

Some abolished of their licentiousness. account but soon on Sopoc and "Am;, as having signifiedat first merely the chest or of Apis was deposited.
"

derive
box

the

name

in which

the

form of Serapis; resembling to the remarkable as statue have a very Sup. Plate 24, we in Sup. Plate 10; around Ephesia body that of Cybele in Sup. Plate 5, and that of Diana the head tail is grasped in the hand of Serapis, while the body twines a huge serpent, whose various the folds of the serpent the portions between at his feet; on figures of perare sons appears Roman and animals. have in the In the Sup. Plate 25, we another, more style; Serapis faucon raised his feet; one in earnest action; given by Montsits, in full drapery, with sandals arm on of Fauvel. In the same Plate is another representation from as belonging to the cabinet with the in his right hand, and Mraxas (cf. P. IV. J 200. 2); he holds a spear an points upward of a face and beard In all these the notice stands at his side. other; a Cerberus images we of Serapis. is the mark Jupiter,and also the calathus or basket on the head which the
"

124

GREEK

AND

ROMAN

MYTHOLOGY.

It his been

supposed by some, legends connected

1642."

and

(he notion
the

is adopted by Dr. E. D. Clarke, that

of this

the Egyptian

Apis

was

symbol of Joseph; and

that the various Gentili.

Amst.

with

worship

god

grew

out

of the

history of that patriarch." Cf. Fossius, de Theologia

Claris, Travels, P. ii.sect. 2. ch. 5.

This was another in fable with Osiris. He was deity connected said of Osiris, and to have accompanied Isis in her search after her husband. He is represented as having the head of a dog. He is also called Hermanubis ; or, as others say, the latter is the name of another deity of a similar character.
to

5. Anubis. be

the

son

He

appears
"

to

be

represented

in

the

monument

exhibited

in

our

Plate

XVIII.

fig.B.

Cf

In the Sup. Plate have The first is from of marble $ 34. 2. 27, we a piece images of Anubis. from with foot on he stands Boissard; sculpture one a crocodile, given by Montfaucon holding in his left hand and in the right a short rod attached to a globe ; by his head a caduceus, on ont side is a palm- leaf, on also the the other head of Serapis, a laurel -branch; on his right is seen and 6E0I Plate bow
on

his

left that

of is

AAEA"t"OI,
is drawn and
arrow.

from

circumstance the inscription on the original monument, Apis, from which The other supposed to designate Serapis, Apis, and Anubis. image in this with the Roman of mail coat and an engraved a presenting Anubis gem;

considered Cvnocephalus is by some in Egyptian to be the same as Anubis; but this name into a divinity. The term mythology merely designates the dog as converted Cynocephali is ap-. of beings said to exist writers in Asia to a race plied by Greek (Diod. Sic. iii. 34). The image in of Cercopithecus, as under the name Sup. Plate 27, is given by Montfaucon, being the monkeygod of Egypt. iELimus at designates the cat, as deified by the Egyptians, and especially honored Bubastis; Diana animal. Their whence the name Bubastis, applied to the same images are given in Sup. Plate 27.

He is supposed to be the same 6. Hakpo of Isis,and was crates. Horus, son as He was honored much the Romans, who worshiped as the god of Silence. among of their temples. He was at the entrance placed his statues usually represented in the figure of a boy, crowned with an Egyptian mitre, which ended it at the points as he held a horn of plenty, while a linger of his right buds ; in his left hand in two were hand was his lipsto command fixed upon silence and secrecy.
Cf. Porphyry, Cave of Nymphs

(cf.P. V. " 199. 2)." Class. Journ.

an

iii. 142."

Mongez,

Recueil

des Antiquites.

Par.

1804.

4.

In Plate IV.

XLVII. In the

fig.1, from Sup.

has the from

" 198.
because

head-covering,
he hound of

Diana,

have Abraxas, we Harpocrates sitting on flower; him with presents a 25, the first image of Harpocrates singular shoulder. The descends below the second is remarkwhich able, a large horn the owl of Minerva, the wing of Mercury, the panther-skin of Bacchus, the of plenty. the horn serpent of iEsculapius, together with the lotus cf. P. Plate

7.

Canopus.

He

is said

to

his

expedition to India.
of the Nile.
all the of
one

In the

the pilotor admiral have been Egyptian mythology he seems

of the fleet of Osiris in the god of the be to

waters

Nearly
at

representations
of those
vases

of in

him which with

the the

top
vase

of
our

is VIII.

frequently

covered

of a person animal or appearing by the head of that river; the body Egyptians kept the waters such given in hieroglyphics. Two representations are
are

formed

the

Plate

III.

"

Mythical Beings, whose

historyis intimatelyconnected gods.

The

with

that

of

the

"

97.

(1) Titans
fables of Saturn
as sons

and

Giants. Greeks.
whom

the ancient
account

of the

(" 14), to
or

of the Titans are celebrated in enterprises They have alreadybeen mentioned in the brothers, being generallyconsidered they were
and

of Uranus
or

Ccelus

Titaea.

The
common

oldest

was

and

from

Saturn, viz. Hyperion, Casus, daughters besides Rhea, wife Japetus, Crius, ; called Titanides. of Saturn, viz. Themis, Mnemosyne, Thy a, Phoebe, and Tethys, however of their rebellion against Uranus, in which Saturn and On account took no part, the Titans were hurled by their father down to Tartarus, Oceanus With Saturn also they afterfree by the aid of Saturn. set wards whence they were
and Oceanus

their mother, they derived their five sons besides tradition assignedto Uranus

him,

name.

called Titan, The prevalent

and

likewise

five

contested

the

throne, but

speaking of
The The and
number number

Vulcan

(" 52), may

be

unsuccessfully. The Cyclops, mentioned considered as belongingto the Titans.

in

is given variously; Apollodorus mentions 13, Hyginus 6. The is strikof one of them, Japetus, is stated by some. ingly name in the Bible, whose descendants similar to Japhet, mentioned peopled Europe f that in the Greek it is remarkable traditions Japetus is called the father of man of
45

of the Titans

hind.

Some

have

considered

the Titans

as

the

descendants

of Gc-mer,

the

son

oi

^-zr

126

GREEK

AND

ROMAN

MYTHOLOGY.

voyager, who have decoyed

was
even

allured

thither
his
as

Ulysses,on
described

music. by their captivating return to Ithaca, but were not

They would permitted.

"

By

others

they

were

daughters of

after whose companions of Proserpine, that they might fly in search of her. in singing, they lost their wings as a punishment
make them

river-godAchelous, and seizure they were changed into birds2, In an with the Muses unhappy contest
of

the

their emulation. of the

Others

faces of them
i

as

Tritons, with the of flyingfish. and the bodies The artists generally represent women either not at all disfigured, or virgins, appearingpartly as birds.
a

sea-nymphs,

with

form

similar

to

that

Horn.

Od. xii. 30. 166.

Ou. Met.

v.

652.

Their Surrenfum been

fabled
on on

by others,

given. pleasure.
sort

island near Pelorus in Sicily; placed by some was on an cape islands or rocks called Sirennusas, not far from the promontory of of Italy. Various the coast explanations of the fable of the Sirens have considered It is commonly as signifying the dangers of indulgence in residence the
"

of ancient fiction were The Nymphs viewed as holding and gods, as to the duration of life; men place between Oceanus not a vast was being absolutely immortal, yet living lengthof time. their common considered as father,although the descent of different nymphs is in grottoes or water-caves, from given differently. Their usual residence was circumstance received their Their which offices they particular Ni^ujxxt. name, different,and they were by various names were distinguished accordingto the several objects of their patronage, or the regions in which resided. they chiefly

" 101. (3) Nymphs.

of intermediate

u.

Thus

there

were

the Oreades,

or

nymphs

of the mountains
seas,

Naiades,
The

Nereides and

(cf." 29), and

were

Potamides,

nymphs
the

of the
;

fountains,

"Hamqdryades, nymphs
from distinguished
to

of the woods
to

Napcca, nymphs

rivers ; of the vales, "c.

and

Dryades

Dryads

Hamadryads (fya fy%) in this, that the latter were posed supinto being, tree, along with which particular they came of the woods the former had the care and trees in general. lived and died ; while called 'Nv^aTa. Such consecrated 2. Places to these imaginary beings were was of Apollonia, famous for its oracle and the fire which the celebrated spot in the vicinity to issue constantly from the ground {Plin. Nat. Hist. xxiv. 7). Such was was seen which called Nymphceum, adorned the place and building at Rome with statues was and waterfalls. of the nymphs, and abounding, it is said, with fountains Festivals number has been stated as above 3000. held in honor of the nymphs, whose were
be

attached

some

See Fontenu,
were

Le

Culte

des

divinites des eaux,

in Mem.

Mad.

Inscr. jtii.27."

Cf. Lond.

Quart. Rev. xvii. 192.

beautiful and with virgins, partially covered a veil generally represented as young They of water, thin vases or shells, leaves, or grass, or having someor cloth, bearing in their hands thing of their appropriate offices. The several less represented, as a symbol more gods are or of some class or other; chus. by nymphs frequently, as attended especially Neptune, Diana, and Bacincluded Under of nymphs, sometimes the the term were imaginary spirits that guided the heavenly of the stars spheres and constellations, and dispensed the influences ; the nymphs by some mythologists into three classes, those of the sky, the land, and the sea. being distributed and In the Sup. Plate In Plate XLIII. Nymphs are seen accompanying Neptune Amphitrite.
"

19,
with

we

have the
two

Nereid of two

upon

sea-

monster

which

seems

to

consist

of the has

lower
two

heads fore lower

horses, which
a

she

guides by
In of
some a

reins

; one

horse

part of a fish united fins or wings instead appears

a woman

of the with

feet; from
part of the

gem

of MafTei. in the form

the

body

representations, the fish,thus exhibiting the

not content

Nereid mermaid.

"

102.
a

(4) Muses.

The and

ancients
a

were

god

of science

of branches particular whom they called guardian divinities, of Jupiter and Mnemosyne. daughters the common to Greek account, with

goddess knowledge and

of
art

wisdom
their

with having in their fictions general ; but assigned to tutelaryspiritsor appropriate

in and

according follows : Ka,si"i {Illustrious'), as names, Mt%7ioj.dvri KaMadrf?/(Fair-voice), (Singing), "u%zio, (Gay), 'EpcWw (Loving), and 'EiiT's'prt?? (Well-pleasing), ILo%viivio, Tsp^t/^op^ (Dance-loving), (Songful), 'Ovpavia, (Celestial).
The from Romans termed them Camama.

Muses, Movom, nine They were

considered

as

the

in number,

They

were

from other to them, places sacred or circumstances, coniades, Parvassides, Hippocrenides, Castalides,"c.

derived frequently called by common names, as Pierides, from Pieria, Aunides, Heli-

the Muses excellingin their several arts, espeas cially held by them; as, for poets imagined various contests example, with the Sirens, and the daughters of Pierus1, in which the Muses always described gainedthe prize. They were as remaining virgins,and as being under the and protection of Apollo. Their usual residence was Mt. Helicon, where instruction
u.

" 103

In order and

to

represent
the

in music

song,

P.

II.

MYTHICAL

BEINGS.

GRACES.

HORJE.

FATES.

127

the fountain Caslalia; the fountain Hippocrcnc, and Mt. Parnassus, where was was Mt. Pindus the former in Boeoliu; llio latter near and Mt. Pierua Delphi? in Phocis. also sacred to the Muses. Particular temples were in Thessaly were also consecrated
to

them

among

the

Greeks

and

llio Homaus.

Festivals

in their honor

were

instituted Macedonians

in several observed
"

a
v.

the parts of Greece3, especially among festival for Jupiter and the Muses, which
300.
*

Thespians.
was

The nine
a

continued
to this Manual.

days.
See

Ou. Met.

See

View
in

of Delphi

and

Parnassus

forming the Frontispiece

Hcync, de

Musar.

el causis religione,ejusq. orig.

Comment.

Soc. reg. Gotting. vol. viii.

ornamented with dresses, and crowned usually represented as virgins with halfa According to the best authorities, CLIO, History, holds in her hand scroll ; Melpomene, a pillar,holding in her left hand Tragedy, is veiled, and leans upon a tragic mask Comedy, holds in one hand a comic mask, in the other a staff' resembling ; Thalia, holds flutes or pipes ; Terpsichore, two the Dance, Musk, a lituus augur's wand or ; Eutkrpe, is represented in a dancing attitude, and a seven-stringed lyre; Erato, Amatory plays upon in her Calliope, Epic Poetry, has a roll of parchment Poetry, holds a nine-stringed instrument; in her straight left hand tuba; Urania, or a trumpet a hand, and sometimes Astronomy, holds she to point out some object to the beholder; globe; in her right a rod, with which appears her Polyhymnia, mouth, upon Eloquence and Imitation, places the fore-finger of the right hand in her hand." lion's Lemp.) accordant with this descripelse bears scroll Generally or a (.Ant tion, Plate XXXIX. the figures in our the Muses different, are are respects ; where yet in some of Christina of Sweden, in the statues and belonging to the collection represented as seen queen artist in distinguishingthe A valuable described to guide the critic and monument, by MafTei. the nine are Muses, is a bas-relief on a sarcophagus in the Capitoline gallery at Rome, in which represented. often their hands Muses "The are painted with joined dancing in a ring; in the middle of commander and described sits Apollo, their in that them them pencil of nature prince. The made the Romans, in a ring; for in the agate which war wore manner Pyrrhus, who upon upon and it was representation of the nine muses, Apollo holding a harp ; and these figures were a delineated of nature." not handy-work by art {Plin: L. xxxvii. c. 1), but by the spontaneous (Tooke's Panth.) The Muses
are

palms opened

or

laurels.

"

"

"

For

various

of representations

the Muses,

see

Montfaucon,

Ant.

Exp.

vol. i. plates 56-62.

"

Museum

Pio-Clementinum,

vol. i.

plates 17-28.

vol. iv. plates 14, 15.

"

104.

(5) The

Graces

and

the Hours.

To

the retinue

of Venus

and companions of the the Graces, Xapt-r'fs, Gratise, servants said to be daughters of and gladness. They were charms
nome,
or

belonged goddess,diffusing and Jupiter Eurywere

according

to others

of

Bacchus and

and had

Venus

and herself,

three

in

number,
were

Qu-Ksva, (Splendor), 'Ay^cu'a

and (Pleasure),

(Joy). They =Eu"j"po"jw"7

cury, Mergods,especially

honored
were

in Greece, especially often erected

to

cities. temples in the principal other

Altars

them

in the

temples of

Venus, and the Muses.

beautiful monuments as monly frequently represented on ancient virgins, comyoung holding each other by the hand, and without drapery. in the Sup. Plate 2. Thus what 8, a representation which they appear nearly resembles very beautiful is seen In the on two antique engraved given by Ogle, Ant. E\p. Plates 47, 48. gems, in adorning Venus. An are employed antique painting found, with Sup. Plate 7, the Graces the Colisa:um, in 1G08, exhibits them other dancing, with slight pieces, at Rome, in a vault near drapery. 1
u.

They
in
a

are

group,

Cf. Find. Mem.

Olymp.

xiv.

"

Manto,

Abh.

ttber die Horen

und

Grazien, in

his

Mythol. Versuchm."Massieu,

sur

les

in Graces,

the

de I'.llmd.

ties Inscr. iii.8.

"
over

105.

The
seasons

Horse, 'Opat, were

and of
the hours

the

goddesses of Time, presidingespecially

were

the

of the day, and

came

considered be viewed
as

as

the

daughters
said to be

and

servants

Jupiter. They
were

at

length

to

tutelary patrons
was

of beauty, order, and their mother. They

The

in reference to which Themis regularity, named Ewofii'a, Eip^vrj. A10M7,

Graces, Hours,
to

and

Muses,

are

all and

supposed
and
to

by
have

some

writers

to

have

had in the

reference a originally Greek

The

the stars and moral ideas attributes, when of fictions. usually represented
same as

seasons,

afterwards
more

lost their astronomical

qualitiesbecame
with of short later

prominent

system
Hours
are

dancing,
monuments

leaf, and

all of
to the

the four

age.
"

In In

some

seasons.

the

Sup.

Plate

10, the

and vestments, garlands of palmsponding correperiods, four Hours appear, Hours are represented by four virgins in Plate IX.

attending Aurora. In representing

which with also exhibits

used the masculine the Romans gender; thus four lads or see sculptured on the Arch of Severus, we Winter. and wings, and Autumn, appropriate symbols of Spring, Summer, by male figures. personified the Months, usually representing them the seasons, them
as

our

each men, young The Romans

Cf. Wincliclmann,

Hist, dc I'Art,I. iv. ch. 2. " Ki."Mimtfauam,

the of the representations is

Ant.
as

Exp. Suppl. vol. i. p. 22

in
a

ss.

Hore

he

gives also,Plates
the Imperial

5-16, from Library

Lambecius, engravings of
at Vienna

months

depicted beautifully

to manuscriptbelonging

; February

alone

represented by

female.

" 10G.
life under

(6)
the

The

Fates.

The of

very

common

of poeticrepresentation

human

idea figurative

a thread, spinning gave

rise to the notion of th

128

GREEK

AND

ROMAN

MYTHOLOGY.

Parcse. three They were ; by the Romans, sisters, daughtersof Night, whom Jupiterpermitted to decide the fortune and of them Clotho {K%^d"), attached especially the duration of mortal life. One the thread; the second, Lackesis (Aa^sots), spun it; and the third, JLtropos it the end of life arrived. when cut exorable, inviewed off, They were as ("Atportos),
and

Fates, called Molpat, by the Greeks

ranked
not

among

the

inferior divinities of the lower

world.

Their

worship
The interwoven Clotho
a

was

very

general.
as

Parcae

were

generally represented
the flowers Lachesis Such but
et Ther.
v.

three

old

women,

with

chaplets
and

made

of

wool

and
:

with
a

of the

Narcissus,
near

wearing
her

long robes,
several Plate the

employed
:

in their

works ing holdfrom

with

distaff;
scissors.

having
is their

sometimes

pair
ancient
Catutt.

of

any
See

monument,
Epithal. Pel.

designed
305."

appearance after the

Abhandl.

in the Sup. description of

v.

spindles 14, which

and

Atropos

is not

copied

poets. Bonier, Sur

les

Manso's

Farzen.

in his Mylliol. Fersuchen."

Parques, in

the Mem.

Acad.

Inscr. vol. iv. 648.

"
world whose

107.
were

(7) The
three

Furies

and

Harpies.
Acheron the

Among
and

the

divinities
of

of

the

lower

daughtersof
to torment

Night, or
them

Pluto
often

and
to

Proserpine,
inflict
geance ven-

office it was

guiltyin Tartarus,
called

and

Furies; and also 'Epivwei, living. from to them, a or TLvfisvCSss, propitiate ing signifyby euphemism, design Their were names styled them Furise. kindly disposed;the Romans work whose fatal to and was Wctj particular ^woj), originate Tisiphone(from ascribed the to whom was (from aji^xtfoj), epidemics and contagion ; .fllecto, of the author and Megsera (from (isydipu), devastations and cruelties of war; both them the consecrated to insanity and murders. Temples were among
upon of sort
the

The

Greeks

Greeks

and
the

the Romans,
as

and

among

the

latter
and

festival also,if
not to
a

we

may

sider con-

Furinalia
some

to appropriated

them

separate goddess Fu-

rina,as
1
u.

suppose.

their hair, usually with tenances, counrepresented with vipers twining among frightful and bloody robes, and holding the torch of discord or vengeance. and in drapery, with the serpent locks 2. See the Sup. Plate 14, where scorpion they are seen On in the Hamilton collection artists them. the two vases represented they whips with which In the Sup. Plate with in their hair. have as 13, they are introduced lashing a criminal serpents their whips.

They

were

in dark

Cf. Virg. Georg. iii.551. auf d. Bildwerken vol.

v.

JEn.

vii. 341, 415.

xii. 846."

Ov. Met.

iv. 474."

Cf. C. A. BMligcr,
8.
"

Furienmasken in Furies,

im

Trauerspiel und
Acad.
Inscr

d. alt. Griechen

; eine archseol. Untersuchung.

Weim.

1801.

Banier,

sur

les

the Mem.

p. 34.

"
and

108

a.

The
the

fable

of the

to originally

and rapidity

violence

seems Harpies, "Aprfutat, of the whirlwind,

to

have

had

reference

which

bears

off whatever

it strikes.

Their

names

were

Aello

(from xtXcuvbs, dark), and Ocypeta indicative of the source of the fiction.
Celxno They
were

(from wwrfET/^s,

suddenly seizes (from dsM.a, storm), all flying rapidly),

and

been and to have so considered, sometimes, at least, as the goddesses of storms, appear QveWai said to be daughters of Neptune called and (Horn. Od. xx. 66). They were Terra, in islands of the sea, on the border* of the to dwell lower world, and in the vicinity of the
to
are

Furies,

whom

They
hands Virg. Mn.
Bupposes

bore they sometimes represented as having the with

See

off the faces

as

victims of with
3

they virgins, and

the tails
Le vols. 12."
seems

seized. the of bodies of vultures, See the with feet and 14.

armed

claws,

and

sometimes

serpents.
(Rom.

Sup.

Plate

iii. 210."

Vols, Mytholog. Briefe. merely locusts;

a

Stuttg. 1827.

Clerc (in the

Bibliotheque Universdle, vol. i. p. 148) Emp.

vol. ii. p, 71. ed. N. Y. 1822).

the Harpies to be

conjecture which

Gibbon

to approve

" 108 b. (8) The

four

Venti

or

Winds.

It has

were at an principal winds early and Romans both Greeks Among they Subsolanus, East ; Kamas, Cmcias, eight; Evpo;, Eurus, South-east ; 'Att^Xkotvjc, (ioi, were Corus, North-west Aquilo, North-east ; Bopcac Boreas, North ; 2/ctpoi/, ; ZzQvpo;, ZephyLibs, Africus,South-west. NoVoc, Notus, Ausler, South; Ait//, Occidens, West; rus,
,

(" 78) that the been already remarked into mythical personages. period converted Venti, 'Ave. gained the rank of deities. The

Little them
was

is handed found
near

down
near

to

us

respecting
annual
to

the

worship
Pausanias
were

Nettuno where said

(cf. { 78. 3).

these been

paid to the winds. speaks of one

offered
to
or

An erected
at

altar
at

dedicated the The foot

most

to

of

mountain

Asopus,

sacrifices

them Tower
a

night.
of of the it is

markable re-

monument

pertaining
to

gods
erected

is the about

Temple
B. C.

Athens,
XXI. On

still

existing;
see

have

150;

view

eight Winds given in

at

Plate

fig.2;
each

also

P. I. $ 110.

is represented one'of the winds; Eurus, man as a young eight sides of this tower holding fruit in the fold of his mantle; man flying freely and vigorously; Subsolanus, a young his legs, with boots a on beard, holding a dish of olives ; Boreas, with man Mq-uilo,a venerable boots and muffling his face in a cloak, and flying eagerly; Corus, also with cloak, and holding in his hands of water; inverted breast, and carrying flowers; an vase Zepliyrvs, a youth with naked with A"otus, an old man gloomy face; Africus, also with melancholy looks and heavy wings of the

P.

II.

MYTHICAL

BEINGS.

DEMONS.

MANES.

LARES.

PENATES.

129
Chloris,
Ant.

In
to

our

Sup.
he

Plate

20, Zephyrus
to

is

seen

supported
"

in the

air, in

company

with

Flora

or

whom

is said
Lex.

have
as

been
edited

married. by Bailey, vol. ii. p. 1155.

Zeafte'.? Topography of Athens.
"

See Forcellini vol. i. p. 413.

Tot. Lat.

Montfaiicon,

Ecp.

"
we

109. find

(9) The
traces

Dssmons
a

ox

Genii, and Manes.

In

of

sort

of protecting deities,or

the earliest mythologies spiritual guardians of men, the

sure mea-

called Acw^oj/sj,or Genii. They were supposed to be always present with to direct their under their and conduct, and control in great care, persons from Jupiter. Bad their destiny,having received this power as a gift

mons, de-

however,
that every
From
the

as

well

as

good, were
of each
class

imagined to exist, and

attendant upon him.

some

maintained,

person
notion

had
of
an

one

the proverbial expressions indulgere attending genius arose or deny one's self. simply to gratify genio and defraudare genio, signifying The with the fallen spirits dcemons not be confounded of classical mythology must in the time of revealed in the Holy Scriptures,and represented as possessing men Christ.
See Farmer, and Shadows

Essay

on

Demoniacs.

"

Letters to Channing N.

on

Fallen

by Spirits,

Canonicus.

Boston, 1828.

"

Cf. Brownies,

Lights

of Christian

Life, p.

379.

York, 1837. 12.

a

"
of
as

110. the

The

Manes

were

similar
the

spiritsor
as

souls

of the

class of beings. Although often spoken more commonly to have they seem departed,

been
their

considered and

guardiansof

deceased, whose
of their

office

was

to

watch

over

Some
1
u.

any graves, to the authority of Pluto, on which describe a goddess,named Mania, as their mother. The
as

hinder

disturbance

ordinate subtranquillity. They were he is styled Summanus. account

of the spirits the

Romans

designated by the
about in

name

of Lemur

es,

or

Larva,
of
men,

such

dead
graves

wandered
as

restlessness, disturbingthe peace

one

from issuing
found
a

the beholders. to terrify apparitions

XXXVI. Manes
on are we

2. In which
uncommon

Plate
two

have

face each

of with

square

sepulchral
and
an

monument

represented,
structures. der Alten.

wings
Vera.
"

inverted

torch; Lemures, Mem.

at Brixia, on representation not

such

See Mansd's Fast.

v.

Abh.

ttber d. Genius

in his Myth.

Simon,
12.

Diss, sur

Ies

Acad.

Inscr. vol. i.
"

Ov.

421."

Blum,

Einleitung in Rom's

alte Geschichte.

Berl. 1828.

" 111.

(10)

The

Lares

and

Penates. than

The

system

of The
were

carried farther by the Romans each dwelling and family its Penates. The Lares
were

by the Greeks.

was tutelary spirits former assigned to

guardian deities,which

called

Lares

and

of Mercury and Lara, or Larunda, said to be sons ing daughterof Almon. They received a variety of epithets or by-names, accordto the particular which in different cases object,over they were supposed to
as familiar preside, viales, es, compitaks, patellarii, publici, privati.

u.

They

were

especiallyconsidered, however,

as

presiding over

houses, and
seem

had
been

in every viewed

their proper (lararium) and altar. They sanctuary the spirits of the departed the fathers and as ancestors, family, who sought the welfare of their descendants.
2. Public occasions Saturnalia. The These
;

house

to

have

forefathers

of

the

festivals the slaves sacred

were

were

held the the

in

their

of

family Lares,
clothed
Ziviccav.

shared and

honor, called Compitalia, which liberty and equality with

an

were

made masters,

very
as

joyful
on

their

the

dog

was

to

statues

sometimes
2d ed.

in the
1816.
8."

image skins,
MlUler,as

of and

this
even

animal formed

was

in the

placed by their statues. shape, of dogs.

T. Bempel,

Diss, de Laribus.

cited " 112.

not also domestic or household " 112. The Penates were gods,but they were of the the master properlyspeaking a distinct class by themselves, because allowed to select any deityaccording to his pleasure,to watch dwellingwas his family affairs, over over Accordingly or preside particular parts of them. invoked in this and others of the superior not Jupiter were unfrequently gods sometimes families, were capacity. The gods who presided over particular cities or provinces were While those that presided over styledparvi Penates. sometimes elevated to the rank of Adulation patrii or publiciPenates. styled Penates even living emperors. persons ; especially
The
were

Lares

and

the

Penates the

are

often

confounded, life, to the

but

were

not

the

same.

"The

Penates

originally gods,
and

duces

upholds
in human
once

whatever

of nature powers is necessary to

personified;
common

the

lies; whatever,
themselves

dwelling they 17

bestow on fine,the human species cannot beings, who, becoming pure spiritsafter death, loved it inhabited ; to watch its safety, and to guard over

pro. mysterious action of which good, to the prosperity of fa mi itself. The Lares were originally still to hover
as

round

the does

the

faithful

dog

130

GREEK

AND

ROMAN

MYTHOLOGY.

the

possessions
interior of in number

of

his master.

They
pour statues,

keep

off

danger
upon

from

without,

while

the

Penates, residing
the last

in the A
at

of the small

dwelling,
bronze

blessings

its inmates." Roman

(Jlnih. Lemp.)
were

representing
ix. ad Virg. 7E,n. 8.
For
a

Penates,

found

century
Mlllter,

Exeter,
Cf. diis Rom.

England.
Heyne, Excurs. Hafnia?,
1811.

Virg. 2E.ii.ii. 717. iii.148."

Laribus
IV. et Fenatibus.

ii." T. Bempel,

Diss, de

diis Laribus, found

at

as

cited

"

111."

de

notice, with

of plates,

the statues

Exeter,

see

the Archseo'

logia, (cited P.

" 32. 5), vol. vi. published 1786.

"

113.
to

(11) Sleep, Dreams,

exert
an

influence

"cwcwos,

gained a
among

the imaginary beings supposed of mortals, "Trtvoj, and ''Oi^cpos, of called Nox sons or brothers, being personification, night,

and

Death.

Among

over

the

condition

and
1
u.

ranked The

the deities of

the lower

world.

of the

said to be in Cimmeria, on account residence of Sleep, "Y-rrvog, Somnus, was perpetual darkness which tradition ascribed to that region; and the poppy, on his common of its soporific was ing qualities, account symbol. He is represented as holdin his hand a lightinverted and about to be extinguished. The last symbol also employed in representing Qavaros, or Death, who was was his brother Sleep on often placed beside and appeared in a sepulchral monuments, naked similar bodily form, and not a mere When death art. skeleton, as in modern the result of violence, or circumstances of a disgusting character, the Greeks was pressed exit by the word caused xrjp,and they fancied a sort of beings called wipes, who death and
leihum.
In the

sucked

the

blood.

The

Romans

made

similar distinction between

mors

and
2.

representation
one

of

Sommis,
on

given
neck of

in
a

our

Plate

ground
tos,
seen or

asleep, with Death, stands

some

arm

the
a

lion, and

XXXVI., holding
in
a

he the

is

capsule

young of

man a

lying
stars,
as

on

the

poppy.

Thanahe about often

a

in

The with found

Romans open

by him with paintings. imagined death

furious
on

scythe
a

and

wings,
Mors. black art; in the

robe

bespangled
described dark

with

is

as

goddess,
with of

The robes
one

poets
and

her

as

roving
is
not

mouth,

and

ravenous, monuments

wings.

She

represented
in brass, she

existing
as a

figure

appears

skeleton,

sitting on

supposed to ground with one

d. Tod

represent hand on
A."

her,
an urn.

small

Cf. Ou. Met. Zerstreuten

xi. 592, 634, 6iO."Lessing's Th. 2. 273."

Untersuchung,

vvie die Alten

gebildet. Berl. 1769.

Herder's

Abh.

in his

Bllttern.

Spence, Polymetis, cited P. IV. " 151.

was or

3.

The

god of

dreams

from

the various considered

images
as

sometimes ($o/?)jrcjp),

called "Ovstpos (Horn. II. ii.56), more commonly (popcprf) presented in dreaming. Morpheus the god of sleep, but was properly his minister; more the god of dreams, was considered another minister as forms

Mopfcv;,
is
times some-

Phobelor nus, of Som-

and Phantasus
Cf. Theory

another. ("/"ai/rd""")
most

of Dreams,

"c, illustrated by the

remarkable

dreams

recorded

in

History.

Lond.

1808.

12.

" woods,
in
or a

114.

(12) The
with
a

form

Satyrs partlyof

and
men

Fauns. and

The

idea

of

gods

of the

forests and

ages

either from

the custom

liest partlyof beasts,took its rise in the earfor clothing, of wearing skins of animals or

the design to represent symbolically The Satyrsof the state. half-savage

condition Greeks

of

man

in the semi-barbarous Fauns form of the

and

the

Romans,
a

in their

differed from representation,

the

ordinary human
were

only in having

buck's had
1

tail,with

erect

pointedears.
more

also the
u.
were

goat'sfeet,and
were

called Fanes, which of the generalappearance of- the brute.

others older than

There

The

Fauns

represented
Yet the

as

old,
and

called Sileni.

Romans

as

the retinue The 2 u. who

was

having the goat's feet. The of Bacchus (" 60).

name son

the Satyrs, who, when they became like beasts, represented the Satyrs more Satyrs, Fauns, Panes, and Sileni, all belonged to derived origin, from
a

of Fauni of Picus whose

was

of Italian also

national

god Faunus,
(Ov. Met.
Found
also

(king of the
was zwischen Faun.

Latins) and the nymph

Canens

xiv.

320, 336), and

See Heyne's Abh.
von

wife Fauna

honored
Faun.
Sat

as

goddess.
Ant.

Unterschied.

Sat. Silen. und TJeber

Panen, in his Samml.

Pan. und

Aufsatze.

in Winck"

elmann,
Briefe.

Histoire

de l'Art (cited P. IV.

" 32)

vol. i. p. 680.

Silenen.

Berl. 1790-91.

8."

Voss, Myth.

" 115.

(13) The

Cete,

were

termed

with covered terrific a look as head, neck, and serpent. all,which Medusa.

Three imaginary sisters, daughters of Fhorcys and said to be aspect. Their heads were Topydvss,from their frightful vipers instead of hair, with teeth as long as the tusks of a boar, and so

Gorgons.

They are described as having the in the form of a of the body was them and one to tooth, common According to some they had but one eye Their names Stheno, Euryale, and were obliged to use in turn. they were off her head, while is said to have been Medusa cut slain by Perseus, who
to turn

every

breasts

of

women,

into stone. beholder while the rest

they were They

residence

in the
are

act

of

exchanging the
ranked, with

eye.

sometimes is

variously assigned ; some

the Furies, among placing them

the infernal deities. But their a distant part of the western

P.

II.

MYTHICAL

BEINGS.

AMAZONS,

ETC.

131

ocean,

others it to
been
sur

the fable
suppose
to

have
Massieu,

I. " 179), and others in Scythia. Some have plained exof women, like the Amazons. warlike race Others dark body, which have had some reference to the moon is said also as a from the face believed to be seen called Topyoviov, in it.

in

Lybiajcf.P.
referringto

as

les Hesperides, and

sur

les Gorgones, in the Mem.

Acad.

Inscr. vol. iii.p. 28, 51. were no

" 116.

(14) The
said
to

Amazons.
a

The

Amazons
women,

doubt
near

though mythical beings, alriver Thermodon in

be A

race

of warlike of them
was

who located

lived

the

said to have They are the bow and javelin with more burnt off their right breast, that they might use skill and force ; and hence from a and na$d;. They are mentioned their name, in 'AnaZ,6ves, the Iliad (iii. 189. vi. 186) and called avnavupai. Various consider it as having a connecexplanations of the fable are given. Some tion Several of Amazons statues originallywith the worship of the moon. were have at Ephesus {Plin. N. Hist, xxxiv. 8) and may placed in the temple of Diana of her own of her imaginary attendants,or some attributes. represented some nation
,

Cappadocia.

also

in Africa.

figure resembling

an

Amazon, and

but

having four
arrows.

arms,

is seen

in the

caverns a see

of Elephanta.
race

"

In
are

our

Sup. Plate 22,

to be

an

Amazon

is

represented with region of Caucasus.

her bow

quiver of
Rev. No.

Traditions On
the

respecting Amazons,

of Amazons

said

still current

in the

Cf. Edinb.

lvi. p. 324.

Creuzer's

Symbolik.

" 117.
which
are

This

seems

to

be the

place

for

exhibited

in the tales of ancient

noticing more mythology.

several Monsters, particularly

Minotaur said to be half man and half bull. The (a) The was story is,that Minos, manded deking of Crete, refused to sacrifice to Neptune a beautiful white bull, which was his displeasure by causing Pasiphae, the by the god. The angry god showed wife of Minos, to defile herself with this bull, through the aid of Daedalus, and give in the famous birth to the monster. Minos confined the Minotaur labyrinth. Here the monster devoured the seven and the seven maidens men annually required young from the Athenians by Minos.
Theseus,

by the (cf.$ 125).

aid

of

the

king's daughter, Ariadne, said

to

slew

the

Minotaur

and

escaped

the

rinth laby-

(5) The
middle

ChinuBra of the body

a

was was

be
a

that of it had

parts those of forth flames. country.

lion ; and This

monster

of a dragon, goat, and lion united : the the hinder parts those of a dragon, the fore goat, the heads of all three, and was continuallyvomiting

composed

lived in Lycia, in the reign of Jobates, king of that his son-in-law king, wishing to punish Bellerophon in order to gratify but Praetus, sends him against the Chimaera; Bellerophon, by the aid of Minerva, and the winged horse Pegasus, instead of perishing himself, destroyed the monster. This
This fable is by
some

supposed York,

to refer

to

volcanic
v.

mountain

on

the Lycian and

coast.
on

"

See

Clarke's

Travels, pt. ii. sect. ii.ch. 8.

in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. vii.

(vol. iii. p. 211. ed. 37, 69.

N.

1815)." Plin. N. Hist.

Zl."Banier,

Freret,

Bellerophon,

(c) The

Centauri

were

said

to ;

offspringof Ixion and the cloud of Apollo. the son They rus,
related Pirithous
them

and half horses. Some make them the be half men of Centauothers refer their origin to the bestiality said
to

were

dwell

of them

are

their and

rude the

attempts

and

Hippodamia,
Here
"

consequent

into Arcadia. xii. 530.) of

"c.

Met.
parts

Some
as

Thessaly,

afterwards they were have imagined this fable to allude the horse is in general symbolical of
CI.

dents principal incimarriage of battle with the Lapithae, who drove (Ov. chieflydestroyed by Hercules.
upon

in

Thessaly.
the
women

The
at

the

to

the

draining of
in the Mem.

the

low

water.
des Cent, Acad. Inscr.

Knight's Inquiry,
Iii.18.

in the Class. Journal."

Mitford,ch.

1. sect. 3."

Banier, La Fable

(d) Geryon
to

was

monster

said three

to

be

the

of Chrysaor and Callirhoe,and offspring residence

was

have

three

bodies

and

heads.

His

in the

island

of

Gades,

where
a

his

numerous

two-headed
The destruction

dog

flocks were called Orthos.

monster

kept by the herdsman

one

Eurythion, and guarded by

of Hercules

of this

formed

of the

twelve

labors

($ 123).

(e) The Hydra was nine according to the

or

monstrous

serpent
account.

common

two

others

immediately
the

grew

in the lake Lerna, with numerous heads, of these heads was When cut off,anone other in its place, unless the blood of the wound was

stopped by fire.
The destruction aid of of

Hydra

was

another

labor

assigned
a

to

Hercules,
iron
as

which head

he

accomplishea
was

by
The

the

arrows

or lolaus, who applied lighted brands of Hercules, being dipped in the Hydra's

heated

each

removed.

blood,

caused

incurable

wounds.

(/) Pegasus
have called him
sprung

was

not

so

much

monster

as

from
He

the

blood, which
his residence

fell on
on

the

of Medusa.

fixed

mount
a

prodigy, being a winged horse said to Perseus cat off the head when Helicon, where he opened the fountain

ground

Hippocrene (iWoc and Kpfivrj). He was The horse, having come muses' horse."
to
overcome

info

favorite of the muses, the possession of

an

and

is called

"

the

the Chimaera.

Afterwards

Pegasus, under

Bellerophon, impulse from Jupiter,

enabled

132

GREEK

AND

ROMAN

MYTHOLOGY.

"hrew the
An

off

Bellerophon

to

wander

on

the

earth, and

himself

ascended

to

place among
and

stars. engraving
is given by Winckelmann
the

of
at

beautiful is of the

bas-relief in white
natural

marble, representing Bellerophon Winckelmann,

1818.

Pegasus

; the

original,preserved in
"

palace of Spada
Traite

Rome,

size.
"

See Par.

Hist, de

l'Art,vol. ii. p. 652. iii.281.

Jables

Cf. Francceur,

Cranographie ou

Elementaire

d'Astronomie.

8. containing the ancient

respecting the

Constellations.

the fabled dog of Pluto (" 34), stationed as centinel at the entrance as generally described as having three heads, sometimes having fifty. None from the world of the living could his body instead of hair. pass him but by appeasing him wilh a certain cake, composed of medicated and soporific ingredients. (Virg. JEn. vi. 420.)

(g) Cerberus

was

He of Hades. covered Snakes

is

To

seize and

bring

up

this

monster

was

assigned

to

Hercules

as

one

of

his

labors.

(h) Scyllaand
the strait between
over

names, Charybdis are Sicilyand the main land, and

the

the former
the

of

rock
a

latter of

on shore, in whirlpool or strong eddy

the Italian

fabulous story with each a against it on the Sicilian side. The ancients connected but beautiful woman, a originally was "Scylla was changed by Circe into a her waist becoming a number of dogs incessantlybarking, the parts below monster, of teeth. Terrified while she had twelve feet and hands, and six heads with three rows threw herself into the sea, and was changed into the rocks at this metamorphosis, she bear her name. who stole the oxen of Herwhich cules, a 'Charybdis was greedy woman, and for that offence was turned into the gulf or whirlpool above mentioned.
name.
"

Cf. Virgil, Mrs., iii.420

ss."

Ovid, Metam.

xiv. 66."

Propert. iii. 11."

Hyginus,

fab. 199.

the offspring of Orthos and Chimaera, or of Typhon and Echidna was Sphi?ix ; the body of a dog, the tail of a having the head and breasts of a woman, This of a lion, with a human voice. monster serpent, the wings of a bird,the paws infested the neighborhood of Thebes, proposing enigmas and devouring the inhabitants At of the enigmas, in which who could not explain them. she demanded length one which walked what animal it was four legs in the morning, two and three at noon, on solved by CEdipus : he said that the animal was who in the morning at night,was man, his hands and feet,in middle age walks of life creeps erect, and in the evening upon staff. On the Sphinx of his days uses hearing this solution, instantlydestroyed a
a

(i) The

monster

herself.
In Plate VIII.
are

given
from

two
a

images having
common

of the

Sphinx.
calathus
on

One

is without

wings;
The the

having
other

peculiar
an

Egyptian engraved
remains Travels
near

head-dress;
gem,
of

sculptured

monument

given
her
monuments.

by
A

Boissard. and

is from paw.

given by Maffei;
the

the

head,
very

sistrum

in her
of
a

Representations

Sphinx

are

very

amom:

Egyptian

celebrated

colossal statue

Sphinx yet
"

the pyramids.
55.

It is cut

in the solid rock, and

is 125 feet in
ss.

length." Clarke's Travels, pt. ii. sect. 2. ch.

4.

Dcnon's

(vol. i. p.

Lond.

1S04)." Land.
an over

Quart. Rev. xix. 193, 403

(k) The eagle, and

found

Griffon {Tpiip) was supposed to watch

on

imaginary
mines of upper

ancient

medals

the

animal, said to be produced from a lion and hidden. Its imai?e is somewas times gold and whatever part part a lion. resembling an eagle, the lower
x.

an

Cf. PtrgiZ,Ecl.viii.27." Helmst. 1799.

8.

Herodotus,iii.116." Pliny,

Hist. Nat.

49."

F. Grafen

von

Veltheim, Von

den

Greifen

der Alten.

Greek considered the Giants; to be the mythology Typhon is ranked by some among said to have been distinguished from him; produced from Typhosus (cf.$ 98); by others heads like those of a dragon. the earth as by Juno's striking it; described having a hundred In Egyptian called as mythology the monster Typhon holds an important place, be-ing considered of all evil, "the is described and in vathe cause He rious represented (Fosbroke.) Egyptian devil." sometimes sometimes sometimes with as as a wolf; as a a hundred dragon heads; ways; and with the head crocodile, and as uniting the tail of a crocodile fore-legs of the hippopotamus, In the (J,)
as same
"

as

seen

in

our

Plate

VIII.

IV. In Grecian of

"

MythicalHistoryof the

Heroes.

"
the

118.

story three periodsare

no

even distinguished

by theancients
to

the unknown,
state

of which dfyxov,

historical monuments

remained

make

known

with

the accounts left are mingled the fabulous, uv^slxov, of which a fictions ; and the historical,tetopuxbv,of which genuine and the to of The first extends is recorded. Deucalion, deluge history trustworthy the second to the introduction of the Olympiad into chronology, and the third

society ;

manifold

through
Heroes,
These and

the

as

subsequent times. they are called,and

and

To
it is
on

the

that account

personages

mind,

are supposed to merit distinguished

have

periods belonged the styled the heroic age. possessedextraordinarypowers of body

second
often
to

of these

is ascribed

them

as

having founded

cities

134

GREEK

AND

ROMAN

MYTHOLOGY.

Megapenthes,
erected
603.
v.

he

was

placed
a

among

fne

constellations, and

several

temples

were

to

him.

besides

monument

between

Argos
considered

and

Mycenae.
modification
one

(Cf. Ov.
of the of

Met.

iv.

1-350.)
fables Mithras has

2. The Persian of

Mycenae
3.

respecting Perseus (cf. $ 35), and a been thought to

on

are

by
of

some

as on

story of the
the citadel of

piece
confirm

ancient the

sculpture
"

of

the

gates

analogy.

Creuzer, Symbolik"

Gell, Itinerary

Greece. to Perseus, the latter is said refusing hospitality the son of Japetus and the king of as He Mauretania. flocks of sheep and beautiful gardens abounding owned numerous for beauty and wisdom, with citrons and His seven daughters, renowned oranges. their mother called Atlantides from their father, and Hesperides from were Hesperis. said to be guarded by a dreadThe ful gardens called the gardens of the Hesperides were of Atlas was slept. The given to the chain of mountains name dragon that never to

have

Atlas, whom changed

account

of his

into

mountain,

is described

in that part of Africa, and height of those mountains

to

to
or

the
to

ocean

on

the

west.

Whether

from

reference

the astronomical

researches

of the

king, Atlas
as

to the is said

have
an Thus

immense
he is seen

supported the heavens ; and accordingly artists have sphere on his shoulders.
in the Sup. Plate 22.
"

him represented

ing bear-

On

some

monuments,

Hercules

is represented in

similar

way

; because, as

is said, he eased

Atlas of his burden

Cf. Ogle, Ant.

Expl. plate 35.

" 123.
son
even

Of of

all the

Grecian

heroes,

no

one

obtained

such
was

as celebrity

cules, Herto

and Jupiter

Alcmena.

Wonderful

strength

ascribed

him

in his

many Nema?an

infantile years. Eurystheus king of Mycenee imposed upon him difficult enterprises, which he carried through with success; particularly
are

those, which

called the twelve labors of Hercules.

These
catch

were

to

kill the with bull of Au-

lion ; to

destroy

golden horns ; to catch gias; to exterminate the

of Crete queen of
; to

hydra ; to the Erymanthean boar ; to birds of lake Stymphalis ;

the of

Lerneean

alive the
the

Stag

cleanse
to

stables

bring alive
; to

the wild

seize the horses

Amazons
; to

Diomedes

; to

obtain the

girdleof Hippolyta,
plunder
from
the

the

destroy the

monster

Geryon
to

garden

of Hesperides, guarded by a sleepless dragon ; and world the three-headed Cerberus. dog
These The various

bring
and
are

the infernal

exploits
in the

were

often

made

the

theme The

of

description
labors

allusion described the

in the in 12

poets.
verses

first is detailed 3d infant

in the
an

Idyl of Theocritus. Chiliad of Tzetzes (cf.P. V. # 81). The is given in the 24th Idyl of Theocritus.
"

25th

twelve

story of Hercules

strangling

serpents

while

he gave proof of his exascribed to him, by which traordinary Many other exploits were and deliverer of the oppressed. strength,and exhibited himself as an avenger Such were, in Italy; the deliverance dreaded of his slaying the robber Cacus, so much with rock ; the killing of Busiris and Antaeus ; the contest to Prometheus, bound a

" 124

u.

Achelous love of

and

the

rescue

of Alceste of

from

Omphale
His

queen

Lydia, by which
was

the infernal world. he sank into the

Less
most

honorable

was

unworthy

his effeminacy.

last achievement
became

the destruction that he

cast

gave

his

poisoned tunic toDejanira; Hercules

so

of the centaur Nessus. Nessus dying afterwards receiving it from her, and in

putting it on,
mount

diseased

himself

despair upon'a funeral pileon

OEta.

became erected to his universal, and temples were worship of Hercules soon and magnificent. He and epithets received a great many surnames from his exploits and from the places of his worship. Hercules and his labors afforded the artists of ancient times abundant materials to exercise their ingenuity in devices,and they very often employed them.

The

honor,

numerous

Two

of the most

celebrated The

antique statues
An

represent Hercules leaning upon

the
an

; the Torso, it were

or

Herculese

Belvidere, and
A The view
of

the

SercuUs

Farnese

cf.

P. IV. " 1S6. 6, 7.

latter represents him

his club, as
same

after his labors.

it is given in Plate XLTV.

fig.6, copied from

shows
For

Winckelmann.

engraving of

is given in the Sup. Plate 22.

other representation in this Plate

the infant Hercules

other

strangling the serpent j from

see var

antique sculpture.
Ant.

principal representations of Hercules, Begeri, Hercules Ethnicorum,

d. archseol. tous
ex.

Montfaucon,

Expl. T. i: pi.123. 141, and Ogle's Ant. Expl. No. 31-10."

Col. March.
4."

See also Laur. p. 325 "I. Berl. and 1S10.

deliueatus. antiq. reliquiis

Qb.
"

1705.

fol." Beynii
fiber d.

Not.

ad Apollodor. des Herakles. MlUler's Hist.

Gtirlitt's Fragment, S." Dupuis,

Abhandl.

Hercules.

Magd.

1S00.

PA. Buttmann,
on

Myfhos

Orig. de
Oxf.

les cult

vol. it.

Respecting the ancient writers

the Mythol.

of Hercules, see

Antiq. of Dor. Race.

the various of the

1S30.

vol. i. p. 623. is one A which view very

Among

solutions of the story of Hercules, there

sun

applies the ingeniously

account

of his twelve

labors

to the passage

through the twelve

a son

signs of

the

Zodiac.

of this is given in Jnthon's

Lempr

iere.

" 125.

Theseus,
was

of

iEgeus
renown

and of

Neptune,
most

excited and

by the
he

of ^Ethra, or accordingto others a son the Hercules, to engage in enterprises

hazardous,

accomplished them. successfully

assassins
a

Among
that

these

was

the extermination of a multitude and of robbers and especially the destruction of the Minotaur

infested Greece, of Crete, tc

terrible monster

P.

II.

HEROES.

JASON.

CASTOR

AND

POLLUX.

135

been compelled to send seven male youth previously as By the help of virginsannually, to be devoured by him. many young enabled to trace the winding of the was Ariadne, a daughter of Minos, Theseus in which had his abode, and put him to death. the monster Ariadne labyrinth, deserted her on accompanied him on his return to Athens, but he ungratefully which and the island of Naxos.
of Theseus his descent to the lower world other principalexploits were the Amazons his victoryover (" 116), whose queen Pirithous, Hippolyta became his wife, and the assistance he gave Adrastus, king of Argos, againstthe Theawarded for improving the legislation Great praise was to him ban prince Creon. and

the Athenians

had

" 126

u.

The

with

his friend

the whole
manner

morals

of Athens is

and

Attica

and

of his death honor

but variouslyrelated,

yet he it seems

was

for

some

time
accounts

an

exile.
to

The been

by all

have

caused The
was

by violence. paid to him

to

was

accompanied with unusual

solemnities

superb temple

consecrated

him

at

the eighth day of every Provision made at the was of this occasion.
Cf. Plut.
a

Athens, and a festival was and a month, with games,

established

regular
the
poor

called Bfirrua,held on sacrifice termed Qy"6"iov.

to

public
c

expense

to

enable

share

in the

festivities
i. sect. 3." For

in

Fit. Thes."Diod.

Sic. L. iv.
see

61."

Ou. Metam.

vii. 404 ; viii. 152 ; xii. 210."

Mitford's Greece,ch.

view

of the

temple of Theseus,

Plate XXI.

fig.3.

"

127.

Jason

and

the

Argonauts.
forms
a

One

of the most

celebrated

the heroic ages, one between sort of separation-point nautic the The
most

which

memorable from
the

the fabulous
a

epoch in the Grecian and the authentic,was

Greece
son

of enterprises a history, the Argo-

expedition. This

was

voyage

to

Colchis

in order to obtain

golden fleece, conducted undertakingwas

illustrious heroes

by Jason,

imposed

upon of Greece to

of iEson, king of Thessaly. him by his uncle Pelias. invited the He unite in the expedition, and among those
and
was

who

joined him
"

were

Hercules, Castor
purpose

Pollux, Peleus, Pirithous, and

named
then
most

seus. The-

Argo, which JEetes was of Colchis.. arrived at iEa, the capital adverse events the Colchis, and promised to Jason golden fleece only on certain
The conditions.

vessel

built for the

after various

king of
difficult

unwilling " 128. Although Jason fulfilled these conditions,yet iEetes was panions. permit him to take the desired booty, and sought to slay Jason and his comThis purpose was betrayed by Medea, the king'sdaughter, by whose slew the dragon that guarded the fleece, and assistance and magical art Jason He seized the treasure. immediately fled, accompanied by Medea, but was sued purher brother Absyrtus, cut his corpse by her father. Medea put to death in the way, in order to stop her father's pursuit. into pieces and strewed them and others name married Creusa, or, as faithless to her, afterwards Jason was of of Corinth. Medea took Creon, king by her, Glauce, a daughter vengeance
to

causing the
Jason.

death

of Creusa Jason

and

also of the the

children

she

had
on

herself

born

to
a

After
at

death

received

worship

bestowed

heroes, and had

temple
See
on

Abdera.
on

the

poems

the

Argon. Exped.
in Mem.
des

by Orpheus, Apollonius Rhodius, and

des the Inscr. vol. iv.

Valerius
41.
"

Flaccus.

(Cf. P. V. "" 48, 73, 376.)" Bonier,

Not.
ad

the Argon.
sur

Exped.
le Retour

de VMad.

p. 54 ; xii.

123; xiv.

Heynii
Mor.

Apollodor. p. 177.

"

P.

Levesque, Various

Argonauts, in have

Mem.

de

C VInstitut,

1 a s s e

d. Sciences

et Pol.

vol. iv.

explanations
was

been

put upon
East.

the

story of the
Pantheon from 3.
"

Argonauts.
Chinois.
"

One

writer thinks

thinks the

the

golden
arose

fleece from

the habit of the

raw

site of the

Hager,
i. sect.

Another

the

of

in the whole

channel

streams.

collecting gold, washed Mitford, ch.

of the flood.

down

the

Bryant the

mountains, (Anal. Anc.

phrase by putting sheepskins the Myth.) considers

story

as

tradition

"
of

129.

Castor called

and

Pollux,
and

who

were

Jupiterand Leda,
were

brothers

they
was

Dioscuri

of their descent, Castor (Atoo'jeo'upot,), although,according to some,

to account

among Helena.

Argonauts,were

twin

sons

On

the

in the Castor
to

Castor of Leda. of Tyndarus, the husband son in Pollux and and of horses, boxing management the

himself distinguished wrestling. The last

of exploit
was

avenge

Idas. with Lynceus and his brother their contest Dioscuri was about and as Idas was slain by Lynceus, and Lynceus by Pollux: of his brother, Jupiter smote him with lightning. Pollux the death
"

obtained with his

from

Jupiter the
Castor. Gemini
the

honors

of deification
were

and

immortality
the

in

conjunction
and and
presented re-

brother

Both
or

placed among
in the zodiac.

constellations the Greeks

by

twins

Both

tho

136

GREEK

AND

ROMAN

MYTHOLOGY.

Romans

consecrated

temples

to

them, and
among

they were
marine

invoked especially

and

worshiped by
1. They were Hellespont and
averters

mariners.
said the
:

to be placed neighboring seas

the

gods, from
were
"

of evil

and white

lambs
to

were

from pirates. They sacrificed to them. received from

them in

invoked Romans

having cleared the as 'AwoTfxmoi,

honored them

'The

pressing dangers, as in the battle with the Latins near lake Regillus. They constantlyswore by their names ; the oath used by the women JEcastor, or by the temple of Castor ; that of the men was was JEdepol,or by the temple of Pollux. especiallyfor services supposed
be
.

Representations of Castor and Pollux

gem

are

found

particularly on

Roman

monuments.

fine representation, drawn

from

large

given by Maffei, is seen

in

our

Sup. Plate 21.

2.

The

festival called Dioscuria

(Sioaicovpia) was

in honor

of these

brothers, celebrated

of Bacchus were freely especially by the Spartans. On this occasion the gifts very shared. It was amidst the drinking at the feast in honor of Castor and Pollux, which This festival Alexander friend Clitus. held in Bactra, that he madly slew his devoted is supposed by some had the same to have originas the famous mysteries of the Cabiri, which cacy celebrated particularly and were at Samothrace, were thought to have great effiin protecting from shipwreck and storms.
"

An

ancient

structure the

now

exists at Salonica, which Oxf. 1803.

2

is supposed

to

have the

been Mem.

Cabirian Acad,

Temple

see

Plate V."

Cf. G. S.

Faber,

Mysteries of

Cabiri.

vols. 8."

F reret,Les

Cabires, in

Imcr.

vol. xxvii. p. 9

of early historyof Greece, the war celebrated. before Christ, is much of the principalheroes of Without relatingits incidents we shall here only name some the time. of CEdipus, king these were sons Etiocles and Polynices, the two Among the dissenof Thebes, sion from whose arose own tragical. The war so privatestory was afterwards of these brothers, who slew each other in a single combat, and were honored Several famous chiefs, as Ca-paneus, Tydeus, Hippomedon, as demigods. ParthenopcBUs united with Adrastus, king of Argos and father-in-law of Polynices, to
7) 130
m.

Heroes

of

the

Theban

War.

In

the

Thebes,

which

is dated

upwards

of

1200

years

take for
more

part

in the

war.

The
"

events

connected

with

it furnished

the
ten

poets
years

with

matter

numerous

tragedies. The

second

enterprise against Thebes,

later, was

fortunate

descendants

''Emyovoi.
Thesimenes.
The
a

in its issue, but undertaken and It was less celebrated. by the sons the war of the of those slain in the first war, therefore termed and was The illustrious of these were most Alcmseon, Thersander, Polydorus, and

Theban poet, the

war

was

one

of

the

favorite

themes
wrote

of

ancient poem 19. The

"

poets.
in poem of

Antimaclms books

of
on

Colophon,
the ject subis Statins

Greek
;

and

contemporary
have V. been P.

with

Chcerilus,
Cf. P.

twenty-four
the

fragments
Cf.
ix. 25."

collected.

V.

Latin

poet

still extant.
Cf. Paia.

$ 378.
i. 3."

Apollod. the

Died,

iv." Gillies, Hist. Greece, cb. i."Kcightley's Mythology.

$ 131.
and

Whilst his

Thebans the

and

the

Argives
were

were

involved

descendants

Tantalides,
who honored the
was

equally
to
a

afflicted

by
upon

the

of immortal
meats

impiety of this descent,

In limbs order of

prince,
he
to
was

said with

be

son

visit from

and lus, calamity, Tantaby various misfortunes, occasioned of Jupiter, and reigned in Lydia. Being the gods during an excursion they made in contention he served The the of up among other his her
to

earth. the

prove
son

divinity
whom touch
to

and he the

his and

Pelops,
refused

of his guests, power had cruelly murdered. but

one

gods
recent
"

perceived
loss of

perfidious barbarity, daughter had rendered

the Ceres touch As her
a

inattentive

and

dish; melancholy, ate

him
to

Ceres,
of the

whom

shoulders.

In

compassion
shoulder which

fate

of

the

young

primce, Jupiter
substituted for
one

restored of

life ; and

instead the

the

had

devoured,

ivory,
was
"

which

possessed
in

property Q

of

healing by
an a

its

all kinds
a

of diseases. his

punishment
and thirst

cruelty,
of
was

Tantalus

condemned had
a

hell

34) with

insatiable sacrifice
to

hunger
great

in the

midst

abundance.
to

He

intolerable number

vanity. She of children,

destroyed
children,
was so

arrogance. all her returned

at

shocked

to

Pausanias, though

a Amphion, having ; and had she had the temerity to treat who Latona, only two, with bearing overProvoked at this insolence, Latona Q 38) applied to Apollo and Diana, who boasted after the death of her Chloris (cf. $ 38). Niobe, offspring except to Lydia, and ended her days near Mt. Sipylus ; according to the fables, she " her misfortune, that she was On Mt. ing Sipylus, accordchanged into a rock. be seen which resembled to from in deep mewas distance a rock a woman a lancholy,

married

fell daughter Niobe, who in Boeotia prince of Thebes

near

at

hand and

it had

not

the

most

remote

resemblance became informed

to

one." of he

Pelops

daughter
hand the of

quitted Phrygia of king CEnomaus;

his

he repaired to Elis, where but this monarch, having been

enamored that

should

Hippodamia, perish by

the the

could in his daughter to him him to marry outrun son-in-law, determined only who chariot-race; and those who entered the list were their lives if conquered. daunted Unto forfeit at this condition, Pelops and his success, he the combat, to secure boldly undertook previously bribed Myrtiles, the charioteer who of the chaof CEnomaus, riot disposed the axle-tree in such a manner to break it on the course the unfortunate to as king, being thrown ; and the killed himself. ground, CEnomaus thus left his kingdom and his daughter to Pelops, who acquired his name great celebrity, and to the gave peninsula in the southern part of Greece. Pelops, after death, received divine He and honors. had altar in the grove Altis at Olympia, an
was

much
were

called and

above revered, even Pelopidts. His crimes.

renown.

other
two

heroes
sons,

(Pind.

Atreus

hatred
more

But

his

two

grandsons,

ants 13). His descendv. Olymp. i. 146. Pausan. for their mutual celebrated Thyestes, were and Agamemnon Menelaus, the Mridw, acquired and

honorable

]-

*i.

HEROES

OF

THE

TROJAN

WAR.

137

" 132
more

m.

Heroes than

of

the

Trojan

War. which
was

Of

all the first

wars

of

Grecian

story,
of the
was

none

is

famous of
the

that of

Troy,

the

military campaign
occasion of
son

Greeks seizure

out

limits of their wife of

own

of

Helen,
and

Menelaus,
ten

The immediate country. by king of LacedEemon,

it of

the

Paris,
account,

Priam,
the

king of
tion prepara-

Troy.
became

The

siege continued,
years,

according
with various

to

the

common

including
at

marches,
masters

successes

and chiefs and

the

disasters, until
who
were

last the

Greeks
enter-

of the

prize acquired the their everlasting remembrance.

illustrious
son

The city by stratagem. in Greece, highest renown The him

were

engaged
of Homer

in this has and

poetry
was

secured
the
more

chief commander

Agamemnon,

of the

heroes

with

of Telamon, and Ajax son of the most celebrated. Trojans, Hector, JEneas, and Antenor were among The itself of Troy was memorable in than for its consequences. It war not more The of war culture P. IV. " 40). arts a (cf. spring to Grecian greatly new were gave of the states. and important civil revolutions took place in most Numerous improved. But all this pertains to authentic history rather than to mythic tales.
See

Achilles, Ulysses, Diomedes, Menelaus, Ajax and Nestor. On the side of the Oileus, Idomeneus,

Mitford,
See

ch.

i. sect.

4." in

Gillies, ch. i. i\i." Class.

P. V. that

Journ.

v.

14, 18. vi. 25.

on

ix. 605, 626. of Troy,

xviii.

141."

Chandler, 4) has

History

of

Troy.
the whole

references tale is
a mere

given

" 50. 7.
there

"

Bryant
was

(in
any

Dissertation
war.

the

war

Lond.

1799.

maintained

that

and fable,

never

such

in Grecian Although the personages specially called Heroes story belonged to the period termed the heroic age (cf. " 118) ; yet under fourth division of the subject our of Mythology of a multitude of personages of (cf. " 10) will properly fall the names later periods, including Romans well as after their death deified were Greeks, who as in the country where renowned 89. 3) for (cf. " 88. 2, and they lived, or had become been memorable attainments achievements. Merely to have king or ruler was or a sufficient to secure deification of superstition. a people fond of the pageantry among This servile and impious adulation particularly practiced by the Asiatic Greeks was towards the successors of Alexander. of provinces were Mere sometimes thus governors honored. After the Roman established, it became was a imperial power regular custom

" 133.

(cf. " 94)

The in the Roman number But
connect

to

deify the
made the

emperors.
it their and of the each
name

senate

business ceremonies
one were

by
now

solemn of his

decree

to

place
were

of
as

gods,
actions the

Apotheosis

every united

deceased with those

emperor of his

funeral.
to

the with

deified

such hold little upon

fabulous the

thus

established is of

therefore,
This See Also deification Middleton's

by law, much comparatively

it is

faithfully recorded and mysterious popular feelings.

in
a

tales The

by history, it was to give the as

list of

sible imposties, divinigods, demi-

imperial

importance
rise to the

view

of

the

ancient
the

mythology.
Roman 4. Catholics. 6th ed. 1825. 8."

of the emperors, Letter from Works.

very

likely, gave
the

beatification of saints, practiced by Popery

Decl.
and

Rome,
Lond.

showing
1755.

conformity between
8."
or

and

Paganism.

Lond.

1729.

in his Miscellaneous the ceremonies

5 vols.

Cf. Qibbon,

Fall, "c.

ch. iii.

Respecting

attending the Apotheosis,

Consecratio,see

P. III. " 343.

18

m2

PLATE

XVa.

Gods
1.

of the

Greeks
2.

and

Romans,
Gods.

as

classed

in the

preceding Sketch.

Superior Gods.
Juno Minerva Diana Venus Vesta CereB Rhea Luna g0l

Inferior

Jupiter Neptune
Apollo
Mars

Coelus

Several

Gods
to

peculiar
the
,

jEoIus

tt,

Greeks

(cf."SS);

Plutus

Enyo
Er^ane

Mercury
Vulcan Janus Saturn Pluto Bacchus

vEsculapius

Cotytto,"c.
Several Gods
to

Aurora Nox Iris Latona Themis Nemesis Fortuna Fama

peculiar
the

Romans

(cf."89);

Priapus
Terminus Vertumnus Pomona Flora Feronia

Pales,

"c.

The Superior Oods,

called

Gods

as

classed

by

the

Greeks.
and

InferiorOods,

called

MtydAot
Jupiter Neptune
Apollo

Qeoi. Juno Ceres

sometimes

simply Qeol, Ao'ipoves.

The

Demigods,
ings Be-

called
The
are
"

'Hpcffcot.
Theban Heroes

Mythical
j

Here
and

fall

Ina-

named above

chug, Perseus,
all named

Diana Minerva Vesta Venus

Titans,
"c.

Capaneus

Giants,
The
to

under

Mercury
Mars Vulcan

Heroes. Gods
the

ppculiar
Greeks
fall into

Here

also

some-

Tydeus Polynices Thersander,

The

"c.
Heroes

(cf." 88), except

such the
as

Saturn, lus, Bacchus, .iEotimes and

Trojan

class

of Demigods.

other

gods

are

put.

Agamemnon
Achilles

Ulysses
Diomedes

Ajax,

"c.

The
Dii

Gods

as

classed

by
Dii

the Romans.
Minoram Gentium. 3.
Gods

Majorum

Gentium. 1. Semones,
Guardians
over

2.

Jifiscellanei,

Peregrini,
from
as

4.
or

Tndigetes,
Adscriptitii ;

particular
as

jects; ob-

of Personifications various objects; as

other

nations; Mithras Osiris Isis "

Hercules Castor Pollux JEneas

Virtus Fides Honor "c.

Pan Plutus

iEolus,
Here also

Spes
Pietas Bellona Febris

Apis
Sera Anubis

Mnevis

Romulus

or

pis

Quirinus,
Also deified "c

"c.

Vertumnus

rors, Empe-

Terminus,
and most of the

Gods
to the

peculiar
Romans also the

Mephitis Victoria,

Harpocrates Canopus, "c.

"c.

(cf." 89).
Here ings BeMythical (cf." 88).

Gods

of the

Greeks

and

Romans,

as

classed

to supposed according

Residence.
Infernal.

Celestial.

Terrestrial.
Terra Pomona Pales Feronia Pan Silenus Oceanus

Marine.

Jupiter
Apollo

Venus Vesta Aurora Iris Hebe

Cybele
Ceres' Saturn' Janus' Bacchus' Terminus Vertumnus

Neptune
iEolus Proteus

Tethys Amphitrite
Matuta Ino
or

Pluto Charon Minos Rhadamanthus .33acus Cerberus Nox

Proser-

pine
Nemesis Mors Manes Nffinia' Parcee Furies

Mercury
Mars Vulcan

Phorcys
Portumnus Nereus Triton Glaucus Palaemon Tritons

Leucothoe
Sirens

Cupid Hymenasus
Juno Minerva Diana

Psyche
Hors Seasons Graces Muses

Satyrs
Fauns Lares

Nereids

Scylla

Priapus
Flora

Nymphs Penates,"c.

Charybdis

1 Goddess

of

Funeral*.

138

PART

III.

GREEK

AND

ROMAN

ANTIQUITIES.

PLATE

XVI.

142

GRECIAN

ANTIQUITIES.

were

Colonies

attacks exposed to frequent from Egypt, Phoenicia,

was

from and
the

the Asia

islands. occupants of the neighboring Minor, gave the first impulse to their
of the memorable

culture, which

aided by the commencement

was one

navigation.

The

famous

Argonautic expedition of this early period, occurring

About which
and

of

most

about

eightyyears

the first formal state fifty years before the same, the direction of Minos with in Crete, under ; not
was

exploits in the tion navigabefore the Trojan war. constitution was adopted, the perfection,however,

secured The

at

Athens, through the influence

Attica
were

of

Cecrops, and
a more

after

him

Theseus.

people of

the

first to

adopt

peaceful,quiet,

frugalmode of life; and this example influenced the inhabitants of other habits and predatory excursions. their irregular regionsto renounce intercourse occasioned free between 6. a more the different " Hereby was union in to and of a Greece, regard objects of common interest, people greater and particularlyin reference to murders depredations. A proof of this was states of Menelaus given by the fact of so many joiningto avenge the injuries of Helen) and carrying on (committed against him by Paris in the seduction of the further became a means against Troy. This war togetherthe war advancement of Grecian culture (cf.P. IV. " 40), although it was also the
occasion

of many
became and

troubles and
many of weary in

revolutions Greeks
to

among

the

states

at

home, and
to

thus

led to the

migrationof
united

neighboringislands
tumult, began
solemnities been
Soon
to

and

Asia.

nally Fi-

they
social ease,

wars

and

adopting public
of government
in
war

law, and and religious rites,and

love peace,
a

maintainingsocial and civil order.

" 7. Hitherto
now a more

the form

had
was

of chiefly

ter; characmilitary
the

the chieftain who monarchical

commanded form
was

the civil head

of his people; but

assumed.

however
the

kings
off the and
a

abused

their power, and by their tyranny the Love of libertythen became

name

forced their subjects to

throw

yoke.
of

of king

was

odious.

It

was

ruling passion of this spiritwhich

Greeks,

the very
state

gave

rise to

thingsin which the Greeks sustained an eminence surpassingall other nations. Through the mutual assistance rendered each other in acquiring independence, and discords which had previously reigned were in great measure the jealousies of united several third had of the states in Athens, king allayed. Amphictyon, became much of confederacy (cf. afterwards sort a " 105), and this compact in this period of tranquillity An of population close and strong. excess more and prosperitywas preventedby sending out various colonies to Italy,Asia,
and of
some

Africa.
the free states,
at

" 8. Among
a

Sparta or

Lacedsemon

enjoyed
of

first the

advantages
however

rigidand

the

same

time the

salutary system

laws, which

in

imperfectculture of the age. Lycurgus, B. C. made himself acquainted with of this code, had previously about 820, the author and institutions of the Cretans and Egyptians. Without ducing introthe manners in form twofold violent the or even abolishing existing changes, any and people, in a new he placed the relations of rulers, magistrates, regaloffice, His morals in part very and were and improved attitude. precepts, which
particularsevinced
severe,

tended,

as

did

his whole

political system,
these

to

form

brave, constant, and

warlike
was over

them to be people,and thus cause and Sparta acquiredin accomplished, the other
states.
Sparla, ein Versuch
zur

feared and

respected. His design respects a high pre-eminence

Leipz. 1S00-1S05.
3

See /. R. F. Manso,
"

Erklirung

d. Geschichle

und

Verfassung dieses Staats.

Th.

S.

Cf. references

given P. V. " 7. 7(d).

"

9.

Next
the

to

culture

by glory and
and
more

in became distinguished.Being advanced Sparta, Athens and B. C. about of ing 59-4, subsequentlyacquirlegislation Solon,

power

from

the defeat of the Persians

at

Marathon,

she

became

of Sparta. This tual jealousy led to mujealous of the superiority and finally was animosities to the well known Peloponnesian war, which Athens carried on for eight-and-twenty years (from 431 to 404 B. C.) between
more

and side

and Sparta,
or

in which Athens

almost

all the

other

states

of Greece her

took

part

on

one-

the other.

Sparta finallywas
rose

triumphant, but

after 'tang

this.

far

and higher in political

glory did not endure character, and literary

P.

III.

INTRODUCTION.

143 useful

became

the residence

of refined manners,
into German.

knowledge, and
8." Athenian
war.

cultivated

taste

in the arts.
Wm.

Young's
of
an

Political History of Athens."

Trans,

Leips. 1777.

or Letters,

the

pondence epistolary corres-

agent of

the

king of Persia,residing
1800."

at Athens

during the Peloponnesian

Cf. P. V.

Lond.

1799. 2 vols. 8." Trans

into

Germ,

by F. Jacobs, Leipz.

Bulwer,

Rise and

Fall of Athens."

" 7.

7 (d).

to notice more are progress and decline of culture in Greece we 33ss. IV. the of Literature in (P. " 61ss.), and here Archaeology particularly which to it is only necessary to allude to the conspired render Greece causes,

"

10.

The

so

eminent

in this of

respect.
the

Some

of the
and

climate

land, its

numerous

well

as

mutual

emulation

excited

its enjoyment of an encouraging and which and the generalprosperity

besides the highly procauses were, pitious whose population, very necessities as fostered a spirit of activity and invention; course, interennobling liberty; its commercial resulted. which
whose

These, with
is
even

other favorable the

circumstances,
one are

raised the
best

Greeks in

to

nation

to

present day
art

of the

most
as

remarkable
our

history,and
is

works

in literature and the

still valued

models.

" 11.

Hence

our

attention diligent

properlybestowed

on

of antiquities

with their religious, become the Greeks, by which civil, we military, acquainted of such knowledge, The and domestic institutions and customs. generalutility
as especially an

aid in the

of history,language,criticism, logy, mythoinvestigation

one,

the study of antiquities to every art, commends all in classical pursuits. It adds to the interest and value and

who

engages

at

of Greek

antiquities,

that, among
of relative

all the various whole

and history,
is Antiquities

importance.
their

ligion, reobjects of knowledge, the language,literature, genius of the Greeks, hold so high a place in point with what is denominated Some their acquaintance us

essential to enable and spirit and

to enter

much
to

into these view.

subjects,to
various

prehend comments monu-

well

character,or
in
a

contemplate the
correct

of their literature
On the

art

definite and

introduce the followingreof the study of classical antiquities, we marks, utility certain extent, this study a abridged, from Rollin (as cited P. II. " 5u.)" "To make Without is indispensable for all who it, there are pretensions to education. multitude of expressions, allusions, and comparisons which a they cannot understand; in reading history,without without it,it is scarcely possible to advance a step even being arrested by difficulties which a tolerable knowledge of antiquitywould readily solve. There all other carried too Like studies, when far, it threatens with its dangers. connected with it, a sort of learning, and badly conabstruse is sometimes ducted, is occupied only on questions equally vain and perplexing, which which on

every

subject searches
Seneca

for that which Vit.

c.

is least known

and
once

most

difficult to be

hended. compre-

(de Brev.

14)

more

than

complains that this vitiated

the Romans. Juvenal to originatedwith the Greeks, had passed over taste, which also (L. iii.Sat. 7) ridicules the corrupt taste of his contemporaries, who required that should be able to reply without culous a preparation to a thousand absurd and ridipreceptor little of the worth of time, and grossly to misapply questions. It is to know very them in the study of things obscure one's talents and exertions,to occupy and difficult and at the same and sometime, as Cicero says (Off. L. i. n. 19), unnecessary times vain and frivolous. Good will lead the student carefullyto shun this even sense

danger.
and

He

will remember

the sentiment

of Quintilian (L. i. c. 8), that it is

foolish

pitiable vanity, which prides itself in knowing upon every subject all that inferior writers have said ; that such an occupation consumes unprofitablythe time and strength which ought to be reserved for better things ; and that of all the eminent qualifications of a good teacher, that of knowing how to be ignorantof certain things is by no means
the

least. these

study of antiquities comprehensive branch of learning ought to be the aim of every to pursue youth, important of the work studies himself, or to direct those of others. The extent or difficulty should dishearten ing no one. By devoting every day a fixed portion of time to the readof ancient authors, intellectual riches will be amassed, little by little, which will afterwards be a source of astonishment to the possessors themselves. It is only even time profitably, and to note down to employ the commencement, to make necessary precautions,we
or

After

cannot

too

highly recommend

the

either

to

students

teachers.

High

attainments

in this very who proposes

observations Most heads:

in order

and

with

accuracy.

of the

topicsconnected with antiquities mightbe embraced religion;political navigation; monuments ; war; government
combats,
repasts, shows
; arts

under of

seven

and
common are

; games,
as

and Under

sciences each

the

customs

or eight fices public edisuch life,

pertain to

dress, "c.

of these

divisions

included

many

144

GRECIAN

ANTIQUITIES.

subdivisions.

For

example, under

the head

of

are religion

comprised the gods, priests,

temples,
SeeK.

vases,

feasts, vows
Ii. Milhauscr,
on

fices, furniture,instruments ceremonies, sacriemployed in different religious and oblations, oracles and omens ; and so of the other heads."
Ueber

Alterthumswissenschaft, Philologie,

und

Alterfhumsstudium.

Fur

Studirende.

J.ps. 1837. 8. pp. 88.

and works there

"Burgess, Essay

the Study of

Antiquities.O.vf.

1782.

8." Platlner, ascited

"

196. 3u."

Seealso

P. IV. "29;

" 12.
whole

The

sources

of Greek of Grecian

the historians, more especially

constitution

in part the classical writers, and are antiquities such of them as particularly give details of the and modes the manners, of customs, society,
the

thinking and
considered
as

feeling. Among
sources

classical
on

writers, the

poets also

must

be

the epic poets, this subject,especially whose their fictitious have truth some narrations, notwithstanding ornaments, for a basis, and whose into the character and representations give much insight

of information

views the and from of

people of remaining monuments

vessels

of the

the

times.
of art;

But

another

important source

is found

in

coins, statues, bas-reliefs, inscriptions, gems,

distinct and
mere

of various kinds. These, being sensible objects,give us a more of many be gained complete conception points than could possibly verbal descriptions, and are, moreover, of great value as illustrations
taste.

beauty and
" 13
u.

Various

modern

writers have

collected

from

these

sources

scattered

items

of

information,and arranged them methodically for the benefit of those who wish to gain of antiquities, and apply it to the study of Greek literature. Other writers a knowledge have investigated full and extended manner. particular topicsin a more
1. For
an

account

of works

of

both kinds,

see

/. Potter, Archseologia Graeca,

or

the

Antiquities of Greece
Edinb. 1S20.
8.

J. A. Fabricii Bibliographia antiquaria.(Stud, et op. P.

Schaffs-

Oxf.
"

1699.

2 vols. 8." and

Same

work, ed. G. Dunbar. by Anthon.

N.

hausen.)
Nitsch's p. 35.)

Hamb.

1760.

4.

cap. ii.

with

additions

corrections
"c.

York,

1825.

Beschreibung

des, "c.

which

is cited below

(Th. i.

"with
Same

notes,maps,
work

by /. Boyd.
with

Glasg. 1S37. 12. valuable.by

I. I. Rambach.

in German,

additions

Halle.

Krebs, Haudbuch
Cf. Super's Meuzd's enumerates

der philolol.Bucherkunde

(Bd. ii. p. 211).

1777-78.
A

3 vols. 8. of Grecian

Allg. Theorie, Alten. Historica, vol. 3d,

on as

compendium
12. der

by Antiquities

C.

D.

Clevdana.

Bibliotheca
the

ciled P. V.

"240.

Bost. 1831. Abriss Haacke.

writers

Antiquities.
on

Griech.

und

Rom.

Alterthllmer,

von

Chr.

Fried,

Stendal, 1821. 12. (very brief). following

are

2. The Greek

most

treatises important collection of parlicular Gronovii Thesaurus

13 vols. fol. the work of

Antiquities is Jac Lug.

of the A
mass

Antiquitatum
Ven. 1732. An

4. The

not

designed

for

manuals,but

contain

Gracarum.
account

Bat.

1697-1702.
is

highly interestingpictures of Grecian

/. Jac. Bartfielemy, Voyage Stcrcot. Lond. Par.
de

antiquity.
en

contents

given in
matter

Fabricius, just
branches
ments, monu-

jeune Anacharsis

Grece. Beaumont

ed

cited." Greek

of valuable

relating to various
taken from

of

1820. 7 vols. 12." Engl, transl. by W. Cf.

P.

Antiquities, with
is found

illustrations

ancient

1806. Eerl.

V.

" 153.-In

Germ,

with

notes

by /. E.

in Montfaucon't

Antiq. Expliq. cited by

We
J.

P.

II.

Biester.
/.

1792.

7 vols. 8. Versuch einer

" 12. 2 (d).

was

An

abridgment
Numb.

of this in German,
150

F. Roth, may
tion men-

D.

Hartmanris
Volkerschaften

Kulturgeschichte Lemgo,
1796

del and

published

1807. fol. with

des

plates

vornehmsten
4.
"

Griechenlands.

here also Caylus, Recueil

Antiquites. Par. 1767. 7 antiquities,with

vols.

1800. 2 Bde. /. D.

8. and and

containing Egyptian Also,

Par.
F. A.

and

other

engravings.

Lochhart, Inquiry into the Civil, Moral,

the Topography, from

Religious Chorogra
of K. O.

David, Antiquites Etrusques, Grecques, et Romains.

5 vols. 4. the best Manuals
:

Inslilutions of Athens, "c. wilh

1787.

phy
and

of Atlica

and

Athens.

Translated

the German

JUUller. 3. Among
are

Lond.

1842.

8.

Compends

on

the subject The Athenian

Letters,cited " 9.
also may
be

the following Evcrh. Feithii

Antiquitatum
8.

Homericarum

Libri

iv. (ed. El.

5. The
on

following works

consulted

with

tage advan-

Stobcr) Argent. 1743.

Fr. Rous, Jo. Phil. Lamb. tio brevis Attick

different points : Hellenische Alterthumskunde.

9th Antiquities.

ed.

Lond.

1685.

4.

IVachsmuth,
Trans,

Halle,

1826.

Libri Pfieffer,

iv. Antiq. Gnecarum.

Lpz. 1708. 4.

into Engl.

(HistoricalAntiquities of Greece) Oxf. 1837.

Bos, Antiq. Grtecarum, pracipue Atticarum, Descrip' 4 vols. 8. (with

obs.

of Leisner

and

Zeunius).
8.

Lpz.

1787.

8.

HilVs

Essays

on

the Institutions of the Greeks.

on

(Eng.

trans,

by Stockdale) Lond.

1772.

Gillies' Discourse
W.

the Manners

of the Greeks.

Sig. ffavercamp, scriptiobrevis. P.F.A.Nitsch,

Antiq. Grrecarum,prajcipue Atticarum, De-

Bikler altgriechischerSilten. Becker, Charicles;

Lpz. 1S40.
the

Lug. Bat. 1740. 8.

2 vols. 8. with Greeks.

plates. A

work

the private life of illustrating

Bi-schreibung des hiluslichen, gottesdienstlichen, ancient

wissenscliaftlichen ZuC. 1841.
J.

sittlichen, politischen,kriegerischen und

standes d. Griechen, "c
3

Hermann,
4.

Antiquitatum

Laconicarum

libelli iv.

Marb.

(fortgesetzt von
vol.

Hbpfner)
Erf.

Erf. 1 791-1800. Cf. Class.

vols.

8.
v.

with 10.

4th

by Elipke,

1806.

MalUot,

Recherches

sur

les Mceurs, Ies Usages, religieux,

Journ. P.

des Anciens et mililaires, civile,

Peuples.
Life 8.

Par.

1809.

vols. 4. Greeks,

F. A.

Nitsch 8.

(same), Entwurf

der

Griech.

Alterthftmer.

H.

Hose, The
from

Public

and

Private 1836. Greece.

of the ancient

Altenb.
L.

1791.

Transl.

German.

Lond.

Schaaff, Antiquilaten und

Arcbaologieder

Griechen

und

Hetren's

Politics of Anc.

Transl.

by G. Bancroft

Romer. 1820.
s.

(also in his Encycl. der Class. Alterthumsk).

Magdeb.

Bost. 1824. C. O. MUlla's

History and Antiquities of the Doric

O. C. Lciois.

Race

Tr.

/. Robinson,

Archreologia
1827. 8.

Gra-ca,

or

the

Antiquities of

by

H. Wm.

Tufnel and Bruce,

Oxf.

1830. 2 vols. 8.

Greece, "c.

Lond.

State

of Society in the age of Homer.

P.

III.

RELIGIOUS

AFFAIRS

IN

Tin;

EARLY

AGKS.

145
cltcil P. II. t)12. 2 (c).

.inr Athentr. Into looM, StuUbauihtltuog (Traniltttd Public B Lond, 1829, 2 vnl". h. Biujllih) omy """ Atbom,

Bncyclopidii u Mthoiiqut,
/'.

ofOmk Dttnit, Dictionary 4. Pauly,

ud

ftonun AnllqulllMi Lond.

oltulicben Aiiortbumiwii-

Cardner'i Ctblnel boi MboufaoturM,

No. Encyclop.

Klvll.and

ix".

(Oa Arln,

1700. A.

ofOroeluind

RomtniO
P"r. i830.
8.

"i"r ReaMBnoyolaplLdle

Anelonna da Qrtoi. itouKicr, [^Agriculture

11.11. Chviicil Il'iu'l, Jrtvinll, OiMiil.il.iuiil Mm

Mtuohifuuii r.r.hnhr,
viil. I vol.

kiuiik. ih:ih, commonoid.

Alilli|ililii'" J I'nli-

Oliulnl Bnoyslopwlliol AntlqultlM,

3

ind Modi** Lond. 1840.

llluitratlooi talniiiK o( Oriental

i cm,

from aud Oluilotl EUcordi( Berlpturoi 1823. B, (of.Borru, Inf. to Stud. B.

Lond. 1838. lniw 8.

voli.

4.

with

Alio plitti,"

Camb.

ii. Script. p, Til).

ul (lin-lt tV.Nnlith, Dj.-tn.i.jiry

x.

ami

Kmii.ni

I.nli.l. Aiiti'|ililii".

Bolltn'i

An,'.

iii"t. blc

Bui

n.-w idltlbn,

y"rk, 1835.

I8'12.

H. largo

vtiry

valUlblo.

2 viiln. lnrxn H.
(.'./''. ItWl.T,IIr|M'.lullll!i. ill'l d.LTliNllhllll AltOI'lll
"

tj.
.Mi

Additional roftronooi
in llm

on

will bs glvon toploi partloular

l"M.

mi. I,|)Z.

8.

Ihii IiiJiii ii iirrur

nrdiniin. li,lliiwiii|.

" 14. The

are

order chronological
not

of antiquities with cannot be treated in so strict accordance subject of history1) the events because of information the sources Hut still in describing the antiquities of minute. Sufficiently people,
as a

one

should and

not

lose

sightof
the

the influence which

other and

the revolutions, political exerted

at

gress processive suc-

decline
upon

of refinement,and
writers have
not

circumstances, have
whole,

tines social State.

manners, constitution,

national character

ami

Most

also confined
viz. Athens,

themselves
and
so

have

order to avoid
and
more

this double
cultivated

and mindful have of this, Sufficiently of the Grecian to the most states, chiefly flourishing described Jinic, rather than Grecian antiquities. In fault in the present sketch, the antiquities of the been
lier ear-

less

times

will

he. distinguished

from

those

of

later

and

period; and enlightened

in

then

md

the most and most important of the other principal states. peculiarities

speakingof the latter, althoughAthens was shall also notice the constitution eminent, wo

I.
"

Of

the earlier and

less cultivatedAges.

been that Greece advanced with (" 5, $10), already suggested from Of rudeness in and morals the extreme to a State step rapid very highest degree of refinement. The history of this progress may be divided from the original extends state into three distinct periods. The first rism of barba-

" 15. Tt has

manners

to

the

time

el' the

Greece: period of the

third
extends

the second extends

rise ami from
the

the period of the peopling of war ; this was from the capture of Troy to the time of Splon,the formation of the Grecian constitutions and customs; the

Trojan

ape

of

Solon,

to

the

time

when

the

(.'recks

lost their

to the Macedonians libertyby subjection and glory. greatest perfection

(of.P. V. " 'J),the period of

notice what

their

Under
to

the

present head

it is

to proposed

pertains more

larly particu-

and the first

will

be

considered

of the above-mentioned periods; and the subject in four general branches, viz. religious, Bind civil, military,
second

domestic affairs.
I. RELIGIOUS

AFFAIRS.

" 16. During the rude and

unsettled

state

of societyamong

the

(.'reeks, their

fixed or had no steady form: yet a great part of the popularbelief religion been called the mythical in these times, which this account have OH Originated formation this fabulous The of faith aided early popular period. ages the ideas, and the natural predominance of sensual by the general ignorance,
or was

tendencies

of

the mind

in

an

uncultivated

state

of

society (l\ II. " ,r""). With

and fables
frrew

the progress Of SOCial and of SVStem, Which was sort and modified by additions

moral

the Culture,
as a.

tradition;;

into

retained from

religion

of the

people, and

Egyptianand
(ireece

Phoenician
received about
new

augmented mythology"

Accordingto
notions
from VJ

common

accounts,

Thrace, by Orpheus,

15. 0. _N

12.0')

and better religious (cf.P, V. " 12, " 48^

146

GRECIAN

ANTIQUITIES.

They
Greeks

were,
never

however,

of Egyptian origin. chiefly

; but

The

worship

of animals

the

in common with most of the ancient the)rembraced of the the that form nations, idolatry. They also pracearly stars, worship of ticed the custom of deifying and worshiping men (P. II. " 118), who were themselves by making new discoveries, styledheroes, having distinguished renowned u seful or exploits. laws, performing establishing

adopted

On

the religious affairs of Greece,

we e

may

refer to /. G.

Lahcmacher,
Francof.
xxxv.

Antiquitates Grascorum
8."

sacrae.

Helmst.

1744.
"

8.

"

Chr.
sur

Brilningii, Compendium
la religion des
ac

Antiq. Grauc
the Mem.

profanis sacrarum.
Inscr.

1758.

Mitford,
and

Hist.
"

Graec. ch. ii. sect. 1.

Ant. Van

Foucher,
de

Grecs, in
et

Mad.

vols, xxxiv. 1696.

4.

xxxvi.

xxxviii.

xxxix.

Dale,

Diss,

Origiue

Frogressu Idolatrias

Superstitionum. Amst.

the business of the early Greeks was Religious study and instruction among time priests. The lawgivers, and poets, who were mostly at the same men, of Theogony and of these confined matter chieflyto the dogmas and narratives was but based upon of a mixed character, fabulous and allegorical, Cosmogony, which were real appearances of in nature and man. The various operations of the powers some the of the and the movements of human nature passions,were principal foundation The originof things, tales and doctrines of the mythology. their vicissitudes and trans the subjects; and these were, formations, their nature, tendency and effects,were by into supposed or imaginary persons, a livelyfancy, changed words, actions, to whom and appropriate attributes ascribed. The were or regular combination assemblage of these in order was of the origin and descent of th" called the Theogony, or account which ancient of of the most gods. This constituted the whole theory of religion, one the Greek of regular form in his poem ogony, to a sort styled the Thepoets, Hesiod, reduced elements Homer and in his two all the principal of which interwove epic poems, the Illiad and Odyssey. (Cf. P. V. " 50, " 51.) and " 18 u. In the first ages the wise men, the poets, made especially great exertions of the people with reverence the minds for the gods and respect for their worto imbue ship. On of the people, they were customed acpublic solemnities, and in great assemblies to when the subject of these songs adapt their songs to this object. Even the history of the gods, nor was not instruction,they were any point of direct religious opened by a prayer to Jupiter,Apollo, or some inspiring deity. In this way they fixed and and strengthened a prevailing faith in the power providence of the gods, and and punishformed the first ideas of right,virtue, and morality,and of future rewards ments.

" 17 m. their wise

"

The

the instruction poetry on in which

and subject of of these poets constituted at first the chief means Hence of the ytiung. the one hand the great influence of their on arose the other hand the moral culture of the Greeks, and on the great admiration the early poets were generally held.
songs

of the principalGrecian " 19 u. For an deities,their names, account rank, history, of refer to the portion of this work which of worship, we treats attributes, and mode of the Grecian stantly gods conMythology (P. II). Here we only remark, that the number of time, yet the highest and increased with the progress most distinguishedof in the early ages, and it was them introduced and honored were chieflyin the class of heroes
ages,
were
or

demigods
by
means

that

this

augmentation
The
was

took
more

place, after
extensive the

and while

of oral traditions.
more

the living, beneficial

general
had and
same,

those, whose
were

influence
the

been

the reverence confined chieflyto

a

lapse of the heroic services of these heroes after death, while for them
the

deified

chieflyby
sacred
were

received
were

less

a particular city or tribe, general homage and worship.

" 20.
uses

The

which places,

speciallydedicated

early ages,
former
The

in part, fields and

with

grounds,whose

connected which

being commonly
were were

religious worship ; partlygroves ples, plantedin a circular form; and partly,at length, tem-

gods in these devoted to produce was and particular trees, the

to

the

of their respective gods. the seats and habitations as the market ness, or usually in the cities near place of public busisometimes erected in the country, and in the consecrated although they were The ground, on which they stood, was usuallyelevated either groves. towards the east. their entrance front was. commonly or or by nature art, and It was of them Some to several. not dedicated to a single deity,others were the temple was to place the name of the god, to whom uncommon sacred, in a brief inscription the entrance. over " 21. Originallythe interior of the temple was entirely vacant, after the viewed

temples

Egyptian
earliest

manner,

times

stone, which
This
was

the

formed

into

in the of its god. And the image or statue P. IV. " 156. 2) was nothing but a mere god (cf. and to which served to represent the deity, were brought. offerings be to these stones came primary origin of altars. By degrees, human to common place statues shape, after which it was more
even

without of
a

the

image

P.

III.

RELIGIOUS

AFFAIRS

IN

THE

EARLY

AGES.

147

of (wyaXfia-ta)
sometimes

the

gods in their temples. sitting. The material,at

or

The

posture

was was

sometimes of
no

ing, stand-

first employed,

great value,

clay. There were, however, in the heroic ages, images a more gods costly substance, such as ivory,brass, silver or gold, Homer although never exactly describes the material. of the temples and holy things was intrusted to the priests "22. The, care and of these varied in different cases, and depended priestesses. The number rank the of whose and the on defty, worship they generally upon temple The marriage state was attended. forbidden not them, although it became
of the of afterwards either
were

being stone, wood,

customary

to

take

priestessesmostly from

persons

unmarried,

who

remained or only until obliged to perpetualcelibacy, priestesses instances the priesthood in others it was marriage. In some hereditary ; but was ally usuwas adopted in free choice, or by lot. The residence of the priests
near

the

temple,
derived
of

or

the

consecrated

latter.
were

They
ages

their subsistence

grove, often within the limits of the offered to the gods, and from what was
office
was

often in easy

circumstances.

Generally the
was

highly honored
the

in and

the
most

early
23.

Greece, and

distinguished personages, of the principal Some rites and solemnities pertainingto the religious here mentioned. must be lustrations (xa^tap^oi, these were Among worship in ablution of the which consisted the and a certain purification ayvta/j.ol), body,
"
of the

held, in part at least,by sometimes even by kings.

noblest

clothes, and of sacred

was

utensils.
sea,
or

For

this
a

purpose

salt water

was

used,
common

which
water.

taken

from
and

the
were

preparedby
used
on

solution

of salt in These
were

Sulphur
were

fire
as

also

these

occasions. who crimes deities.

tions purificadefiled by

considered and

murder

They

were

especially necessary for the placeswhere such blood, and even of offended often ordered for the propitiation
prayers

for those

had

happened.

" 24.

But

and

were sacrifices

the

most

essential

parts of Grecian

when some important enterprise worship. The former were put up, especially, commenced or a undertaking was being to secure ; the object of the prayer of which were happy issue,in case promised to the gods by the very rich gifts termed were lv%6,i. In making them, the supplicant. Both prayers and vows
and hands were eyes the images. towards

raised The

towards
was

the

heavens,
used

or

in the

temples directed
ing kneelearnest

posture
the

sometimes
was

; yowrtsteiv) (yovvd^sG^at,

latter

desire
1.

or

and distress, peculiar

often by the whole

on

sometimes standing, in case of especially assembly in common.

necks, and green boughs of the boughs wool was placed without hence called sometimes tying, and they were ori^uara. With these boughs the of the god addressed the cheek, of the statue supplicants touched the knees, sometimes Supplicants usually had garlands
or

their heads

and

olive

laurel

*Xa"5oi i/cr/jpioi) in their or (S-aXXoi

hands.

In

in their prayers. With the 2 u.

prayers

were

These called also \oi(Sai, x"*Lin honor of the gods, and out {aKpanv), and offered in pure

cnroviai, usually joined the libations, or drink offerings, consisted poured generally of wine, part of which was be by the worshiper. The wine must part of it drunk
a

full cup.

Sometimes
,

there

were

libations

of

water

of milk {yaXaKToarrtovia) of honey {jickitmov"a), and \vipoanovia),

In Plate XX. in this instance which is

of oil (i\ai6(nroi/6a).
act

fig.C.

representation of a priestess the liquid is poured upon the flame kindled from taken Moses, Antique Vases.
we

have

the

in the
on

of

pouring
also

out

the

libation XXVII.

the

altar;

in Plate

some

consisted or $vo"ai, originally merely of incense, "rt!oj, sacrifices, In the like. citron wood, or cedar, by fragrantfumigation, very offered ; early times, the fruits of the earth, in a crude, unprepared state, were

"

25.

The

sort

of

and salt.

subsequently, cakes, ovXal, baked

It
was

of later

coarse

barley, or
the

meal

mixed

with

not

until

somewhat

that period,
were were

slaughterof living
great
for the
care.

victims

was

introduced. certain animals Sometimes hecatomb

These
became
a

victims

selected

with

At

first, bullocks, sheep, goats, and

Afterwards

swine,

chiefly taken

purpose.

particular gods.
at once,

victims sacred as appropriateto specially several sometimes sacrificed, single victim was
same

which The

were

often of the

kinds.

ent of animal, and often also of differof hundred bullocks a {kxato^ri)properlyconsisted kind

148

GRECIAN

ANTIQUITIES.

or

oxen

yet neither

the

number

nor

kind

of animals

was

very

re* precisely

garded.
Some theme. flippant and superficial interesting and important in a more priestcraft. Others attempt mere superstition and theories serious have been existence to explain their manner origin. Several by human posed; profirst gifts, a natural at expedient for procuring the favor of the one is, that they were from men's in drawn and that they were gods; eating another, drinking together federal rites, of friendship, and token hence the sacrificial banquet by Warburton (cf.ij27) ; a third, advanced of gratitude they were (in his Divine symbolical actions, expressive Legation of Moses), is that of sin and in some contrition offerings, and in others, of the acknowledgment through the death of an deserved But which animal a fourth account, by the worshiper. representing the death fices sacrirefers the Hebrew them to a divine institution, is more satisfactory. The Bible represents of Christ the great (Cf. Ep. to Heb. as as atoning sacrifice for sinners. typical of the death he ix. and instituted On to Adam, some x.) promised a Redeemer supposition that God, when it is easy how to the practice of offering memorial and animal see by tradition sacrifice, type, in an sacrifices be universal. The the should on subject is well discussed by W. Magee, Dissertations Sacrifice. N. York, 1813. 8. Cf. A. Jl.Sykes, and of Atonement Essay on the Scriptural Doctrine The is origin of sacrifices ascribe them
an

writers

wholly

to

"

"

Sacrifices.

Loud.

1748.

8.

"

26.

The
in

altars the

not
on

only
The

which on (fiiofxoi), often but temples,

the sacrifices in open

were

presented, were
on

erected of rivers,

places,as

the

banks

mountains,
altar
seems as

in groves,
to

and

the

like.
some,

have

to

the

temple,
book,
The

suggested
whole of

preceded the temple ; and, in the opinion of in the following passage.

Iliad and be
art
no

gave

rise

"Throughout
second sodist.

the

the

mention

occurs

it contradicts Minerva

evidently incidental, indeed might passage both the history of

to

the

interpolation
on

of

condemned and of

the in
a

religion
in which
to.

temple in Greece, except in the vainly patriotic Athenian rhapgrounds of philological discussion, but In Troy, the of that temple country.
a some statue was

of

appears
a

have

been

mere

shrine,
alluded

Tenedos, altar, common

from
a

temple
to

of Apollo both

is merely and sacrifice

was

During

the

Europe
;

common

hearth the food of

the
man,

the only sacred Asia, was being in fact a social rite, the

of Homer, age edifice known.

inclosed, and then,

This
once on

probably,
the

in

primeval
little

differed
an

heaven,
and

and

prepared

by roasting

the

victim, at first improvement

offering to their simple

construction

of a pavement, of cleanliness been the addition obvious to have an means appears distinction this appears to constituted not comfort. Yet have a since, in pareven common, ticular in order is mentioned the pavement as a instances, peculiar ornament. Subsequently, in be
a more conspicuous equally exposed to the

to

mark

manner,

and

with
an

more

dignity,

the

sacred

spot, whether
not

while

the the

rites altar

should and

spectators,

pavement.
structure

Thus existed
a

the in

roofless his native

temple
country northern

might during

colonnade was open be said to be finished the age ancient of Homer

added,
;

inclosing

but

this appear. in Greece

at

val primeWe and Stoneerected with

does of devotion

remark the

here

very

striking
of the best

resemblance
more

between

the

places

Druidical

temple
the

regions.
one

In

fact, the
most

henge
of the of the

present

known,

and

perhaps

of

the

astonishing remains ever stupendous examples

to

This temple. species of religious erection appears open and not, as generally supposed, race, spread of the human of Sculpture, "c. Hist, the globe."" Memes, p. 225, as cited

have

been
to

co-extensive northern

limited P. IV.

the

portion

$ 169.

"
who
back

27.

Among washing
head

the

ceremonies

connected 67.

with
the

sacrifice,was a offering
the

the

vious pre-

of the hands

("

2)

and

sprinkling,by

were

and

number
or

sacred water was (yjpvt^). Then present, with of the victim, in early times, unground barley, in later times, a of small cakes with honey, wine, dvXoxvta), often meal mixed (rtorfowa,
little hair torn
next

of those priests, the placed upon

oil ;

from
the
on

the

forehead
and with

of the

victim

was

then

the

fire ;

followed
the

smote xrjpv%,
a

animal

prayer the head

libation (" 24. 2) ; then

an ax or

thrown upon the priest,or the its throat with

club,and
in

cut

was an appropriate vessel next flayed and cut in pieces. The thing fat with and to the haunches caul to was or or cover thighs (fiypoo) (xvioari), them take small piecesfrom other parts of the animal and place upon (Jifio^BtsZv). wine the thus was commonly Upon portions prepared, poured, and they were of the victim burned. the altar and then placed on The rest was usually and eaten at roasted on spits, the sacrificial banquet. Banquets of this kind

sacrificial knife

The (r/qjayis). victim

was

blood

received

The (tf^aystov).

then

were

made

on especially

the

sacred

festivals.

to bring to common properly so called, it was the gods other ava^ua-fa). Among these, were gifts and offerings (r5uipa, the temples, altars, and stawith tues which crowns or G-ttyos), garlands (otttyavos,

" 28.

Besides

the

sacrifices

were

often adorned, and

which

were :

formed
e.

of

the

leaf

sacred

to

the

ticular par-

god to whom Jupiter. Curtains rich embroidery were

they
and

were

offered

vestments

brought and

oiivy, for Bacchus ; of oak, for wrought with rt^pow^ua-fa) (rtEptrtsraoTtafa, or hung in the tern placed upon the statues
g.

150

GRECIAN

ANTIQUITIES.

garded as

favorable

prognostic. We
the belief

may

mention multitude

also in

of dreams, and

of the

pretation propheticinterand in bodily magic, the of aid and various shall tection. pro-

metamorphoses, which
The

they supposed to afford various

and
in

means

"

numerous were religious festivals each of the topics mentioned on particularly again. (Cf. "" 70-77.)

attended

with

ceremonies.

But

this section, we

speak

more

II.

CIVIL

AFFAIRS.

" 33.
lived
in

It has
a

alreadyremarked dispersed state, without

the

been

(" 5),

that the
or

first inhabitants any social

of Greece

civil culture

family relations,

the wife, exhibited is mentioned the as

the

authority of the parent over the only traces of government.

first author
to

the

The compact. over child, of the husband of Inachus, Phoroneus, a son

of association

Greek

tribes

began

select
extent
as

leaders,who
had rendered

for civil purposes. Gradually called kings (fiaoiXsi.s), were

or

however
most

limited

might

be

the such

of their dominion
to

authority. The
or

choice
some

generally fell upon

their tribe

country

and meritorious service; and then the dignity became distinguished hereditary, the choice was Sometimes a thingrather rare, however, in the earlier ages. determined viewed the authority was an by consulting oracle,and in such case the and the as more gods. rightful, as sanctioned by
On
the

subject of the civil affairs of Leipz.

1822. S.
"

the

early Greeks,
2

we

may

refer
"

to F. W.

Tittmann's

StaatsverfasDarstellung der griechiscb.

sungen.

Milford, ch. ii. sect.

; ch.

iv. sect. 4.

See

" 92.

" 34.
unlimited The between

The

kingly power,
leaders
and

in

; the

first ages, was princes being bound chiefs

care

the

far from

or being despotic,

duties of these principal

the

people, and

to

take

of justice, and zeal excellences.

for religion, were For their honor of which

laws and usages. to in settle were disputes war, of the worship of the gods. Valor, love their most portant imtherefore reckoned among

by

certain

to

command

assigned,the
taxes

cultivation

also paid to or imposts were The former (tfsc^rt-^poj/) the scepter and diadem. signs of their office were was usuallyof wood, and in length not unlike the lance; the latter (rStac^ua,) The general was sort of bandeau a head-band, rather than a proper crown. or of these kings was costume its and richness, was commonly of by distinguished

and support, a portion of the lands was Certain they superintended themselves. of war. increased in time them, which were

The

purplecolor.
In ancient
the

to

head
is said

of the tokens times, one a wreath, cap, crown,

to

of office and
or

rank
A

always
metallic

was
crown

something attached
was common.

the with

like.

David

have

had

crown

of

gold

precious stones,

of the

weight (meaning
a

mentions probably of the value) of a talent (1 Sam. xii. 30). Athenieus of 10,000 pieces of gold, placed on the throne of king Ptolemy.
In
otir

crown,

made

been found have which is said to golden crown, Near it in the Plate, fig. cient ana, is an underground. of a conquered the other the head Abyssinian crown side, fig. on ; on b, is the covering seen and the fillet horn prince or general upon In Plate XXIV. Egyptian monuments. fig. 6, we have worn of provinces in Abyssinia. bound by governors "A fillet," says Bruce, "was large broad their forehead and tied behind of this was their head. a conical In the middle upon piece of silver about four inches It is called ries."" kirn or horn, and long. is worn especially in parades after victoBruce, Travels, "c. as cited P. IV. $ 118. 1.

Plate

XVI.

fig.C,

we

have

curious

in

some

part

of Ireland,

in 1692, about

ten

feet

"

" 35.

The

court

and

retinue of the first

kings was
a

very

simple and unimposserved

as a

ing.

In war,

they usuallyhad
Both
in
war

by their

side

friend, who

kind

of

armor-bearer.

and
of

publicationand
when the chiefs officers treaties.
"

execution
wished in
to

they employed heralds peace, heralds also The their orders.

forward
and and

in the {x-qpvxti) imposed silence,

come

speak in
were

an

assembly.
most

The

same

assisted The and

religious ceremonies,
also selected

present in the
of doubt
in which
or

forming

of

kings
brave
stand

councillors, of the
in
cases

perienced, exdistinguished,

of the people ; and

and the formal
rest

held difficulty, the

with

them

consultations
to

assemblies,
Both

accustomed

and

to sit.

speaker was public and privateaffairs were

the whole

discussed

in these assemblies.

"

36.

The

courts

of justicewere

in

publicplaces; and

assembly

P.

III.

CIVIL

AFFAIRS

IN

THE

EARLIER

AGES.

151

usuallypresentedthe
of
stone ; the
men

form

of

circle.

The
were

judges
such
as

sat

upon

seats

or

benches
on

selected and

for the office

were

much

respected

a experience. They bore in their hand scepter or staff. stated orallyby the contending1partiesthemselves, and by them The cause was the witnesses The were kings or chiefs presided in these brought forward. For a period, equity seat elevated throne. assemblies, or on an sitting judicial and precedent or basis all decisions ; but afterwards, the of the formed usage laws and had for their guide particular first introcourts were duced statutes, which extensively by Cecrops. by Phoroneus, and more

account

of age

" 37.

As

the

laws

in

the

more

ancient
were

times

were

few

and

simple,so
was

were

the punishments.

But

few crimes

made

capital.

Murder

punished by banishment, either voluntarilysought by the murderer, or its duration, however, but decreed by public sentence; was a even year, and this could sometimes for a fine. The be commuted longed privileges of asylum beonly to the author of accidental, unintentional homicide. Adultery was quent punished severely, commonly with death. Robbery and theft were very frein the early times not of Greece, and originally considered minal, criwere as while the right of the stronger was if shrewdness admitted, especially united with the theft. and cunning were aimed at but Nothing therefore was what had inflict been to recover jury. taken, or to by a correspondinginvengeance Afterwards, however, particular imposed for these punishments were
offences.

commonly expressly

" 38.

In

as

much
a

as

the inhabitants

of Crete

were

connected
to

with

the

Greeks

by

their

having
code,
union of

common

language, it is
by Minos.
afterwards
the

important
are

mention
been
as

the Cretan
the
most

laws,
ancient

which written

were

introduced
and
were

They
taken
seems

said to have

by Lycurgus
to

models.

Military
;

valor and
ordinance

strengthof body, and to cultivate the members In order to impart greater between of the state. social attachment forward as dignity and authority to his laws, he brought them vealed having been reto him not by Jupiter. But the moral culture was greatlyadvanced by institutions having their primary and chief reference to a state of war.
directed
to

among Minos was

people

have

been

their

great aim

every

promote

" 39.
underwent celebrated

In

the many of the

progress

of

time, the
at

form

of

changes,
states
were

and

length became
and

government among wholly democratic. Of these in the

in
more

the Greeks The

most

Athens

Sparta.

particulara few

importantcircumstances
here
to

their government respecting

earlyages

are

be mentioned.
was

Athens
more

governed by kings. originally

in
war

The

power

of these

kings was

unrestrained
became
a

than

in peace.

After

the death

of Codrus

it

free

state.

The

chief

authoritywas

given

to

(1068 B.C.), officers styled

ruled for life. Thirteen archons of this descriptionsucceeded Archons, who from each other, all descended the family of Codrus. After the time of these

(752
years,

B.

C),
was

the office of Archon held

ceased
at

to
a

be

for life, and After

a

was

limited
of

to

ten

and

by

singleperson
was

time.

succession and rank.

seven

Archons
were

of this kind, the office

to

made

annual

(684 B. C),
same

nine Archons
"

The jointly, appointed under still and others Draco, changes experienced government greater the distinguished Solon, and in after times. legislator also and governed by kings. Euristhenes " 40. Sparta was originally

rule

not

all, however, of the

civil under Pro-

cles,the

two

sons

of Aristodemus

jointly,but ponnesus),reigned of its kingly office lost much the form changed greatly Two neither was it,properly speaking,aristocratical. at the kings remained of twenty-eight men, who established was head, and a senate consisting were also the body of five Ephori, appointed above There was sixty years of age. likewise had some share in the administration annually. The people themselves
of the
state.
a

(one of the Heraclidae that invaded PeloUnder their descendants not the harmoniously. giver, authority. Lycurgus, the famous Spartan lawof government become democratical, ; it did not

Notwithstanding

many

internal
rest

divisions and

this state

enjoyed

long period of

comparative

disturbances, liberty. This it owt d

and

152

GRECIAN

ANTIQUITIES.

of Lycurgus, the salutary influence of which regulations and moderate populationof Lacedeemon. territory of the most of advancing the Greeks their effectual means was " 41. One with and the navigation connected it. In the earliest times, commerce commerce consisted chieflyin barter and reciprocal exchanges of native products, Afterwards pieces of metal of different the use of gold not being introduced. values IV. became P. more common were " 94.) Navigation employed. (Cf. after the Trojan war, and iEgina first turned it to the advantage of commerce. in this respect. The Corinth and Rhodes became most commerce distinguished very
was

much

to the

wise

aided

by

the

limited

of Athens

other

hand

the on something considerable; that of Lacedaemon finallybecame the it is On remained whole, unimportant. always comparatively
"

worthy
had
an

of remark,

that

the

extension

of

commerce

and moral

maritime
of

intercourse the

states.
A.

important influence (Cf. P. IV. " 40.)

Historical
1790. 6 and vols. Dubl.

upon

the

civil and

culture

Grecian

Anderson,

Chronological Deduction
8.

of the Origin of Commerce,

from

the

earliest accounts

; with

Appendix

by

Coombs.
"

Commerce,
the
sea

in the Homeric The

seat

age,

the Phenicians.
was

carrying-tradeof
; but

appears the

to

have

been

Mediterranean Greeks
were

was

in the hands of principally early theirs, and Sidon

great

of manufacture. the

The

not

without

traffic carried

on

had evidently not in Homer's professionof merchant among time that honorable estimation which yet, according to Plutarch, it acquired at an early While it was period in Greece. thought not unbecoming a prince to be a carpenter to for gain was held but as a mean wants luxuries, to be a merchant supply his own or employment ; a pirate was a more respected character. in small much vessels, Navigation had been practiced,long before Homer, open the poet gives no hint of in the Mediterranean nearly such as are still common ; and late advancement of the art. The indeed, which nearly surrounded Greece, seas, any are singularlyadverse to improvements upon that vast scale which oceans require,and which modern times have produced. Broken headlands and islands, by innumerable with coasts and in some cian mostly mountainous, parts of extraordinary height, the GreThese united cirand violent storms. cumstances, seas are beyond others subject to sudden

by

themselves

which
much
to

have

made them

the Greeks

of all ages
seamen.
are

pilot,in the sense navigator is of little avail

constantly wanted ; the science of the comparatively useless in the iEgean. compass Mediterranean The vessels now, not excepting the French, which are mostly navigated The by Mediterranean sailors, never keep the sea there but with a fair wind. English in all their surrounding waters alone, accustomed bolder navigation,commonly to a in the Archipelago to work in fair winds Sails were used in venture to windward. time Homer's the art of sailing mariner's pendence dewas extremely imperfect. The ; but without. For in seas his oars, which vessel was was land-locked, yet no so the greatest danger was the stoutest so to ship. Light vessels, which tempestuous, the weather, make in calms, with their oars could along the coast, watch creep way find shelter in shoal water and, on any threatening appearance, or an beach, upon open what Grecian were Phenicians,. for their comnavigation peculiarlyrequired. The merce, used deeper ships,accommodated and longer voyages." to their more seas open
term,
;
even

prevent modern

from becoming
of the
the

have contributed excellent boatmen, skill and experience of the The

is

Mitford.
III. MILITARY AFFAIRS.

" 42. Militaryprowess therefore merit, and was

were

was an

esteemed by the early Greeks as The object of universal ambition. inclinations much and
or

of the greatest
first inhabitants

distinguishedfor
wars were

their warlike without

habits

of life,although
were

their

conducted

method

discipline. They

and their property, but to constantly in arms, not only to defend themselves attack and Thus deplunder others. they perpetrated violence, murder, and vastation
in the
extreme. war;

It needed
the

but

occasion triflinga

long,
such united
On work

and
cases,
as

bloody
in
a common

several

chiefs
cause.
I G. T.

siege of Troy furnishes and people, sometimes

Nast,

to excite a general, In strikingexample.

of

very

distant

provinces,
I7S0. S.
a

Grecian
on

military affairs,see
jenerat
ix.

H.
G.

Einleitung in die griechischen Kriegsalterthlmer.

Qber das

Siutlg

valuabla 8.
a

the

subject." Also,
1 1."

S. KSpte,

Kriegsweisen
sur

der et

Griechen
sur

im

heroischcn La

Zeitalter,"c. Haye,
as

'Bert. 1807. tt contains

of. Class.

Journ.
of

C. Guiscard,

Memoires

militaires

les Grecs

les Romains. Cf. " 275."

175S.

4.

Translation "fist. ch.

Onomnder

(cf.P. V. " 221), and

plans of

some

ancient

"c. battles,

Gamier,

cited " 136."

Mitford'i

ii. sect.

3, 4.

P.

III.

MILITARY

AFFAIRS

OF

THE

EARLIER

AGES.

153

armies consisted partly of foot-soldiers and in later times borne in chariots. The foot-soldiers were partlyof such as were armed and heavy armed as distinguished The Thessalight (4,1x61) (oftntat,). lians were celebrated for their cavalry (IrtTtslg). early and especially Still more of horsemen, ancient Homer. contained other
was

"

43.

The

Grecian

the

Two

of war-chariots, which horses, sometimes three,were

use

wTere

employed
to

by

the

heroes

of

attached

these

chariots ; each

of whom two warriors,one while the guided the horses (jywo^oc), pointedout the direction (rtapou,j3d*?"7j), hurled missiles discharged arrows, from a sling, the action was or close sprang foughtwith short arms, and when from the chariot (5"4"poj). Notwithstandingthe inconvenience of these vehicles in battle, they were in use for a long time, before cavalrycame to be generally substituted in their place.
In
as

the Sup. Plate charioteer, while

10 is Mars

seen

war

chariot the

with

three

horses

and

two

persons;

Bellona

acting

is

hurling

javelin.

of the Greek warriors were of two and " 44. The weapons kinds, defensive the helmet {xwiyj, offensive. Among the former (aXslj^jjpta, was rfpOjSx^aT'a)

xpdvoi, xopuj) made rtspt,xetya\aua,

of hair
or

(dxsvs);
leather and
or

of hide or leather and adorned with a crest tufts of feathers (tfaxoj, and attached to the neck xo"5"oj), by a strap the breastplate of brass, sometimes of (^iopa|), commonly made linen; the girdje(fuj/j?), the lower mostly of brass and encircling the greaves of brass (xvy]filSss),
or some

part of the body;

the shield

(agH^), usuallyround, made of the whole protection " 139). body (cf.
1
u.

of bullock's

more precious metal ; hide, and used for the

The

shield

was

the shield of Hercules

2. Homer's passages

often adorned to have

of the shield and

with

but figures,

not

as

much

so

as

Hesiod

sents repre-

been, and
model

Homer
shield

that

of Achilles.
as one

description
Iliad. A several
a

of Achilles

(II.xviii.478)
of the
was

is considered formed

of the

finest artist whole

in the and

delineation
were

by
He

the

celebrated the

Flaxman,
work exhibited

casts

made

in silver

within

circle

of three

feet

in diameter.

gilt,bronze, and plaster. It contains of a upwards

bouclier

brought
human

hundred

figures
de France* in

in relief.
"

Cf. Felton's Iliad,Notes. Classe the Mem.

See Quatr. de Quincy, Sur

la description du
"

d'Achille, "c.

in the Mem.

VTnst.

cvHist. et Lit. Jlnc. vol. iv. p. Acad. Inscr. xxvii. 21."

102, with

colored

plate. De Caylus,Boucliers

et d'Enee, "c. d'Achille, d'Hercule,

Class. Jaurn.

vi.

6;

viii. 409.

the of the " 45. The offensive were, commonly made weapons spear (Sopu), ash-tree(ftsXt,'^), it was and of different lengthsand forms according as designed

for combat the with

twisted

more

or

shoulders;

the

the belt of which less close; the sword (%l$oc), hung from of with of bow a wood, (to^ov), usually string(vtijpoi/)
or

of light-wood, pointed ottfTa), (j5e%7j, (axw, axovtiov), javelin of various lengthsand {orm^ ; and the sling(o^ei/Som?), of an oval shape, with attached to its ends, by means of which leathern strings two stones, arrows, horse-hair
of

hide ; the

arrows

with iron, and winged (rti'spoEtj toj)

feathers ; the

and

leaden

balls

were (iA.o%vfS8w(u)

hurled

againstthe

foe.

The for close combat called S6pv dpcKrdv was spear used ; that for a distance, 7raXr"5i/ ; the name the point,termed acxjm and (kowci?, was Aovpod6i"ri was given to always of metal. The the box or case, in which the spears were term l}x"s also depositedwhen not in use. the epithetbrazen (x^xeov) is usually applied to it. Cf. Horn. II. designates the spear;
"

380. iii.

carried

on

Cf. Horn.
Various
are

The arrows which, with the bow, kept in a quiver (ipaptrpa), were The quiver had a lid or the back of the shoulders (ot waounv). II. iv. 116-120.
articles in of ancient and in
armor are seen

was

usually
(",ua).

cover

in In the

our

Plates Plate

XVII.

and

XXII.

The

bow

and

quiver

given

fig.T,

Grecian

javelin;
which feet
or

XVII. L, of Plate O, O, spear-heads ; in forms

were

(cf.$ 139)
the four club
or

in various used

used

have forms of the also, fig.Y, Y, we of the clubs in H, a form figs,a, a, the long spear; in early periods; in fig.A, A, are given forms of this leaden in heads and with in the ; in E,
are a

battle-mallet

by

the

five in

long

figs,marked
sword;
of

C,
those

and

I, ; in fig. those marked

sometimes had Egyptians, which Grecian the have battle-ax; I, we

handles several Dacian varieties

fig.S,
sword

D,

are

forms
"

of the In

Grecian XXII

and

Roman

marked

B, Persian

swords.

Plate

found helmets; the helmets in Egyptian remains: i, are /, g, k, and sometimes of a similar with kings are given as crowns represented n, and o, are appearance: Dacian and also the Roman : h, is a : p, Phrygian : I, m, are Grecian, and may represent q, are form cian also quite similar to the latter,said to be used by the Syrians. In fig r, and on the Greis seen, and the girdle : s, represents a warriors, .fig. 1, and fig.7, the thorax figure found the celehrated near (cf.Stone's Life of Brant, vol. ii. p. 55, Appendix) buried in a sitting posture, inches to long, supposed Dighton Rock, in Massachusetts, with a concave breastplate thirteen be of cast half inches material four and brass, and a belt of the same wide, having a reed-like a with it. In fig. the warrior, fig.7, we found on appearance ; a brazen arrow-head, t, was u, and 20

fig.a, b, c, rf,and e, Persian and Syrian

154

GRECIAN

ANTIQUITIES.
Grecian
an

see

the

1, 2;

of the in the hands ; the shield,in fig.1, 3, 7 ; the spear greaves of the Persian, fig.3: the bow, "c. and in fig.6, which represents

warriors, in fig. Egyptian archer. of

" 46.

Most
which used

of the
seems

copper, often was afterwards

the
was

to

weapons have

of the
been used

ancient
of the iron.

Greeks

were

made
P. (cf.

brass iron

or

earlier than For

or

iron

IV.
armor,

" 10), and

was

after the

introduction
sometimes

defensive

generally shield,tin or lead

considered
as

preferred. For
was

cuirass To

the breastplate,

used.

adorn

too

extravagant

and

ostentatious.

greaves and with the weapons gold to Yet they endeavored

the highest degree of brightness, not only for the sake of give their armor On the shield they had a sort of beauty,but to inspire fear in the enemy. the image of some or emblem, usually in bas-relief, field-badge, god, military the lion. with much The horses also were ornamented or animal, especially
care.

Respecting the militaryapparel littleis ascertained.

own

The scarlet. provisions, consisting chieflyof salt meat,

to

clothe

their soldiers in vessel made

"

purpose

each

one

had

of wicker

monians Lycurgus directed the Lacedaesoldiers usually carried their For this cheese, olives, onions, "c. son, with a long neck, called yvhou. RobinGreek

p. 349.

" 47.

In connection

with
the

the

affairs of war,
in

it is proper

to

notice

the

use

of

ships
naval
were

or

vessels,which

Greeks

armies, and partly in transporting battles of the

Greeks
were

earlytimes employed partlyin piracy, In later times the partlyin actual combat. first ships Their frequentand celebrated.
oars.

and long (fiaxpno), considerable.

moved

by

The

number

of

rowers

was

various,

but a singlerank each side ; there was on Originally the another rank added built of was afterwards, as rowers ; ship was higher, vessels of the latter kind were called hlxpota, those of the former povoxpota, At a later periodthey were built with three tiers or ranks, also/w/jpeij, xixrjtsi. which be the most continued to common form, although there were tfpwfpsjf,

often very

vessels It
which
was

with

four, five, and six tiers,and sometimes

to

even

more.

earlycustomary
they
were

place upon

named.

The

protectionit was the first object of a victor was in his own ship. Greeks " 48. The early practiced in

god, to

whose

from ships certain images and signs, ship commonly bore the image or statue of some intrusted. In the capture of a vessel, especially to plunder this image, and place it as a trophy
war

the

forming
to

of

regular camps.
the

Their

compass but also the ships, which

and

extent

were

such surround
the

as

not

only

include
were

whole

after the
to

landing
wall

of the

troops
with
a

drawn
or

upon

army, the

dry land.
towers

It

was

customary
For
the

the camp
was a

wall
or

ramparts with

and

breast-works.

Before with
were

fosse

pointed stakes.
wooden
on

principal
skins.

officers

separate

tents

ditch,guarded with were erected, of

were

frames, covered

guard,and
"

beacon-fires

Doth

when parties,

hostile camps

sentinels During the night, kindled. Spies and scouts were were placed againsteach other.

stationed
out

sent

from

The been Tents like those now in use to have ancients,on seem a late invention. and in marching through a country, sleptwith no shelter but desultory expeditions, but their cloaks, as our blanket ; when lighttroops often carry none they remained a built of fir, and thatched Achilles' tent hut was with or long on a spot they hutted. it seems have had several to (II.xxiv. 488. ix. 659)." reeds; and apartments.

Mitford.
" 49.
The order of battle
to
was

either to

place the

war-chariots

in front,and

the infantryin the rear, or chariots from behind. The

give the
whole

and support them latter the front, by the into close array, although drawn was army

of battle they implored On the commencement arranged,in distinct divisions. the generals the aid of the gods, and made of grateful Then returns. vows exhorted the soldiers to valor,and proceeded to set an example. The onset each other was usually accompanied with loud shoutingand clamor to inspirit and intimidate the foe. The wounded healed with care, having nursing were left unburied, or their corpses and medicine were ; but the slain of the enemy unless their burial was even agreed upon in some exposed to insult, express

stipulation. taken " 50. The spoils

in battle consisted

partlyof

arms,

which

the

captoi

PLATE

XVII.

156

GRECIAN

ANTIQUITIES.

dedicated to the gods, and partly in other his own or use, their owners, became the which, together with precious articles, of well as the victor. of a ransom, however, the spoils, as By means property the prisoners, could After battle, the remaining booty was be redeemed. often divided the general, the however, always received his soldiers lot; by among who had distinguished themselves portion firstand without lot. Those by valor, also received prizes and rewards, by the promises of which the generals often
to appropriated

either

utensils

and

stimulated
"

their

troops before the action.

had time, the Greeks improved considerably so early as Homer's barbarous nations, who yet have to many tumultuary warfare alone known in the practiceof war for successive centuries. Several used prided themselves terms by the poet, together with his descriptionof marches, indicate that orders of battle in his time regularly formed in the soldier, that in ranks and files. Steadiness were foundation of all those powers from which to a mob, and which distinguish an army this day forms the highest praise of the best troops, we find in great perfection in the Iliad. in close order, the The Grecian phalanges,' says the poet (iv.427), marched
upon

We

find that,

that

'

'

leaders
in
so

each directing
a

his

own

band.
was

The
no

rest

were

mute

insomuch the

that you

would which

say,

great

multitude

there

from their officers.' watched for the word respectively to have Considering the deficiencyof iron, the Grecian troops appear

voice. of command

Such

was

silence

with

they

armed,

both

for offence

and

defence.

Their

defensive

armor

consisted

and greaves, breastplate, strengthened with brass.

; and a shield, commonly have the belt, which met to was a breastplateappears considerable defence to the belly and groin ; and with an appendant skirt guarded also the thighs. All together covered the forepart of the soldier from the throat to the ancle ; and the shield was a superadded protection for every part. The bulk of the Grecian ranks deep. troops were infantry,thus heavily armed, and formed in close order, many to a specific Any body, formed in ranks and files, close and deep, without regard ber numof either ranks or files,were generally termed a phalanx (II.iv. 332. vi. 83). But the Locrians, under all light-armed ; bows their principal Oilean were Ajax, were and they never engaged in close fight(dyx^a\"0weapons, been to have not Riding on horseback known unwas yet littlepracticed,though it appears (II.xiii.722). Some centuries, however, passed before it was generally applied in Greece to militarypurposes ruggedness of the country prevented ; the mountainous extensive the of cavalry, except Thessalians, whose was a use territory any among armies no chief was out withlarge plain. [Cf. Sallier,cited " 138.] But in the Homeric his chariot, drawn by three horses ; and these chariots generally by two, sometimes of war make for action, battles. Nestor, forming the army a principal figurein Homer's the first line of chariots only. In the second he places that part of the infantry composes

all of brass The

been very well of a helmet, a of bull's hide, but often

in which
most

he

has

least confidence

and

then

forms

third line, or

reserve,

of the

troops. The combat of the chiefs, so repeatedly described by Homer, advancing to engage reader with an appearsingly in front of their line of battle, is apt to strike a modern ance of absurdity perhaps much beyond the reality. Before the use of fire-arms that
not practicewas uncommon, himself gives (De Bell. Gall.

approved

when
v.

the

art

of

war

was

at

the

greatest

perfection.Caesar

of
of

Grecian chiefs of the heroic age, like the knights of the times soldiers ; and thisj probably superior to that of the common with the additional advantage of superior skill,acquired by assiduous practice amid unbounded make this skirmishing much less dangerous than on first leisure, would it may consideration appear." Mitford, ch. ii. sect. 3. in Homer's "Another time is by no means but equally defensible, practice common the contrary marks on to strip great barbarism ; that of stopping in the heat of action the slain. Often this paltrypassion for possessing the spoilof the enemy superseded all other, even the most important and most deeply interestingobjectsof battle. The of the of the danger and inconvenience not v. unaware 48, vi. 67) was poet himself (II. of it. We reformation have aimed find, indeed, in even to at a practice,and seems Homer's with regularity. Though mixture of barbarism the warfare, a remarkable in art of forming an known and ness was commonly practiced, phalanx army yet the busiof a general, in directing call it its operations, was lost in the passion, or we may and skill themselves fashion,of the great men to signalize by acts of personal courage in arms. Achilles and Hector, the first heroes of the Iliad (xviii. 106. 252), excel only in the character of fighting soldiers : as they are generals and directors of the war inferior to many. the skirmishing Indeed, while the fate of the battles depended so mnch on of the chiefs, we that the prejudiceshould obtain which wonder set the cannot in vulgar estimation, above able arm, But the poet obviously means the able head. to the absurdity and mischievous of that prejudice,where he makes expose consequences of

remarkable advanced his army engaged. The

a

account 43), with evident satisfaction,a very particular centurions combat, in which, not generals indeed, but two

chivalry,had

armor

"

158

GRECIAN

ANTIQUITIES.

"

55.

For

the

sake

of cleanliness

practiced frequentbathing,and bathing they made much use of properties. They strengthening
taking
the bath

the early Greeks bodilystrength, of the custom with anointing. In of its purifying and the sea-water, on account and of
it united

also had
the

warm

baths

in

their

houses.

After

they anointed

body

with

oil; costlyointments, expressly

of later invention. They cultivated in every preparedfor the purpose, were essential to personal of the hair,long hair being considered as the growth way esteemed was yellowish or lightbrown. beauty and dignity. The color most frizzled or curled locks, and employed artificial also pleasedwith They were
means

to

secure

such

forms

to

their hair.
and

" 56.
aside

Of

the real architecture do

not

arrangement
from
the

of Greek

houses

in the earlier

we periods,

get

an

accurate

view

of Homer, descriptions
or

which,
we

character, poetical (Cf. P. distinguished personages.

from

their

relate only to the palaces IV. " 232.) Respecting

dwellings of
may

these

kind of a wall, not very ordinarilysurrounded by some remark, that they were itself was the fore-court, in which the wall and the house an high ; between followed altar usually stood. Then a colonnade, a vestibule, and the main

buildingor house, often highly ornamented reached art of building at this time had not
architecture afterwards attained. and the women's hall, the sleeping-room, in oriental countries, and often served as

without

and the

by

far

In the upper

part of apartment.

within ; although the Greek which perfection the house the diningwas

The

roofs both

were

flat,as

places of resort
to

by day and by

night.
" 57.
The and
was

Greeks considered

cheerfullyreceived
were as

their houses held sacred of

was

the among

stranger, and the

them. the

needy;
himself

the rites of

hospitality the god and rewarder

on

Jupiter
avenger

and hospitality,

of all violations

and of its law's,

that account

styled Sbpmjs (P. II. " 25).

They
who

had stood

no

public inns
related
to

them

with those " 168), but travelers found reception (cf. This relation existed not by ties of hospitality.

ties. whole cities and communiparticular only between persons, but also between exercised towards each Kings and distinguished hospitality persons other by a sort of common understanding. The external tokens of a welcome of guests were reception joininghands and embracing with a kiss. Sometimes with it this was On offering the bath and unction. accompanied separating, in a friendlyrepast, and renew their pledge of mutual to unite was common the wine. parting Valued sometimes bestowed the deon over were friendship gifts

guest. " 58.

In

speaking of
This of the also
was

the

of occupations
common

mentioned. boundaries cultivators

trees
was

their most
were

the Greeks, pursuitand The

fields

marked
encroachments.

by stones,

be first agriculture may of living. The means which served to guard the of the cattle
was

against mutual
an a

culture These

vine
a

and
common

of

employment,
considered eminence mentioned and
a

and

The object of attention. of wealth. source principal

raising of

employments

were

not

exercised by persons of in any way but were degrading or ignoble, and even by princes. The hunting of wild beasts should also be the flocks and the fields from here, as practiced in order to secure the chase

depredation. In
arrow,

they made
the

use

of various

weapons,

as

the

bow

and

the spear, with

help

of the

dog. Fowling

and

fishingwere
"

likewise
The
nets
a

frequent employment.

nets

the meshes
were

made of flax (Xiva) (tft/crua) employed in fowling, hunting, and fishingwere (Ppoxoi)being of various sizes according to the use intended. In hunting, the in a curve and extended supported by stakes (ordXi/ctj) so as partlyto surround
were

space

into which the animals of which the most common

aayr\vr\
Poems

driven.
were

Several

kinds

of

nets fishing
or

are

tioned, men-

the

divpifiMarpov (retiaeulum)
sur

casting-net,
de VIrutitut,

and
See
C

the

{tragum) seine
on

or

sean. V.

Oppian's
de Lit.

Fishing and Arts, vol.

v.

Hunting, cf. P.
p. 350.

" 75." Ameilhon,

la

peche

des Anciens,

in the Mem.

1a s s e

et Beaux

The employments of women consisted partly in the care of the household, partly in spinning,weaving, and needle-work, not only for their own but for that of the men ing, also. clothing, Grinding,baking,cooking and washIn general, the female were the performedby the women. sex among

" 59.

P.

III.

DOMESTIC

AFFAIRS

IN

THE

EARLIER

AGES.

159

in a state of great, although not slavish subjection to the male. the sexes. The comparativelylittle intercourse between women lived chiefly in the apartment assigned to them, the rwouxwj/ by themselves or which in the interior or upper was Twaxuov, part of the house (" 56). Seldom In later times this close discipline and conwere they allowed to go abroad. finement remained in force,and women shared even less than previously in the of men. business and pleasures Greeks
was

There

was

On C 1a On

the ancient
s s e

method

of grinding, cf. Mongez, vol. iii.p. 441. G. Lenz, Geschichte Inset, vol. xxxvi.

Sur

les meules

de moulin

employees

par les Anciens, in the

Mem.

de

Vlnstitut,

A'Bitt. et Lit. Anc.

state

the

of females, R Acad.

der Weiber p. 396.

"

im

heroischen

Zeitalter.

Hanov.

1790.

8.

"

Les Rochefort,

mceurs

dea

siecles heroiques, Mem.

Cf. " 181.

"

60.

Among
The
it

the former
was
a

most

common

amusements

of the Greeks
well

were

music
were

and

dancing.

consisted

of vocal

and

instrumental, which
as as

united ; and in education.

the
common.

designed
more

for instruction
sense

always Hence gratification.

an was

music, although in
most

extended and and

of the

(Cf. " 179,

in use, former

P. IV.

" 63.)

term, was The lyre

the

essential the
was

object
most

strument stringedinthe

of wind

instruments

flute

it was because more enjoyed the preference, commodated easily acalso left trieperformer at libertyto use his voice. to song, and The subjects of song were most was chiefly mythical or historical. Music also the most at used and were religious festivals,which banquets generally With occasions of dancing. to join various common dancing it was customary
"

The

sports and exercises

the

of the

body, as

and leaping,running, riding, wrestling,

are

like.

"

61.

Marriage and nuptialceremonies

affairs of the Greeks.
The

to

be

noticed

in connection

with flocks

the domestic

dowry

of the

daughter was
a

usually
the

given by
and

the father.

It consisted

of female
were no

ornaments,

portion of
was

herds, and the like. There in marriage, except that between

as

forbidden degrees of oonsanguinity considered

to to

parents and children; yet it

and be sister

highly censurable
was

for

brother
to

the consent bride

of the parents was conducted with pomp

the
common

asked.

home

by

the

Previously marriage or wedding, the had who previously, bridegroom,

At the

unite.

nuptials
a new

accordingto

were procession to the retinue and bridal hymns a were by sung usually accompanied the music; and the

built practice, house, nuptialtorches

and

made borne of whole

ready youths
was

house.

In

this

before
and

the

newly married, virgins. Dancing

feast.

widow

seldom
At

contracted

second

forbidden. her widowhood.

least, it did

not

followed by a nuptial not pressly exmarriage, although it was after take place until five years more or

of the education of their " 62. Parents of the better class took special care mother her The accustomed to nurse was children, both physicaland moral. dition. children, and considered herself freed from this duty by no rank or conown The
who
art

aid of others instructed

them

in this

respect

was

sought only in

cases

of

absolute

necessity. In subsequent
of
war.

and overseers, )7ears the children had particular teachers in bodily exercises,in useful sciences,and in the considered
a

Cf. P. IV.
other

On

the their
as

" 64, " 71. hand, also, children

it

duty
to
a

to

love, reverence,
considered
to

and his

obey
curse

parents. They the greatest of evils.

rejoicedin

father's benediction, and

endeavored in it
as

They
upon

repay

parents in old

age

the

care

experiencedby
law.
as

themselves

childhood,
their

required by
on On

They
had
among

looked

indeed, expressly thing, geance highest honor, to inflict veniv. 319.

such
to old

their injured

fathers.
iii. 142, 320;
des

respect paid
cf.

age

the ancients, cf. Class. Journ. C. P. Levcsque, Sur

les Mceurs

On

the

manners

and
the Mtm.

morals

ot

the

earlier ages. C 1a
s s e

Rochefott. as cited " 59."

Mor.

Grecs

du

temps

d'Homere, in

de Vlnstitut,

da

Sciences

et Pol. vol. ii.

" 63.
had
been

The

slaves Slaves

of (cSoi^oi)
war

the

Greeks,
were

male

and

female,
in
to
an

were were

persons
The of

that

taken

prisoners in
commerce a or

or avbpdrtoSov), (di^idxcoT'os,

purchased
troduction inthe

of others.

of the latter class

not

common

early times.
inhabitants unlimited

of

trade in slaves is ascribed

the

island of Chios, at

later

period.

The

master

had

almost

power

160

GRECIAN

ANTIQUITIES.

his slave, extendingeven over of liberty bestowed. was gift Besides

to

to

the

right of
a

life and

death.

Sometimes

the

the actual

slaves there

was

class

who of day laborers,

were

tomed accus-

in the agriculespecially tural Qtrji ss, rtiXatai), and pastoral employments, which in Greece. were s o common originally not A for mere retinue of servants indulgedin during displayor luxury was the period of which have thus far been speaking. Cf. " 99. we

let their services

for hire

II.

"

Of

the later and

I. RELIGIOUS

more

Ages. flourishing
AFFAIRS.

"

64.

The

number

of the Grecian

divinities increased

with

the advancement

although the mythology of the Greeks, in its elements, was of early origin, engendered and fostered by the ignorance, chiefly superstition, and of the The first mythical fictions were sensuality enlarged,the ages. and of representing modes fices, sacrivaried, the temples, festivals, th,e gods were and rites of worship were and all the solemnities multiplied. greatly became The and splendor of their religion at very imposing,especially pomp that of all their affairs. At the period distinguished for the flourishing state in a great measure time the plastic devoted to the representation arts and were edifices. illustration of religious (Cf. story, and the ornamenting of religious This P. IV. " 178, 197, 198,234.) circumstance gives additional interest and importance to the study of this branch of antiquities. still built in a simple taste, yet in greater were " 65 a. The temples {yaol, Ispd) The number the interior had and commonly two splendor. parts, -of which into which the sanctuary (aSvtov), the priestonly entered. The innermost was stood the statue the temple belonged or place where image of the god to whom of the temple, commonly surrounded in the middle was by a guard of lattice
of civilization;
work
or

the

like, and

therefore termed

6r;xb$.
the top of mountains in the common creed

or

Originallythe Greeks, like the oriental nations, worshiped on where hills, they afterwards firsterected their temples. When

multipliedand assigned to valleys,rivers, "c., as their appropriate progods were vinces, built in such spots as were supposed temples were agreeable to the several gods. than one sometimes More worshiped in the same deity,however, were temple ; they when then called avwaoi awoiKtrai they had a common were or altar, ovpficdptH. ; and used for different deities;Doric pillars, Different styles of architecture were e. g. for Jupiter or Mars; Ionic, for Bacchus, Apollo, Diana; Corinthian, for Vesta the virgin. The which temple usually stood in a space inclosed by a fence or wall (cpKo;,Trcpigo\o;), contained, besides the temple, often other sacred buildingsand a grove ; the whole space called rtusvog, a term sometimes restricted to the space set apart in the temple for was the image of the god. In the temple,some the S"vrov, placed a vessel of was say at the door, others near brass filled with holy water for the purpose of sprinkling those stone or (jrepipfiavrrjptov) The admitted called Trpofo^ to the sacrifices. was part of the temple before the cnm it dmcrddSo^og. The that behind termed TrpoxvXa or irpoTzvKma. There outer porch was for preserving its own also belonged to the temple a treasury [ipxjsiov) property, or that of others intrusted to it. The and offeringsto the gods found in the temples statues have been spoken of (" 21, 28). Statues called AHwm? fallen from Jupiter, kept were from the sight of all but the in the most sacred part of the temple, and concealed priests.
the
"
"

"

For

other

the structure of the temples, particularsrespecting

see

P. IV. " 234.

"
that

65 b.

The

altars

were (j3io/x6i)
or

placed

towards

the

east, and
with

had

various

forms, round, square,

the

oblong.

They
bound fled to

were

sacrificial victims

might
when
a

be

to

horns, partly them, and partlythat supplicants

altars

ornamented

might lay hold of them, considered as they were

deities,to
whom the

they
were

the

for

refuge. Perhaps
The
use names

also

and sjrmbol of dignity

power.

of the

altars

sacred,

were

usually inscribed
to

upon

them,
solemn

consecrated Altars,as well as temples, were ceremonies, particularly by anointing.

their proper

with

PLATE

XVIII.

'" ffilllllliDllW:-

'..'^iiT^iM'.;;;.::
. .

"I'liiliiililllpllllllliM
o2

21

162

GRECIAN

ANTIQUITIES.

Different gods had altars also of different dimensions ; the altar of Jupiter Olympius is said to have been altars of the terrestrial gods were feet high. The twenty-two lower than those of the celestial. To the infernal, sacrifices were in pits or made The trenches (" 29) used instead of altars. nymphs were worshiped in caves {avrpa). Altars were formed of various materials; often of earth, or of ashes, as that at'Thebes
to

Apollo 'Zirokog ;
; some
were

sometimes

of horn,
with

stone

Were

overlaid

and

often
forms

highly
of and
one

ornamented
are

that at Delos; sometimes of brick; often of as either square round ; $ 26). gold (cf. They were or by sculpture.
in Cf. the

Different
one

altars of

given

Sup.

Plate

30, where

are

seen

an

altar

of

Jupiter,

of

Neptune, The

Bacchus.

$ 205.

" 66.
of the
as

sacred practiceof appropriating

was

groves

for the

honor

and

service
as

gods
of

also retained

in

later times.
was

Their
to

agreeable shade,

well

the stillness
use

reigning in them,
was

favorable

pious meditation.

Although

of cities and villages, by the multiplication forever sacred and inviolable. dedicated to the gods remained yet a grove once As well as temples and altars, they were safe asylums for offenders, although this privilege them conferred upon for the consecration was only by a special and did not worship as a matter belong to all the places of religious purpose, of course. The privilege of being such asylums or places of refugewas times someto awarded of heroes. the statues and tombs Certain portions of land and cultivated ground were also assigned to the gods, which likewise were

the

groves

diminished

"

called tsfiBVTi,the fruit of which of the priests.

A

was

employed

in

or offerings,

fell to the share

to

Athens and Megara, was consecrated particulartract of land, situated between and also set apart and with cereProserpine, and called 'Opydc. Trees were mony consecrated to some god {Theoc. Id. xviii. 43). The privilegesof the sacred temples, as asyla, continued until the reign of Tiberius Csesar, by whom they were chieflyabolished, or greatly abridged {Tac. Ann. iii. of the abuse 60-63). on account of them by worthless villains. Ceres
"

Simon,

Les

asyles,Mem.

Acad.

Jnscr. iii.35.

"

R. Mayo,
1.

Mythology,

vol. i. p. 156."

S. Pegge,

Historyof

the

Asylum,

"c. in the

Archxologia (as cited P. IV. " 243. 3), vol. viii. p.

" 67.
sometimes

The
the

three

duties principal

of the
and

called also Ispovpyoi, priests(Ispel?, With The

these
were

were ^sovpyoi,^ritao)

sacrifice, prayer,
and

instruction.

united

declaration

of interpretation

oracles.

qualifications requisite
and blemishes of
were

for the priesthoodwere a body free from and an xai aps%^i), lawful birth (yc^tftoj), (o^oxtoypoj life. Upon the rank of the god depended the number

all defects

course irreproachable of the priests, who

employed
functions
more

to

attend

upon

him, and
In
every

who

shared

each
was one

his

part of the

various
not

of the

service.

place there
"

if superiorpriest,

(ap""p"f, lspoSi-Sdsxa,Koif charged with the oversight of the iepotyuvtai}, The office of the parasites(rfovpaworship in general {dpxitpcoavvr[). religious the grain and fruits designed for sacrifices was to collect Gi-tot,) (rfpoodSca The heralds appropriated therefor (rtapaeCttov). usyaXa) into the storehouse the sacred orders, and also the superintendents ranked were (xrtpvx8s) among whose and adorn the temples. business was to cleanse (escozopot,) The of the white was or clothing usually a long priests purplerobe, and their head with a filletand a crown of the was ornamented, especiallyat sacrifices,
"

leaf sacred
In
our

to

their

particular god.
of
a

fig.C, is a view a hand, indicating that thyrsus in one The priestess is pouring a liquid upon Antique Vases, Altars, "c.
1. Priests who

Plate

XXVII.

Grecian
are

priest and
of altar.
an

priestess,in
and
monument
a

their vessel

robes in

they
the

servants

Bacchus,
It is
a

has ; each the other. in Moses,

flame

of

given

called 'ol bc.ysvovg;those holding their office by inheritance ("22) were received it by lot, Khjparol; those by election, aiperol Some of the or. hL/rj^io-ptvoi. the priesthood descended Athenian families, in which the Ei"/*oAby inheritance were intrusted with the oversight iti"ai, of the Elusinian descendants mysteries ; KrjpvKis , of Ceryx ; the BavXavic'ai, There of Thaulon. descendants sacred a was family at Priestesses Argos also, called 'ArarropiJai. (tipuai, dpxdpuai, kpoipavi-iSe;) were dpfiretpai, taken from noble families. M"Wo-at Those termed of Ceres were ; those of Bacchus,

BdKxdi, Ovdkg, Mcuvdkg. Sometimes with the worship of the gods services connected were performed by persons not rffc properly belonging to the priesthood {Ksxapio-jiivoi of whom Ispoxmvris) said to have been e. g. sacrificers ('ispo-oiol), ten are appointed ; as all the usual sacrifices ; keepers of the temannually at Athens, and who conducted ple and utensils {vao"pv\aKec) or treasurers (rapdaLt"v lepwv xpi^orcoi').Priests ; stewards
"
"

P.

HI.

RELIGIOUS

AFFAIRS.

SA6RIFICES.

OATHS.

163

who

were the gods to offer the prayers constantly in attendance on called TIp6Tto\oi sacrifices, the were Semi/. All who served gods were
"

of the

people

at

maintained

out

of the sacrifices and

were

Athens, offerings.-^At
an

those

intrusted
to

required to render

account

of tneir
to

doings
been

certain

with the care of religion civil officers appointed

the

for the purpose. The records.

On "Class.

The 'ltpopvfipwv seems priestshad attendants

see

have

charged with keeping

vorzujlich Rttcksicht
in

sacred

called lepodovXoi.
Priesterstaat Dieux
a

the priesthood of the Greeks, Journ. xxxix.

350." des

J.Kreuser, Der

Hellenen des

mit

auf die

Hieroduien.
60

Mainz.
"

Bougainville, Des

ministres

Athenes,

the Mem.

Acad.

Inscr. xviii.

; xxiii. 51.

letronne, Sur les fonctions

Hieromnemons,

"c. in the .Mem.

de Vlnstitut, Classe

d'Hist. et Lit. Anc.

vol. -vi.221.

rite of great importance a were priests and priestesses obliged to take an oath, that they were duly purified. Every person attendingthe solemn sacrifices was in purified usually by being washed sprinkled with the water or the ncpippavrfipiov (cf." 65 a). This water consecrated was by putting into it a burning torch from the altar, branch of laurel (Mipvrt) Purification was also someolive. a or times or made sea-onion by drawing round the person or a a or squill(ovctAAa), young dog (oA-i'Aat) used for the purpose the blood of a ; sometimes were eggs ; sometimes Some of the terms pig. employed to designate purifying are mpippaivew mpijiamaQai, Kc%ipsu", ayvi^ew, l\aap.dg, "c. Sometimes in purifications not rcAcri), only the ayvuxp.dc, hands, but the feet and other parts of the body were washed. among the Greeks.
At
some
,
"

2.

Purification

has

already

been

mentioned (f 23) as of their solemnities, the

"
The

68.

The

sacrifices had

different

names

thank-offering was (^apttfT^pta)

some vow

in

accordingto the occasions favor of some recognition

of them.

received,
in order

often in fulfilment of
to

made;

the sin-offering (Ixaottxa) was

in

offended deity an propitiate ; the invocation-offering (dtr^tjca) was presented of seeking some other case sacrifices, particularfavor. There were particular which offered in consequence of the specific of some were command god. The of the sacrifice in
the

by the libation something fragrant Qtvfiuafia) itself, ; and at length the sacrifice properlyspeaking,or the slaying of the victim (Ispivov). The principal have ceremonies alreadybeen mentioned termed (" 27). Persons who had the rightof being present at a sacrifice were
was

beginning " 24. 2) ; (artovSri,

later times

made

then followed

incense, the

burning of

"

and those aj3ej3'/j%ov, heralds

to

who had not, j5sj5rj%oi. latter The retire before the ceremonies commenced. animals
the
were

were

called upon

by the

offered in sacrifice to different gods, as has been mentioned One of the principal the mythology. victims, however, was (@ov;); hence the term sacrifice oxen those assistants who slew the ox to /SovdunTv, : victims were called 0ov8vrai. Bulls (ravpoi), sheep (ouc), and often were goats (iXyec) The offered. bringing of the victims to the altar was expressed by such phrases as often brought adorned with rw fiwpw,or irapaaTnaai Srvaiav roTg Pcopotc irpoaaysiv ; they were and were garlands {urkjipara), After always required to be free from blemishes {teXcioi). the victim was slain and cut in pieces, an inspection of the entrails ("rK\ayxvoaKmia) made the presages of the future. was to ascertain by the soothsayer (cnrXayxvoaKOTroc), in

Different

treatingof

ancient

Animals cakes of of animals.

It does
not

were coarse

demanded sacrifices from the poor, who not allowed to offer as were flour (irmava,veXavoi, made sometimes in the shape ntppara) ; these were
to

appear

have

been

ever

an

approved
(Plutarch,
"

custom

sacrifices, although
to

it

was

repeatedly done;
Persian and

cf. P. II. $ 17. Cf.

the among Themistocles Human Falsa

Greeks is said victims

to to
were c.

offer have

human ficed sacri-

the

gods
the

several
manes

captives.

Them.)
De

sacrificed
"

particularly to Praep. Evang.

infernal

gods.

Lactantius,

Religione,

21.

Eusebhis,

iv. 16.

" 69.

It is pertinent to

notice

here

the solemn

oaths of the Greeks, in which

they called upon the gods to witness the truth or avenge falsehood or injury. between the solemn and affirmations or They distinguished opjeoj) great oath (6 juiyaj the god and in ordinary considered as cases. especially Jupiterwas taken in the guardian of oaths, and avenger of perjury,although oaths were of other to also. It the twelve name was swear e. by gods common, great g., the SioSsxa Sometimes nitely swore superior gods (pa they by gods, indefi^soiis). and generally sometimes or by inanimate objects, ; and vases, weapons, oath in article of Not the which made the use. was they unfrequently any of living or deceased such name especiallyas had been highly esteemed men, oath was and loved. The geance usually joined with a distinct imprecationof venon

the
a

swearer

himself

in

case

of

falsehood

and

was

sometimes
be the
eaten.

firmed con-

by

the flesh of which, sacrifice,

were

however,

could

not

Severe

punishments

decreed

Yet against perjury (frfiopxia).

Greeks, espe-

164

GRECIAN

ANTIQUITIES.

ciallythe Thessalians, were

least mutual and

reproached
characteristic

for

this crime

by

the

ancients.
of later

At

distrust
the and

was

of the corrupt Greeks synonymous

oaths and

times,

among

Romans
covenants

the
were

phrase Grseca fideswas

confirmed

with

perfidy.

Leagues
hence
opxta

by making

diousness
a

into covenant. rkp"siv to enter signifies who they considered one honest pious person (rior/?)??). 'Amirfimans signifies

of the Greeks,

slaying sacrifices ; Notwithstanding the great perfikept his oath {hopm;) as of course faith.
"

Massieu, Sur
p. 649.

Ies Sennents

des

Ancieos, in

the

Hist,

de

VAcad.

des

laser,

vol. i. p. 191 ; vol. iv. p. 1.

Smith, Diet, of Antiq.

The opinionwas certain very early entertained, that the gods honored with There a especiallythe priests, were intimacy. supposed particular modes of revelation ; one to be two the immediate, by direct inspiration ; and other mediate or artificial, considered which was the fruit of great knowledge, as Oracles of the first experience, and observation. (xpyjatr^ia, ftavtaa) were

" 70.

men,

kind ; and
were

the second
to

kind

was

divination

accustomed of

seek, in important circumstances

From the Greeks oracles, {(xavtixri). and undertakings, tions predic"

the result

be

turned
and

(^p^uoc, %oyta, fxavtsvfiata). It to the advantage of the priests, to greatly

are

is obvious whose

that

they could
answers
as

ence artifice their exist-

support

given in any one pretended, from the gods

were

not

in great measure to uniform manner,

be but

ascribed. sometimes

The

oracular

immediately,

was

sometimes (^p-^cr^ot) gWo"}""mh.),

a

through

an

interpreter,

or by {X'qtipoh vrtofyritoxoi),

pretended dream,
were

or

by

lot.

Persons

who

consulted could
been of

the

oracles and

termed
were

terpreters, S-Eo-puVoi, Seapoi,xpn"~p""p6pot ; the in-

xpwp"\6yot. Presents
an

sacrifices
on

oracle,which
The
mere

be

done

only

always requisitebefore appointed days.

from Satan the ancient
use

consulting
oracles of their the
some were

the

question has imposture

Van Dale with Baltus

side.

uttered the responses agitated, whether of or proceeded from the agency in a learned treatise view. urged the former much the latter view, learning maintained

priests,

making

sions. delusame

Fontendle in agreement which

advocated with

of

the

Christian Dr.

Fathers.

Clarke

(Travels,
the artifice

P. of

ii. sect. the of it

2. ch.
to

xvi.)
most

describes the less like

to

contrivance,
of oracles. remains of
a

he

designed by
of the

priests
the
was

sustain

system
telltale than the
one

"We

supposes found the at among of

was

foot the

hill of the of
to

vestiges
alluded may state, and
see

pagan

Acropolis, one priestcraft;

laid

curious

yet. discovered
oracular has broken shrines

nothing
inspection,
was

the

Jirgos,
he

by Pausanias,
contrivance
can

open

to

the

whereby
conceived the the

it
to

made

speak.
the the

toy A

child

in order for

that modern

more

curiosity
excavation part

hardly
been of the
a

be

exist

it had

temple;

farther front and

rock, and

part roof

among from

ruins

constructed

of any its original where the altar was, entrance, being an with baked tiles. The altar yet remains,

interesting sight Grecian city. In

terraneous subis a secret the most remarkable superstructure part of the whole fictile ; but distance the altar ; its entrance terminating behind being at a considerable passage, toward the right of a person small to have as a so facing the altar; and cunningly contrived and of the rock. This level with the surface was aperture, easily concealed barely large enough of a single person into the narrow the entrance to admit might ; who, having descended passage, of the altar; where, the center along until he arrived immediately behind being hid by creep would 'a most colossal other the sound of his voice statue some or produce imposing screen, effect the humble the were votaries, prostrate beneath, who listening in silence upon among floor of the sanctuary. for a few We minutes mimic amused ourselves to the by endeavoring

of the

solemn the

farce

a by the sides of the rock, afforded known to the credulous tolerable was formerly made votaries of this now There fewer than not were forgotten shrine. twenty-five of these juggling in the as places in Peloponnesus, and surely it will never ; and single province of Bxotia many in them the answers learned whether were a question given by the men, again become among from the imposture of priests ; neither can they proceeded inspiration of evil spirits,or whether Pausanias it be urged of Christ because (Corinth, c. 24, p. 165, ed that they ceased : at the death in the second at Argos bears Kuhnii) century." testimony to their existence cavernous

these occasions as we upon ; and of the throne altar, a reverberation, specimen of the 'will of the gods,' as it

acted

delivered caused

mock

oracle,

ore

rotunda,

from

See

Van

Dale,

De

Oracnlis

veterum

Ethnicoium.

Ams!. Oracles

1700.

4."

B. Fonts/idle, Histoire
the

des

Oracles.

La

Have, 1728.
x.

12.ch.

/. F. Baltus, (p. 391. vol.

i

Answer ed.

to Fontenelle's

History

of

; trans), from

French.

Lond.

1710.

2 vols. 8."

Cf. Rollin, bk.

cited " 13)

Blackwood's

Majaz.

vol. xiv.

p. 277. some

"

71.

It

may

be

proper
most

to

mention
was

of the

most

of distinguished

the

ancient

of Jupiter at Dodona, a city of the Before this time, however, this said built have been Deucalion. to Molossi, by IV. to have existed in that place. of P. seems oracle, " 41), Pelasgicorigin (cf.
oracles. The

ancient

that

There
actual which

was

exercise
were

ascribed the and superstition grove of oaks, sacred to Jupiter, themselves, of the gift of speech and prophecy to the trees and called arto^TUc. thence called fxavtixai8pvs$. The priests, themselves
of the upon and in the

~Sb%%oi, concealed

trees, when

pretended
the

declaration

was temple,

also

gods. The sound of a imagined to be supernatural. A

brazen

the they announced placed near vase, fountain in the place was

166

GRECIAN

ANTIQUITIES.

the future. and In

was

The

herself Ilt"i-'a

was

esteemed
be

as

of peculiar dignity priestess

office the
was

obligedto prepare for the functions the oracles, she delivering appeared to
In
oracle

of her
in

by

many

ceremonies.

most

convulsion. the form

the

early times,
was

the

oracular
a

response

violent ecstasy and commonly clothed in

of hexameter the

verse ; often by consulted but on

called Bvaios or IIvglos ; spring, certain Whoever the oracle was wished quired reto consult day of every month. to make and wreath to put on a or crown, largepresents and offerings, and allow himself to his questionsmostly in writing, to be qualified propose for receiving the answer was commonly by many mystic rites. The answer and ambiguous (^.o|oj, that it would so hence Ao|i,'aj), enigmatical apply to any result that might happen ; and whenever it was clear and definite,the priests
had

ginally Oripoet employed for the purpose. month of in a singleday in the a year, afterwards a on inquiry could be made

informed

themselves

of all the
issue.
"

preliminary

circumstances
was

and

the
at

bilities probavarious

respectingthe
times, and became
became

The
soon

Delphic

oracle

suspended
the emperor

silent finally

after the death

of

Julian.

Originally, there was one Pythia (or irpoiprjTic.) only at Delphi; but after the oracle the from among increased to three, chosen more frequented, the number was and chastity. uneducated inhabitants of Delphi, and bound to the strictest temperance ot the inspiration. lost their lives in the paroxysms They officiated by turns, and sometimes exclamations, their incoherent Those, who pretended to form into sentences ascertain three in number, called irptxprrrai previously were to always took care ; who about The much the history and characters of those consulting the oracle. prophets aided in the sacrifices and ceremonies, which were preceded the placing of the Pythia The the tripod,by Jive priests called '60101, under a chief called bo-iurhp. wno on were in pointing -tpinyn-alwere guides to those who visited the temple, employed particularly A great number its curiosities. of persons rious out to them required for the vawere See the Plate facing services of the temple and oracle. page v. ^
"

"

On
et

this oracle

of Apollo,

see

Hardion,
Hafn.

Oracle 1S27."

de Delphes, in the Mem. K. D.

Acad,

Inscr. des

vol. iii.p. 137." Orakels.

"

C. F. JVUster, De

Religione
W.

Oraculo

Apollinis Delphici. Orakel,

in seinem

HUllmann,

WQrdisune;

Delphischen

Bonn,

1S37."

Gotte,
und

Das

Belphische

politischen,religiosen, und

sittlichen Einfluss.

Leipz. 1839.

R,

H.

Klausen,

in Ersch

Gruber, Encyclopadie, under

Orakel.

" 74.
was

There
of

were

in Greece
were

various of the

other oracles less celebrated.

the oracle
;

The

more

important

them

the oracle other

following:
minor

of

Apollo
of
were

at

Didyma,
also
a

which

called

also

the
of

Branchida? Lebadea

those
answers

Delos, Abse, Claros,

Larissa, Tegyrae and Apollo ; the oracle

cave,

cities ; where
at

given from
subterranean

Trophonius
the

in

Boeotia, in

said to have after

future

been

residence
and
answers

performingsolemn

ceremonies, in order
the oracle
were

of Trophonius, into which to receive of Amphtaraus

cended, inquirersdesa

revelation
initiated

of

the of

by dreams or oracles ; Oropus in Attica, where the

"

in the
the

vicinity
by
and

imparted
amounted

to to

dreams.

The

number

of the

ancient

oracles

two

hundred

sixty.
1. The the
cave.

oracle The Within

of

Trophonius
was

is described
a

chiefly by
where
was

Pausanias grove, which

a

(ix.371, who
temple,
were

says
statue

he of of

entered

oracle
an

inclosure

upon made like hands had

mountain,
of white
oven;

and

nius. Trophobrass,

was

an

artificial

descended,

opening carrying in his

write there describe down
was a a

an a

stones, upon here by a ladder

erected

obelisks

the

certain been
a seen

composition
or

of
"

honey.
Plate

required
oracle.
common
"

to

what

heard. the
cave

In
never

consulting the oracle person On was returning, the person is a representation of this XIX.
after
cave

As
to

story that

visitor

to

smiled
to

his

return,

it became
;
see an

amusing
The
cave

by saying he had gloomy person application of this, in Addison's Spectator, No.

to travelers J also the two

been 559.
and

the

of

Trophonius

is still pointed out vol.

fountains

Mnemosyne

Lethe.

"

See Clarke, Travels, "c.

"

Pouqiieville,

Voyage, "c. 2. There

was

iv. p. 171.
numerous

were

oracles the It known of sick

was

of

Asclepius

or

iEsculapius
and the

; of

which

the

most

celebrated

Here Epidatirus. (incubatio) in tbe temple.

at
or

responses imagined by F. the their health.

aus

sought

A.

Mesmerism purpose

was

to

priests nf those
dem

Wolf, temples

recovery that what where

of their is the
now

health called spent

by sleeping
animal
one or netism magmore

sick

nights

for the

recovering

Cf. F. A.

Wolf, Beytrag

zur

Gesch.

des Somnambulismus

Alterthum

j in his Vermischte

Schriften.

" 75.
of
some

The

pretended revelation of
or

system
most

art
was

of divination

The class

important

of persons who were This class inspiration.

by means effectedin various ways. was (/.lavtixr;), art an possessed by a by theomancy (^so^tcwm'a), divine called ^to.u-aVm?,and be under claimed to
the

future mediately (cf. " 70), or

comprised

three varieties;

some

were

considered

as

"xcr

P.

III.

RELIGIOUS

AFFAIRS.

DIVINATION.

167 called Satfiovoand enjoyed iv^saatixoi,

of the demons interpreters

or Jwjrtr'ot

by

whom called

they

were

and possessed,
or

txatatixoi,

termed particular divinity ; and others still were high discoveries obtained during a wholly supernatural of mind, which state they sought to render credible by the pretext of a or long trance, insensibility, sleep. and boasted of
Besides what
was

rtv^ows; ; others were only the intimations of some

iv^ovtuaataC

termed in general theomancy, there were several methods of the principal. 1. By dreams, oveipovoXia.The the following were Greeks ascribed very much dreams them to either as as supernatural, and viewed revelations and warnings from the gods or from demons, or as pictures and images of future events. The dveicalled dvsipoKpirai, expounders of dreams were or dveipocKcmoi,

divination, of which

"

(xmd\ot. Three
conversed varieties much with in which aVtipo;,
are

varieties
one

of the

dream
opapa,
set

are

named
one

;
saw

when xpip-ariapidg,
a

god

or

spirit
;

in his

sleep ;
was

when

vision

of future

occurrences

the future

forth and

(dWriyopims). by types and figures

(pavracrpia,but
are

Two

other

considered affording as to supposed sometimes indicate the future. Dreams were supposed to be sent from the god of sleep (P. II. " 113); and from Jupiier {Horn. II. i. 63). A goddess called Brizo (Ppi"iv, to sleep) the interpretation of dreams, and was was thought to preside over worshiped particularly
not

also mentioned,
;

brimvtov

help in divination

incubus, night-mare, e"j"ia\Tris,

was

in

Delos.

Dreams

which

occurred

in

the

morning
de VAcad. da

were

most

regarded
p. 74."

in

divination.
See Artemidorus,
as

cited P. V. " 267." 113.

Surigny, Songez,"c.

in the Mem.

Inscr. vol. xxxviii.

Theory of

Dreams,

cited P. II.

"

called Hieromancy (itpo^avnia) By sacrifices.This was or Hieroscopy (apocKmia). with the offeringof comprehended the observations of many particulars connected a victim, as portendinggood or ill. One of the principalthings was the inspectionof the entrails, and the heart. The fire of sacrifice was especiallythe liver {irruiToaKimia),
2.

It

also the

noticed
water

{Trvpojiavrda) ; likewise

the

smoke

the wine (KanrvonavTsia) ,

and {divojuavrda),

There in short, various kinds or forms of this (UpopiavTEia, -xriyopavTsia). were, divination according to the different victims materials of the sacrifices and the dif or ferent rites ; e. g. there was dXsvponavreia, by the flower or meal used ; ixSvopiavrcia, by the entrails of fishes ; woaxoma, by eggs. 3. By birds, diwvumKri. and interpretedomens Those, who observed by birds,were called opveocxfaoi, Some birds were observed with respect to their flight dpvido/iavTu;. to their singing (uSikou). Unlucky birds, or those of ill (rawnrtpvyeg) ; others in respect called ^ojKaip.01, takings, were pernicious,and kuXvtikcu,hindering from designed underomen, and by similar epithets; among this class were the hawk, the buzzard, and, the other hand, were considered on except at Athens, the owl ; the dove and swan, the observer of lucky birds ; and the crowing of the cock was auspicious. When as of birds was he looked towards the north, and appearthe flight watching for omens ances his right,were in the east, which considered favorable ; hence the was as on of Ji^ioV, to Omens also drawn from insects and signify fortunate. use were right, and various animals. of ill omen. Bees Toads, serpents, and boars were reptiles, and ants were often thought to foretoken good. 4. By and other physical phenomena. (Sioo-rmua) Comets, signs in the heavens and all unlucky signs. Thunder and earthquakes were eclipses, lightning were lucky if observed the right hand ; but unlucky if on the left. To be struck with thunder on erected and oblations 0povrriTdg) unlucky ; in places thus struck, altars were was dared to approach them. made the gods, after which to appease none modes The those termed 5. By lots. two principal were anxojiavTda and K^pojiavrda ; in the former little pieces of paper, written them, having fatidical lines ("m'x""s) upon and were from drawn were an supposed to indicate the prospects of the person urn, drawn small articles,as beans out they were by or for whom ; in the other, various and were black and white, pebbles, dice, and the like,which all called *A"7poi, were drawn from an urn considered other vessel. as were or being of different significancy, -Other in which the modes by rods, and /SeXopLavrtia, were pa(S6op.ai"Ttia, by arrows, lot was decided by the manner in which they fell from an erect posture or from the of the mva\ dyvprtKd;, which certain prophetic on quiver. Another was by the use indicated by the verse which the dice fell. verses on were inscribed,and the fate was 6. By magical arts. said to have originatedin Persia among the Mag:, These were the Greeks is The these arts (vspitpya) to degree of attention given among liayoi. evinced fact recorded in the Bible (Acts, xix. 19), which to imply seems by a striking that a great number of books composed on the subject. A few only of the were
"

various dead of
were

modes
to

need

be
to

named
appear

;
or

supposed

and t/zuxo/wTa'a, in which the nKwpi.avTt.ia, viKpopavrtia., in which demons imagined were speak ; yaaTpopavrtia,

speakfrom
in the
:

water

torches

drawn from the appearances omens were or men, of certain glass vessels surrounded with lighted part (yaorpri) assumed the forms by drops Knoouavnia, in which the performers observed middle

the bellies of

168

GRECIAN

ANTIQUITIES.

of melted divination written

in

wax

; there

were

numerous

other modes.
the
or

by lot,yet classed among circle ; a grain of wheat a

; and

magical barley was

arts

placed
of the
e.

in the center

the

desired

information
"

of sort a aXcKTpvoixavnia was the letters of the alphabet were laid upon each letter ; a cock was obtained was by putting together
"

The

the letters from

which

the cock

magical arts, by which

in which ipapjiaKua,
was
a

picked the grains. It is proper to mention here supposed to be wrought mysterious effects were
herbs, minerals, and
or

some

; as,

g.,

medicated
sort exert.
as

and

which (iaaKavia, were supposed

and
Le

of fascination

malign

the like ((pappana) used ; were influence which certain persons

232.

to
"c.

See Bonamy

Bland,

cited

" 227."

On

divination

by the cup, cf. Class. lourn.

x.

from various things included under the general also made Finally,divination was One of omens class of these consisted of such as were drawn from (o-vp,8o\a). the person of some himself, as tzaKpoi, a palpitations 06p,8os, ringing part of the system; class of the Another consisted of those drawn from sneezings, '"c. irrappol, ears; the meeting of certain as objects external to the person; objects or animals on the certain road (ii'65ia (to oikoo-kotukov). Certain words or at home o-uju/JoXa), occurrences such also ominous; called orrai, kXj^oVe?, The the Greeks, especially were were tpiifiat. Athenians, sought to avoid words of ill omen, carefullysubstitutingothers as, e. g. instead of 'Epivvvc;, and "/"iXanjf instead of KXhr-nis. 'EvfiEvUs; 7.
name
,

On

the

ancient
Grsec,

art

of

see divination,

Cicero, De DLvinatione.

"

Cf. Wachsmuth,

Historical

as Antiquities,

cited

" 13.

"

Potter,

Archaiol.

bk. ii. ch. 12-18.

religious worship of the partlyfor the sake of honoring of merit, and and supplicating the gods, and commemorating persons partly for the sake of rest, recreation, union, and harmony of social feeling. Their number of the gods and the progress increased with the multiplication greatly of luxury and wealth; the variety and splendor of the accompanying ceremonies this the case at Athens. increased in the same was proportion. Especially from They were mostly held at the public expense, the means being drawn
an

" 76. The

formed festivals

importantpart
support
was

of the

Greeks.

Their

establishment

and

various
See M. erlautert.

sources.
Oie Feste 8.
von

G. Hermann,

Hellas

bearbeitet historisch-philosophiscb

und

zum

erstenma!

nach

ihrem

Sinn

und

Zwecli

Berlin, 1803. 2 Th.

"

77 t. Some

of the most here

be

important festivals
the suffice.
in

have

been of of
some

mentioned
A

in the notice

history of particular gods, under

of them few
via,

head

Mythology.
an

(P. II.) slight

must

multitude,will
a respecting

named of these.
a

The out principal order,and then alphabetical

almost

countless

added particulars

Ik.

'A

ypioj to

nocturnal

festival instituted of Adonis. three of

in honor

of Bacchus.
to

'A"wvia,
and Ceres.
'Ai"-

dedicated

and Venus 'AvOetTTfjpia,observed

at

the memory
at

AXcoa,

Bacchus

Athens

Tovpta,

Athens,

in

commemoration

days, also in honor of Bacchus. a victory obtained by Melanthus,

through

stratagem,

fifth year." sacred in Attica, celebrated to Diana, -Bpavpwvia, every A";X ta, also to Apollo, Aa(j"vri"p6pia,to Apollo in Bceotia, only every ninth year. A n pfirpia, sacred the island of Delos, every fifth year. to Demeter or Ceres. on AiitoXel instituted in honor of Jupiter,as tutelarygod of the Athenian festival, a, an val festisolemn city (IloXtrfs-).-A i o v v o- 1 a, to Dionysus or Bacchus ; a greater and more
in the country called by the Rothat was mans cities ; and a lesser one ; the same 'E Karopjiata, There innumerable forms of this festival. Bacchanalia. were the first dedicated by the Argives to Juno, to whom on day they sacrificed a hecatomb celebrated festival of Ceres, a greater and of this festival. '"EXevaiv the most i a, "E p p. a i a, a festival of Mercury, smaller, connected with the well known mysteries.

gods. Cyprus.

the Boeotian over king Xanthus, likewise in honor of Bacchus, and other the island of on 'AtypoSicria,a festival of Aphrodite or Venus, particularly

in the

festival of Diana atEphesus. 'Upaia,a at Athens, accompanied sacred to Vulcan in honor of Ceres, at with Qea torches. po"p6pia, the festival of legislation by races sacred to Jupiter and Apollo, almost Athens cities. and other Greek Kopnta, festival in honor of Arcadian an throughout all Greece, for nine days. Avxaia, in Elis, Arcadia, and Crete. festival of Juno at Argos.

'E$ kaia, 'H^aiorna,

[But this term Jupiter,instituted by Lycaon. to the Roman Lupercal. Cf. P. corresponding and so of the Athenians instituted by Theseus,
branches
at

II. "

usually designates a festival of Pan festival 80.] 'Oo-ico"p6p ia, a the custom called from of carrying

about

on

the
to

Athens,
t

dedicated

occasion. Minerva.

IT

avaOfjvata,

The

every
p a,
a

fifth year. Thessalian

connected Both were festival dedicated

to

of the

Romans.

'"1pat

a, a

of the most solemn festivals one celebrated lesser was annually; the greater risXai. with various contests and -games. resemblance turnalia to the SaJupiter,having some sacrifices applied to solemn general name
.

'rex.

170
It divided

GRECIAN

ANTIQUITIES.

into the pupa and peyaXa pvarnpia, lesser and greater mysteries; and in honor of Ceres, the former in that of her daughter Proserpine. observed in the month the lesser mysteries, were Miicpa Avdcarnpmv at Agree, iivarfipia,
was

then

the latter

were

'

place

was

river Ilissus ; and the ptya\a pvarfipia., brated celegreater mysteries, were in the month of Attica, from which Ceres at Eleusis, a borough-town Bon6ppii"v, the lesser festival was called Eleusinia. In later ages used as a preparation to
near

the

the

greater, former. About

a

in which after

they could

not

be

initiated till they had

been

purified at the

at the to Ceres, and lesser,they sacrificed a sow purification mysteries, the secret rites of which (with the exception of a to them, and hence were openly revealed they priests) and of all ages were of both sexes called fyopoiand aruVrat,inspectors. Persons were initiated at this solemnity. To neglect the initiation into these mysteries was dered consi-

year

were

admitted to the greater few known'only to the

crime
was

of

very

Socrates and had The

condemned the convicted

heinous nature, and formed death. ^All to the Greeks

every
or

for which part of the accusation might claim initiation into the excluded

mysteries

; but

people of
even

other

nation

were

persons

of sorcery

of any

atrocious

crime,

and

by an ancient law ; especially if they

from these

committed

homicide,
of

though
as

involuntarily,were

debarred

mysteries.
The with candidates, being crowned place called pvcrnxos ot/koV,the mystical temple, which edifice very capacious (P. II. " 63). At their entrance an pvo-ToSoKo; or was Sopd;, in holy water, their hands and time were admonished at the they washed to same with minds and undefiled,without which the external cleanness present themselves pure of the body would be accepted. After this,the holy mysteries were not read to them of a book called ircrpcopa, from irsrpa, a stone, because the book out was only two cemented the priestwho initiated them, and who stones called together. Then was Soon hpofyavTris, proposed to them certain questions, to which they returned answers. the place, in which after,they beheld strange and frightfulobjects : sometimes they and radiant fire, and. instantly appeared bright and resplendent with light was were, with pitchy darkness covered hollow sound a was heard, and the earth ; sometimes seemed beneath their feet. The to groan called being present at these sights was intuition. then dismissed in these words, Kdy" "Opra*. The airoipia, They were ments garinitiated were in which deemed they were sacred, and efficacious in averting
manner were was

initiation

follows.

myrtle,

admitted

by night into

evils and The whom

incantations.

called MSov^ps-, hierophantes had three assistants : the first was torch-bearer,to the it was the second, f'V'jf, the crier; and third, 6 km. permitted to marry; from his ministering at the altar. 'kpcKpavrns been is said to have a 0up.cS, type of the 6 tti /3top(S, Great of the sun Creator of all things; SaSovxo;, ; Ktjpv^ of Mercury ; and
,

of the There

moon. were

business consisted in seeing that all public officers whose Of these was the king, who according to custom. jiaaiXsig, of the archons, and who and sacrifices at this was was one obliged to offer prayers that no indecency or irregularity committed was solemnity, and to observe during the festival ; four imp.e\r]-aX, elected by the people, and ten persons who were curators, who assisted at this and some other solemnities, and who called hpo-nowl, from their were offeringsacrifices. This festival continued nine days, and from the fifteenth to the twenty-third day of the month unlawful to arrest to preman, or BoriSpoptcov. During this time it was any sent found fined one were guiltyof such practiceswere any petition ; and they who

also certain

things

were

performed

thousand On the

drachms,
fourth

or,

as

others

say,

put

to

death.
a

day of the festival, they made

solemn

procession, in which
cart,

the

carried in a consecrated KaXaOtov, holy basket of Ceres, was Xaips, A^rcp (Hail, Ceres). After shouting as they went,
women

called

who Kio-mtyopoi,
"

carried

baskets

in which

were

crowds of persons certain these, followed contained carded wool,

reeds, ivy boughs, a sort of cakes called grains of salt, a serpent, pomegranates, The fifth was called 'H tw "pdoTs, \apiraSavhpepa,the torch-day; because, poppies, "c. in their hands. about the night following, the men and women with torches It ran contend who could present also customary torches to dedicate to Ceres, and to was serpine the largest; and this was done in memory of the journey of Ceres, who sought Prowith a torch lighted at the flames of iEtna. sixth day was called "\aK\oi, The from Iacchus, the son of Jupiter and Ceres, who with a torch in his hand accompanied the goddess in her search after Proserpine. His statue, crowned with myrtle, the Ceramicus and bearing a torch, was carried from to Eleusis, in a solemn sion procesthe called "lavcos. On the victors were seventh re day were sports, in which in Eleusis." the first grain sown warded with a measure of barley, which was
" "

Robinson. Archaeol.
is

Graca.

"

On

the

Eleusinian la

Mysteries, see

the references
et

given P. II. " 63.

"

full account

of the

Greek

teries mys-

given in Limburg-Brouwer,

Histoire de
a

Mor. Civilisation,

Relig. des Grecs.

5.
or

The Oeo-pofopta was she lawgiver), because

festival in honor said

to

of Ceres,

surnamed mankind

Seo-porpSpos (legifera
the
use

was

have

first

taught

of laws.

It

P.

III.

RELIGIOUS

AFFAIRS.

FESTIVALS.

171

in Bceotia, the the Athenians observed this festival with the freeborn of devotion ; the worshipers were women (it being unlawful greatest show husbands For any of servile condition to be present), whose wont were to defray the to three talents. charges; and were obliged to do so, if their wives' portion amounted because These assisted by a priest called 'Zretpavri^opos his head women were was was

celebrated in many
in

Grecian

cities ;
"

by the Spartans, the Thebans

Syracusans

and others. Sicily,

"

But

who were kept under severe by certain virgins, discipline, at the public charge in a place called QtajUHpopeiov.The being maintained women were clad in white apparel.' Three days at least were spent in making preparations.Upon the eleventh their heads, wherein of Pyanepsion, the women, carrying books upon the laws were the solemnity was to Eleusis, where contained, went kept ; whence this day was called "Avofo;, the ascent. Upon the fourteenth the festival began, and lasted until the seventeenth. the Upon the sixteenth they kept a fast,sitting upon called Nwnia, the day was ground in token of humiliation; whence a fast." adorned with
a crown

; and

"

Cf. Potter,Boyd's ed. p. 378." du Jeune, cbez

les

Wdlauer,
in the Mem. was

De

Thesmophoriis.Wralisl.
de VAcad.
an

1820. 8

On

the Fasts of the

see ancients, Marin, L'Usage

Anciens,

"c.

des Inscr. vol. iv. p. 29.

6.

nian city all the Atheof opinion that it the same the Roman as was only one day ; but il Quinquatria. afterwards prolonged several days, and celebrated with great magnificence. was There solemnities of this name, of which was called MtyaXa IlavaOrjvoua, two were one the Great celebrated once in five years, beginning on the twentyPanathenaea, and was second of Hecatornbaeon denominated the Less Panathenaea, Mtxpa TLavadfivaia, ; the other was and was observed third year, or, as some think, every year, beginning every the twentieth of Thargelion. In the latter were three games, or on twenty-first naged maelected from the ten tribes of Athens, and who by ten presidentswho were tinued conin office four years. the first day was with torches, in which On first race a footmen and afterwards horsemen also observed in the contended, and which was second contention cvavipia;dyoV, a gymnastic exercise in was greater festival. The which the combatants The proof of their strength or manhood. place of these gave the river,and was called from the festival HavaBuvoXKdv. The third near was games wa's a musical contention instituted by Pericles ; the subject proposed was the eulogium of Harmodius and Aristogiton,and also of Thrasybulus, who had rescued the republic from the yoke of the tyrants by which it was oppressed. The poets also contended in four plays, which from their number called TcrpaXoyia. Besides these there was were in imitation of a sea-fight. at Sunium, Pausan. (Cf. Herod, viii.55. i. 27. a contention
was

The UavaOfivata of Athens. It was afterwards revived

"

Athenian

festival in honor he had united

first instituted

by Erichthonius, who

of Minerva, the protectress called it 'AQf\vaia ; and it

one are

by Theseus, when
was

into

people, and

by

him

denominated

Some TlavaOwaia. At first it continued

"

in either of these games of the olives which in the a crown grew death, or from ufas, a part. There li6pog,

" 2.)

The

victor

was

rewarded and likewise

with which

vessel of oil and called

with

Academy,

were

popiai from

called Pyrrhichia, perwas a dance formed nerva represented to the sound of the flute the battle of Miwith the Titans. No in man was permitted to be present at these games dyed garments, under a penalty to be imposed by the dyuvodkr^, presidentof the games. sacrifice was Athenian to which Lastly a sumptuous offered, borough contributed every made for the whole an ox was ; of the flesh that remained, a public entertainment

by boys in

armor,

who

assembly ;
In the with

and

at

this entertainment
most

cups
same

of

an

unusual

size

were

employed.

were observed, but and the addition of some other matters. In splendor and magnificence, carried the sacred totXos, at this solemnity was particular, a procession,in which was of Minerva. This whr\og was of virgins, who were woven garment by a select number called epyaurrucal, from of the ipyov,a work, and who were superintended by two and commenced their employment which the at the festival XaX^ra, dppr](p6pot, was on thirtieth of Pyanepsion. The was white, without sleeves, and embroidered garment with gold: upon described the achievements it were of Minerva against the giants,of renowned for valor and great exploits; and hence Jupiter,of the heroes, and of men of courage said to be Sfioi and bravery were men wctXou, worthy of being portrayed on the garment of Minerva. The ceremonies attendingthe procession with the rorXog follows. without the city,was In the Ceramicus were as an engine built for the purpose in the form of a ship, upon which the irenXos of a sail, hung in the manner was which thus conveyed to was by concealed machinery. The wct-Xojwas put in motion the temple of Ceres the citadel, where it was to Eleusinia, and thence placed upon Minerva's bed strewed laid on with flowers, and called 7rX"wi?. a was statue, which This of persons of both sexes, and of all procession was composed of a great number led up by old men, It was and, as some rying carages and conditions. say, by old women, olive branches in their hands ; and hence called SaXXwpCpot, bearers of they were with lances and boughs. After these came middle-aged men, who, armed green bucklers, seemed only to respirewar, and who were accompanied by the ptroiKoi, sojourners, of their being foreigners,and therefore carrying little boats as emblems called o-KtxpriqiSpoi, Then attended by the sojourners' followed the women, boat-bearers.

greater festival

of the

rites and

ceremonies

greater

172
wives, who
were

GRECIAN

ANTIQUITIES.

were

called

followed with

by young
millet.

crowned

in token of servitude. These from carrying water-pots itiptatpipoi, in honor of the goddess, and who who were hymns men, sang Next features, proceeded select virgins of high rank, whose

called navn^dpot, from their shape, and deportment, attracted every eye, and who were for the carrying baskets, which contained sacred utensils,cakes, and all things necessary he was utensils were in the custody of one chief masacrifices. These who, because nager called The attended of the public processions,was dp\Mwpoc. virginswere by and carried umbrellas and who the sojourners'daughters, who folding-chairs, were thence denominated
rear

umbrella-carriers, and oKta"nditipoi,

was

seat-carriers. iuppofdpot,

It is

in coats used at procesbrought up by boys, who walked sions, The for this and other processions were necessaries called iravJaputoi. and were between the Piraean gate and the prepared in a public hall erected for that purpose of the whole business belonged to the vofioipitemple of Ceres ; and the management observed. who were \otKe$, appointed to see that the ancient customs were

probable that the

The

Panathenaic

procession is represented
du Parthenon, cited P. IV.

on

the

frieze of the Parthenon.

"

"

See

Stuart, Antiq.

of

Athens, cited P. IV. " 243. 1.

"

Sculpture Visconti,
is given in
On tlie

"

190. 4.

small

but handsome

view

of the Acropolis and

the

Panatheuaic

sion proces-

Bvyd's Potter.
Arch. Grac" Potter." art Lond.

cf. Robinson, festival,

Quart. Rev. xiv. 517."

H.

A. MilUer,

Panathenaica.

Among Vases, as
the sacred
See P.

the

monuments
are

of ancient from

still in

preservation
them
as

are

certain been

vases

called

Panathenaic
to

they

supposed
upon
on

inscriptions on
in these Vases; in the
dans les
Transact,

to
a

have

oil bestowed

victors

games
of

part of

actually employed their prize.

contain

0. Bronstcd, dont

the Panathenaic

the Mem.

Roy. Soc. of Literature, vol. ii. p. 102.

Acad.

Lond.

1834.

"

De

Cayhts, Vases

les anciens

faisoient usage

in the festives,

Inter, xxiii. 342.

"

78.

The

great public games

were

of the Greeks
upon
as

were

also
were

part of their religious

established originally always begun and ended with sacrifices. It gods. They were into their design, and was their effect, render religion to also entered more contact the attractive by association with sensible objects,to bring into nearer stimulate to of and and reward several Greece, superior publicly portions
customs.

They

looked

sacred, and

in honor

of the

talents. the
common

"

The

exercises
name

of these

games

were were

of five

sorts, and

had

therefore

ing the discus, and

of the contest
See p. 222 Burette,
ss." on

Hevta"Xov. hurling the the

throw' running, leaping, wrestling, or javelin, boxing,which some put in the place

They

with

javelin.
des anciens"

these

exercises, (la Lutte

Pentathlo

Fugilat, Couree,Risque,"c.) in the Mem.

Berl. 1827. 8.

de VAcad.

des Inscr. vol. iii.

Q. F. Philipp, De

sive Quinquertio.

between fixed boundaries, the starting-place race " 79. The (Spo^oj)was end (crxorfoj, and the goal or |3oaj3is), (a^fcrtj, tippa),on a piece of ground off for the purpose 125 measured The racers (orXoj, otdSiov), paces in extent. There clad in full armor sometimes also chariotwere were (orfJutfoSpojitot).
"

races

and

horse-races. who

Those
over

only

ran

once

over

the

stadium

doubled space who ran (5pti//oi ; those

the

(MauXoc),that is, both

over

four stadia, or The goal was

racers

according
sometimes

to

the space twelve others only seven called

called o-ratWpfyoi ran ; those who called Siav\o. goal and back,were times in going and returning,i. e. twentystadia (AsAi^e?), termed were (VAtxofyfyot.
were

to

the

KapTm'ip ; because, in the

6iav\o; and

the

the "5uA"\oc ,

turned

round

it.
"

olive, pine, or
the

race,

parsley. horse-race single. Two horses were also used, upon of which the perone former the other. In the chariotrode to the goal, and then leaped upon (dva/3ams) horses were employed to draw the chariot (Hpua) hence two, three, four, or more
"

The The

of prize (aOXov,fipajiciov) was commonly merely a crown term K"qres was applied to horses which performed in

the
course

terms

cvmpoi,

twelve

"c. The redpemrot, nrpcuopoi, It was times (iSvaA/cactyfyoi). an

race
et
armee

chariots

were

sometimes among
Inscr.

driven
the

over

the

object of emulation
of Greece.
in the Mem. de
v.

wealthy

to

send
Qedoyn,

chariots tor the

Les dc Courses de
Sur

to
de

the

public games
dans les jeux in oplitodromes, cf. Lond.

Chevaux
la

Chars
et

Olympiques,
the Mem.

Acad.

viii. 314, 330 ; in. 360." Lit. Arte. vol. iv.

Quairim.

Quincy, figures.

Course

les

VInstitut, Classe

a'Bist.et

p. 165. with

On

the Olympic

Stadium,

Quart. Rev. vol. were

p. 277.

also boundaries " 80. For the leap(dtyta) and the place to which (tjxa^a) (/ScvT'jjp),

marked,
was

the

place from
exercise

which
was

it

made. with

This

performed sometimes
in them,
to

with
an

the hands

empty,

but

oftener with

metallic

weights
attached

usuallyof
or

oval

sometimes shape (dvr%"s),

weights
the

the head
The

the

shoulders.

to

leap

called itavi"i". The point to which distance leaped over was marked from was by digging the earth ; hence its name
ru

twam-co.

performers were The phrase

taken from this

"nnkSv

vnlp

applied iaKaujiha,

to

excess signify

or

extravagance,

was

exercise.

P.

III.

RELIGIOUS

AFFAIRS.

PUBLIC

GAMES.

173

was " 81; Wrestling (jta%ri, xaifa^'tixri)

the portico(Zvstbf), exertions

to

combatants other

being naked, ground.

commonly performed in a covered and making tlie most violent

When
one

throw

each

to the

had

done
were

this with
two

his

adversarythree

times

he received the prize. There (o fptaSaj),

modes

of this exercise, in the erect posture (dp^ortax^), the other in the lying posone ture the parties contended in which the ground {wa,x%wo7taxri on and rolling
or xv%usbt). dvuVS^tfcj
"

When

was wrestling

united with

boxing,it

was

called

nayzpatftov or Ila/i/ia^top.
had of the candidates announced been by a herald, they were For this purpose used containing as many balls as was a silver urn there were candidates. letter was inscribed on The balls, and those who two same drew tho same In case of an odd number, letter were he antagonists in the contest. with who drew and required to contend called l"pe"po$, the odd lot was those who quered. conAfter matched the
names

by lot.

hence

competitor confessed his defeat by his voice, or by holding up his finger; proverbialto signify confess that you are conquered. In the strict wrestling,blows were for tho it proper allowed, nor in boxing was not competitor to throw his antagonist; but in the Pancratium, both modes were ticed pracor by the combatants Trajujxaxoi). (nayKpaTiaaTai
A

dips ""ktu\ov became

"
of
a

82.

The

quoitor

discus

was (St'tfxoj, o6%os)

made of the
a

of stone, brass, or

iron,

circular form, and was through a hole in the centre.

1.

thrown

by
who

means

He

threw

thong (xaJiwoW) passing farthest took the prize.

about three inches thick and ten or twelve in diameter. Some of stone, and the ""iXojof iron ; others that the former was that the Sutkos was state of iron ; the difference may have a rough mass carefullymade and polished,the latter exercise is said to have originated with the been wholly in their form or shape. The
was
"

The

discus

Lacedaemonians.
2
m.

The

alone, or by
In Plate

hurling the javelin (/5ty"s, dKdvrms) was of a thong attached to the shaft. means
fig.Y,
is
seen a

practiced either with

attached
to

the

hand

XVII.

javelin

with

the

thong (.amentum)

it.

was performed with clenched " 83. Boxing (rivyfirj)

around fists,

which loaded

they
with

sometimes iron
or

bound The
were

the cestus

i. e. (ifids),

thong
to

or

piece of

hide

lead.

which
The

chief art in this game was usuallyaimed at the face.

parry

the blows

of the antagonist,

called IKS/cn/y, from wf, a fist. The combatant was cestus, originally reaching extended to the elbow and sometimes afterwards the to no higher than the wrist, was be used and attack. The both for defence to shoulder, and at last came l/itivrss the softest blows ; and the uppftriKes of several kinds ; those termed peiXixat were gave
gave

the

most

severe.

The

exercise

was

violent and

lost
were

their lives,and called tewirja.

these

victorywas
of

always dear

often dangerous. The combatants bought. Bruises on the face by blows

of public games Archeology

Besides
Greeks Literature

exercises in music,

contests

(cf. P. IV.

poetry, and D 65, { 66).

bodily strength and agility,there were mention rhetoric, of which

at

the

the of

is made

in the

" 84. The four most grand and Pythian,Isthmian, and Nemean, (ayuive j ispot). games
The
first and
most

solemn which

games
were

of the Greeks called

were

the

Olympic,
Sacred

by

way

of eminence from the

were distinguished

the

Olympic,named

place

the Olympian Jupiter. By some, to in Elis, and dedicated Jupiter their founder ; by others, an considered earlier Hercules was as belonging to the hero, who the Ideean Dactyli; by others, Pelops; by most, Hercules was

Olympia

the firstvictor in all the

a contemporary by Iphitus,

exercises, except in wrestling. They

of

were

renewed

Lycurgus, about

B.

Chorrebus, B. C. 776.

Afterwards
the

people of
1
u.

Elis.

Several under

the an they were had of the ternal ex(dxiirou, inspectors /La^fiov^ot) charge direction of
a

C. 888, and afterwards to object of specialcare

by

arrangements,
Those who
at

chief

(axvtdpxyi)inspector

wished were to appear as obligedto spend ten months the games and various preparatory exercises unde* in Elis, practicing in the Olympic games the instruction of the judges, who especiallytermed were 'EWavoSiicai. decided The order in which was engaged in the contests they successively of olive (/ctfrivoj)." the Olympic wreath a crown or Among by lot. The prize was of thirteen others Pin of the most celebrated; the names one was victors, Alcibiades
combatants

the

Gymnasium

dar has

preserved

to

conquerors

in the grove

posterity by his Olympic odes. of Jupiter. Their fame was

p2

Statues

were

often. erected
more

to

the
ac-

spread the

widely on

174
count

GRECIAN

ANTIQUITIES.

of the

vast

multitudes from
games

of

spectators,

that

flocked

to

the

games
were

from
not

every

pari
to

of Greece, and The attend. :

" "

Asia, Airica, and

were

Sicily. Originallyfemales
every

allowed

repeated

fifth year,

in

the

month

swering an'E/caro^flaicji',

rise to the cfctstom of five days. They partly to July, and continued gave Each Olympiad consisted of four reckoning time and dating events by Olympiads. in chronology as is generally considered first Olympiad The corresponding years.

with
2.

the One

year

776
at

the games two over ; afterwards ; subsequently there The these eight,one from each tribe of the Eleans. place, where assembled and superintended the preparatory exercises (irpoyiy/i/aoj"ira) of the combatants, partially. solemn oaths to adjudge the prizes imcalled 'EW-nvoSiKaTov. was They took the most excluded from witnessing these games were at strictly Although women in them. allowed afterwards not first, to contend they were only to be present, but even all took place in one voted deday ; but at length several days were Originally the contests to a them, and sometimes day to processions and sacrifices and to the banquets celehrated under the Roman were given to the victors. The Olympic games rors; empebut were abolished A. D. 394, in the reign of Theodosius. 3. Much has been said respecting the various favorable influences which these games the exerted in Greece. They are said to have promoted peace and harmony between different sections and states, as they drew together spectators from every quarter, who thus constituted the great assembly (navrjyupif) of Greece. in fact called Olympia was Hardihood and valor among the soldiery TcdyKowogX'^pa,the common country of all. natural also mentioned effects of the various athletic exercises performed at them. are as exertion, as they furnished poets, historians, They could not fail to stimulate to literary and orators, with the best opportunities their productions. to rehearse

judge
;

B. C. first presided

were

twelve

then

Bancroft's Heeren, p. 129." Theorie, close of article Pindar* Anordnung

Wiem. der
8.

G.
"

West's

Diss,

on

the Olympic
Hist,

games,

in his Iransl.
For
more

of Pindar, cited P. V.
accounts

" 60.

5"

Cf. Sulzer's Alls;.

ThirlwalVs

of Greece.

particular
oder

of the games,
grossen

Dissen, Ueber Olympischen

die

Olympischen Spiele ;

in his Kleine

Schriften."Krause,

Olympia

Darstellung der

Spiele.

1838.

"

85.

in the

The Pythian games (n^ia) of Delphi, which was vicinity

were once

celebrated called

upon

the Crisssean
from the
surname

plains,
of

Pytho

of sacred _to this god, and were commemoration a Apollo. The games were his victory over the Pythian serpent. instituted either by himself, They were held at the beginning or by Amphictyon or Diomedes. Originallythey were

afterwards, like the Olympic, at the year (Iwast^pdj), fifth year (rtsm'asT^pij). The sometimes used Pythiad was in chronology, but not commonly it to been reckoned have ; appears
of every 3d year received
1
u.

of every

ninth

beginning
as an
"

era

from

the

of the certain The

with

49th

Olympiad,
to
to

B.

C. 582.

As

reward
a crown

or

prize the
to

victors

apples sacred
appear

Apollo, often also

been
at

of laurel.
have
been
warded re-

contests

have

first only in The

music, and
called

silver,gold, or
in these
or

something of value.

song

was

performed
in the

consisted
steps

of five

celebrated the victory of contests, six distinct portions, which represented achievement. of five parts.
in
use

Apollo
so

IlvdtKSg j/fyoc, which the serpent ; it over

was

many

solemn
2
u.

undertaking dance, composed

and

Of

the

same

import

separate parts and the customary into candidates

All the exercises

at

the

the
were

Pythian. The Amplactyons had required to present themselves.

odes
and

the

Olympic games were oversight of them

Nine conquerors
are were

gradually introduced
; to

these

the

Pythian

of Pindar.

The
to

spot where

these

games

especiallycelebrated in the held was a plain between

Delphi
3. The

Cirrha, sacred

Apollo.

sometimes called Were under Pythian games they were AixtpiKTVovtica adXa, because of the The the care particular Amphictyons. appointed to take the oversight of the persons called acted also were 'En-ipt^i-at ; who as assisted, in keeping judges. They were games The Greek these order, by the nao-Ttycxpopoi. states termed sent, to attend games, persons Qewpot and TlvdataTai.

" 86.
mea,
a were

The

Nemean

games

(Nepua.
were

or

city in Argolis
celebrated.
second

between

Cleonae

from derived their name NeNe/icua,) and Phlius, in the vicinityof which

they
fall

They
and The

held every
year.

on

selected from superintendents and judges weie the neighboring cities,Argos, Corinth, and guished distinCleonae, and were persons for their love of justice. Their dress was black, because particularly first instituted as a funeral solemnity(dywi/ the games in honor were Jrtt-^atjitoj) of Opheltes, or Anchemorus instituted and ; althoughothers state, that they were dedicated to Jupiter lion. The prizeof by Hercules, after slayingthe Nemean

every time by Nemeads.

fourth

Olympic

third year {tf"is-t7jpt,xou) to so as It was to never common pute com-

P.

III.

RELIGIOUS

AFFAIRS.

PUBLIC

GAMES.

175
in the Nemean

the victor games

See are

was

crown

of

parsley(otuvov).
Acad. Inscr. vol. xxxviii.

Ten

conquerors

celebrated

by

Pindar.
p. 29. so

Villoison, Les jeux Nemeans,

in Ihe Mem.

"
with

87.

The

Isthmian

games

were ("lajfyua) or

called from of land

the

place of their
a son

celebration, the Corinthian

the continent.

isthmus,
were

the neck

joining Peloponnesus
of Ino
of the

They
under

instituted in honor
name

of Melicertes, received
as

and
the

Athamas,
number and

who

the
the

of

Palsemon

was

by Neptune into
founder
who

of

sea

gods.
as

Others

represent
whom

Theseus
the

the

games,

Neptune
some

god

to

Corinthians, all the by

were

other

states

of Greece

they were (except

consecrated.

With
were

the
cluded ex-

Eleans,

dreadful
the

held
the
was

at

these games. united in celebrating execration,) of and were third beginning year (i-pta^ptseoi), every
contests
as

They
attended The

with

musical

well
in

as

those

in

all the athletic exercises.

of pine ; for a again, a crown prize at first of dry parsley. The a crown period between, it was judges were from the Sicyonians. Pindar, in his selected from the Corinthians, afterwards odes yet extant, has sung the praise of eight victors, mostly PancraIsthmian and boxing at the same time. tiasts,who gained the prizein wrestling and originally, also
later times
various forms of ancient and seen crowns garlands. Fig. 8 represents of myrtle ; fig.10, the laurel. fig.9, the crown established who Solon Athenian, gained a victory at the Isthmian by a law that every games, of one hundred from drachmae. should also receive the public treasury (Plat. Sol. 23) a reward termed The the praises of the victors were celebrated, were Epinikia. triumphal odes, in which In
our

Plate

XVI.

are

the

Isthmian

crown

"

See

Massieu, in the Mem.

und Isthmien.

Acad.

Inscr. vol. v. p. 95, 214."

in Dissert,

his edition of Pindar

; cf. P. V.

" 60." Krause,

Die

Fythien,

Nemeen,

Cf. " 88. 2.

"

88.

On

account

of the great estimation

in which

Athletics

were

with and the Greeks, and their intimate connection religion state, the subject deserves a few additional remarks.
1
u.

the

held among interests of the

intellectual as well as bodily exthe most the term included ercises, general sense, and zeal ; but it was pursued with earnestness commonly used to signifythose much practicedin Greece, more so frequent and violent bodily exercises, which were viewed essential part as an already described, and which were especiallyat the games of education, and constituted a great object of the Gymnastic system. Many of those these exercises the main business of who had enjoyed full instruction therein, made
In

their life.
was

Such

were

called "0Xi;rai and

dywviarat. The

teacher

of the
a

called yupafafriis and ^vm-apxns,superintendent of a JwnJs, which was the exercises were called where so performed in winter, and was smooth yet
to

system covered the

or

art

lery galfloor

from

being,made
of the with
state,

and

level.

Although

the Athletas

were

not

in the service strictly

mode of life was conducted Their whole they received great honor. augmenting their bodily strength, and they submitted to many rigid naked ; in casting In most of the exercises they were the quoit and the javelin precepts. a they wore lightcovering. By frequent anointing,rubbing, and bathing,they rendered their bodies more strong and supple. In preparation for a combat, they covered themselves with dust or sand, in order that they might take better hold of each other, and avoid too great perspiration and exhaustion. the ground, or surface of Generally the area, on which they exercised, was wet and slippery. 2 k. Before being permitted to enter this area, they were subjected to an examination and 'EXXawSUai) a rigid preparation. For this purpose dytavoOtrai, judges (ddXod"rat, decided who were was not appointed, whose number always the same, concerning the rewards of the conexhortations. The prize,and excited the combatants querors by animated the applause and admiration of the people, the public proclamation of were their names, the laudatory song of the poet, the crown of victory,statues, solemn cessions, proand advantages. banquets, and other privileges reference
For

additional

remarks

on

this subject, see

a

P. IV.

" 63, " 64."

on

C. F. A. Bochheimer,
on

Versuch

eines Systems

der

Erziehung
Treatise

der
on

Griechen,Dess.
Gymnastics.

1785. 2 vols. 8. 1828.

work

very

instructive

this

topicand
125

Grecian

education
des

generally." Cf. Jahn's Athletes, in the

B. Hist,

Norlhampt.
"

8." Amer.
Re

Quart. Rev. vol. iii.p. Lugd.

1595.

Burette, Histoire

de VAcad. Arte B.

des

Inscr. vol. I. p. 211 nastica. Amst. oder

P.

Faber, De
P. M.

Athletica, "c.
De

4. ; also in

Gronrmius, vol. viii."

Palaestra Graecorum.
Hellenen.

De Mercurialis, 1766.
8.

Gym-

1672. 4."

Paciaudius,

Athletarum

in ki)/3httij"7"

Rom.

4."/. with

Krause,

Theagenes;

wissensch.

Darstellung der Gymnastik,

Agonistik, und

der Festspiele

Halle, 1835.

plates.

longed Greeks, berepresentationsor performances, among in fact,in religious to religious festivals; and had their origin, appropriately monies, cerein the rites connected with the worship of Bacchus at Athens particularly ; this is more circumstance ture fullynoticed in the Archaeology and the History of Greek literatheatrical
: see

$ 89.

Dramatic

the

Greek

P. IV. $ 66.. P. V. " 36, " 37, and 47. Some account theatres is given under the head of Architecture; see

of the P. IV.

structure

" 235.

of the Besides

176
what is said in the sections

GRECIAN

ANTIQUITIES.

referred

to,
the

few

remarks

may

be added

in this properly

performers. contrivances. 1. In their theatrical exhibitions the Greeks employed various mechanical these were the following: the QeoXoyeXov,a platform concealed by clouds and Among supporting the gods in conversation ; the Mrixwn and the Tepavoc, instruments employed him or lift him to bring a god or other personage suddenly upon the stage, or withdraw him to walk into the skies ; the Aiwpcu, ropes to enable apparently in the air; Bpovruov and lightning. for imitatingthunder and the KepawoaKontTov, contrivances of course in the whole of a play was various ; but of actors 2. The number (wroKpiTou.) the stage (annvn) in the part appropriated to than three at once no appeared on more sometimes obliged speakers (\oytXov). Although the author of the piecerepresented was of the actors, yet those who were actors to be one by professionwere, as a class, of low In order that the voices of the speakers might be aided and character and loose morals. the whole of the theatre, artificialhelps were the sound spread over employed ; among vessels (fixeXa) these were the brazen placed in different resembling bells,which were
"

place, respecting the machinery and

parts of the structure. altered by or

"

In the

rude

state

of the

art

the features

of the

actor

were

cealed con-

rude disguise. smearing the face with wine-lees, or by some iEschylus (cf.P. V. " 39, 61) introduced the regular mask {rrpoo-wmXov persona) ; which,
,

ultimately,

was

formed increase

of brass the sound

or

some

sonorous

metal,
There
was

or
a

at

least had

mouth

so

prepared
color, and
condition

as

to

of the voice.

vast

variety in the form,

appendages of the masks, so as to represent every age, sex, character, and less than twenty-five classes of tragic masks enumerated no are by Julius Pollux ; six for old men for young slaves ; five for female men ; seven ; three for male The tragic mask often had a great elevation of the head slaves; and four for free women. and hair (called Syxos)to heighten the stature of the actor ; and for the same the purpose, boot (ndBopvo;, a tragicactor wore inffa;).Of comic masks forty-three very thick-soled
;

varieties are for old women called

iii.
"

specified ; nine
;

fourteen

for old for young

maybe

men;
women.

ten

for young for male slaves seven men; The comic mask for the oldest man
were

three
was

iromrcog

irpuro;.

Besides
masks

all these there

seen

masks
Ia s s e

appropriateto the satyricdrama.

See Scklegel,on Anc. vol. i. 256. the Drama, vii. 85.
v.
"

Representations of several ancient Mongez,

use sur

in

our

Plate XLIX.

cf. P. IV. " 189. 1. d'Hist. et Lit. 1a

s s e

Lect.

les masques

des Anciens, in the Mem.

dg

VInstitut, C
de

Mongez,
"

(on

of masks

for increasing the power

of the voice), in the Mem.

C VInst.,

de Lit. et Beaux

Arts, vol.

p. 89.

See

also " 238. 3.

performers wholly distinct from the actors ; maintained at was dialogue. The Chorus of in the dresses and decorations,which vast source were ; one expense the most See P. V. " 37, and the references there given. splendid kind. " 90. As the theatre was as opened at sunrise, or even day-break, the specas soon tators assembled early in order to secure good seats, which, as the edifices were very first free for every built at the public expense, of the at In consequence were person. for places, which this occasioned, a law was contest passed at Athens, under which a
3.

The

Choir

(xopd?)was

composed

of

yet,

by its leader, it often

part in of which was

took

the

fee for admission under

demanded. This was was the influence of Pericles, another law from the public treasury to furnish

fixed, for
was

time

at

least,at

two

oholi. But
gistrate ma-

the

also enacted requiringthe proper of this fee to every amount one

who

thus used was applied for it that he might attend a dramatic performance. The money The number of spectadeapiKaxpriiiara, and the magistrate,Tafias mi" dsoipiKtov. tors often very great (cf.P. IV. " 235). was Barthelemy has given a vivid description of their crowding to the theatre. termed
Travels
an

ofAnacharsis
a

(as cited P. V. " 153. 2), ch. xi.

Acad. Inter, xxxix.

Cf. also eh. lxx.

On

"

Barthelemy,

Nombre

des pieces qu'on representoient en

"

jour

Athenes, in the Mem.

in Praudfit,

172."

Greek

theatrical

Derformances, cf. P. V. "" 36-47.

cited P. V. " 86.

Land.

Quart

Rev. xii. 119."/.

the Bibl.

vol. Repository,

i. of 2d Series,p. 449."

as Bbttiger,

II.

CIVIL

AFFAIRS.

"

91.

After what
and

has
and

been

alreadysaid ("" 33, ss.)of

the

stances circumoriginal

constitution

of the Greek
and

their characteristics

confine ourselves to now states, we may in later times. The account of the various peculiarities the consequences thereof

changes
rather

of their constitution The antiquities.

belongs

to

history

than

eivil regulations of the most those of the other considerable

latter, properly considered,will treat chieflyof the republic,Athens, without overlooking flourishing
tinguished disalso

by many points of resemblance. have been mentioned " 92. The early politicalchanges at Athens (" 39). After the kings,whose circumscribed the of noble chiefs was by greatly power and of whom and last (1068 B. C), the the seventeenth Codrus families, was chief magistrates the Archons. When these became were despotic, Draco
many

the Spartans, who were states, especially from the Athenians, although they had peculiarities

178
in the
some

GRECIAN

ANTIQUITIES.

shall only name of Classical Geography (cf.P. I. "" 104-116) ; here we the citadel, which One lay principal buildings and works. part of it was the whole of Cecropia, city under the name a steep rock ; this at first constituted upon remarkable and was afterwards termed buildingson the Acropolis Acropolis. The most with the famous the XlpmvKaia, Propylaa, the Uapdwciv, or temple of Minerva were and Minerva of this goddess by Phidias, and the jointtemple of Neptune Erectheus statue the temples of called the lower city), Polias. In the other portion (which was sacred to all the Vulcan, Venus Urania, Theseus, Jupiter Olympius, and the Pantheon the Pcecovered Of the numerous remarkable. the most porticos, gods, were among

Epitome

of the

cile

(cf.P. IV.

" 74)

was

the

most

renowned,
built

and

adorned

with
was

the

most to

magnificent
musical
to

The Odeum, paintings and ornaments. exercises (cf.P. IV. " 235. 3). literary
extensive spaces,
one

by Pericles,
the

devoted
was

and
two

city,the former enriched with There were several market burial ground. beautiful edifices,the latter used a as The with different names Gymnasia according to their specificuses. places (liyopai), ascribed to Herodes Atticus, the Academy, the Cynoalso, and the Baths, the Stadium and interesting the Hippodrome, and the Theatres, belong to the remarkable sarges, which The three harbors, Pireeus, Munychia, adorned the city of Athens. works
within and and
For the of

The name the other without

of Ceramicus

given

Phalerum,
a

should
the

likewise be mentioned.
XXI.
"

view
;
seen

Winds is

Plate Parthenon, see fig.3, the temple of Theseus. in the Plateon

see

of

fig.1

in the

same

Plate, fig.2, is
in its ruins
as

A view ruins 30.

"

of the of the For

a

Parthenon

the temple of given by Hobwith that I.

were

house,

page432.
the Plate

"

For page

temple

of

Minerva
see

connected Plate

Neptune

Erectheus,

on

plan

of Athens,

"
or

97.

The

inhabitants
;

of Athens

and

of the

whole

of

Attica
aliens
or

either

rtofStai,free citizens "ov\oi, slaves.

The The
numerous.

ps-toixot,

first class

number

sojourners; respectable; the last,the most of resident foreigners, not insignificant. however, was

free commoners,
was

resident

the most

times of the in the flourishing rightof citizenship was, conferred of honorable which was only upon men privilege, since merit, and upon such not without difficulty, first requisite. Free born Athenians six thousand citizens was

The

a republic, high

descent the
were

and

tinguished disof

agreement
born
some

those whose there ;

parents
and less than
1 1.
u.

were

born

at

Athens,

or

at
a

least lower

one

of whose

parents

was

those

of the latter class held

the former.

rank, and

in privileges

respects

By Cecrops the Athenians

his
own

Kexpamg, from
174

name;

tribes

belonged several
in Attica, and
The
names

divided into four tribes (cf." 93) as follows ; 'Avrfydoiv ; 3. 'A/craia; 4. UapaXia. To each of these there were districts,boroughs, or wards ("%o0, of which at
were

2.

length
and creased
On map.
"

customs. to ten

differed from of the tribes were (cf." 94), finally to twelve.

W.

which

each other in various 'points of manners afterwards changed, and the number
the

in

the A^/xoi of Attica, see A

M.

Leake, in the Transactions

lh'* Historical

of

of Literature; Royal Society

full account, with

good

complete list of them

is given in Wachsnm

Antiquities.

number of citizens,mAirai, in the time of Pericles amounted to 14,040 ; of Demetrius taken Phalereus, according to a census by his direction, B. C. 309, the number was 21,000. of Demetrius, the whole 3. From the census population of Attica, includingaliens
2
u.

The

and

in the

time

(cf." 99),
On the

women,
of

children,and slaves
Attica, see
BSchh's Public

(cf.$ 99), has been

of Athens.
"

estimated
"

at
Amer.

500,000.
Quart. Register, op
Inscr. voL xlviii. Acad.

population

Economy
Sainte

Clinton's
de

Appendix. Fasti,
in l'Ath'que,

Fopulousness
p 147.
"

of Ancient

Nations, vol. ix.

p. 143."

Croix, Sur la population

s s e

the Mem.

And

Lctronne, in the Mem.

de Vlnstiiut, C 1 a

cVHist. et Lit. Anc

vol. vi. 165.

"
who

98.

The

(izfoixot,

were

became

residents admitted

being
but offices,

those foreigners, natives of Attica, not or persons in the city or territory. They took no part in the government, neither to the assemblies of the people nor to public and
a

were

subject to all the laws

the free citizens

usages
or

of the

obligedto
whose
name

select from

patron

land. They were in guardian (Ttpoatdtrjs),

courts, and
state
was were

business and maintain actions in the civil they could manage whom Certain services to the tender certain services. they must also required of them, besides which annual tribute {^aoixiov) an
to ; ten ;
or

exacted
sons

twelve with

drachms
sons

for each

man

and

six

for each the tax.

woman

without leward class of

The

mothers

that

paid being

free from upon

times Someas
a

exemption from
for meritorious

taxation services.

(oW"eiov) was
Demetrius

conferred

individuals

found, by his

census,

10,000 of the

residents. foreign

term

Iboi was

time only, as distinguished from

applied to foreignersremaining in the city or country for a short the foreign residents, applied althoughit was sometimes

PLATE

XXI.

179

180

GRECIAN

ANTIQUITIES.

also applied reciprocally who to persons were mutually pledged, acquaintance, or in any other way, to treat each other with hospitality. If a metic liable to be sold for a slave. neglected to pay the imposed tax, he was he had not the means Diogenes Laertius was of paying it ; but actually sold, because redeemed was by Demetrius. the services required of the residents was the carrying of a vessel with water, Among which the married alien women Hpiatpopia, were obliged to perform to the married females of Athens in the grand Panathenaic procession ; the daughters of aliens were occasion to the Athenian to render maidens the service of carrying obliged on the same See " 77. 6. parasols {trKia"iqtpopia).
to

the latter ; it was

by former

Cf. Sainte

Croix,

Sur

les

Metosques, "c. in the .A/em. de VAcad.

des Jnscr. vol. xlviii. p. 176.

" 99.
latter

The slaves {pov%oi)were and those (ootAot S^iitdoftoi),

were

of different sorts, those belonging to the public belonging to privatecitizens (6mmVo*). The

of the master, the power and were often treated with Yet sometimes freedom their they own by purchased great severity. earnings, for merit. Public slaves also were received it by gift often set at or as a reward

completely in

when liberty, very SovXov.

as

they had rendered seldom, if ever, obtained

In the general,
to

the
the

state

some

valuable

service.
were

Freedmen still termed

rightsof citizens,and
some

condition
been

of the slaves in The

it was,

appears in the time

have

respects less so, than

slaves of

in Attica,abject and miserable in other states Attica

amounted
to

of

in Laced Greece, especially of Demetrius.

asmon.

400,000
The
one

term

di/chris one signifies

oversees

who

one's
were

living in the same and is sometimes affairs,

intrusted
an

house

with

any
to

one

6iKov6p\os, fies signia

applied

designate

particular

slave, since slaves

sometimes and

with

primarily a
slaves. Xen. At Athens
or

rower,

secondarily

the office of steward signifying ; vwnpkrrig, attendant, is also sometimes applied to

Mem.

ii. 10.

allowed to imitate freemen in the fashion of their dress slaves were not be with sleeve only (IrepopdcrxaXoi) of their hair; their coats and the must one hair cut in the servile form (Spi'J dvSpairoSwdris). They could not properly bear the names be called by some of Athenian citizens,but must foreign or low name. They were the
cut

The cases. only in extreme punishments inflicted were severe ; whipped (juumyiata) they were running away they ; for theft or bound and beaten crimes they were sentenced to a wheel to (an rpo\ov); for some were their forehead or they received, upon some ; sometimes grind in the mills (frC/Wec) hot iron (oriyna). In giving testimony in court other part, the brand with they were the slaves could bring civil actions also subject to torture (fiaaavog). Yet at Athens others for violation of chastity and for unlawful and severity against their masters and duda; Hkyj). When greatly oppressed, they could also flee to the temple Siky] v/3pe(o; held as sacrilege to force them. it was carried Slaves of Theseus, from which on of the Athenians the poorer citizens depended on them. business the whole ; even the first day of every sale of slaves on month There by merchants {dvipanoioKawas a called the vender's stone by a crier standing on what was tjjXoi)'; usually announced skillful in the Xi(A"?). The price varied according to their abilities. Many were ("nparhp to toil in the mines. only qualified elegant arts, and versed in letters ; while others were allowed for common
to

bear

arms

offences

"

See

Reiteraeier, Geschichte

uod

Zustand

der

Sclaverey,

"c.

(History of Slavery "and Villanage in Greece.)

Lit. p. 36.
"

Berl. 1789.

"

Cf

Atfiensus,

vi. (cf.P. V. " 123)." Bemhardy,

Grundriss

der Griech.

Bibl. Repos. and

Quart. Observer, No.

xvii. p. 138.

their

divided, in reference to the mode of were magistratesat Athens three into the xhrjpoitol, the ^stpoT'owj-r'ot,', to classes, office, appointment The firstnamed chosen were the and the aips-tol. by the whole peopleraising the in the lot Thesmotheta? hand ; the second were by by appointed temple of chosen the the of last and were Theseus by particular people, portions by the ; " 100.
The tribes and
the from districts,
on required,

the
a or

of expiration

their own among their offices, to

was

number. render
an

"

The
account

magistrates were
of their administration and (%oyioTtai)

to

tribunal, which

constituted

by

ten

accountants

ten

directors

called judges Qv^vvot.,

also

i^stacrtai).

In choosing the Archons and other magistrates by lot, the ordinarymethod to was into an tablets (mva/cia), brazen of the candidates, inscribed on with urn put the names tablets were beans drawn black and white with white out (irfapoi)and those whose elected. beans were
"

On

the Athenian

magistrates, cf. Blanchard,

in the Mem,

de VAcad.

des Inscr. vii. 51.

"

Cf. Julius

Pollux, Onomasticon.

" 101.
were

The most the Archons There were importantmagistrates (ap^ovi'sj). but to an exausuallynine Archons, chosen subjected by lot (xXqpwtoo),

P.

III.

CIVIL

AFFAIRS.

MAGISTRATES.

REVENUES.

181

mination and
enter

as

to

their

before they were qualifications,

admitted

to

take

the

oath

their office.
was

1. The
Kpung,

Among generations had whether they were

2
u.

examinations of the Archons the other in the forum, called the points of examination were
been

two

fold ;

one

in the

senate

called 'Awx-

before Ao"cip.aaia, the

: following

the HeJiastce (/jAioarat " 110). whether their ancestors for three
a

Athenian citizens; whether they had free from bodily defects (d^eAsiy).
was

competent

estate;
h

and

The

first of the nine in rank because "Apxav brcivvpos,

styled Archon

by

way

of eminence,

"Apxfitp ;

He the year was from him. attended to the named affairs of citizens,decided differences which between relatives,had the arose of widows, appointed guardians, and took the oversight of certain festivals and care solemnities, and also of theatres. The second called King, or archon king, was
"

sometimes domestic

apxwv

Pao-iXevs. To
were
"

which

assigned certain duties pertaining to religious worship, of in general, overseer originally performed by kings exclusively; he was,
him
were
,

The third, named fairs afto the domestic Polemarch, voKkpapxa; attended of strangers and to them, duties in reference sojourners, performing the same which In the time of the Persian the first archon did for the citizens. he had an war, called important share in managing militaryaffairs. The six remaining archons were Thesmothetw and were affairs ; they also chieflyoccupied with legislative (Ssa-podirai),
"

affairs. religious

took
3.

cognizance
The
three who

of such judicial did not matters as principalarchons usually selected

fall under each

two

other

jurisdiction.

assistants, called mpsfyoi,

assessors,

examinations
account

the bench with the Archons, having been subjected to the same sat on with other magistrates,and being required to render in the same an way (h"ivn) of their office.

"

102.

Another
were

magistracyat
one

Athens

was

of whom

taken

from

each

of the ten

that of the Eleven, 6o "Ev"EJca, ten their tribes,and the other was of the later times
and prisons, rected dialso

They secretary ("ypa^cWEaJs).

in the execution called vopofyvXaxe;.
were
"

of These

were properlyoverseers capital punishments. In

were

they

were

different from
ten

the

who Phylarehi(^vxap^ot),

the originally

inspectors of the
"

tribes,and

afterwards

ers command-

in

war.

The

Demarchi The

the districts and xco/j.a),

(S^oc).
made
were or

(Sj^uap^oi) performed similar duties in relation to had A^ii'ap^ot. the care of the public register(%svthe

scrutiny in

assemblies, and
; but
were

collected

fines of

those

not
were

present.
a

They
1000

six in number and

aided
amount

by
of

the 1000.

To|6Vac, who
"

sort

of bailiffs also
to
see

to deputy sheriffs,
were

the

The minor

Nofio"iat,
matters

were

in number,
were

charged

with

the
some

examination

laws

if any

or useless,and injurious

with

of past of

police.
Besides the

treasury, the

senate

named, there were magistrates above and assembly of the people, and

many

the

courts

others connected with the of justice most ; the

also important of them will be noticed in connection with those topics. There were various other public functionaries, who speaking, magistrates,but were not, strictly The in ten of them named here. 'Pfjropss, to be ought perhaps some orators, were and assembly; they were in the senate number, appointed by lot to plead public causes the avv"ueoi, who and were called vvvfiyopoi, were sometimes a different body from pointed apchosen usually by the peoambassadors, were by the people. The UparffeTs, ple,
" "

with full power, When sent sometimes states. by the senate, to treat with foreign limited (cf." 143). called Xlpeafielg was they were ; generally their power avroxparoptg however sometimes was They were usually attended by heralds (/njpwre?) ; this name the notaries, ypap.p.aalso mention given to the persons sent on an embassy.1 We may there were three publicly employed by the various magistrates, TEis ; besides the great number
"

chosen;

one

the senate, one to not at Athens very Anpooioi (cf.% 99).

by the assembly of the people, to recite before them; and two by keep the laws, and the other the records in general. The office was held by well educated sometimes slaves, called honorable, and was
1.

"
on

103.

The
and

domains

other

of four sorts : were ordinaryrevenues and duties paid on publicproperty,

T"57, rents

from

public
and

articles of

commerce

exacted 2. "S?dpoi, annual payments or certain pursuitsand persons; tributes, all went which to cities and states; 3. Tt^i^cWa, from allied or subjected fines, to the service of Minerva, and the publictreasury, except the tenth part devoted
one

of the

the heroes, that were for the other gods and patrons wppropriated dividuals services,in which inor liturgies, periodical ifoupyt'cu iyxvx%vov, maintain certain certain duties for to or a time, were perform required, Besides the ordinary, the necesat their own public establishments expense.

fifteenth

city ;

4. At

"

182

GRECIAN

ANTIQUITIES.

sides

of the

state

sometimes

required an
upon citizens

extraordinary revenue;
and residents formed
an

and

then

taxes special resource.

laid (hayopai,~)

important

Under

the t"\ti, or rents, of which the were

were

we

from the mines; the most include the income portant immay of Laurion from silver mines these was termed ; the ore
as

ipyvpTri; ; they
See BSckh,
on

regarded

grand
Economy.

source

of wealth

to

Athens.

the Mines

of Laurion, in his Public

Under

the

Tsvriipiov) imposed

Qopoi or tributes, we may include the duty of ten vessels passing from or into the Euxine on

per
;

centum
was

faa(SsKa-ni,

which

exacted

at

fortified for the purpose. Chrysopolis (cf.P. I. " 160), which the Athenians the fees or deposits(jrpvravua), be included which were Tinder Ti/i)?/;a-a fines, must or demanded of both parties before beginning a suit in court large ; these depositswere head must be in proportion to the sum brought into question by the trial. To the same referred also the proceeds of confiscated property (Srnxionpara). included chieflythree, x"Piyia, yvfivacnapxia, the Liturgies(\siTovpytai) and Under were rendered the first named bxrioujig.Those, who service, (x"My"h) were required to pay of the whole chorus employed at the public festivals and theatrical exhithe expenses bitions the second was to whom (cf." 89. 3). Those assigned were obliged to furnish in the public the oil and the various necessaries for the wrestlers and other combatants In the third service mentioned, certain persons {icriaTopa; "pv\wv) rwv provided games. tribe. These entertainment services banquets, on the public festivals,for a whole or there were always assigned to the most wealthy citizens. In the time of Demosthenes the following system each of the ten tribes pointed out 120 of the wealthiest citizens was : divided into two portions according belonging to it ; the 1200 thus selected were
"

to

into

their wealth, the classes or ten

-aw

TrXovmoi

and

the

nrrov

ttXovuioi ; these

two ten

parts

were

each
to to

formed
more

companies, called

wealthy, 300 of the wealthiest men were of money and with the republic with the necessary supplies extraordinaryduties in rotation. If any one of the 300 could
than

the av^opin ; from selected, who were

of the cvfiuopiai

required
of the 1200

furnish

the

himself, he
"

was

excused.

The

residents
above

perform all name a person more wealthy sometimes performed these {jietoikol)
rest

services.
;

Besides

the

two particularly rpanpapxia and tiV^opd. The rpifipap\oiwere for the fleet and building of ships. The to provide necessaries uaiptpovn;were obliged for different purposes. The required to contribute according to their ability money in which manner they performed such of these services as were assigned to them, and the degree of expense and splendor to which sometimes they went, became a subject

ordinary \emvpyiat in a time of war,

mentioned,

there

were

some

nary extraordi-

of emulation
On the whole Berl.

among

the rich and

revenues

ambitious
and Public

Athenians.
see

subject of the Athenian

1817. 2 vols. 8.

expenditures, Economy

Aug.

BocWs Lond.

Staatshaushaltung der
1828." Cf.

Athener.

Mit

21 In

schriften.

Eng. Transl.
On
the

of Athens.

SancrofVi Heeren,

ch. viii." Mil

ford,
On

ch.

rxi. sect. 1."

Xenophon,

Revenues uber das

of Attica Seewesen

(cf.P. V. " 186. 2).

Staates.

the Trierarchy, BSchtfs

Urkunden

des Attischen

Berl. 1840.

"

104.

The

control of the financial legislative and the

the

concerns senate.

belonged to
But
a

the people,

and
officer
was

their administration
at

head

of

management treasury, called

to the

and he had charge of the public revenue, having charge likewise of the public expenditures. for four years. people (ajstpoT'owa)
1
u.

particular because -ta/j-las rtpoooSov, tv\s xowr^ also -r'ajiiia; as Siotxjjascoj, -ir^
He
was

chosen

by

the

subordinate officers in the department of finance. One class attended to the collecting of the revenue, and to the previous arrangements. To this class belonged the iroArjTat, from in number, each tribe, ten one the state sold or leased ; the -rrpaKropss, who received all having the care of whatever fines imposed ; the bnypa"pcTSj who assessed the imposts and tributes ; the itaypa/pEis,
were

There

many

consisted

of such

as

who

enrolled

the

names

of families and

individuals, and

assessed

to

them

their part in

raising an

collected the taxes, duties, rents, who extraordinary revenue ; the li"\oyus, TeXwvai "c. took leases of public properly, not officers,but such persons were, as lands or other public property, and paid the rent to the officers. A second class consisted of such officers as for kept the moneys collected, and distributed them Of this class were the amitm-ai, ten in number, chosen public uses. by lot ; and the mv kp"v xpvp-arwv, who had the care of the treasures in the temples (" 28). Such rap,iai officersas were of the department employed in keeping or examining the multifarious accounts be considered third class, including the ypapnaTcig, as a may clerks, and vnoand the dvriypaipns, the latter ypappanis, under-clerks or auditors. checking-clerks Among be named the dvnypaiptvs controller of the expenditure. particularly t% iwiKfiaca;, may 2. Some of the causes of expenditure from the public treasury should be noted here. The public edifices and other works were built only at a very great expense, and could be Pericles expended many preserved in order only at a great annual cost. thousands of talents upon works of architecture in Athens. The festivalswere another source
"
"

P.

III.

CIVIL

AFFAIRS.

AMPHICTYONS.

183

of expense consider their number, and think of the cost of the sacrificial we ; when victims and offerings, the banquets, the processions (7ro/x7rui), the theatrical, musical, and

gymnastic entertainments, and

immense
sums

the rich

must
or

have

been

also in distributions

donations
was

that bestowed, it is obvious prizes sometimes Much was expended in maintaining them. expended to the populace (Siavo/nai, Siadoaeis) ; the most important
" "

expenditure in this
citizen
as

way

tkeoric

money

citizens (dSvi/arot), and furnished from the public treasury,

to

distribution of the oboli'to each poor or by the "5iw/?"Aia, cf. " 90). of support for poor and disabled Means (SeojpiKa, also for children whose fathers had fallen in battle, were likewise and formed another item of expense. the wages
"

In

addition
senators
"

the expenses of the government, the various magistrates and officers of different grades, and attended and of those who the assembly 0ov\euTiKds), (puo-dds

these, we

must

mention

including the salaries of all

of the The "/"-A/;o-tao-nKo\,-). (/*io-0dc

in time of peace. of money even required also large sums support army navy the expenses, In time of war, others also, must not only of this class, but of many be impossible to form any estimate have been increased. It may satisfactory greatly of the amount of these various expenditures. The comparative value of the precious be overlooked times must metals in ancient and modern not at least, here, as they were,

of the

and

three times

as

valuable the

then

as

now.

"

105.

Among
the

public assemblies

of the Greeks, which

took

into consideration

state, the council of the Amphictyons (avvoSos is especially mon worthy of notice. According to comAfiquxtvovav, Afifyixtvovua) it was first instituted by Amphictyon, son of Deucalion ing ; accordopinion,

affairs of the whole

by Acrisius, king of Argos. The twelve people or states united in two by their delegates, (to *wv ""Exx^vcav awsSpvov) used to meet from this the delefrom circumstance gates each at city ordinarily, Thermopylae; Sometimes called HvXayopac, and the council itself HvXala. were they assembled met at Delphi. They only twice a year, in spring and autumn,
to some,

this

council

unless

on

some

occasion. extraordinary

The

design

of

the

council

was

to

and the delegateshad adjust and settle public national disputes or difficulties, make full power to salutary changes and regulations. Some very important the between Plataeans and and the between as Lacedaemonians, e. disputes, g. Thebans terminated continued and Thessalians, were by this diet,which was
to
some

time in the first century after Christ.

writers
have

taken a different view of the origin and design of this council. Amphictyons were only an association of persons residing about other place ; dpupiicrvovEs or near Delphi, or some being nearly equivalent to antyiKrioves held simply for the purpose of mutual and that the assembly was tion gratificaoriginally ferent and religious festivity, having no preciselydefinite common object,and being difSome

They

assert

that the

"

from
This
is the view
"

confederation
of Hermann,

for mutual

defence,
"

or

congress
of Sainte

for mutual
Des

deliberations.
Gouvernemens

in his Lehrbuch, and

cited " 92.

the

Similar

is that

Croix,
W.

Anciens

Federader

tifs. Par.

1799.
Berl.

The

politicalcharacter
8."

design of

council

is maintained

by

F.

Tittmann,

Ut-ber den
c. x.

Buud

Amphic-

tyonen.

1812.

Cf. a'.su Mitford,

Je

Hist, of Greece, ch. iii.sect. S."Tliirlivall, Hist, of Greece, des Inscr. "c.
vol.

xl'm."Dc

Valois, Sur

les Amphictyons,

in the Mem.

1'Acad.

iii p. 191

"

and

v.

p. 405."

T. Leland,

Discourse

pref. to his Life of

Philip of Macedon.

"
had laws

106.
an were

Assemblies of the people{ixxXyjaCai) were very frequentat Athens, and In these the acts of the senate were canvassed, important influence. clared, dewar proposed and approved or rejected, magistratesappointed,
the
a

and
or (oVyopa),

like.

The

place
near

where

they

met

was

either the
the

broad

theatre

of
on

Bacchus.

space The

the

mountain

called

Pnyx

market-place (nW"), or the

monthly
called
on

established

pressingand

held were ordinary assemblies (ixxhyaiaijojpJcu.) were (ixxXrjaiat, extraordinary ; the avyxXri-eot) importantemergencies.

days

the IlpocSpoi, 1 u. These and managed and conducted by the TLpvrai'eis, meetings were the 'Efrio-rimjc. Before entering upon business, a sacrifice, usually of a young pig, was offered. to the gods, and stated, on Then the herald ordered silence, offered a prayer
the subject to be discussed of the Tlpfotpot, by the assembly, and those above of age were first invited to speak ; after which one thirty, any before the assembly had already been of fair character had the liberty. Whatever came it {irpofiovhtvua, discussed in the senate, decision upon received whose rrj; /JonXijc) ipf/fio-na

the

direction

above

fifty years

its full the

legality only by the

was

vote

decree, ipvP"?!*11Often, however,

of the assembly, and was decision of the senate a

year
; at

then

called
the
cases

emphatically a
confirmation
in

without in those

of

assembly
to

in

force

for

least it was

so

which, in

order
2.

avoid

The of

too frequent meetings, the people had granted an independent validity. people voted by stretching forth their hands (xuporovia) and sometimes by a
,

mode

in balloting

which

beans

{niapm) and

stones

were O/"70oi)

cast

into vessels

pre

184

GRECIAN

ANTIQUITIES.

pared for the purpose the assembly.

See

When ("ca"5oi).'
"

the business

was

completed, the npurawi? dismissed

8." R.

G. F.

Schbmann,

De

Comitiis

Atheniensium,
n

lib. iii.

Gryphisw.

1819.

Whiston,

On

the Athenian

Assemblies,

in

Smith's

Diet, of Antiq. p. 361."

Aristophanes,
or

his

EKKX);"nd"oi"o-ai.

" 107.
council
of

The

senate

higher council (yj

and

arrangements
the

of Clisthenes, of 500;
500 tiZv (5? fiovXri

consisted, accordingto j3oiA^) therefore styled the senate In earlier times it consisted rtevtaxooicov).
avu

the
or

was

of

400, and
1
u.

in later of 600
500
were

members.

annually by lot, 50 from a tribe, which furnished a ready of these Each divisions, containing 50 equal parts. order of rotation took charge of the public business for 35 or 36 days, in an members, decided by lot: and the members of the division having this charge at any one period called Ilpurdwij called Hpvrai"tia. The for the time, and the period itself was 50 was into 5 portionsof 10 members. These subdivided portions attended to HpvTaveis were their business the members called in rotation, each for a period of 7 days, and were in the senate as HpikSpoifor that time, the name presiding being taken from their sitting
The chosen division of the
senate

into

ten

their head, and of elected the 'Emo-ranK, who at Xlp6cfyoi was was It was of the senate, but held the place only for a singleday. the the subjects of deliberation. business of the Upvrdvsts the senate, and propose to assemble however the meetings of the people, in which they only They also conducted officers.
course

From

the

at

the head

"

presided in connection
of the where
senate

with
an

and

had
most

'Emo-ranK at
of their time

nine Tlp6c6pot, who were their head.

chosen The

out

of the
a

other
common

divisions

Upvravsii had

hall,

the near daily,called the Fryluneum (XlpuTavdoti), senate-house and BovKsvrfipiov). {MoxiXeXov, after which the The of the senate 2 m. members expressed their opinions standing, taken. ance. were day's attendvotes They received a drachma (ipaxnh) per day for every

they passed

The
3.

power

of the

senate

was

very

great.

dered day, excepting festivals and days consicalled the senarequired to take what was torial In voting, they to the laws. oath (tov 0ov\cvTiKdi/ to do nothing contrary optcov) each black or white bean into the box or urn cast Kaiiaxo;)prepared for the a (k"Sqs; of white exceeded that of the black, the decree or resolution ; if the number purpose affirmed ; otherwise was rejected. The
as

commonly assembled were unlucky. The senators

senate

every

all

"
from

108.
at

No

court

of

Athens. Others

Its

name,

celebrated in Greece was more justice Hill of Mars, signifies 'Apfiorfayoj,

court
was

than
and

the
was

gus Areopaderived the citadel.

the first

the

circumstance, that the

derive the
name

held
time

on

hill

so

called, near
was

from
the

the

tradition,that the god Mars

of its establishment did
of
not

criminal
but
was

tried before
very

this

tribunal. age

The
of

early, before
most

Solon, who
members

is uncertain, institute it,but enlarged

body ('Ap"orfaytV"u) judicious citizens of every condition, but made after the modifications by Solon, only such as had been elected Archons. held for life. Their office was All high crimes, as theft,robbery, assassination, before this court, which came poisoning, arson, and offences against religion, death inflicted in such cases fines. At first its sittings were or only on the last three days of each month afterwards and at last more : but they were frequent, daily; they were always in the open air, and at night.
power. The
this
were

and its jurisdiction

the originally

uprightand

u.

The took

was sitting an

accused

oath

they urged ever passions, were

white
or

with direful their cause ; but allowed.

As

which both the accuser and the opened with a sacrifice, upon imprecations. Then, either personally or by attorneys,
no

ornaments

of rhetoric, no

After the
court

this the

judges
sat
urns

gave

attempts their decision

to

move means

the
of

by

black

stones.

always
Two
to

in

distinguishedby holes
the while
the
was

bored
were on

in them.
votes

stones,

which which

acquit
were

the
votes

dark, the white pebbles were of wood used, one were to receive of brass to redefendant, and one ceive
the
for his condemnation. the The
tence sen-

black,

the

other

hand

immediately put in execution. tribunal stood very high ; but afterwards

of morals. 2. In their oath In
tne

In

early times

and purity of dignity

this

its character

fell in the

general corruption
(ae/iMai "sai). the (dpyvpois),

trial

they

were

the plaintiff and defendant swore (cWftoo-ta) called the placed upon what were and Injury (%0pts),
"

by the Furies
silver
stones

on plantiff

that of

of Innocence
h

(dvairfo); The
death.

brazen
votes

urn

IpirpoaQcv ; also
Respecting
the

l"ici'pio;, because

that of Impudence (dvaikia), the defendant on or stood in front of the other, and was called 5 xhe- accusation into it declared valid ; and cast
was

Savarov, as it decreed

The

wooden
Note
to

termed
On

b aVt'po?, t"e\iov. bniahi, or

and the other courts of

cf. jlnthon's pebbles used in decisions,

Potter, p. 71.

the Areopagus

Athens,

186

GRECIAN

ANTIQUITIES.

with

rugs

In (xf/iadia). number
seem

addressingthem
of
to

the

advocates
was

stood
very

upon

elevations

called

The Qfiixara. in Athens who

prosecutions and
have made

trials

it their business

to

There were great. many discover grounds of accusation

of o-vKocpavrai, which a term was men gained the name against the wealthy. These that exported figs (cctotov ovko. tyaivuv), first applied to such as prosecuted persons a law enacted when there was at a time a prohibitingsuch exportation having been great scarcityof that fruit.3
i

See

Sir

W. and

Jones's Preface Romans.

to Isxus

(cf.P.
4.

V.
3

" 101. 3).

See

/. Pettingal, Enquiry xxxi.

sect.

into Hie Practice

!.

and Use

of Juries among

the

Greeks

Loud.

1769.

cf. Mitford, Hist, of Greece, ch.

3. The five other

judicialprocess
civil
ski

was

substantiallythe
the

same

in

the various

courts.

"

The

courts

besides
To
as

Helicea

were

those

called napapwrov,

Tpiyowov,To
KlageD.

KatynV, To
Respecting

Avkoo, and
courts,
see

Mr/ri'xou.
cited

these

Meier,

"

10S.

2." SchSmann,

Ant.

Jur. Publ.

Graec"

Plainer, Process

und

" 111.
called U
courts

In addition

to

the

ten

public courts, there

districts of Attica did
not

was

of forty teeaa'pdxovta, consisting persons the several value

a

chosen

a judicial body, by lot,who held their cases

also

successively in
the
sum or was

having1 cognizance of
drachmas.

where

at stake

exceed
office

ten

There
men,

likewise

body

of

of 440 Arbitrators, Atat^rat), consisting for

a

aged
to

from forty-four
minor
were

each

tribe, holding
within

year,

and

authorized

settle These

controversies
called choose

allowed
or

to

xXqputou, arbitrators

tribes,but subject to appeal. respective being chosen by lot. Disputing parties were
their
"

for themselves

; these

were

called

8oaXkaxtrjpt,oi,

xat' STio'tpori'-qv Minor causes could not be entered in the Acact'/jifal. before some of arbitrators. court courts, until they had been heard
The number of

superior
a

public

arbitrators
some

or

SiaiTnrai
writers have

KKnpoiroi
proposed
from each

stated
a

above

is drawn

from of the

passage
so

in Ulpian
as

to

Demosthenes upon ; make the whole number termed

xxxix.

different
"

but

forty,four
Ueber den

tribe.

The

reading private
und den

passage arbitrators were

sometimes
Class. Jounl.

iiarrtrai
350.
"

aips-roi.
Schiedsrichter Diateten in

M.

H.

Hudwalcker,

Athen,

Process

vor

demselben,

Jena, 1812.

"

112.

Actions

or as

suits

were

divided
the

into

two state

classes; public(SlxaoS^fiorjiat,,
;

such xatf-riyopicu),

concerned
concerned action

whole

and Of

and private (Sixao I8lcu,

the

blxai,simply),which
: Ypafy-q, an following

only individuals.

former

class

were

the

poison highestcrimes, as e. g. murder ($6vo{), others esteemed and many (fappaxov), arson (rtvpxcucx'), sacrilege{Ispoav'kla), less heinous; action for the crime of embezzling or in some an "-I"d"j^, way squandering public property ; ""EvSeu"s,an action against persons usurping trial although confessing prerogatives not belongingto them, or refusing guilt; action an 5Arfay"oy"7, against a criminal taken in the act ; n'E^y^ucj, against a
criminal

for the

found
as

in concealment

and

there

against such
retain person them

concealed
seize further

murderer,
persons

visited by a magistrate; AvSpoXrj^M, which allowed the relatives of the murdered

with

'

to

three

connected

until

action satisfaction; 'Euaayys'Ki.a, an

of trust, Actions
or

offence
one was

againstthe
far

state, or for a breach dissatisfied with their decisions.

more

concealing party and for a public againstthe Aiait^tat,when

the

"

private were
occasions.
Some

numerous,

and

were

named

belongingto the class called according to their various

of ypa"pfi, and public actions included under the general denomination the following : rpavjxa 6c 7rpo"uaj, were a wound given by design ; povfrom the \simg, conspiracy ; d"ri/?aa, impiety ; npoSoo-ia, treachery ; desertion, whether from a particular volous friXenroaTpdriovor the fleet,XtmovavTioi/, station, \tmoral or iov army, and against the prosecution, avKo^auria; bribery both against the giver, demcr/to;,
not

of the

named

above,

"

receiver, SupoSoxia.
Some

of the
;

private actions

or

suits

were

the

slander trespass

xp?"vs ;

action for usury an ; diKia; 6'lkyi, of theft ; ipevSo^apTupiov, for perjury. kXokPj;,

ifori, an
kinds offence
the

action of Siktj, an following : KaKr/yopia; action of battery ; flXatf*;, of

" 113.

The

of

punishment were

various, according to

the nature

and

degree of the followingwere

this which
;
was was

sometimes
of three the

inflicted. Of those not capital, the they were : pecuniary fine,called also Zqi.ua; principal (1) Tt^ua-r'a, aggravated by corporealpunishment : (2) 'Attiftia, disgrace^

for which

kinds;

the loss of first,

some

but privilege

not

of possessions

second,

loss of the

of rights

citizen with

confiscation

of property;

P.

III.

CIVIL

AFFAIRS.

PUNISHMENTS.

REWARDS.

187

third, the loss of all and been his whole

civil and sacred, both privileges by the criminal himself for ever: lon's posterity (3) Aouksia, slavery;this, however, by Sosuch
as on

be inflicted only on freedmen, sojourners,and disgraced (aVijitoi) : brand-marks, by a hot (4) 'Xtiyixata, slaves forehead or hands, inflicted chiefly on runaway freedmen: or

laws, could

had the

iron

in which

the
to

name

of the

offender

and

his crime

were

inscribed
were

(5) Sr^, on a pillar,

kinds;
and head

bonds ," of which public view : (6) Asa/j.6^, the xvfycav (also x%oib$), wooden as a collar, which the feet neck; the ^otVtf a kind of stocks, in which
,

exposed

there bent
or

several the

down

legs were
as

made
a

fast;
:

the aavii, a
the
a

piece of
sort

wood

to

which

the

offender

was were

bound bound
of

to to

pillory; and
tortured

of wheel, applied to slaves who -rpo^oj, banishment, with confiscation (7) "j"tiyij, "siq"uyJa,
Banishment is said
to

it and

goods.
to
was

have

been the

of the

expense the the

occasioned

by

latter.

preferred by the The prison

at

Greek
at

courts

Athens called

termed

account on imprisonment, and Stafjoirfipiov, by

names :

euphemism,
there
at
was

in different regions SiKripa. Prisons 'Avayxatov ; at Sparta, the KeaSas ;

were

by different

in

Cyprus,

the

Kepo/jos

; at

Corinth,

the

Bosotia, Kojj ;

Samos,

Topyvpa.

" 114.
to
man

The

Ostracism, datpaxisftbu
It
was a

was

punishment.
be

banishment
state.

for The

ten

not, properlyspeaking, a judicial as were thought years, of such persons

were

dangerous to
marked
upon
was name

the

votes
name

given by shells, batpaxa;

the

each
; if

his botpaxov the

upon
most

of

person

he

would
was

banish

the
to

same

the

majority

of 6000
most

shells, the

person

sentenced
fell under
a

banishment.

The
; and

upright and

citizens distinguished

this sentence

the

Athenians them.
was

similar

custom

among
the
name

finallyabolished it,as the Syracusans did The called HetaXusSyracusan punishment was
on

pb{, because
The say ostracism

written
to

leaves,
instituted first

rcs-taWa.

is said B. C.

by

some

have

been
was

by Clisthenes,
years
on a

about

510, who
B. C. about
person

banished

it was
very

abolished

contemptible
driven from

who

were

the

412, and of Hvperbolus. by the name city by this pernicious custom, were
des Inscr. vol. xii. p. 145.

of Hipparchus by Hippias, son ; others about dred hunone by it. It continued because it was then ployed degraded by being em-

Among

the

illustrious

nians Athe-

Themistocles,

Thucydides,

Cimon,

and

Aristides.
iu the

Geiiwz, L'Ostracism,

Mem.

de. VAcad.

by

inflicted in several modes; as " 115. The punishment of death, Oararoj, was the sword, St-'^oj, or beheading ; by the rope, Bpo^oj, strangling hanging; by

(x^vtiov) usually; by the precipice, drinking hemlock poison, Qappaxov, casting from a rock or height; by the KaHartovtia/Abs, drowning. Kpri/Avos,
of inflicting death were, mode used by a by the 'Zravpog, crucifying, frequently than by the Romans ; by the cudgels, Tvpimva, or beating, in which the malefactor was hung on a pole ; by throwing into a pit, BHpaQpov, which hole with sharp spikes at the top and bottom (called also "Opvy/ia) was a noisome ; by The punishment of death could not be stoning, Ai0o/3o\ia ; and by burning, U.vp. of the sacred galley during the absence lawfully inflicted upon any citizen of Athens which was mpaXo; rpifipris) annually sent to the island Delos with a solemn sacrifice. (it Other modes the Greeks less

"

116.

Public
were

rewards
the

and

honors

were

awarded

to

meritorious

persons.

Among

ox seat, in the first following; (1) all public occasions ; (2) 'Eixuv, a statue, festivals and on conferred by the senate, or the erected in a publicplace; (3) Xtifyavot, crowns, their own members tribes and boroughs upon people, or by particular ; these skill ; (4) 3Ar sXeia, exfor valor and a reward most were military frequently but of various degrees, seldom extended to the emptionfrom taxes, which was and for the navy; contributions (5) Xvtftjaiiiv Tlpvtavdu", requiredfor war limited to a entertainment in the common hall, called Prytaneum ; originally {adaitot,) ; singleday; but afterwards daily and permanent in the case of some

these, theatres, at the

UpoeSpla,the

front

it had

was

an

honor
was

bestowed viewed
the the
as

on a

the

most

worthy
and
honors became

men,

sometimes

upon
of

whole
such
as

families,and
received
measure

high

distinction.

After

the

death
with

specialhonors, their children

same.

descendants
were

enjoyed

in

some

the benefit of times of

These

obtained

difficulty

in the better

but republic, of
so

quite common
celebrated

afterwards, and
of their Ceres and

lost their

" 117.
laws
as

influence in a state salutary was No people of antiquity the Greeks.

The first

corrupted manners.
much for the wisdom
to

in Greece legislation

is ascribed

188

GRECIAN

ANTIQUITIES.

Triptolemus(P. II. " 61). Afterwards, Theseus, Draco, Solon, Clisthenes,and Demetrius the most authors of the laws Phalereus, were distinguished adopted
by
the the Athenians.

The

number

changing circumstances

of the

either

to laws. rrpxi-ravftj propose when decree, a 4^"jHa,ua,

constantly increased with commonly the province of the A proposal adopted in the assembly was called it had only some specificapplication, law, or
was

of the Attic
state.

laws
was

It

when its obligation universal and unchanging. An v6/i.os, was Solon required an annual revision of the laws, to ascertain what

ordinance
alterations

of
or

additions

might
term

be

necessary.

His

own

laws

were

inscribed

on

tables of wood

(cf.P. IV. " 53).

1.

The

as principle,

to

the

be called vopo; designates what may distinguishedfrom a particularenactment laws of Draco and Solon, although those

constitutional
;

law,
be

or

established

thus

it would
were

of Draco

applied e. g. called commonly

in distinction from The those of Solon called vouot. dscrftoi, term vojmsis also sometimes used in the sense of dipt;, a natural right or social usage or fixed custom. 2. If one wished it to the np-iraras,who to introduce law, he named a brought it before the senate if the senate called a WpoiSovKcvpa Q3ov\ri); approved, it was ; it was written by the Ilpurdrac upon of the fixed up publicly at the statues a tablet, which was this circum'Ethbi/d/kk, days before the meeting of the assembly (stcxXno-ia) some stance, ; from it was also called -p6ypappa.
It will not

comport "
See 55.

with

the limits of this sketch in the work

to detail

particular Athenian
Romana et

laws."

These

may

be

found
Jo.

in Sam.

Petit, Leges
Themis Attica.
art generally

Atticae (cf.P. V. L. B. 1624.

4.
"

3), and

entitled Jurirprudentia
bk.

Mtica, T. iii." Comp.

remarkable
laws

Meursii Greeks

also Potter's in Nitsch's

Archasologia Graeca,
"c.

i. ch. xxvi.

The

most

of the

exhibited

by Kophe

Beschreibung,

cited " 13.

"

118.

Next

to

Athens,

Lacedaemon

was

the

most

of flourishing
be

the

Grecian

remarkable states, and its most antiquitiesshould The province in which this city lay bore the same

noticed briefly
name,

" 40). (cf.

called also
the

but

was

Lelegia,CEbalia, Laconia
The
on plain, of Lycurgus, without

or

Laconica, and
or

was

the

largest part
situated in

of
an

ponnesus. Pelo-

city of Lacedaemon the river Eurotas, and was

walls. of the
of this as

Sparta was
and fertile,

unbroken direction and its of the

in early times,
was

according to
its internal
not

the

Its soil

plan

edifices such power

On the

to

be

respectable, although they did

state.
may
3 vols.

give a just idea

zur

and

resources

civil constitution
Staats. Traasl.

state,we
1S0O-5. and

refer to /. K. F. Manso,
S.
"

Sparta, eio Versuch

"c.
as

Aufklarung

der Geschichte

und

Verfassung dieses
the Doric and
On Athens. the
on

Leipz.

Kitsch, Beschreibung,
1S30. 2 vols. Mem. of 8"

cited " 13.

"

Milller, History and Antiquities of

of des the

Race.
"

by Tufnell

Lewis.
de I.

Oxf.

IV.

Drummond,

Review
a s s e

Governments
Mor.

of Sparta vol. iii.

C. P. Levesque, Sur
and ruins

la Constitution
see

Sparta, in the
"

de VInstitut, C 1 the modern

Sciences
near

et Pol.

topography
page 37.

of Sparta,

P.

"" 126-129.

view

villageMistra,

is given in the its site,

Plate

" 119.
the

In Lacedaemon

the

citizens

were

of from

two

kinds, such

as

had

received

rightsof

acquiredthem
that five these

by citizenship personally. They

was

inheritance
were

had as parents, and such into six of divided which tribes, together

their

of the Heraclida;

the

first.

Each

of these
all.

was

in classes,called wj3a*,making thirty

were

The

again subdivided into leaders of or presidents

called Ttpoax-tcM.

first class of citizens, being of free-born parents, and having complied with 1. The called the bpoiot, all the Spartan discipline, were or equals; while the other class were termed
as

including freedmen inferiors, v-opziovzc,

not

and

sons

of

freedmen, and
Marb. 1832. 4.
"

all such

had

fully conformed
De

to

the

Spartan discipline.
qui Homcei
ap.

C. F. Hermann, cansis turbatae

conditione

atque origine
agroruro

eorum

Laced,

sunt. appellati

Same

De altthnr,

apud Lacedaainonios

aequalitatis. Marb.

1S34.

referred to, was made Some by Lycurgus. tribe. The as a considering the HeracVdce separate their residing near the marsh the Atpvarai, so called from or others were (Xipvrj) morass branch to the north side of the city; the KwocovpsTs, so called from their vicinity a on of its figure; the Iln-ai'aof mount Taygetus termed Kwoo-oupa {dog's tail)on account because received this name the Maro-o.'trai; and the Aiyaoai,who they resided near rat; the tomb of jEgeus, Aiyrfj. Mailer asserts1, that in every Doric state there were and Avpavarai or AvpS-jec;or the Ilidlean, Di/manatan, three tribes, YX.Wj, TLaiupvXoi, the existence in Sparta of any other and Pamphylian ; and says, we cannot suppose each of these as divided into fen u"0ai, than these genuine Doric tribes. He represents and adds, that two and all,of the wfiaiof the Ht/Ucan tribe probably more, yet not
2. The

division into six tribes, above

as

state

five

the

number,

not

must

have
were

been

Heraclida.

Each

of the ii0aiis said

"

to

have

contained
was

ten

Tpiaic"oes,
for mili-

which the

communities
pooat

Spartans, into six

comprising thirtyfamilies. consisting only of such2

There
as were

another
a

division of
age

of

proper

P.

III.

CIVIL

AFFAIRS.

SPARTAN

MAGISTRATES.

189

tary service. -A
as
i

subdivision

of tribes into

is also mentioned or ipparpiai, ycvri, or rpCrrves,

*

having prevailed3in various

See

places.
vol. ii. p. 76-80. Cf.

MUller, Hist,

and

Antiq. as

cited

"

US.

Robinson, Archaeol.

Grac.

Wachsmuth,

Histor.

Ant. of Greece.

that the Spartans were " 120. It is known children,to subject them to a close scrutiny as

constitution, and to submit clans, whether they were

it to the suitable
the

designed to prevent
of the children
was

of population
also

obliged,on the birth of their their vigor and soundness of of the wj3cw, or decision of the presidents raised ; a regulation to be preserved and and sickly The citizens. weak education
to

treated with
a

greatest
of

care.

All the
and

citizens
them.

not

only
lands

had

but equal rights, the laws of by were,

As
soon

goods Lycurgus, equallyapportioned among

community
carried clan.
to
or

privileges.The

to be (A-koxn) a place called Lesche disapproved as having an imperfect into a gulf, called, 'Airodercu, frame or weak constitution, it was near mount cast Taytaken If approved, a share of the public lands was assigned to it, and it was getus. shield with a spear it. The back and laid on the father's house placed near to a

examined

child was a born, it was as by the elders of the family

If

whole
then

education the
in

was

intrusted termed

to

regular public education

the classes

the parent until the {ayoiyh)commenced.

child reached
The
;

boys
such

at

the age of seven this age were refused

in-

rolled
the

herds) Agelce (dyiXai or fiovai,

as

this lost

heir to the throne but the immediate was excepted ; rights of citizenship ; none the of the master correction the other sons of the kings were to obliged to submit At about sixteen strict after the age of twelve. was more (Ilat"^of). The discipline At and called aikwai. tyrifioi, they were eighteen they entered the classes termed admitted about after received the appellationof sipsve; or ipeves, and were to two years ranked allowed the public banquets. At thirtythey were to as "%n0"h and were men, undertake public offices.
Cf. MUller,
as

above

cited,vol. ii. p. 313.

" 121.
who

The

slaves among appears

the

Lacedsemonians
been but
one

were

treated with

great cruelty

("Eacoi'sj), derived from the maritime account town were according to the common Helos derived as ("E?,o?) captured by the Spartans. Others consider the name from the verb s%u", and signifying taken prisoners. The unhappy Messenians the Helots. Messenian in the second war were incorporated among
(cf." 99).
to have

There

class, viz. the Helots

laborious required to cultivate the land, and perform the most war. They were exposed to every sort of abuse, and even the murderous attack of the young termed to Spartans, especially in the custom hunt annual legalized an Kpvm-eia,which was against these degraded subjects. Yet of distinguished merit, obtained ship, them, as a reward some libertyand citizenamong occasion of receiving which crowned with garlands and led about on they were the temples. called eireivaKroi, The last epior or They then were dcpirai, veoia^.okig. thet of civil rights than the common to have designated such as enjoyed more seems far below of slaves in rank was that of the free-born. The number freedmen, whose this state was large. very class released 2. The a were were probably from all service ; the ipvicrnpeg aiper"i board the fleet ; the p.60coveg, slaves employed only in war on ; the Sco-mxriovairai served domestic slaves brought up with the young Spartans and then emancipated. were class of inhabitants another in the province of Lacedffimon, who though al3. There was slaves were not yet held in a state of subjection by the Spartans. They were the natives of towns reduced by the latter to a tributary and dependent state ; they called Fericeci (TUp'ioiKoi). were They were engaged in the navy and in the army intrusted with offices: at the battle were along with Spartan citizens, and sometimes
1
u.

The

Helots

were

and

dangerous services

in

of Plataea there

were
the

10,000
Helots, see

men

of this class.
vol. ii. p. 17,30." in Capperonien, Sur l'esclavagedes Hilotes,
the

Respecting the Perioeci and

Inscr. xxiii. 271.

MUUer,

Msm.

Acad.

"
who

122.
must

At be

the

two of government were kings or leaders the and from must descended Heraclidae, certainly

head

(dp^ayit'at),

unexceptionable
but a patrtXsi'a), every also the month

exterior. power

They
limited

did not

possess

the which

an possess full regalauthority (rta/x-

by

the

laws,
the

to

they
was

were

accustomed

to swear

obedience. the

In
of

war

office of In peace

of oversight priests. their chief

worship

their power gods, and

greatest.

sometimes

They had performed the

propose
war

civil

prerogative was
each could

to

preside in
vote
on

the
any

senate

and

the

subjects for deliberation

; and

give his

question. In

tlio

190 Spartan kings had

death from
name

GRECIAN

ANTIQUITIES.

unlimited

command

((n-parriyds dvTonpaTup),and
to

could in time

even

put
war

to

without
a

said also trial (ivxziP"s vojuo). They are body-guardof three hundred of the noblest

have

had

of

cially espe-

this number five were annually selected and of dya9oepyoi,in missions other states. to

doable
p. 106.

monarchy

(Siapxn). The

royal
a

revenue

of the Spartan youths (unr*??) ; employed for one year, under the dissensions Many grew out of the was great. Cf. Mutter, vol. ii. very of blameless

" 123. Lycurgus established upwards of 60 years old, which

had
an

senate

of 28

men,

character,and

was

equal rightof voting with their office. of discharging manner whole of the an state, oversight rightsof the peopleagainst the
"

The members or yspousi'a, yspuvoa. the two of the kings,and rendered no account There were also rive Ephori (i'^opot), who had and whose the to assert duty requiredthem from chosen the kings. They were among
"

called

people, without
who The
were

reference

to

condition.

The

BslSimoi, the

were

class
20.

of

cers, offi-

placed over
power

between the ifyqfioi,, which

was

ages

of 18 and

Ephori enjoyed a
any
account

called foorvpawo; and ,

give
Their sixth

of their
was (tyopelov)

discharge
had

of it ; but
"

they

were

not were required to appointed only for one year.

tribunal
as

in the forum. the

The

BeiSiaToi

were

five in number*
trees

with

their

ffpar/juj. They

inspection of the
with

gymnastic
plane
had
;

exercises, called
it was
or

because irXaravirrTa,
to

performed in a spot surrounded decide disputes arisingat the gymnasia.

forum. The
comirion name
was

They

their tribunal of these

their vince proplace of

and

council

also in the

for the council-halls

other

magistrates " 124.

dpx^ta.

The

Spartans had
were

other

; magistrates

as

the

NojAofyvXaxes,who
to

saw
trusted en-

that the laws

the

maintained

and

executed

; the

Ap^oowot,

whom

was

of the women, and direct manners to observe their lives and oversight in assemblies their exercises; the 'Ejitrflxcopot,, who preservedorder and decorum and attended in generalto the police of the people, of the forum or market; the IL^cot, four in number, appointed by the kings,and employed to consult oracles ; had charge of the rethe npotsvoc, who also appointed by the kings,and were ception of strangers ; the IIpoSixoi, who had the care of the young kings as and office was the boys put to oversee tutors; the IIcHooyo^ot, whose manage of sheriffs in the age of 7 ; the 'Appootai, who at sort under their care were a the kings superintended the cityand under the the HoXEfiapx01-!wn0 province;

affairs of war, and of police in the city ; the also attended to some matters each a chosen three officers, band of 100 horsemen. who commanded TrtrfaypE-mt., of the people were similar to those at " 125. The assemblies (ixxhrjolat,) Athens. In some of them in others there only native citizens of Sparta met; also delegates from the towns and cities belonging to the province Laconia; were
in assemblies of the latter class
to
were

discussed

all

affairs of

common

interest
had

and

importance
of

the

whole

state.

the Originally
; it
was

kings and
vested

senate

the

Ephori, power also presided in them. of voice (doy who The votes were given by utterance xai ov anc' tne majoritydecided by the loudest acclamation, or by a ^foco), subsequent division and countingof the two parties.
called juxpa iKKXriaia, The and assembly composed only of the cilizens of Sparta was month. might attend, once usually met Every citizen capable of bearing arms every the age of thirty, in the and, if above meetings were originally might speak. The held in an edifice,called mcias, erected for the purair, but at a later period were open pose. other of eminence, The called simply, or by way ""cA^"n'a. It assembly was the magistrates, and the deputies of Laconia. consisted of the kings, the senators,
"

convening

the assemblies

afterwards

in the

meals

collected assembly also, which was ovaavtia, ^nSltva,and ^t^Vca, was of public importance. of speaking upon matters

" 126.

The

at

and

termed

the publicand designed for the

common

purpose

In

this
be

assembly, kings, magistrates, and

a

certain

citizens, met
each.

together in certain
No
new

halls, where
could

number
to

of tables
table

were

set, for fifteen persons

member

of all belonging to the consent by the unanimous any his own contributed stores same. to the provisionsfrom Every member ; a specified of wine, cheese, and figs,and a small sum quantity of barley meal or cakes (pa^ai), for meat, formed between A close union was those was expected from each. money cuk\o-j ; after this was of the same table. dessert The termed called a regular meal was bnuKXov. The stools allowed men to sit on only were admitted; small children were their fathers and receive a half-share without vegetables (dPapffaKsvara) near ; the youth

admitted

but

P.

III.

CIVIL

AFFAIRS.

LAWS

OF

CRETE.

191
couches of hard

and oak. kind with

1

boys
The

ate

in other

companies.
was

At
broth
to

table

chief dish

the

black
kokis,

they sat (/i"ac ^dc).1

or

reclined

on

The

of solemn feast,called the citizens.2

reader drink may
be amused

which

and foreigners
Sir Henry

Spartans had also another admitted boys were along

in Turkey,
beat to

The
a a

by the
of
a

from following#passage

Blount, who
in
a

traveled and

in 1634.
of
a

"

The

Turku

have
taste

called cauphe, made

berry

as

big
as

as

small

bean, dried

furnace

powder,

sooty color, in
and
than

littlebitterish, that they sethe

to that purpose
us.

aod

drink, hot

may

be endured
two
or

; it is good at all hours

of the

day, but especiallymorning

in Turkey abound
more

evening, when
inns and
ale

they entertain themselves

three hours used

so

in cauphe-houseB, which much

houses

with

It is thought to be the old black broth

by the Lacedxmonians.

It drieth

illhumours

in

the stomach,
2

coroforteth Robinson's

the

brain, never
Gra:c.

causeth

drunkenness,

nor

any other

and is a harmless surfeits,

entertainment

of good fellowship."

Archasol.

p. 159." were no

Cf. MUller, ii. 289.

"
to

127.
no

Judicial

actions

found

place
his
own

in

them;
cause.

very summary advocates were

were

among

the

employed;

plead

There

three distinct

Spartans. Eloquence one was obliged that of the jurisdictions,

every

sion kings, the senate, and the Ephori, each of which formed a tribunal for the deciof a certain class of questions. The most and important larly particuquestions, all of
were Cf. Robimon, Courts. a

capital nature, belonged to

to
xxii.
"

the senate.

In minor

the disputes,

ties par-

allowed
bk.

choose
On the

arbitrators for themselves.

the Ephori,

ii. ch.

of authority

MUller, bk.

iii.ch. vii. ; and

bk. iii.ch. ii. " 2,

on

the Spartan

" 128.
The
most

The
common

various and in part similar to those at Athens. punishments were mode of inflicting death was suffocation. or by strangling
"

Stealingwas
shrewdness detected.

punished
and

for the theft committed, as for the want betrayed by the offender in allowing himself to dexterity
not
so

much

of be

of a rope (Ppoxos, effected by means Strangling was Pp6fx"s) always done ; it was Death also inflicted night and in a room1 in the public prison called At/cac. was into the pit2called Ka"Mac; this was always done likewise by casting the malefactor the Messenian into this, but survived cast the fall and was by night. Aristomenes effected an escape, considered wonderful. which Besides the punishas was ments very 'Artuia,and Kvipwv or KXotoc, mentioned Athenian Zrjfua, penalties (cf. among the offender received as he was " 113), the Spartans3 had Macmy"jo-ic,whipping, which driven through the city,and K"njcnc, goading, which similar punishment. nishment, Bawas a been inflicted by sentence not to have $t)y"), seems a regular punishment ; but was voluntary, and chosen in order to escape death or infamy {dnp.ia).
1.

in the

"

Robinson,
4
3

Arch.

Grac.

bk.

ii. ch. 24. Ant. Dor.

Cf. Thuc.

i. 134."

Pans.

iv. 18. " i."Strab.

vm."Mitford,

Hist, of

Greece,ch.

iv.

sect.

Cf. MUlUr,

Hist, and

vol. ii.p. 235.

and the Spartans also various rewards distinctions were bestowed on Among and after death. merit, both while living the distinctions conferred the meritorious,the UpocSpa, on firstseat in a Much value was attached to the olive-crown, public assembly, was highly honorable. for bravery, and to the thongs, Bei"oms, with which victors 'EXain; artyavoc,as a reward of the highest honors in the contests bound. But it was of the city to be were one elected into the number of the three hundred constitutingthe three chosen bands of horsemen To commemorate the dead, statues, cenotaphs (" 124), termed Aoyafos.
2
u.

of persons 3. Among

and other (KsvoTatbia),

monuments

were

erected.

"

129.

The

of Sparta had Lycurgus chiefly for legislation

some

marked

by
from

that

its author, and was form of government guished distinwas strong peculiarities. The with of all the other states by its union of monarchical aristotraits.
one

cratical and
were

democratical

There

were

in
to

Sparta

no on

written this

transmitted

from orally

generation

another;

and were not styled them pyjfpai,. They were numerous, all and hinder and and hardihood, luxury bravery promote alterations in minor they retained Although they underwent points, many
to

they Lycurgus chieflydesigned voluptuousness.

account

laws;

their

authority through a periodof

Cf. MUller, "118.
as

above
Xenophon,

800
on

years.
the Polity of the Lacedemonians

before

vol. cited,

ii.p.

97,235.

"

(cf.P. V. " 1 86)." The

works

cited

"
we

130.

Next
the

to

the states

of Athens

and

the Sparta,
as

constitution find the

most

remarkable.

It is here,

has

island of Crete presents a stated (" 38), that been

the

of origin

the institutions of

Lycurgus.

During

republican vernment gocers offiwere

sulted con-

which

annuallyas
taken

only from

the monarchical, it was customary to elect ten called Cosmi, xoq/aol, and chief magistrates. These were Under them was families. a Senate, which was particular succeeded

only on

importantquestions ;

it consisted

of 28

members,

who

for the

192 part had

and
; to

GRECIAN

ANTIQUITIES.

most

held previously
were

the office of Cosmi.

There
own

was

also

an

order of

who knights,
use,

required
in time

to

keep

horses

at

their
of

expense of the

for the
was

public
not

serve

of

war.

The

power

popular assemblies

great

theyusuallydid nothing
vol.

but confirm

the decrees

higherauthorities.

Cf. MWxr,

ii.p. 99, I34.-H8ci,

Kreta.

Gotticg. 1829.
were

3 vols. 8.

" 131.
of them mildness.

The
found

Cretan

laws

in different

writers.

public meals, which

1.
"

they called

traces general wise, as appears from some the Spartans, the citizens of Crete had treated with comparative uvh^iio,.Slaves were
"

in

Like

"

Mitford, "by that system of laws which, in an Curiosity is excited," observes of surrounding nations, inignorance, violence, and uncertainty among age savage civil freedom forced civil order, and secured to the Cretan not people ; which was to us polity,so well known only the particularmodel of the wonderful through the
fame
the general fountain of Grecian been but appears of Lacedajmon, to have lation legiscontinued the eulogies of the greatest to deserve and jurisprudence ; and which in the brightestperiods of literature and philosophy." and politicians,
Croix,
Des Anciens

sages

See Sainte

gouvernements

et legislation de Crete. federatifs,

Par. 1776.

2.

Three

different classes of
the

dependents existed in the island

was no

; the

public bondmen

called

by
so

Cretans

pvoia. ; the slaves of individual

there Grecian
state

iiriJKooi. Perhaps
were

taries, citizens, d^a/wwrai ; and the tributhe dependent classes in which

In general, every oppressed as in Crete. employment and profession, with the exception of the gymnasia and the militaryservice,were permitted to them. "Mutter, as cited " 118, vol. ii.5. 3. The name dvSpsTais supposed to have been given to the public meals, because, as A woman, alone were admitted at Sparta, men to the tables. however, had the care The of the public tables at Crete. Cretans were distinguished by their great hospitality tables for citizens there was for foreigners. Mutter, two one ; with every little
"

ii.225. The
term
was dycAr/

used under

to

designate
till the
care

an

from

their

eighteenth

year

time
a

who assembly of young men, of their marriage. These termed Diet, of who dysXarri;,

lived together
young
men,

called dytXao-rot, were their military and

the

of
"

person

superintended
government
this state
was

gymnastic exercises.
the

Smith,

Antiq.
a

"

132.

In
until

Thebes,
the death

principal cityof Bceotia,

a

monarchical

existed did not

there

rise to any the whole national

of Xanthus, and afterwards at least for a great celebrity, character of the

republican. Yet long time; the cause

Besides
a

haps per-

Thebans.
the

proper

senate,
;

were

in Thebes
the
care

Bceotarchs, Botofap^at, and Poletnarchs

of the civil affairs,and

Ilo^iap^ot
"

the

former
was

had

divided

other
never

grand councils,or and mechanics magistrates. Merchants

raised
has
to

into four

latter of the military. Bceotia decrees guided all the senates, whose
were

adopted
infants it
was was

as

citizens, but
not

any

magistracy.
were

The
to

but if their Pausanias

parents

unable in his

exposure maintain them, Bceotia

of

permitted,
the
state.

done

by

recorded

of description
state.

many
honor of

remarkable

features

of the later condition

The
a

of the Theban
national which the

Boeotians
near

had

great
near

in festival,naji/?ot"jr(a, festival
was

Athena

Itonia, who
de

had

temple
Cf.

Coronea,
v.

held.
des in Bosotiens, the Mem. Classe VInstiiui,

Mitford,ch.
et Lit. Anc.

sect.

1.

"

Raoid-RocheUe,

Administration

de l'E tat Federatif

d'Hilt.

vol. viii. p. 214.

"
at most
one a

133.

Of

the

internal

constitution

of Corinth

but

little is known. Bacchiadas form He

had
was were

It

was

first governed

the Sisyphidseand by kings,of whom aristocratical an distinguished. Afterwards, when chief magistrate chosen yearlycalled llpD-taiM. was

the

assembly people never senate, repousse. called often very small. their power The citywas once was rendered favorable situation upon the isthmus, which a
harbours
so

The

of the

introduced, was supported by equal authority;

Ephyra,
it and

and

joyed en-

its two
was

famous
the

on

account

of

their

and navigation
was

commerce.

It

stroyed de-

rebuilt by Csesar, and became colonies of Corinth. againvery flourishing.Syracuse and Corcyra were between The last cityis specially itself remarkable, from the fact,that a dispute

by

Romans,

B. C.
"

146, but

afterwards

3nd

Corinth

long time
became
Cf.

for a occasion of the Peloponnesianwar. Syracuse was governed by 600 of the oldest men, called "yjco,uopot; but afterwards democratical to the Romans. until it was entirely subjected
was
as

the

MUlkr,

before

vol. cited,

ii.p. 156,

194
and

GRECIAN

ANTIQUITIES.

particularlyby a large shield (ortXov) distinguished ; the rtsMaatcu, bore small shield {rtsMtj) a ; and the lightarms, particularly and used missile The who shield had no only "4/Oot,lightarmed, weapons. of after the used introduction chariots much war not were cavalry.
were

targeteers, who

"

The

chariots,
with these

termed whole

were SperravrKpopot,

sometimes
were

terribly destructive, being

cut

armed XVII,

with

sythes,
one

which chariots be

ranks

of

soldiers

sometimes

down.

"

In

Plate

which is presented, drawn horses are protected by a by two used Britons chariots were here, that such by the ancient worthy of remark and writers covini and esseda. Belgians, and are designated in the Roman by the terms (Lucan, Phars. i. 426. Cws. Bell. Gall. iv. 33. covinus Tac. Agric. xxxvi. was a Mela, iii. 6.) "The with for cutting and terrible instrument of destruction, sharp being armed sythes and hooks within its reach." R. Henry, History of Great to come as were so unhappy tearing all who mail. It may
" " "

of

fig.K, covering of

Britain,

(firsted.) Lond.

1771-93.

6 vols.

4.

" 138.

The

cavalryof
more

the Greeks

was

not

numerous,
as

and

consisted

only of
a

citizens of the their horses. rank.

to
or

and such respectableclass, The trtrtstj, therefore, at Athens wished

to

were as
were

able well
as

" 93) to maintain (cf.

Sparta, held
and
a

high

Those

who

attain this

rank

first examined

in respect

their bodily strength and other qualifications, by the senate Phularch appointedfor the purpose. (trtrtap^j, ^vJtap^^y) various
names

Hipparch
called
e.

They

were

by

according to

the

weapons

of

armor

they used

; as,

g.,

who threw missiles ; Sopa-tofyopoi, who carried spears or lances; axpojSoa.Kji'at, The etc. (,rt7toto%6tac, fi"o"tfo"}"6pot, jhjp"o"j"6pot, following articles xovto$6poi, constituted their principal armor broad a : a helmet, platedgirdle, breastplate, largeshield,cuishes, a javelin and sword.
well as the infantry, into the heavy-armed, mas were distinguished defended light-armed,nn KarafpaKToi.. The former not only were by armor themselves, but also had their horses protected by platesof brass or other metal, which named, from the parts of the horse covered by them, -npojitTamka, -poarspviSia, were xapaThe termed etc. uriplSia, TiaptmXevpidLa, irapaKvrinidia, trappings of the horses were (pi\apa ; various and costly ornaments, cloths were including collars, bells,and embroidered often used. The a sort of dragoon, instituted by Alexander, were designed to "ip-"xcu either on horseback foot. The "Ap"piwKoi such had two horses ; as serve or on were because called also 'imraycoyoi, After the time of Alexander, they led one of their horses. introduced from the east ; but they were after a short period laid elephants were found too unmanageable with much confidence. to be relied upon aside, as they were When diers, used, they carried into battle large towers, containing from ten to thirtysolwho could greatly annoy the enemy themselves with missiles,while they were in comparative safety. The

horsemen,

raippaKTOi,and

"

"

"

Saltier and in the

same

dans Freret, Orig. de l'equitation Mem. "c. xli. 242.

"

la

Grece, in the Mem.

Acad.

Insa'. vii. 33, 286. in the

same

"

Be

Maizeroy,La

Cavalerie

Grecque,

Larcher, L'ordre

equestre chez ]es Grecs.

armor

Mem.

"c. xlviii. 83.

" 139.
described
there
were

The

chief

articles of
it is

used forms

by
to

the

Greeks

have

been

already

(" 44, 45), and

many

only necessary
to

changes, as

the

here, that in later times of the articles, and the manner of

remark
parts,
a one

using them.
1. The

breastplate{""pal) consisted
for the breast, united pieces of metal, and
at
on

of

two

for

defence When

for the made

back,
of
two

it was called ^pa\ cra"ios; inflexible, when made of hide and guarded with hooks in a chain, it was or as rings, connected called Swpaf dXw"W(5? called ; it guarded with plates like the scales of a fish, it was SoipalXemdaiTos. The r)pi6o)paiaoi" protected only the front part of the body ; Alexander allowed the SwpaJ, and next the skin the Greeks to only this to his soldiers- Within
that
account
"

the other continued

the sides

by

sort

of buttons.

also wore Cf. Horn.

The thorax
a

often

defensive

armor

of brass

fined With

wool, which
seems

was

termed

pirprj.
plates like

II. iv. 137, 187.

is seen in fig.r, of Plate XXII. ; also
on

the

fig.7. warrior,

In fig.5, the thorax

to be

guarded with

the scales of

fish ; also in Plate XXXTV.

fig.b.

2.

The

poplar, "c.
covered

shield (dcnric) when of wood made of the lightestkind, as willow, beach, was When of hide (d"nri"fcc made there were fioeiai), usually several thicknesses Its chief parts were with a plate or plates of metal. the outer cumference, edge or cir-

kvk\oc, mpupipeia; the boss or prominent part in the middle, aural, i'ruc, it was attached to the shoulders, 6p.(j"a\ds, p."aon"pa\u"v thong of leather by which ; the it was the handle, held in the hands, iroprcaKti, for which rikap.iiv ; the rings by which afterwards substituted. Little consistingof two small bars placed crosswise, was o\avov, occasioned bells were sometimes the shields to increase the terror hung upon by the name of a covering, designed to protect the shield from shaking them. ^dy^a was the word also designates a packsaddle. Various injury when not in actual use thets epiindicative of size; eWwcXm, applied to shields; dpaptPpoTo;, are mSnvri^hs, dy"5/w^"j/ojc,
,

PLATE

XXII.

195

196
of shape. "cat, The

GRECIAN

ANTIQUITIES.

iravroTZ

the Persians ; the QvptSg was hides with the hair on, and
to
In

in the shape of a rhombus, and first used by Tt{povwas oblong and bent inward ; the Aavfjiov was composed of small and light,and, acwas light; the niXrr; was cording very
a

some,
are

shaped like

half-moon.
see

Plate XXII.

several forms

of shields ;

fig.3, fig.4, fig.7.

See also Plate XXX.

fig.1,fig.4 ; and Plate

V XXITT.

1, fig.

fig.2. 3. Besides
we

the

offensive the In

may been

mention of
a

poniard,
later

which have already been named weapons called and Tapa^KpiSiov, ly%SLpiiiov, ages, the

(see $ 45, and

Plate

XVII.),
the rally gene-

purpose it is

knife.

considered

contended, that 7-10) as saying of the used "they daggers

which acinaces also had
a

borrowed from was d/ai/d/cr/s translated as curved, and has usually been it was straight like the dagger; the writer assassins in size who infested the which from
on

pa\aipa; the Persians.

it answered This has

Judea Persian robbers side.

before

the

cimiter Dictionary ; in Smith's quotes Josephus (.Ant. Jud. xx. destruction of Jerusalem, that but

resembling
the the

acinaces,
and The
koitis
or

curved,
are

and

like

those

the

Romans
to

called have
;
as

sice, and
worn was

murderers

seems

been

right

sicarii;''the falchion (.ensisfalcatus) was

called The Macedonians nektKVs. or iron, Ki/pvvr/, was pon a weathe of

used

in

battle kind
"

likewise called

battle-ax,
The the

and d^ivr/, club

the

peculiar
;
one

of

long

of

early times.
kind

We

spear, mention may

udpio-aa.
among

of wood

offensive

fixed of the

hemp,
enemy.
XVII.
above

made and of wood armed (cr/curdXia) were combustibles; pitch, and other these, being

weapons with spikes

on

nvpofioXoi Xidoi, fireballs

iron, under
hurled which the
were

set

fire,were

into

ranks

In Plate mentioned XVII. On

the

fig.C, is the iidxaipa

considers
as

; in Plate XXXIII. the

same

fig.4,
is seen

we

see

hanging
of

at the

right thigh the weapon

which

the writer

the

aKivdKijs;

in the

hand

Mithras,in

the Sup. Plate 9 ; cf. also fig.B, in Plata

various

articles of armor,
of the Arms
on

see

Fcsbi-oke's Middle

Encyclopaedia. S.
"

R.

Meyrick,Critical Inquiry
a

into Ancient
be

Armor,
to

"c.

with

Glossary of Names
desirous
of

of

the

Ages.

Lond.

1824.

3 vols. 4 ;

work

which

may

recommended

the student

full information

this subject.

" 140.
to

The

commanders
at the
or same

of the

armies

were

in early times each chief tribe chose command

the

be

although pnkmarchs
who
was

time certain men,

eminently brave, were

it became

selves, kings themappointed

own
mander, com-

generals. Subsequently

its

ten, who

had

called o'tpatrjyb?.At Athens held the equal power, and who

took the

customary
one

to

appoint
each
a was

day

in

when they regular rotation, march, whose opinion was

decisive
at
a

field together. Over these was there in the war-council, when

polean

equal division among

had
no

share

in

later period, however, this officer (rtohifxapxo;) also ten were taxiarchs, militaryaffairs (" 101)." There

them;
to

subordinate ralc'ap^ot,, for battle, mark attend

the two nominated
XOi,
to out

the

the

to put the army in array ctpatr;yoi ; their duty was the order of march, and in general regulate camp,

also to the Strategi were preservation of discipline.Subordinate had of the who them under ten (pvXapxoo, one horse, generals iVtrtap^ot., There also inferior officers, were as by each tribe. xo^ayot, ^tXtapthe

the names Ssxdb'apxoc, ns/j-rtdSapxot; txat6vtapz""'i

of
men

being

derived

from

the

number

commanded

by them.
was

" 141.

The

whole

army five men,

called called

expand;
or

the

front, ixzta"7iov
The

or

rfpwt'oj

"uy6j;
to
or a a

the

wings, xipata, ;
men,

the .rear,
was

odpa
a

i6%a?o;

^uyoj.

smallest

sion, divi-

consistingof
hundred hundred
and

from ten rts^rfas ; a Xo^oj contained accordingto different circumstances ; and a *o|tj,a hundred,

twenty-eight.
had five attendants, reported the officer's ensigns, signals, or of supplied the members
was

division of this sort ruficwas also called harovTaoxia. Each in the ranks ; viz. the orparoK-r/pvf, who who did not serve (.curaKTOi) commands the soldiers ; the o-npstoipopo;, who conveyed the to The watchwords
;

the division with of the number Some of the

who the aaX-niyKThs, a trumpeter ; the fcr/pmjj, the ovpayo;, whose business necessaries ; and left behind. were

to

see

that

none

larger divisions

; envraypa, ;

consistingof
men

two

rdja?,or
1024

256
men

men

irepra.

two Komapx'ia, avvraYpara, or 512 men the preceding, or TeXoc, twice or twice the TcXoc, or 4C96 men ; the

two xiAtapx'a,

of the last, or latter

2048

or "$a\ayyapxia,

Mcpapxia, "ZTparnyia sometimes,

;

commander

of the

was

called

o-rparriyd^.

a """.iXayJ signifies sometimes body of twenty-eight soldiers ; sometimes sometimes of troops in a body of 4000, as just mentioned ; and any number contained general. Yet it is said, that a full or complete Phalanx four times the number included in the "pa\ayyapxia,above named, i. e. 16,384 men.

The

term

"
in the
a

142. of

While

the

term

is ^a'xayi

often

used

in

general sense

for any

ber num-

it is employed also to signify a soldiers, peculiar order of arrangement the to resist a great shock body strength rectangular form, which gave Macedonians were especiallycelebrated for using it to advantage." The
was

supoxov

the

same

with

the Roman

cuneus,

an

arrangement

in the form

of

P.

III.

MILITARY

AFFAIRS.

THE

PHALANX.

HERALDS.

CAMPS.

197

and further into the midst ol -an to force a way more easily called was or xucis Irft Sopv, Wheeling, turning, facing, ; to the right, enemy. the spear being in the right hand ; to the left, S7t asrtiSa, the shield being held in the left. Turning completely about was termed The Greeks fiemufio'kri.

wedge,

in order

"

"

possessed great skill

taxtixbi,,who
1. Various

and

readiness

instructed the youth

in manoeuvres, and in the practice.

had

teachers

of the art,

forms were of which not were given to the "JuXayf,some rectangular; as of a half-moon, and was also called $aXay|, which presented the form emicanTrtjs in the figure of a diamond. In the phatcvprri and Koi'Kri ^a^ayf,which was lanx, ; poppouifis the ranks, taken t,uyoi signified according to its length, ^ko; ; crrixoi(also \6x"') the files taken according to its depth, /?u""c. Another order of array for battle was the The irAu"6to, brick, a rectangular presenting its length to the enemy. -nvpyos, tower, the
" "

was

the

same

form, with its width

seems

or

the

end

of the
or

The form Of

ixkaiaiov

to

have

been

an

exact

square

rectangle towards the enemy. The nearly so. was KoiXipfiokov

"

"

like figure of
an

the
egg,

letter V, with
terms

usually arranged their cavalry. add only the following ; we a countermarch, by which every soldier, one sfeXiy/wc marching after another, changed the front for the rear, or one flank for another ; SnrXacnaapdg, an enlarging of the body, number either by adding men or a by extending the same over great space.
"

the various
,

according to applied to manoeuvring

the open part toward the Thessalians which

or

the

enemy.

"

The

iXij was

in

the

evolutions

sometimes i'X"7, applied as above mentioned, to designate a certain order of array, to signify a body of cavalry j a troop sometimes consisting of 64 horsemen. Two the such formed the emXapxia, containing 128 men troops constituted ; eight of them formed the TtXoc of the cavalry, including 'ucTcapxia-, containing 512 men ; four of the last named 2048 men the 'E-rriraypa, two rtXi7made comprising 4096 men. ; and 3. It may be remarked that among the Lacedsmonians, the whole divided into n6pai was army which and variable. contained a each, but afterwards originally only 400 men larger number, Each of four X6xoi. The one-half of the was Xo%oy; and one-half p6pa consisted jreirijKoo-rSj of the irevTrtKoiTTvi termed the latter to was iixanoria, including 25 men; body is said by some have contained thirty-two or thirty-six men. 2. The
term
was

generally

used

The

earliest ancient

works

which

treat

expressly of Grecian

tactics

are

those of Arrian

and #Hian

; cf. F. V. " 250, " 253.

made war " a usually began by the satisfaction. expected Uninjured or offended party through deputies for reparation or hostile invasion viewed it was as warfare; was justified unrighteous selected were only by great and wanton injuries. The most respectable men for the ambassadors and heralds, and their persons were regarded as sacred
143.

The

declaration

of

with

demand

and
1

inviolable.
u.

with two (KvpiKsiov)and serpents of peace, while the ambassadors or deputies sadors of ambasaccustomed also to threaten and to announce The power war. (Trpi"rj3sis) were The limited in different degrees at different times (cf. " 102). was leagues or entered into were either (1)"mov"fi, mutual cessation a treaty of peace or agreements defence ; or called also avvdnxri, from injuries, dpnvri ; (2) t-mpaxia,a treaty of mutual
a
,

The

heralds

carried (KfipvKeg)

staff wound

were

usually charged only with

messages

the parties engaged to alliance both defensive and offensive, in which an (3)o-vppax'ia, commenced other, not only when attacked, but also when they themselves the war. Such treaties were confirmed solemn oaths, written by the most upon

aid each

tablets and
or

evidences Before 2 b.
to

was

the partiesexchanged certain tokens Sometimes placed in public view. of the compact. (av/t/ioXa) The war actuallydeclaringwar, it was customary to consult an oracle. commenced with sacrifices and vows. also paid by the Scrupulous attention was
omens

Greeks 3. An

and
the

seasons. moon was a

eclipseof

fatal

sign ; the Athenians

said

would
moon.

not

march

before

the seventh

day,ivrdg ipSoprt;, nor

In addition
to what

the Lacedaemonians has

until full

" 144.
of camps,
to
were

alreadybeen
that the

(" 48)

on
was

the construction often

it may be here according to circumstances. the circular form

remarked,
The

form

of them

changed
adhered troops

Lacedaemonians, however,
as

always
bravest

in the centre wings, and the weakest interior. A particular was for the worship or appropriated part of the camp The and military of the gods, and for holding councils of war courts. guards into the divided and the were day-watches,qvXaxat, rj/A-sptvat, night-watches, The advanced called outer guards, were posts, or fyvhaxav vvxtepwat. The of the watch round called and was l^ocWa, nightly visiting rtpofyvKaxcu. those who and the guard-house, performedit,7iepiiio-koi, rffptrtoXstov. " 145. Before a battle the soldiers were usuallyrefreshed by eating and ordered them to action. drinking, immediatelyafter which the commanders
"

well in their camps, as usuallyplaced on the extremities or

their cities.

The

r2

198
When the

GRECIAN

ANTIQUITIES.

in point of engaging, the generalsaddressed the army Then often produced great effects. followed the and the war-song to Mars. sacrifice,the vow, a hymn (rfouavE^a/r^pio;), The used in the field were either or^iia, regular ensigns and standards, signs or or commonly understood specially agreed upon Gvfj.\jo%a, particular signals, very
near

animating speeches,

which

"

for the occasion.

1
u.

The and

(a-wOii/ia-a) ; or
armor,
some

such as watchwords either audible were special signals, "rop:0o\a, {fyoivixa), such visible (oparti), as nodding the head, waving the hand, shaking the
like

the

(TrapaawOopaTa). The
a

c-nueTa

or

standards

were

of various

kinds;

purple coat upon the top of a spear ; others having an a image of a bird, animal, or other object. The raisingof the standard was signal to Anciently the signal for battls commence battle, and the lowering of it to desist. terwards Afappointed (irvptyopot). was given by lighted torches being hurled by the persons done by blasts of sound, for which it was first used, and shells (koxXoi) were being merely
red
or

then
2
we
u.

brazen The
not

of several different kinds. (cahriyycs) trumpets Lacedaemonians to action by the sound usually advanced

must to

imagine, that the marching of

as

the

Greeks
were

was

as

regular and
habit

of the flute ; yet able conformas of

music, The
were

the

modern.

Most

of them
,

rather

in the

rushing to

battle with

impetuosity and clamor

art not

(aXaXaypdg ami).

" 146.
the cities

first in the later times of Greece, because of besieging arose the later Greeks, fortified with walls. Nor were previously

much in the habit of laying regular especially the Lacedaemonians, very sieges. The two principal points of proceeding in the siegeof a city,were the construction of the entrenchment around it,and the gathering and use of it. these about Connected with efforts scale the to walls were engines military of the city by ladders their foundaand to undermine tions. ("jti,6a0pat, xXv/xaxii) around the city was An entrenchment called rtfptr'st^ttr^os, or artotfsiturf. wall of consisted and of double In the stone or a usually Zcc/A-os, space
"

between

the
were

walls
turrets

were or

shelters

for the

and garrison

the sentinels.

Above

the

walls

and pinnacles ("rfoa|"s),

largetower
"
of
the
a

was constructed, extendingacross termed "wpai or $updxtov. parapet of the wall was

after every tenth pinnacle a wall to the other. from one The Greeks
have
were (/xdyava, iA.rizo.vcu)

147.

Most

of

the

militaryengines of
seem

the
to

late invention, and comparatively time

of
or

been

introduced
was

first about

the

Peloponnesian
so

war.

One the

of the

testudo

tortoise;

called because

the %t%uvri, the principal soldiers were covered by it as a tortoise

by

its shell.

The formed 1 u. testudo The of several kinds. \cS6vtioTpancdiw was was by the in such their heads soldiers, pressed close together and holding their shields over a also formed of boards, united and as to form a manner covering. It was compact with metals; this was covered either of a square form, as the xt\"Zvri x^^ph, which served to protect the soldiers, while they were preparing the ground in order to bring up their militaryengines, or of a triangularform, as the x^'^v opv\,for the protection of such
as were

undermining the
of

walls.

"

Another like the

instrument Roman

called the
over

made yepfov, the head.

twigs of willow composed

There

vinece,and
and

for similar purposes was held by the diers solraised very high, made of (iripyoi), wheels and had often
a

u.

The and

often above wood

beam

mound a xw/ia was the besieged walls."

of various, materials also moveable rolled

on

were

towers

several

the x^f-a 5 fhey were usually placed upon stories,containing soldiers and engines. The
"

battering-ram ("pid;) was

strong

which the soldiers in front resembling that of a ram, (ip/3o\"f) thrust against the enemy's walls; it was often hung by ropes to another beam, so that it could be thrust with greater force, and sometimes placed on wheels and covered was Kararrch-ai with a xeXcuvj/'. The were engines for hurling missiles, stones, and the like the enemy which and those being termed upon d^vficXcT;, discharged arrows, ; those
with
an

iron head

which

cast

stones,
Siculus hundred

Xi6o06\oior

lrerpoPiXot.
sometimes of three hundred

Dionysius
stones

(xx. 48, 86) speaks

of

one

of the latter engines as TaXavriaTos), and even weight (Xt0o/?"5Aos

capable of throwing weight (?rsrpo-

66\os TniraXaVTiaXoi).
3.

The

'EXctoXij

was

machine,
to
a

not

unlike

the

and
tower

force, driven

with

by Demetrius
;

and ropes Poliorcetes

wheels.

each

side

being ninety cubits high

divided and

info nine stories, which various missiles ; manned

by him, in the form of a square wide ; restingon four wheels and forty-five ; each contained engines for throwing spears, stones, The Tpwrava by 200 soldiers. Cf. Diod. Sic. xx. 48.
"

This name invented machine

battering-ram, but of greater size first ap(l\bro\tg, was city-taker) plied

P.

III.

MILITARY

AFFAIRS.

SIEGES.

PUNISHMENTS.

199 chieflyused
in earlier

were long irons with sharp ends, and were periods for demolishing the walls of a city.

the

instruments

" 148.

In the

defence

of

besiegedcity the following are

with

worthy

of remark.

Soldiers,armed

various

means

of

the things most selves defending them-

stationed on of the city. The the walls were annoying the enemy, the within and hurled arrows, military walls, greater engines were planted the besiegers. The mines of the besiegers stones, and pieces of timber upon were and mounds opposed by counter-mines, and their entrenchments were undermined. Their embarrassed various engines were broken, set on or fire, in operation by different contrivances the part of the besieged. on " 149. On the takingof a city,the captors did not always treat the citizens and
the

and

property in the
inhabitants

same

way.
to

Sometimes
or

the least

were buildings

demolished,
while the
rest

arid all the

put

death,

at

those

in arms,

sometimes reduced favor was to slavery. But (at^cacotot, 6opDcawT'oi) were of a tribute exacted. Sometimes shown, and nothing but the payment new settlers were the city was lished, demoplanted in the conquered city. Whenever it was the spot on which it stood, and not even customary to curse

cultivate the soil.

" 150.

The
the

partly in
axv%a; rewards

consisted booty or spoils on such a capture, or after a battle, which the in other things, were stores, and partly military perty profrom
the

of the conquered party. These, when taken if from the whole living, xa"j"upa. The
who first took
a

slain, were

termed

(tVapa)was
in the

commander-in-chief,
to

large portion for

the

such

as

had

themselves distinguished

distributed
a

the remainder
set

equallyamong
was case

soldiers.

brought to the himself, then assigned action,and afterwards First of all, however,
was

portion was
armor

apart for the service

of the

gods, which
even

called axpoOwm.

The

of

the

conquered
was

also

often dedicated
their

to the

gods, and hung

weapons

in their

temples; this
also
to

the
to

sometimes

with

the
career.

up of the

when victors,
were

they designed
the

terminate

military

ings Thank-offerwere

dedicated

and trophies erected, which presented, ("tportaia) were gods; statues also and other monuments

likewise
memorate com-

raised to

victories.
often attached to the trophy, or inscription (twiypaniia)was offering presented to the god, of the and the conquered, an of account monument, containing the names conquerors the of a tree, especially an of the occurrences of the The trunk war. spoils, and sometimes for the purpose of victory being hung often used of a trophy, the emblems it. olive, was upon Alexander of the Macedonians, raised the Great, abiding by a law never a trophy; yet he erected of his successes; other broad them altars to the gods, very and monuments were lofty. among is given in Plate XXII. A representation of the tropauvi fig.4. An
or

other

"

"

151.

There

was

careful

armies, and
tevvards
and
on were

various
the

rewards

promotion to
funeral
At

in the Greek regard to order and discipline established. the were Among punishments of garlandsor other distinctions, higher rank, conferring
and

also

honors Athens

and

the

encomiums,
also
as

which
made who
were

were

bestowed
the

the

brave

warrior. of those

was public provision

for
were

widows

and

children

slain in battle, and The children

of such

for

those

injured by
also honored of the

wounds
sometimes

(ddwafot).
with

valiantlydied
theatres.
"

the first seats

was

at the (rfposSpt'cu)

The

severest

punishments, death,
refused
as

always

inflicted

to serve,

threw

away

aatpaTfevtoo, such as their shields, fa^aaitifes, were

not

Such deserters, cWo^otot. as on and their xsirfot'cbcT'cw, such ranks, quitted

subject to

civil

degradation.

At

Athens
were

they
also

were

permittedto
court

enter

fined in the

Heliaea.
even

which deeper disgrace, that their mothers $ 152.

had
a

extended

often stabbed

them various
A

temples or public assemblies, and In Sparta they were exposed to still to their whole so family; it was great at their first meeting afterwards.
the
means

The

Greeks

employed
or

class of messengers

ru?i?iers,
"

called

for conveying intelligence. They carried news and official who iiiicpotpdpoi, much celebrated
was

commands;

they

went

lightlyarmed.
a

contrivance

the Lacedaemonian

round a stick of this sort, of the same When ment. any command
was

(TKtmWri. This was black stick,about

or

ly"s), parchment or leather (Seppa, ped wrapfour cubits in length. The general always received a size with another kept by the magistrates or govern to be conveyed, a stripof parchment was intelligence
roll of white

rolled

on

the

and staff,

on

this

was

written

what

the

person

wished

to

communi

200
; the

GRECIAN

ANTIQUITIES

oate

stripwas
Before
to

then

sent

to

the

could

read

what, otherwise, would

be

who applied it to his general, wholly unintelligible.

own

stick,and thus

the naval affairs of the Greeks, we to notice proceeding now It was rivers with their armies. of usually passing may of boats small to form vessels sort so means as a by or joined together (tf^f"'ai) of bridge (y""j"i"pa), of Xerxes like that which the Persians under the command threw over the Hellespont. In order to hold these vessels fast, largebaskets

" 153.

allude

their method

or~boxes, filled with

purpose taken casks
Darius of Xerxes

stone,

were were

sunk

in the also

of anchors.
in

Anchors

stream, which used. sometimes

thus

answered

the

greatest emergencies that

them

they carried forward with such pieces. Sometimes bridgeswere

bottles.
thrown
a was

only in the these them boats, having of large made by means

was

It

and

leathern
to

is said
over

have

bridge
built

across

the

Thracian

Eosphorus
on

(Herod,
side and

iv.

83, 85).
on

That the

the

Hellespont

between

Abydos

the

one

Sestos

other

(Herod,

vii. 36).

ed the wars has been already mentionof the Greeks from their in differed structure (IrdxuTtoi, xoj7iyj^q) which the other kinds, especially from ships of burden were (oJwcaSss, ^optrjyoi) of an oval form, with broader bottoms. They were usually such as had three is of cf. benches this term called tpiripsif(triremes, " 304), and hence rowers, often used to signify of Before the vessel launched, was war. merely vessels it was purifiedand consecrated by the priests. Commonly, each vessel singly, of a particular sometimes committed a whole was to the protection god. fleet, The ensign or standard (rfapatf^ov), f rom which one ,as distinguished ship by which another, was placed in the forepart. Each vessel had its own name,

" 154.

The

use.

of

shipsin
war

(" 47).

Vessels

of

was

usuallytaken
" 155.
We

from

its

and ensign or flag,

some

was

also inscribed

on

the
to

prow.
the

will introduce
a

here

of the

names

applied by

the

Greeks

ferent dif-

of the attached to some numerals ship and the tackling. The Arabic in the following descriptionare terms intended to correspond to those in fig.A, of our Plate XXIII., indicating the place of the parts named, according to HolwelVs plan of parts of
a

hexireme.
1. The

principal parts of a ship were three, the prow ox front, rrpapa, ptromov; the more prow was body, peaoicoiXo;, ydarpa ; and the stern, jrpfyu/a7, dupo. The less adorned, not or only by the figures and images placed on it,but by the colors "c. The derived such epithetsas piXroirap-qoi, painted on it,from which were KvavkpfioXoi, sides of it were The head of termed otoXoj was a long plank at the Ttrepa and trapciai. the prow, at the extremity of which of the principal ornaments, some "Kp6via,dicpoardfixed. The round Xtas,were also attached to the prow, a tttvx(s]0 was piece of wood which the name of the ship was called d$6a\pds. The inscribed ;, it was sometimes on the the figure of a goose the water, Xvvio-Ko;was according to the ; near upon prow but by others assigned to a higher part. The the lower was opinion of some, I'ju/JoW13 fitted to strike portion of the prow, which projected forward, and in war gallieswas into the ships of the enemy. the -napda-r}Behind this, and just below the otoXo?,was To ing the middle image carved or painted. belonged the followpnv or ensign, some and sharp, to cut keel at the bottom of the ship,narrow parts ; the rpmig^ or o-rsipri, the waves, with the jijsXtwfiara, wedges or bilgeways, attached to it,for guarding the ship'sbottom: ipahcis, limber, containing the bilgewater, conveyed out by the pump, the avrkia; xoiXn, hold (called also kvto;, and ydarpa), surrounded by ribs or planks risingfrom the keel,vop.eTs rafters,or ropes, on or cymnXia; the fawrrjpEj, hco^ojiara, or kficoXia*seats the sides (n-Xsupai3) for the of the ship from to stern ; the toTxoi and prow situated on above the sides one another ; the rpfipara or "S"/"0aXpoi5 rowers openings the oars lined the skin or the like, which through which were a put out ; the aaKwpa, there was continued one a openings ; sometimes opening for the oars, called rpdiprj^, The had ornamental term or applied also to the bulwark stern part of it. upper but termed in common with those on the prow, images, called dicpovia., distinctively, also attached the nrirpomV1, the tutela or safeguard of the d^Xaoru9. To the stern was termed and the planks composing it, The dle midship. Its bow was arurcitau, mpiroreia.
middle,
or
"

of the
prow 2.

stern
stern

was

named,
were

dodvfoov.

and Some

the $vya

The the rowers'

decks,
seats

input,

were

in the middle

covered and open

parts

at

the

here

in navigating vessels principalinstruments ("rmir;) under two the wooden and the hanging (axevri %v\iva) divisions, in the stern, but on the side of (oxrfij Kpepaord). The 7nj"5aXioi/12, rudder, fixed not directly the ship, and near the stern. In the iaterperiods, two rudders were being used, one the prow sometimes there were placed, it is supposed, near (hence vrjss dpipi-npvpaioi) each four, one side of prow on and The stern. b\a%,"pdcip, parts of the rudder were uTU"'"yiof, bored in the middle, or dvxfi", Kap.a.1.The cwfi, ayKvpa, anchor; first a stone
;

of the
are

parts. mentioned maybe

they

included

"

"

202
basket filled with
stones

GRECIAN

ANTIQUITIES.

it to teeth, A"ovng, fastening and hence Izpa, (3d\\uv ayxvpav The to the last refuge. cables attached to for towing were the anchors, were termed oXko'i ; KdjinXot or "Ktio-p.ara, ; ropes pvpara, The and 'zperpoi, those for binding a vessel to the shore,irpvjxvf]aia. xwai oars, having a and hung upon with metal (jrkarn), broad part covered called o-koXjio'i, pieces of wood by fixed in a hole (pzo-dSpn), The in the middle leathern thongs, rpmoi. of the ioto;16, mast, and put in a case (JoroiWij) ship; capable of being taken down ; having several parts,
a

; afterwards

made

of iron with called

the earth; the largest of a ship's anchors to resort hpav obtained its proverbial sense,

was

"

"

as

irrspva,

yards. sails (called also 6Q6vai, The including particular ones lariaX1, distinctively named, appzvd), main-sail (uKdnov also signifies mizen-sail ; Akcltlov, small vessel, like a pia hri"pojio;, rate's) as the lead ballast. The /?"Aic, sprit-sail.The eppa, SzpzXio;, top-sail ; SoXojv, ; Aprkjiov, The for sounding. The poles for pushing the vessels from rocks. d-rrofidBpa,, kovto'l, bridges, or stairs, to pass from ship to shore, or from vessel to vessel (called also "rAa was term and dvafldSpai). The applied to the rigging generally. The tiriPadpai considered and as signias are k"\oi,and roirzia commonly terms fying o-xotvia, synonymous, the made irdSss^, at first -npo-Kokg, irporovot'20, fizoovpiai, cordage ; including hrirovot, of flax, hemp, and the like. considers the But Bockh of leathern thongs, afterwards the anchor attached was axotvia as designating the stronger and heavier ropes, to which the ship was fastened land ; and the ro-sTa and by which to the as designating the called aynoiva, nzpovx01, lighter ropes, including KahSSta. or koXoj, Ipavrz;, virzpai, the rope "c. The has generally been the xaA""5s, term mo^iara interpreted as signifying ekitovoi, boards or by the inscriptions planks covering the outside of a ship ; but it is shown found in the Piraeus and published by Bockh, that the viro^opara which were ropes
"

crosspiecesor yards, fixed

ucpiov,jjAararr;. The Tpaxn^0?, Kapxflo-w,Srcopdictov, to the mast were ; the dicpoKepcua

were KzpaTai, or Kzparais, the extremities of the

the

"

"

"

"

"

the vessel from the stern direction around and were to the prow, in a horizontal that such ropes were intended to keep the fabric together ; and it would taken on seem vessel sailed, to be used if necessary xxvii. 17, board when a ; the expression in Acts probably refers to the act of putting these ropes about the vessel. vTToi,wvvvvr"s to irXoTov,
ran See T. D.

JVochey,on

Acts

xxvii. war

17, in

the

Bibl. Repos. Sec.

vol. Series,

viii. p. 405.

3
was

u.

In vessels

of

the In
were

front made

point, and
these short and

sometimes

the

whole

of the

front

part,

with covered high ; afterwards below the

iron.

early times
From each

they
water. to

beaks, I'ju/JoAa13, were long and low, in order to pierce the vessels of the
or

points

side of the front were planks or pieces of wood, of the enemy. The ship from the beaks sels war-veswhich the soldiers or coverings (Karaippayfiara'14) on usually had extended stood, and also coverings or guards of hides or the like, which were both on from the waves and from the enemy's to protect them sides (ttpi"j"payixara, napappvinara), usual sign of a warvessel was The missiles. a helmet, sculptured at the top of the
enemy

eirayriks, jutting out,

protect the decks wooden

mast.

4. The
a

beaks
at
an

are

seen

in Plate and which

we on

XXIII. shows have the of

bas-relief from

Rome,
ancient the

the

fig.A, 13 ; ensign
prow,

and

also

in

fig.b, which
and the

behind which

them,

is a prow taken from acrostvlia above it. In

fig.a,
which form.
oars

coin,

another column

is from

sculptures

of Antonine

In fig. 4, we a merchantsee alone, and in the early form

names

vessel, managed
one be

has erected it. In fig. c, a trophy upon (cf. P. IV. # 188. 2), is a prow of another sails; in fig. or with by oars 5, a war-vessel

bank

only.
explanations nf every Thesaurus,
des A. "c.

The Diss, de Comment, [). 542. *nd

"

of

the

various

parts of

ship may

found, wilh
in T.

thing relating
vol. xi.
as

to

this 13.
"

subject, in /. Sehcjfcr,
See

Varietate

navium,

Upsal. 1654 ; contained

veterum. bk.

also 4.
"

Gronuvii La iv.

cired the

"

also,by
Inscr.

the

same,

de militia navali
Potter's
as

Ups. 1654.
ii. ch.
the 14."

Lenoy,
bk.

marine
ch. 14."

anciens

Grecs, in

Mem.

JLcad.

vol.

xxxviii.

Arch.

Grace,

Robinson's
navy

Jal, Archeologie
Uber das

Navale.

Par.

1840."

Also

Hohmll,
Berl.

Le Roy,

cited " 156.

On

Attic

especially,A. Bockh,

Urkunden

Seewesen

des Attischeu

Staates.

1 840.

not

the employments of the rowers " 156. Originally distinct, but the same performed the persons there
was a

and

the

combatants
of

were

functions

both.

In

later

times

division

were xcarirpjxtai,who rank of their bench, and

or (1) the rowers oarsmen, ipttai, also distinguished by specific names, according to the their work and pay ; (2) the sailors, who ed attendvavtat,

into

three

classes

to
were

all the other armed

like

proper

duties

of the
armor

ship; (3)
was more

the

infantry,only
upper tier of

their

who marines, iTtij3d-tai, heavy and durable.

t".owers
water

in the tier
prow,

were {dpdvo;)

called

benches, SpavTrai; those

those
near

or

the in the
rowers

portion of benches
were

highest

above

the in

middle, ?"yn-ai(from
also Of
on was

Juya) ; those
as

the
near

lower
the

or

portion,^aXapiTat.The
;

distinguished, those
the the

TrpoKwwot

and

the

stern, ettiVcotoi.

sailors,some
ropes to

of the sails ; others (oxotvofSdrai) had the care aloft went (appsvio-rat) with whatever out to supply the seamen were ; others {pzo-ovav-ai)
There ancient
pzts,

look

needed.

galleys

"c.

6"rjciies

theories the in which the hanks of rowers to explain manner in the arranged, in the different classes of ships termed TrevT/jrpif/petg, Terp-'qpzis, idea trireme, quadrireme, quinquireme, 8;c. The most common formerly was, that the above another. But there were were placed one galleys of seven, twelv.e, fifteen,and have been
were
"

various

P.

III.

MILITARY

AFFAIRS.

NAVAL

OFFICERS.

203
benches

sixteen

banks above

directly
useless." the of

of of oars; Ptolemy Philopater built one benches each in the upper other, the oars solution in

forty
must

banks. have

If the been continuous

so

were as

long

to

be

placed wholly

line along the side is, that the banks were one ranged in her middle waist, or trireme, the first bank being in her bows, the second the third in her stern. would But such an require a huge length in the vessel of arrangement it is stated that the oars of a galley were twelve all of forty banks, or even not which, ; besides the same It has been length. proposed to solve the difficultyby the suggestion that the galley Another

in

galley;

"

received have
one

its denomination
at one

from

the

number

of

men

pulling
Another
rowers

at

the

same

oar

the

trireme the banks

would
rose

three
over

another

the quinquireme, oar; of five or to the number and

men men

five,
seven,

"c"

suggestion is, that

in the
was

the if
a

higher

banks

beins

checkered

in

quincunx with those in the lower; of rating was only by the number there would be five tiers with twelve
the
so on

that

galley
at
oar an

saidto

be of any
ten

greater
of
at

number,
banks and of is
not
a

employed
at

each

of
to

e. g. in the oar; the highest bank,

galley
The

forty

the

next,

until in
our

the

lowest,
XXIII. lower the The
at

which
are

would
two

have

four

men,

make
an

forty

in all.

engravings
one

fig.E,
front be
set

Plate and

view,
matter

mentioned. the

latest He

the arrangement; upper view. Other schemes have been which proposed a sectional which is thought is that of Mr. Holwell, of Edinburgh, by many

views,

exhibiting
"

such

need
to ten

have
oars

rest.

divided into horizontally ; let and half as they will require but about his conjecture, is the birerne ; a trireme would have bank and thus vessel a having five oars; might would be raised increasing its length, while no oar
a on

arranged

supposes be these

vessel

in the

original
banks

form of

having
five
oars

one

bank and

of

bireme. his

In

Plate the the

on

XXIII. Arabic three

the War

scheme; respectively by
See /. Holwell, "c in the Mem. de

fi? A, we numbers,
of Galleys of
de Lit.

liquely, ranged obthis construction, according to much length; three of these banks, each or oblique ascents number of banks be built with by only any the water, higher above necessarily, than in of a hexireme, or galley of six banks of oars, have a view the 21, 22, 23, designate portion of the banks occupied
two

each,

classes

rowers

above
Lond.

mentioned.
1826.

Essay

the

Ancients.

8.

"

De

Le

Roy,
Of

sur

lea navires

employes

par
as

les anciens, cited " 13.

C VInstitut,

1a s s e

et Beaux

Arts, vol. i. 479 ; ii. 141, 153

Boyd's ed. of Potter, p. 526,

the instruments " 157. Among- the principal employed for naval battle were a following; dopowu vavfia%a, very long spears ; Spsrtavov, piece of iron formed of like a sickle and fixed to the top of a long pole in order to cut the sail-ropes the hostile ship ; #"p iron hooks tached atthe iron grappling ; aprtaysy, large tft"^pa into the enethat being thrown to the mast of a vessel in such a manner my's An into called seized air. and raised them the instrument, ships they up from its form the dolphin(foxdw), was made of iron or lead, often used ; it was and hung to the mast with great violence into an and was thrown or sail-yards, adverse ship, of defence againstthese in order to pierce and sink it. The means instruments to guard the ship by a strong coveringof hides. was of what " 158. Each fleet had officers of two sorts, such as had care pertained to the ships alone, and such as had care of the marines and all that pertained
"

to

warlike

action.

(1) The
or

chief

or officer,

admiral,
were

was

called
in

vavap%o;,
mand, com-

sometimes

cwotap^oj, often there was

ci'pai'^yos; often but a single one.

there The it

several duration of

equal

his

authority

was

decided
to

by the
were

people, who
sort

abridged
of

or

Next

him

the commanders

of individual vice-admiral

prolonged it at pleasure. demonians, ships,t'p^pap^oe. ; the Lacein their officer

to

stfofors.

(2)

however, had a Of those, whose

duties of the

called
care

irftthe

authoritywas
or

confined

the

of

ships and
who

the

rowers

had

the apxixvpspvYi-tris, who had the care of a single ship,and

the next rfpupai'i??, of the to the forepart
or were

the following; were sailors,the principal of the whole the care fleet; the xv^ipv^t^,

who

himself

kept
care

the

helm;

and

the

ftpupsvs,

in command,

having

the

of every

longing thing be-

ship.

There
notes

cheered

the

the musician, whose the following : rptripavXris, also,in the second class, who and regulated the strokes of their oars rowers ; KcXevo-rhs, gave
to

the word

of command in

them

roixapxog,who

governed
rocks
to

the

rowers

on

one

side

van-

(pvXaKss, employed

guarding
;

the

shipfrom
attended

and the

other fires ;

superintended the food ship's accounts.

iaxapsv;,who

dangers ; rauias,who kept the \oyurr%,who

of

"
all

159.

In the

beginning of

the ship they sought first to lighten sea-fight

and superfluous
was

thing which
Then
to

to render sails, mast, and every ; and unnecessary safe the and as of fast violence to as possible. wind, exposed

burdens

the

most

favorable

positionand

order

of battle

was

selected, according

offered to the gods,and Sacrifices were time,place,and circumstances. next the commanders their boats from ship to ship, to animate passed round in light The men. signal for the onset was now given; usually done by hanging a while this sigfrom the mast shield,or flag, of the vessel bearingthe vdvapx"5 nal "
was

hanging, the

battle went

on.

The

mode

of attack

was

similar to that

204
of

GRECIAN

ANTIQUITIES.

siege;

the

ships being drawn

a

up in the with

form the
With

of

circie and it was

or

semicircle

;r

letter V.

" 160.

After

they victory,
were crowns

returned

booty
these

captured vessels.
the
cessful suc-

All the cities which

in alliance with

the victorious

party, honored

generalwith
to

and well

garlands.
the

adorn

his vessel.

Sometimes
as as

wrecks
better

of the enemy's
the

also customary used for ships were afterwards in the

that

purpose. to the consecrated battle. adorned of the

were

These,

the

part of the spoils,were

among
the
men to

gods;
was

the rest

being divided

engaged
was

monument

usually raised

and victors,

sometimes

with

the

the ornamental wrecks, especially

"

common captured ships. The most whipping with cords, and submersion,

parts (dxpdwa,dxpcoriypta), punishments in the naval service the offender being dragged in the
refused
to
serve

water were,

by
at

rope

even

till drowned.

Such

as

at

sea,

ai"avfid%oi,

Athens, punished with

were

disgrace (d^ux)
had

together with
cut

their

posterity.

Deserters,tet7tovavtcu,

scourged,or

their hands

off.

IV.

AFFAIRS

OF

PRIVATE

LIFE.

"
of

161.
as

In in

order
than

life of the Greeks, we shall follow the same glancingat the private of and earlier 51 the (" 60), period speaking begin with the subject
"

food.

riches more In later times, when less simple abounded, the food was maintained before; the Lacedaemonians gality, longest their strictness and fru-

cook being suffered among them. no professed Among the other nations, the inhabitants of Sicily, the art of cooking was much vated cultimore especially and practiced. The Athenians, however, lived to a great extent ly, moderateter Waowing, perhaps, to the comparativeunfruitfulness of the Attic territory. the common accustomed to mingle wine. drink, with which they were was received an addition of myrrh (otvoj The wine sometimes of barley or y.vpf)ivif7js,) meal (otvoj a.Tttj%pvtaftEvof).

and

The

term

employed

to

designate

is commonly drinking cup, Kpwrijp, of

derived

from

Kcpaaaadai,to mingle, indicatingthe prevalent custom

common

certain proportion was states, that no into the division of wines was weak and wines. of water, 6\iyo"j"6poi,
as

with wine. Potter mixing water observed in forming this mixture. A very tion or iro\v"p6poi strong wines, bearing a large addi-

To

drink

described

synonymous

with

1vdurrim"Xv,to drink

like

epithet for wine, is aSoxp ; sometimes yepovcnog. unfermented termed The juice of the grape fjnustum) was yXsvuo;. That sweft, flowed from the clusters by merely their own called irpoxvpa. Unwhich fermented was pressure of hprip-a. There various wine, inspissatedby boiling,bore the name were from other substances besides the grape. of wine, made the Greek sorts Among
"

wine, diepaforrtsTv, was A Scythian. meric Hocommon (Cf. tlom. II. i. 462, iv. 259.)
a
"

unmixed

"

"

wines
ronean,

from
The

the grape,
Pramnian
a

probably producedon
from
wines

249).
name

the earliest of which have any distinct account, we is the Maof Thrace, a black sweet the coast wine {Horn. Od. ix. another of early celebrity,supposed by some to have its was later

Lesbian,
The Mendean

Chian, and

it was hill in the island of Icaria,where produced. In wines were considered Thasian to possess uncommon and Crete, Cnidus and Cyprus, were of Rhodes also much Mende, is commended for
a

times, the
excellence. The

esteemed.

The Greeks also peculiarsoftness. used wines imported from different places in Asia and Egypt ; an excellent kind was of Alexandria brought from Bt/blos in Phoenicia; the Alexa7idrian, from the vicinity in Egypt, was highly valued.
Compare
beautiful

wine, from

" 331

b.

"

See

Henderson's from

History of Ancient

and

Modern
use

Wines.

Loud.

1S24.

4.

"

This

work

is adorned

with

several

illustrations taken

antiques, and relating to the

of wine.

"

162.

The
the

Greeks

apiO'tov,
or

time of which

towards regularly and ""5rt"p"r,ua,

remarks Robinson consider the Ssi\w6v bad but two Greeks used finally of the day), and
was
"

meals a day, viz. : a breakfast, axpd-tidfia, which fixed,and a main meal, Ssirtvov, was evening. But they also partookof an evening meal, Ss"wbv

had

usuallytwo
was

not

an

after-dish
that
as a

or

supper,

5dprtoy.

most

authors

separate

meals a day, denote the dinner (that is, the meal SeTirvov the supper, the latter being the
to

but three meals a day, and do not think meal from the 66pm"s others that the ; while the apicrrov and Sopno;. It seems certain, that apurmv

speak of

taken

not

far from

the middle

principalmeal.
All of them at rose Soon after six in the

There

was

littlevariety in the
a

private life of
in the exercise

the

daybreak, and spent

short time

Athenians. of devotion.

PLATE

XXIV.

206

GRECIAN

ANTIQUITIES.

morning, the judges (dicasts)took their seats on the tribunal, and those employed in agriculture, manufactures, or. commerce, engaged in their different occupations. At finished their fnid-day, the more wealthy citizens, who by that time had commonly serious business, refreshed themselves with a short sleep, and afterwards spent a few hours in hunting,or in the exercise of the palaestra, in walking through the delightor ful the banks of the Ilyssus and Cephisus : or more on frequently in discussing groves
with each other in the the
the
news

forum

(agora) the

interests
It
was

of the

state, the

conduct

of the

magistrates, and
Athenians

of the

day.

also

during the
"

afternoon, that the

the first of which and jrerrya; two played xvffcia bled resemgames, chess." the day, the other either backgammon "During or Athenians either took no food or only a slightrepast in private. At sun-set they sat down devoted and considering the business of the day as over, the evening to supper, in the night." and often continued to to a late hour society and amusement, sometimes

hazard, and

"
the

163.

In early times, entertainments

were

givenonly in
common.

honor
were

of the of two

gods

on :

festival
of the

days ; afterwards they became given by a singleperson, icho7ttv*],

party present.
as

Entertainments conducive
to

the apavoj, of the latter kind

very and

They

sorts

provided at the expense the most were generally

as
were

and frugal, orderly, expense, other guest whole

-tpwa,
state.
was

friendly feeling;such
"

invited free of

"c, poets, singers,

termed
as
a

called aav^o^M ; the contribution of each times cv/j-^oXyj, xataj5o%r;.The marriage feast,ya^oj, is somewere

considered
"c.

city,tribe,or
furnished Before The

also publicentertainments for a called avasi-tia,, Sst'rtw* itav"cualtu,, fraternity, dyjfiosta, $paof rich persons, or by the by contribution, by the liberality third
sort.
"

There

were

and entertainment, the Greeks always washed between the successive again washed (vi^aaOat,) In the earlytimes the and at the close of the feast (drfow^atjflai). courses, in but not always. The table at later times sat reclined, " 52); they (cf. guests less splendid, or couches, prepared for the purpose, were more accordingto each one's taste and sometimes condition in life. Five usually, occupied a more, their The took their to singlecouch. placesaccording guests proper rank,

"

164.

partakingof
were

an

anointed.

hands

also

although often no idea of sanctityto

exact

order table and

was

observed.

The

Greeks

attached

certain

the

the rites of the table.

the table, Tpomd,a,one each Three couches, kYimu, were on usually placed round Tpix\ioriginated the word side,leaving the fourth side open to the servants ; hence and had pillows,irpoaKc"bi.covered with tapestry, arptipara, viov, triclinium ; they were often very costly,being highly ornamented with ivory Xaia, for the guests; they were and precious metals. Several usually recliningon the same couch, the first persons his legs extended behind the back of the second, lay on the uppermost part, with
whose

head

was

near

the

bosom

of the

first.
"

See

" 329.

2.

"

The

tables

were

made

of

wood,

adorned

highly polished (|e"n-"j, sv^oog) in the later periods, exceedingly costly, with plates of silver and gold, and curiously carved images.
At
a

Hofia, SsLrtvov 7tpooL[uov, of oysters, a mixture

meal (as the Sslrtvov), the first course, rfporegularand principal consisted generally of pungent herbs with olives,eggs, and the like. Then honey and wine (olvopeXi), came Afterwards substantial and costly, the chief dish, more Selrtvov. the xetyafcrj furnished with great of various sweetmeats, desert, Ssvtspa 'tpdrtc^a, consisting "c. splendorin times of luxury, and called ErtbSst7tva,(i"i!aS6prttai

"

165.

been is said to. have the nQa, a kind food among the Greeks 1. The most common of soft cake of the flour of barley or wheat. the prepared in various ways, Among mallows lettuce (Spi'"5a"), vegetables that were (luxk"xsi), cabbages (pa"j"avoi), eaten, were lentils ("paicai). favorite article. Fish and The beans (tyvanri) was a (Kvapoi), sausage

also became (Sipov)

2
u.

favorite make

dish.
it was
an
"

of the provisions to customary first to offer some oblation from the liquor.1 On cheerful occasions, the clothed in white, and crowned with garlands. guests were 3. At entertainments connected with the festivals of the gods, the garlands worn formed of the leaf or flower sacred to the particular the occagod honored were on sion. At other entertainments composed of various sorts, according to the they were
In all entertainments

the

gods, especiallyto

season
an

emblem there said

of the year, and the of silence, was

or

taste

and

circumstances

often

done

should

be

placed above kept private; hence

at
an

the

parties. The rose, being to signify that what wa3 the phrase imS po"ov,sub rosa.
table,
were

of the

"

166.

The

officers and

attendants

entertainment

as

follows:

the

chief manager, 2fyiwto"fc'ap"o$,

who

was

either the maker

of the feast (6 eettdtap)*

P.

III.

DOMESTIC

AFFAIRS.

CONVIVIAL

ENTERTAINMENTS.

207
Barjt-

or

one

appointedto
whose

that
was

called place,
to
was

also

tfparts^orfoioj, apx^pCx%i.voi ; the

and
same

Xsvj,
were

business divided

see

that

the laws

rules
as

of

such

entertainments
;

and preserved,

who and
to

sometimes

the

the firstmentioned

the

Acwtfpoj, who
were portions

distributed
most

given

the
were

the best and largest the food, of which and the tributed dishonored who 'Owoxooc, guest;

the

drink, and

heralds

often youths (scoipot) (x"yjpvxs$),

of noble

birth,or

servants

(Sot"ot).
an

to
a

In the later ages, it became perform the last mentioned distinction

was

object of luxury

to

have

young

and

made and

office ; for such ones who between the vSpo"["6poi,

were

prices were extravagant the water, served and waiting

at

beautiful slaves, paid ; and

the
were

6lvox6ol,

who

poured the wine, and

in person

younger.

When

table, they

richly

adorned

dress.
were

" 167. The

they
1.

were

vessels drinking crowned frequently

with

often large, generally garlands.

the wine
was

very rich and

costly;
and from

The the
sort

was /cparfip

the vessel in which filled. for

mixed
used

with
were

the

water
or

which the
as a

cups

were

Among

the various

cups

the kvXlI
xvadoi
are

Kv\io-Kn,

the pvr6v,the (j"ia\ri, of ladles used

Kapxwiov,

the cup. for the master of the feast to drink to his guests, in the order It was 2. customary to the person of their rank, drinking himself a part of the cup and sending the remainder received the cup termed who named, which was irpcmtvuv ; while the act of the person, also customary termed It was to and drank the rest of its contents, was dvTmpmivcw. of absent drink to the honor of the gods, and to the memory friends, calling them by

conveying the wine

the Ka.v8a.poc, the Saras,"c. from the crater

The
to

described

name. as

Three the
most

craters

were

usually drank
"

to

the

gods, eai;h
the

one

to

particulargod
who

Kparhp 'Eppov; KparfipAid; Zcu-rijpoj. Sometimes

;

guests

contended

should
'

drink
cesses

life.
ments

heroes
most

awarded Some the conquerors. to melancholy exlost his of Alexander, who in this way are ; as, for instance, the case accompani music, and dancing (dpxvo-rvc),were Singing (po\mf),instrumental The feast. in early times chieflyhymns to gods or of almost every were songs The introduced. and dances of a wanton character were ; subsequently songs and

prizeswere

recorded

remarkable
x c.

of the various
Cf. JEUari, Var.

songs

used
"

were

those

termed

rndXia.
P. V. " 27.

Athenieus, L.

9, 10.

Hist. L. ii. c. 41.

Respecting the cteoXia, see

invited to participate the guests often were in various After the music and dancing, In earlier times, the athletic games were practiced; but in the later ages, less which violent exercises were frequently chosen, among playing at the K"5rra/?o; more There been various forms of this game, in a favorite amusement. were to have seems
3.

sports.

all of which
most
See

the chief

object was
les
in

to

throw

wine

from

goblet into another

"

vessel in the

skillful manner.
Gedoyn,
For details Plaisirs de la table chez the respecting
cottabus

Grecs;

in the

Mem.

Acad.

Inscr. vol. i. p. 54. Grac. den bk.

v.

Cf. Lond.

Quart. Rev. vol. xxiv. p. 421. Groddeck, tlber den

Attisches 17-21.
"

particular, Robinson,
1800.
"

Arch.

ch. 21. p. 524."

kottabos

der Griechen, On
the

in his Antiquarische

Versuche, Lpz.
meals
"

F. Jacobs, uber
see

kottabos, in WielancVs
Arch. Graec. bk.
v.

Museum. De Con-

whole

subject of Grecian
in

and

entertainments,

Robinson,

ch.

/. Cornarius,

viviis Graecorum, On

Gronovius, vol. ix.

Atkengsus, Deipnosophists (cf.P. V. " 123). Becker, Charicles;cf. "

13.

the aifairs of private life generally, W.

4.

Frequently there

were

entertainments

called

at which (drinking-parties), o-vpir6o-ia ;

and discourses were conversation expected to form the principalamusement the various games at other entertainments excluded. not common were much of riddles {aiviyparaor ypltyoi) was practiced.
See P. IV. " 60.
"

The

although propounding

Eschmbach,

as

there cited." Becker's

Charicles.

"

168.

The also

practicedby hospitality
in later times.
the

the

customary
less

The
were

Cretans termed

earlyGreeks (cf." 57) remained of had the reputation especially

rpooisvot. ; but
viewed
as a

being hospitable ;
courteous to
were

Athenians

the

Spartans

were

was strangers. Hospitality

several avenge

gods

supposed

to

take

strangers under

duty, and religious and to specialprotection,

all injuries done

to them.

before 1 u. It was customary, at the hospitablemeal, first to present salt (Sa-* !iXc) the stranger, as a token perhaps of permanent friendship. The alliance contracted by mutual sacred as that of consanguinity. The hospitality was as to bporpanc^ov) (wpo^cvia, often exchanged parties
Were

tokens

carefullypreserved and
to

which of it (ovp(3o\a) in friendly gifts{\hia, "opa, ItuiKa), handed down to posterity. Officers were publicly appointed,
on

called Trp6%evm, whose to receive all foreigners, duty it was coming provide entertainment and lodgingfor them, and conduct them spectaclesand festivals.

any

errand,

to

the

public public

208
2.

GRECIAN

iXTIQTJITIES.

Inns,

however,
"

appear

to

have

existed

in Greece

in the
an

later ages.
F. W.

Cf. Cic. De

Divin.
Simon,
1S22.
"

ii.68.
on

The

term
the

-Kav"oxuov (caupona) designated

ancients, in the Mem.
"

inn.
"

the

hospitality of
Wirthsh"user

de VAcad.

des Inscr. to'i.iii. p. 41.

Ullrich,De

Proxenia.

Berl.

Zell,Die

d. Allen.

Stctkmann,

De

Popinis.

" 169.
at

The
names

dress

of the Greeks in the first

did

not

undergo any
still
more

very

importantchanges ;

least the

used

period were
cotton.

in later times. white

Their

was clothing

applied to the principal garments of uncolored commonly made

were

wool, sometimes
the

of linen
most

and

Of the colors, which

given to

dress, purple was

esteemed.

used very early,but not universally 1 u. "5iXa) were Coverings for the feet {i-oifipara, : first introduced Hats of various forms. were (irX\oi, at a later TnXia, TriXifoa) they were period, designed chieflyas a protection against the weather. shoes tied under the soles of the feet b'y thongs, Ijulvtes the terms 2. The were ; hence vKokXv and taking off the shoes. The and viroKvtiv,for putting on following were some of the varieties ; dp/JiXai, large and easy shoes, which came ; (the term up to the ankle is also applied to an appendage of the Greek chariot, a sort of shoe into which dp,3i\r] in driving) shoes worn the driver thrust his foot to assist him chieflyin the ; (SXavrai, and women shoes used by comedians to men house ; hajiaBpa, shoes common ; tp.p6.Tai, ; shoes used by tragedians,buskins; Kapfiarivai, shoes worn coarse KoQopvoi, by peasants; kind of slipper to be used a KprprTfos, by soldiers particularly ; supposed by some ; Xanushoes of a white color, generally Spartan shoes of a red color; T^po-irai, vlkoI, ap.vK\aifcs, shoes worn of rank ; o-dvcaXa, shoes anciently by women by courtezans worn ; -tpifiapihg, of a piece of wood bound originally to the sole of the foot. peculiarto heroines, consisting
In
our

Plate

XXIV. marked

are

illustrations letter
o,

of
are

various from

forms Mexican

of

ancient

coverings
;

for

the

feet

and
c, are

legs.
said and
to

Several,
be

by the

monuments

those

marked

b and

Phrygian
sandals nails make

Roman iron
must

sharp
them

; k and underneath
a

from Greek t, are Egyptian remains ; e, g, i, k, I, m, p, and ; d, s, and q, are rich ornaments for the instep attached i having very to them ; q having it is supposed, so that an army (used by warriors, marching with

Daiian,} 3.

h,j, v,

are

confused noise; Persian; r is the

cf. Rosenmuller, Turkish

Schol. made

in of

Vet.
morocco.

Test.

Isai.

ii. 5);

/,

n,

o, are

slipper

the helmet (cf." 44). The wt\og seems to militarycovering for the head was of skull-cap of felt, being of a conical form ; varying, however, in a sort A brim. broad-brimmed hat, termed a elevation ; but always without -iracog, was in Plate XXIV. it is seen Travellers the Greeks used by young fig.3. men : among thrown the chlamys, sword, and back wore petasus or flat hat ; this hat is sometimes the shoulders and retained by thongs fastened under the chin ; travellers carried their on Kamia similar to the -nkraaog, with a brim turned in their girdles." The was money their heads Women of coverings or ornaments always wore upwards. ; some upon the hair was with which the following; apm^, a fillet, them tied,forming on the were of gold, and ornamented often made forehead sometimes with a frontal, which was down from the head a covering which came precious stones ; KaXmrpa, a veil; Kpfifcpvov, of cap or turban. The a net inclosingthe hair ; pirpa,a sort to the shoulders ; KCKpitpoiog, under the Scopaf. A by militarymen term pirpa is also applied to a kind of girdleworn termed form of the fillet used by women The given to luxury was bipriKn. o-re"pavn Sppog and often very costly(cf." 338). The much of necklace, an ornament a sort was worn, Ippara, 'eXiKtg, eXX6j3ia. Among the Athenians, frequently had also ear-rings, women evuna, in their hair golden ornaments called rernysy. of the men wore some The have
been
"
"

The

term

or peculiar long flowing hair, like the hair in disorder, as 0og, the hair of women

hair, is used of the hair,

hair of the head generally ; the Koprj designated the distinctive in the same terms were sense ; but there modes the when when
men mane a

word

the general 3-ptf,

term

for

of

arranging
of
a

it

as

e6eipa,
the

head hair and

designating peculiar properties of hair carefully dressed ; xan-ij,

combed
on

horse

ironag,

hair

when

?.nd

dressed

"f"6(iri,
xopvp top; like

person drawn
same

is in fear; up all round fashion

Ktpag, ;

Kopori, the the head the Athenians up

top of the fastened in a bow the used the the

head;
on

the

the KpojffvXog, bow horns

;

hair

of

in the like wool

rim\
so

in
as

fastening the
to

paXhog, curly
; kikivvos, hair to

hair in

hair

combed

from

temples

appear

ringlets, called
men

also

xhoKapog.
women wore worn

u.

Next which

the

body, both
to

and

Xitwv,

extended

the

knee,

and

when

from it was fastened cases girdle(J"noj) ; in some mantle the men Over this garment a or wore robe, which was clasps (-cpovai,TzSpirai). as worn respectable; while the lower classes used a by the more long ("papog,Iparion) also another sort of short mantle, %\ap.vg, shorter kind {xhaTva). There was worn chiefly the tunic a robe over ilpanov),rather short, generally wore by soldiers. The women with which they could cover and over this a broad veil or outer robe, irbcXog, also the head.
5. The Ionic sleeves square
;

tunic,an under-garment of wool, trussed up by a rich was the shoulders by costly buckles or
a

alone,

xit"v
to

is

represented

the

is

described

description as long,
The wool

(ropuOmade

"

of

(iStfxpav), sometimes

The Doric being of two kinds, the Doric and the Ionic. responded corstuff, short, and without sleeves. given, being of woolen The sometimes of linen, with reaching the feet (noSfipvg), made wide piece of cloth, exactly or nearly Ipartov or Qapog was always a rectangular and of flax ; usually all of one but also of cotton, most commonly, solor sometimes variegated (-ooaAov) and embroidered; ornamented with a
as

above

210
those for who bathed

GRECIAN

ANTIQUITIES.

the " put off their clothes ; the vizoKavawv, baths the the for bath hot ; Paimo-Tfipiov, ; the vapor the dXsnrrfjpiov, the anointing room.

sweatingroom,"

or

room

taking

for the cold bath Xovrpdv,

506.

This
account

account

of

the

rooms see

is

according
$ 241 b.

to

Robinson,

Arch.

Greec.

p.

"

For

more

full

of

ancient

baths,

P. IV.

2 m. The various ointments used had different names and according to the modes materials of their preparation. To such an extent did extravagance go in this respect, that it was sometimes it by laws. At Sparta the selling of perfumed to check necessary ointments allowed to engage in it. and in Athens was were not men wholly prohibited,
3.

applied
cheeks of

"Every part ^Egyptian

and breasts
an

of

the

body
;
arms

had

its

appropriate
from with
as

unguent.
the

To
was

ointment
;

the
were

oil extracted refreshed and

palm

the

balsam-mint wild first

feet and legs the Greeks to the thought best adapted had the honor sweet marjoram the for the knee and neck.
"

supplying
or wax

oil for the

eyebrows
into
two

hair,

thyme
were a

had

A
more

nice
as

distinction salves

divided

perfumes

kinds:
were

the

thicker
over

indulge
the their anoint sober

in the and

(xpipara); the liquid ointment

others
was

liquid, and

poured

sort, and the limbs

applied

(.dXelopara).
disposition
;

To but of
to

virtuous, it was Lond. good qualities."

the

body
of

after

the

and a feminine thought to evince sort might use the thicker Persons called Quart. Rev. xxiii. 263. and the rubbing or scraping washing

voluptuous
without

allowed,

"

impeachment any dXti-rrTai were employed

the instrument termed

with

or "rr\eyyis ^varpa.

4u. in

Some

the

services

connected and anointed

with the

washing
feet. It

and
was

anointing
the
custom

were

performed
kiss the feet

by
of

particular they washed were highly esteemed.

In

to

women; such

as

illustration of this custom

of kissing the

cf. Aristophanes, E$i)K"S, (p. 460. feet,

ed. Lug. Bat.

1624), and in New

Test. Luke

vi). 38; Johnx\.2.

" 171.

The Perfect

generalconstruction
as was

of Greek

houses

has

already been

stated
it
was

at Athens, of architecture, particularly appliedto public buildingsrather than privatedwellings, which were

(" 56).
an

the

art

of

celebrated
and

This was ordinary character. for her superb architecture.

the

true

also
more

at

Thebes,
care was

otherwise

mostly greatly
in
menting orna-

Much

bestowed

with rich furniinterior apartments, especially the hall for eating, ture of art (cf. P. IV. " 178). Besides, utensils, and with elegantworks of the publicplacesor openings most encompassing and bordering rendered of the privatehouses, and their a free view splendor superfluous. The artists also found it to their honor and of

the custom with

colonnades, hindered
the
term

beauty or to construct profit

I. The
common

publicedifices
for the whole and

in

magnificence. styleof superior

was

house

o7"o? ;

rpmXiviovand
of Grecian which
to

lanaropiov ; the sleeping room,

houses. "The
was men women

KoiTa"v.~Potler

called the eating hall was gives the following account part in

the

men

lodged
was

towards

the gate, and

The distinct apartments. had called dvdpiiv or dvApcoviric. ; that

assigned

the most remote yvvaiKavins, and was part of the yvmuaov, denominated before which other apartments rrpdiopo; av\ti, were and irpoavKiov. The women's chambers called rkytoi were $a\anoi, as being placed at the were usually in the highest top of the house (cf." 56), for the lodgings of the women rooms by a (""*, vn-epcoa). Penelope lodged in such a place, to which she ascended i. 330)."" The and dva/3aQpov, all terms dva(iaQp.is, dvuffadpa, are K\ipa^(Odyss. avdfiad^dc, used to designate a. staircase, a flight of the upper of steps, or stairsPortions story
women,

the

termed

house, and

behind

the

"

projectedbeyond the walls of the lower part, forming balconies or verandahs The roofs were (irpoPoXai, pointed, with a ridge yuamoiiafiara). usually flat ; sometimes and gable. The windows were commonly in the or openings for light and air (SvpiSes) roofs of the peristyles. The is supposed to have been merely an chimney (Ka-rrvocoKn) of an ordinary opening in the roof. Although in general the privatedwellings were which there were were character,yet in the time of Demosthenes costly some, very and splendid. The and built with said to have been houses of Sparta are more lofty than those at Athens. greater solidity
In
our

sometimes

Plate His

XXIV.
account

fig.1, is
is
as

plan

of

Grecian Greek

house house

as

given by
had
no

Stuart

(Dictionary
but instead

tecture). of Archiof it the

follows:
a

"The

atrium,

was "peristyle

the
were

the

side of the On the peristyle opposite called thyrorenm. passage left of which the right and kind of vestibule called pastas entrance on was a ; the apartments In the wci or halls. termed and were severally thalamos amphi-thalamos, and beyond them sion of the domestics the triclinia in daily use, and the apartments ; this divifirstperistylewere

approached

by

of the

house

was were

cailed the ; and and

courts

styled andronitis,
western, consisted
cecus.

gynaconitis. pinacotheca and

the

In

the

south

portico of
uzcus

Cyzicene
the

; in the
or were

the There

exedra

in

northern,
to

great

azcus,

which the greater peristyle, was the bibliotheca eastern, ; in the The hospitalia banqueting-room.
on

of triclinia
were

sleeping-rooms
or

passages

for strangers, and these apartments

the

right and
In the

left of the

great
in

called

mesaulm.

plan

[given

Plate ; XXIV.] a is the thyroreum ; b, peristyle of the gynaconitis; c, the pastas ; d, the great axus triclinia ; i, the thalamos ; j, the e, stables ; g, g, ; /, /, courts g, porter's cells ; h, h, common the halls ; I, I, the mesanla ; o, a.mphi-thilamos hospitalia; n, the vestibule ; k, k, ozci or ; m, m, the great ; s, the exedra." peristyle ; p, the bibliotheca ; q, q, the pinacothecm ; r, the Cyzicene wcus

door

(Zvpa,irv\ri) was

fastened

by

means

of lock

and

key dekey (/cAeic) ; the

PLATE

XXV.

212
scribed

GRECIAN

ANTIQUITIES.

moved been to have by Homer merely a bolt which was by a thong seems in use. attached to it (Od. i. 442). In later times keys similar to the modern were (Ipa;) place Various articles of furniture are named. Although the house usually had a fixed firewere {strria), frequentlyused. portable stoves (ioxapou)or chafing-dishes {dvdpaiaa) often in the form of the sofa, In the sleeping room the bed, Koirn or Xe^oj ; this was was six feet long and three broad ; called also xXivfi. The chair iSpovo;), about ewer (n-poxoos) stand (Atx/iaoi/), and its case clothesand basin for washing (Kovrfipwv), mirror (kixtotttpov) or
"

chest
In in Plate

"c. (kIctyi),
Plate XXXII. XXIV.
"

are

mentioned.
is
a sort a

fig.6, fig.2, we
of this him. from is
a

of

key
a same

formed metallic

have

Grecian

by a bolt and key, selected

with
a

string;
from
man a

it

was

found

at

Pompeii;
in Monthis wife

number
one corner

given
and

faucon. Fig. 5, reclining behind

with of
seen a

Plate, shows Fig. 10, of the

an

Grecian

sofa-bed,

in

cushion,
XXXII.

which curious

ornamental

form of the Greek Plate, is another sofa; it is covered of the frame. end one hangs over appendage Fig. d, from
; others
an

Plate in

form,
the

taken

fig.8, and
also
a the

fig.9, of
held house, "c.

Plate

XXIV. female

Egyptian monument. (Grecian) in fig.7, and

face.
der

"

Chairs

fig.4.

"

The

(Egyptian) are latter,fig. 4,

shows

mirror,
Greek

by
see

before
"

her

Respecting

Becker's

Cbaricles.

Hirt's

Geschichte

Baukunst, cited P. IV. " 243.

4.

"

172.

The

arts

of

highly prosperous
1
u.

in the of

navigationand commerce, industry,especially flourishing periodof Grecian history.

were

navigation was originallyin the hands of the Phoenicians shared by the occupants of Asia Minor and several of the Greek islands. of Egypt was then The lucrative commerce chieflymonopolized by forced to engage in this pursuit by the unproductiveness of the Greeks. Athens was her soil ; and although Lycurgus prohibited commerce at Sparta, yet afterwards even there it gradually and constantly increased. By the union with Egypt at a later period, still higher success. Besides the states Grecian to commerce rose just named, Corinth and the islands iEgina and Rhodes the principalplaces of commerce were ; and their industry and enterprise contributed much the wealth arid power of to very
The business

solely;

but

afterwards

was

the

Grecian Her from and

states.
was

2. Attica
sea. came

favorably situated for

are

merchants various slaves

three sides by the on being washed receiving the corn, wines, and metals, which places in the Mediterranean, to have imported also timber, salted
commerce,

said, besides
and
wax,

fish, and

from

Thrace

Macedonia
tar, and

woolen

and the

other

stuffs from
on

Asia

nor Misea.

They
and

Syria ; and honey, likewise exported, not

purpose, but

for the various

brought from foreign counonly tries products of Attica, which were chieflyolives and oil, and domestic articles of manufacture, utensils. arms particularly
the
"

from different commodities

hides

cities

the

Black

Barthelemy's Anacharsis, ch. Ivi.

Altona,
der

D. H.
the

Hegewisch's
and

geograph.
of the

und

histor. Nachrichten
"

die

Colonien

der

Griecbeo und

betrefTend. des Handels of

1808.

8,
"

Railings
an see

History of

Arts

Sciences
the

Ancients.
of
as

Benedict, Geschichte
were

der Schifffahrt

Atten.

For

account Heeren

of the routes
on

by which

productions Babylon,

the

east

conveyed by F. M.

through Babylon

to the countries

the Mediterranean,
D. 364
ss.

the Commerce

of Ancient

translated

Hubbard,

in the Bibl. Repos. vol. vii.

from the poems of Hesiod (cf.P. V. " 51), that agriculturewas at the Greeks. Yet the art does subject of practicalinterest among been carried to very great perfectionin any of the states. to have not (Cf. " 58.) appear "The been of two of the Greeks is said to have kinds ("5w" plow (dporpov) uin) ; the kind, composite (.irrjKTdv) other, simple (dvroyvov). (Cf. Hes. Works and one ; the the following principal parts of the composite were Days, v. 432, 436.) The ; the the former is also put for the yoke, or the string or thong term (o-ro/SodJe or pv/io;, beam; ivyn,plowshare, whose or connecting the yoke with the beam extreme ; the vwis called vv^n ; it was attached to a piece of wood called IXv/ax, and connected point was the i-x^n, handle. with a piece termed yvii
3.

It is evident

an

early period

"

specimen plow, with a

A

of small

the

simple

metallic

may blade
are

be
or

(Micak iv. 3) : other the plow, which drawing

animal
See vol.

forms is held

in

XXXII. in our Plate seen fig.6, which represents a Syrian of the metaphor of the proshare, furnishing an illustration phet in fig.iii. ; one of the engravings shows seen a single bullock hand of the laborer, while with the other he guides the one

by
Mongez,

rein.
Sur les instrumens 1. with

d'agriculture des anciens, in the Mem. engravings." Cfi Rougier,

more
as

de VInstitut, Classe

zVHist. et Lit.Anc.

vol. ii. p. 616 j

iii.

(published 1818), p. soil of Attica than

cited " 13. 5.

4. The and

was

favorable

to

the

production
necessary consumed

of the
to

grape

olive (t'Xaioc), (/Sorpvs),

latter; it has been The exportation of under The sale of it was the prohibited. corn was supervision of officers called oiro$v\aices. combined If corndealers liable the price, they were to raise to capital punishment. (o-ir"/7rojAui) In order avoid to a scarcity of corn (criTodeia), the public granaries (aiTo56Kai) were kept, under of purveyors direction receivers (o-trojeai) and (dToSeKrai).
estimated that one-third
was On

fig (o-vkov),

of

it was grain (afro?); and of the quantity annually

import the imported.

this subject

sec

Bockh's

Public

Economy

of Athens

des Grecs. "Bergerie, Hist, de l'Agrlc.

Par. 1830. 2 vols. 8.

" 173.
and

measures

it may be proper to give a brief account In early times, traffic of the Greeks. of goods, or barter, the inconvenience of which

Here

of the moneys,
was

effected
soon

weights, change only by exfelt. Rude

must

be

P.

III.

DOMESTIC

AFFAIRS.

MONEY.

COINS.

213

metals

were

coins about

for what was employed, in order to render an equivalent chased, purthe Afterwards for their weighed weight and value purpose. indicated by signs, marked At or impressed upon them. length, regular be decided were stamped,but the exact time of their first appearance cannot
were

next

and

were

IV. " 94, 95). It is known, however, that in the time of Solon, B. C. in Greece. in common The metals used in making use GOO, they were brass, copper, and iron. The oldest coins were money-coins were gold,silver,side. The various, both as to the impressed only on one impressionswere and objects represented coins
1
u.

P. (cf.

as
an

to

the

art

and

skill therein

exhibited.

The sacred

Attic
bird.

were

stamped

with

image

of Minerva, and

of the owl, her

used to medium designate metals as a circulating general terms were in the loose sense small legitimatecoin ; \7%a, money ; and Kcppa, any Besides these there were numberless coin or change. derived from specificnames, the weight of the coins, the place where their struck, or the image upon they were which but were face. also terms, There not were or expressed large sums amounts, The former (/wo) deof actual coins ; as e. g. the pva or pvka,and the TdWavrov. signated names of 100 drachms; of 160; the term the sum at vEgina, the at Athens sum however also used to signifymerely the golden o-rarfjp.The latter (rdXavnv)was was but had different values in different places ; a talent of 6000 drachms, usually the sum of gold in Attica was equivalent to ten talents of silver. Of the actual and circulating coins the Xcttw was the smallest. 2 m. Seven of this equal to the xaXraOc, and eight of the latter to the d(3o\6s. This last varied, name were it was coined. Six d/Mdi were however, in value, according to the place where valent equihad its name from the weight, but was which of different values to the fyaxpfj, of the coins hpnaPoXiov, in different places. The iiwfiokiov names or rpidfioXov, 6i6Po\ov, Four "c, are easilyunderstood. "c, and fip:i6paxnov, diSpaxpov, tipaxpai were equal to also called rerpadpaxpov, and seems been the ararfip in silver, a coin, which to have was The c-arfipin gold was the Greeks. the one most generally in use among equal in sometimes called SiSpaxpog, value to 20 tpaxpai, in weight to 2, and was but was most likewise other names It received from the places where, generally termed xfomvc. it was the kings under whom, struck; as e. g. Stater Daricus, Stater Crossi, "c. or The these
:

vopwpa,

3. Among the ox; another In

the

Kopri,
name

from the image upon coins, named having a representation of Pallas, for the tetradrachma. several

them,
the

were

maid;
taken

the 0ovs, bearing with owl an yr\av%,

the for

figure of an its device,

from plained, Montfaucon's Antiquity ExThebes; fig.2, of Argos ; 3, of iEgina; coins ; 5, and also q, c,f, and Athenian 4, and also a, d, and e, are Macedonian v, are ; 6 is a coin jEtoIian. head of Thespise ; 7 is an the obverse, on Fig. 5 is an Attic tetradrachm, with Minerva's owl the dpfopcv; (amphora) or Skot/i (diota), and the reverse an on standing on a prostrate vase, with the whole olive crown. with the inscription AOE an encompassed Fig. v is the reverse and of a didrachm, a sacrificial vase. Fig. / is the drachm, bearing a showing an augur's wand head of a Vulcan, is another, which has the and of tripod ; fig. the sort on two c reverse are in company with Cf. P. IV. $ 93. the owl. For 6, Apollo appears tabular a lighted torches ; on Plate XL.
are

and

from

Calmet's

specimens Dictionary.

of

Greek

coins,
coin

Fig.

1 is

of

"

"

view

of the

chief

coins

and

their

relative

value,

see

our

Plate

XXV

a.

Various of Greek " 174 u. changes successively took place in the denomination There coins. were changes also in the worth of these coins, both as to their actual Sometimes it was and their relative value. iron for to coin tin and contents necessary The required by the laws of Lycurgus to use tin and iron, Spartans were money. until a late period. The ratio between and did not depart from the custom common above sometimes and a to ten, but it was to twelve one one as gold and silver was ; as difficulties in the way of comparing Grecian with mohalf. There dern, are money many The and thus obtaining a settled idea of the value of the former. Spaxpn equalled about 9d sterling.
called was coined, was upyvpoxoireTov ; here Athens, or place where money coins. or specimens of the silver ararnp Many weights for the various five hundred Letronne, having accurately examined nrpaSpaxpov are still preserved in collections. in which the struck, deduced )f them, and they were according to the centuries arranged them coined B. C. two centuries and the value, as more ; and mean weight of the old Attic Spax/if), The at 16 cents 5.93 mills of our later Spaxpn is staled Jhus derived, is stated at 17 cents currency. 1. The mint
at
were

kept

the

standard

"

6.92

mills.
on

2. See Conger's Essay Metrol. s'tchtdes Romanos Gewichle Tafeln

rom.

the Measures, Weights, and Roms und und

Moneys

of the Greeks

and Romans,

in Anthem's
Brauns.

ed. of Lcmpriere."G. S."F. Cli. MatthiS,

Grosse,
Ueber-

Ober und

die alt. Masse, "c. Gewichts-

Griechenlands.

(by A. G. KSstner.)
Frankf. 1809.
"c.

1792. De

griech. Mass-

Munz-Wesens. Ancient

4."/.
cited the

F. Wurm,

ponderum,

eic. rationibus

spud
nnu see

et Grascos. des

Lips. 1821. S."Hussey,

Money,

Weights,
1.

$ 274.
whole

2."

BSckh, Ueber
of

Milnzen, Masse,
Coins and

Alterthums.

Lpz. 1838. 8." Eckel, as cited P. IV. " 99.

On

subject

Greek

Medals,

P. IV. "5 93-99.

their systems

of Grecian with the account of notation, or of denoting numbers. used for the purpose, quite simple. Six letters were A"a for Mia ; for Jive,II, from Ucvre ; for ten, A, from

" 175.

In

connection

money,

The
; for

more

it is proper ancient

to

speak

of

method

was

viz. for one,

a

I, perhaps from la from Herafomdred, H

214
rdv

GRECIAN

ANTIQUITIES.

a thousand, X, from Xi'Xia; and for ten thousand, M, from Mvpia. All of these letters ; each combination expressed by combinations ing signifyof the numbers sum designated by the letters separately ; e. g. nil I represented Sometimes combined as eight; AIII, sixteen ; A A, twenty, "c. they were so the product, instead of the sum, of the separate letters ; in such to express one case, made of the letters was written within it of a smaller size ; large, and the other was for example, 2*1 (representinga IT with a A in its bosom) signified 10X5, i. e. 50: so a n with an H placed within it signified100X5, or 500; and a A having M within it, was signified10,000X10, chiefly confined to or 100,000: this form of combination numbers 5 as a factor ; such numbers expressed by using a large n and were involving the old Attic system, This was writing the letter for the other factor in its bosom.

(Ixanv) ; for
were

numbers the

and

is found on inscriptions Parium in the Chronicon (cf.P. IV. " 91. 4). ; it is seen But this method was superseded by another; in which all the letters of the alphabet were tioned employed, and also three signsin addition, viz. Bav, Kdjnra, and 2a/nri,men-

in P. IV. " 46. 2. By this system, the first eight letters,from Alpha to Theta, from 1 to 9, Bav being inserted after Epsilon,to sigexpressed the units respectively nify 6 ; the second eight, from Iota to Pi, expressing the tens ; the last (II) signifying 80, and Kdmra being used for 90 ; the next eight, from Mho to Omega, expressed the The when thus hundreds; ii standingfor 800, and Xa/nrrbeing used for 900. letters, used to designate numbers, with a stroke above were usually marked ; thus, i', 10; In order to express 22. k, 20 : KJi' thousands, the eight first letters with Bav were again used, but with a stroke beneath ; thus, ", 4,000 ; f, 6,000 ; kv\6',20,432.
Cf. Robinson's Diet. Buttman, " 2." Bouillet, Class.

{Tableaux,"c.

N. 34.)

the Greeks, as where. elseweights earlyoriginamong of had the with their coins a same names weights money, circumstance which of weighing to point back to the custom seems clearly of the uncoined The of exchange. gold and silver for purposes proportions of comdifferent in different applications of them mon Weights were ; as, e. g. those merchandise did not in all respects correspond with those of the apothecary. The 6)3oXoj is said to have been the smallest weight used, except by apothecaries one-fourth of the used a weight, termed or physicians, who xspaTtiov, about and that. one-fourth of another, ertdpiov, OjSoXoj, only

" 176.

The

use

of

was

of

Grecian

Cf. L. Pxtus, tabular view

De

Mensuris

et Ponderibus
a.

Rom.

et

Grsecis.

Venat.

1573.

fol."Wwm,

Hussey,

"c

as

cited " 174. 2." See the

given in Plate XXV

"
into
1

177.
measures

In

we speaking of the Greek measures, may of length, of surface,and of capacity.

notice

them

as

divided

in most the case of of the measures of length were taken, as was members of the human body; e. g. ooktuXoc, a finger's nations, from breadth ; tra-iSa/^, hand's a width, the distance from the extremity of the thumb span, foot. The Herculean longer. to that of the littlefinger; w%, Olympic foot was or a The the distance from the elbow to the extremity of the middle a cubit, was Trijxuc, the extremities the distance across the breast, between fathom, was a finger. 'Opyvia,
u.

The

names

the

ancient

of the
2.
were

hands, the
measures

arms

Of the
;

in a horizontal being extended (dpsyeo) including length and breadth, or measures and
the

line. of

surface, the principal

with each side one with a side
term

novs,

the
a

apovpa,

lAkdpov. The

ttovs

was

square

foot

the
to

apovpa,

square

with

each

of 108
seems

ir6ks; so
have

been

that 2,500 rnkg made used to designate a of

the xXfflpov, side 50 irdSes a square ; and and 4apovpai a liKWpov. The an apovpa
"

enrapriov

measuring line.
to liquids or applied

3
to

m.

Measures

things dry.

The

whether capacity had mostly the same names, equal to largestliquidmeasure was perpnTfis,

about
was

gallons,and
the Ko\Kiapwv,

hundredth /cd^Xo? or mxhiov, a a part of a pint,and about a equal to twice the measure pint, and was Jam?? contained termed the KorCXri and the mxkiapiov, six interveningmeasures kotvKy]. Between pint) (half the xov~s, containing named. The next was are (pint) measure larger than the Jfo-njc snail-shell. The

called also sometimes containing less than

k"6o;, xtpapiov,

and

d^oprfc. The

smallest measure called from so

upwards of
4. The

two

quarts.
is said of

modern use as been to have physicians to the same applied by ancient divided the outside of horn, and on by lines, so apothecaries, being made of weight. The that certain largest corresponded to certain denominations parts of the measure somewhat contained than which a bushel the piSipivo;, measure more applied to things dry was and received different in different a little less than a fourth, and names regions. The %oiViJ was contained in the a aS8ii~, were equivalent to the forty-eight of which pedipivos. The quart; of the contained four names as Most of the filxiexTov measures were same other x"'""c"Sthe liquid measures.

K0Tv\n

graduated

glasses

See

G.

Hooper, Inquiry
Cf. the tabular

into

the state

of Ancient
Plate

Measures,Attic, Roman,
a.

and

Jewish.

Lond.

1721.

8."

Wurm, Bb'clJi,

"c

cited

5 174. 2."

view, given in

XXV

" 178. The

social

pleasuresand

amusements

of the

Greeks

were

very

nu-

PLATE

XXV

a.

GRECIAN

Measures
1. For

of

Capacity.

MONEYS,MEASURES, AND WEIGHTS.

The is estimated value
to

Liquids.
Gal.

qt. pts.
0.007

in the

our

denominations Tables of A. B. of

KoxMdpiov Xtjm
1.25
2.5
"

given Conger,
Wurm,
"

according
which the
are

0.015 0.019 0.039

"

based of

on

the

Treatise

Tables

Bouillet.

|Mvo-tqov

I KrfyKij
I |
6

I2
(3
6

Moneys.
7.5

|KvaOos 11.5 |'0|"i/3a^

I3
Tiragi

0.079 0.118 0.237 0.475 0.950 1.704 0.229

1. Below

the Drachm.
cts. rn.
.

30 60

[ 24 1 12 | 6 | 4 | 2 | KoTliXlj | 4-1 |24 I 12 | 8 | 4 |2 | S"T^S

AeittoV
7

....

) 00

0.5

IXaXKoiJS
|
2

...

14 28

| AfygXteou
2 4 8 16

72 |48 |24, 1 6 |X.QVS 1144J 12| ]_2S_S jJ6_! 7.3 1

i2l60|l728|864J432l2S8|l44|72|36|6 4 |A"St1)
The measure, doubled formed Ato')T7j M"Tp??T?)s the next
.....

|4 |
|
8

| 'H/"o/3"SXiov 1 | I
2 4 S

4.6 9.3 8.6 7.2

and

largest

| TipoXd; |
2 4

2
"

112 224 336

| 16 | I 32 |

|AinfioXov |
2

5
II

| |

|TtTpo/SiiXou

| 4S | 24 I

12

| 1.5 |Apa#/"j

2. For
-

17

5.9

Things Dry
Bu.

pk. qt. pts.

0
0

Kox^tdotov
2. Above the Drachm.
Dolls, cts.
m.

0
-

0.007 0.079 0.118 0.475 0.950 1.901 1.606

1.213

KtiaQos
1.5 0

"

Apaxrf
2 4 20 100

17 35 70
51

5.9 6

1 'OlifitHpov | 4 |KoriXi)
"

"

|AlSpaxiiov
|
|
I
2 10 50

"

1.8
120 12

| TETpddpaxii'OV
I
I
5 25

"

3.7
240

| 8 | 2 |a^T7)S
] 16 | 4 |2 |Xorvig

| Xpva-ovs
I
5

24
9o

8.6
3.2

I Mva,
I 60

17 1055

59 59

|64 |16 |8 |4 |'HptoCTOV

3 7 1
1 1

6000

3000

1500

3U0

| TdXaVTov j of Silver. TdtavTov

10

I J

'

3.2

3S4
\
'

32 |l6| 8 |2 |"E/cros 192]12S| 64 |32|l6| 4 \i \ TpiTdj |256| 768 1 96 [ 1 92 1 48 1 1 2 16 ]3 1 Midi/lvas j

7
5

0.426 1.279

6000030000150003000600

of Gold.

! 10555

93

2.6
1 152

Measures

of

Length.
TLovS
36
100

Measures

of

Surface.
Poles,

sq.ft.
001.02

1. Small

Measures.

1'EggiriSo'ijs | 2.7 |'Araiw

"

102.30 35.79 71.58 107.37 157.26

AdKTv\os KdvdvXos

.......

833.3
' -

|'H"*"l 8.3 |23.Ui-|

"

3 6 9 37

"

"

"

"

"

1.51 3.03 46.3 | 16.6 |2 ]"Ektos ".6\ 2500 | 69.4 | 25 | 3 |l.s| "Apovga

or Affipov naXato-Ti),

Ac%ri",
1.25 5.5 2.75

or

'H/UTrrfc'tov

6.06 10COO
7.5S

|277.7 I 100 112 j6 I4 I nX^poir

| AixdS
1.01

.375
1.5 2

8.34
9.10

| 1.2 11.09 |Eiri8a^)}

Weights.
1. Below the Drachm.

|1.6 |1.45 | 1.3 |TLnvs

| 1.8 | 1.63 11.5 11.125 1 n^y/"j | 1.6 | 1.25 |l.l| | 2 | 1.8'l Uvy^v |2.4

0.13

2.25 2.5 3

(Troy Weight.)
Dwts.
grs. 00.2 1.40 I

|2.1*S |

| 1.5 |l.3|l.2| II^S

6.5

Atrrrbv
7
28

......

0
"

IXaXicoSs

I 4 I'H/uoftiAiop

"

5.61 11.22 22.44 19.33

2. Great

Measures.
Miles,
0

56

I 8 I 2 I'0/3o\6s
I 16 I 4 I 2 I Aio/)6\o

"

yds. ft000
1.01

1 12

"

336|48 I 12 I 6

I 3 IAoaxM
the Drachm.

B5)/ia

2.52
....

'Opyvuf

6.06

2. Above

Aztcdnovs,
6

Ka\a/toj

"

1.11

(Troy Weight.)
Lbs.
oz.

\r/Afifi.a | 1.8 |XlMSpov

0.68 2.14 0.87

ion

dwts. 2 6 0 13 16

grs.

16.6

10

Apox/M)
2

00
"

00
"

19.33 14.66 13.48 17.29 4.82

60
120

| 10 | 6 | ZrdSiov 1 20 |12 | 2 | AlavXos

I 40

I AlSgax/J.0 I 50 I MvS.
3000 160 I TdXavr 1
~

2
1

240
1 ZOO

|24 I 4

I 'Iwrnxdv
1

iOOO
11

70 H6

|720 | 120 | 72 | 12 | 6 | 3 | AtfXi^os

667

1.51

"I"'"' "11*1
"

TrfXa

^g"/}

10

215

216
and in the better

GRECIAN

ANTIQUITIES.

of their history,various,refined, and tasteful. portion the most almost a necesdancing were prominent, and were sary among accompaniment of public and privatefestivals,entertainments,and social there was meetings. In this custom a regardnot merely to immediate cation, gratifibut also to the promotion of the general culture. Song and musical
merous,

Music

and

almost were accompaniment inseparable; without vocal. There scarcely ever practiced which various
There connected
among

at

least instrumental
were

music
of

was

several

kinds of the

exercise,

it

was

common
or

to

connect

with

the

entertainments

banquet,and

social games
was an

" 167). plays (cf.

in which
at

amusement

dancing and
was
a

playing with

ball ("r"paTpa) were

together1. The game the gymnastic exercises

There (patvivda, apmaoTdv, dir6ppa%is. {Kv/iicrrrrnipeg) flung themselves on

somersets
over

favorite amusement, and was ranked named are : oipav'ia, ima-Kvpo;, ; five different modes the dancers or tumblers2 a was sort of dancing in which their heads and alightedagain on their feet, and made
"

ball

knives

and swords.

favorite dance

is stillpreserved3 in
a

Greece, called
as

Somaica.
*

Burette, Spheristique des Anciens, in the Hist, de VAcad.

3

des Inscr. vol. i. p. 153.

See Paciaudius,

cited

" 88.

2."

Becker, Charicles, "c.

See Burette, De la danse

Land.

Quart. Rev. xxiii. 350.

des hiscr. i. 93." -J. Meursiw,
de

des Anciens, in the Hist, de VJlcad.

as

De
veterum

Saltationibus
liber

Veterum,

contained

in vol. viii. of Gronovius, This

cited " 13."

Jul.
v."

Cses. Bulengeri
On

ludis

ac privatis

domesticis

unicus.

Ludg. 1627. 8,

is given also in the Class. Journ.

vol.

various

Doric

dances, cf. MUller, Hist, and Antiq. of Doric

Race, bk. i. ch. vi.

"

179.

Under

the

Archaeologyof Greek

of the great importance and education the Greeks. among

instruments.
term

literature notice is taken (cf. P. IV. " 63, " 65) of in the system comprehensive meaning of music (jiovtrucfi) remarks on musical sowids and Here introduce some we is the Greeks called the Science of Music divided into several parts ; stated by some as
now

To

denote

what

used

the
:

The 'ApjioviKfi.

subject was
"

follows

(p66yya"v) 2. of intervals {nspl (irzpi iiao-Tr]p.d.TWv) crvo-rnjidTWv) ; 3. 0? systems {ttcpl ; 4. of genera mutation yhosv) ; 5. of modes or (ircpl or (rapt tovkiv v6p.av) ; 6. of transition ' ' /i"To/?oXi?c) (rrepl ; 7. of composition (irepi pxAomuiac).' The notes or sounds of the voice were of which was each attributed to some to the Moon; particularplanet: 1. virdrn, seven,
"

1. of soutuls

to Mars; \txavos,to Mercury ; 4. ptso-n, to the Sun ; 5. irapauicrn, in a contrary take them to Saturn. Some, however, vfrrn, The to Saturn, and tone vjjnj to the Moon." order, and ascribe wan; mode, which or called I'fyoc.; the musicians used in raising and they were or depressing the sound was called v6poi,as being laws or models four by which they sang or played. There were principal v6poior modes ; the Phrygian, the Lydian, the Doric, and the Ionic. To these add a fifth, which some they call the iEolic, but which is not mentioned by ancient authors. The Phrygian mode was religious ; the Doric, martial ; ; the Lydian, plaintive the Ionic, gay and cheerful ; and the YlColic, simple. The mode used in excitingsoldiers called "Qpdwc. to battle was Afterwards, the term vdjioi began to be applied to the

wapvirarri, to

to

Jupiter;

3.

6. rpnr;,

Venus

; and

7.

hymns

which

were Grsec. bk.

sung
v.

in those
xxiii.
" "

modes."
a

Robinson, Arch.
kalischeWissensehaften
on

ch.

For

fuller account

of the science, see

"c.
as

Smith, Diet,
"

of

Ant.

p. 624.

"

Drieberg, Musi
of ancient writers

derGriechen.

Also, Burette, Chabanon,

cited P. IV. " 63.

Meibomius,

Collection

Music, cited P. V. " 208. 1.

those
sang

" 180. who

to

"

The

music

of the Greeks
on

was
was

either vocal called

or

instrumental.
"

The

music
who

of also

only played

instruments

ifjtXh that of those /miothcjj

were

the instrument, pouo-i/o} musical instruments pcra ue\o"5ias. The instruments, and hrara or v"vp6fcra, stringedinstruments. the three principal instruments flute,and the pipe, were ; but there were
eixirvevoTa,wind
"

divided into The

several

lyre,the
others.

famous was applied,the most affect a distinction the lyre,which called in Greek was though some Kiddpa and "p6puty%, of linen thread, and between the harp and the lyre. At made the strings were first, three in afterwards of the intestines of sheep. Anciently, the chords stringswere or is said such lyre was called rpixopSo; the lyre with three strings number, whence ; and sometimes been it was nominated deinvented in Asia, a cityof Lydia, whence to have by some do-i'ac. Afterwards, it was rendered strings, perfect by having seven more called inrdxopSos, and hence was and "7rrayXwo-aoc. Lirrd"p9oyyo; They struck the strings this instruwith a bow, and sometimes ment sometimes only with the fingers ; and to play on Of the instruments
to

which

chords

or

stringswere

was

called in Greek
to

SctKru\iois or Kidap%siv, Siwkciu, Kpoveiv, and ipaWsiv. Kpoveiv TrKfJHTpta,

the in
"

To

learn

play well
was

on

instrument which
in the

invented made.

of three lyre,an apprenticeship with Arcadia, which abounded The

at

years

was

necessary. It

This shell of used

tortoises, of the
instrument.

the

lyre was

entertainments, and funerals. Minerva is said to have invented the straight, and Pan the oblique flute (7rXayia"Xoc).Flutes were tion made of the bones of stags or fawns, and hence called vePpeiot avXoi, and the invensacrificesof the gods,
of

flute,av\dg, was festivals, games,

celebrated

was

making
of the

made The

bones

Boeotians

of these materials is ascribed to the Thebans. They of asses, and of elephants; and likewise of reed, box, excelled all the other Greeks this instrument. in playing on
them

were

also

and
"

lotus.

The

pipo

218
forms sound and of bells
;

GRECIAN

ANTIQUITIES.

uses

were

various.
"

The made

Kp6ra\ov is described
of
a

by
and

some so

as

a
as

sort to

of
emit

bell made
a

of brass

by others,

as

reed

aeXarpov, sistrum, was Egyptian instrument, consisted of an oval frame, with several bars of metal, which the instrument and being loose gave sounds when passed through it transversely, shaken A peculiar instrument formed in the hand. was was by placing metallic rings in the form of a circle, which sometimes to move so as freelyupon a metallic rorI" was sometimes of a triangle. used
in Plate XXVI. or Fig. iii. is the tympanum fig.i, the smaller, called castanets. Fig. o, different forms of bell. knob the. triangle with rings; by it is a stick with at a Fig. iv. shows the end, used in striking the the hands drum, with perhaps rings. Fig. d presents the Persian of the drummer. iii. 10). XLV. female In Plate (cf. Dan. Fig. c is a Turkish playing on a dulcimer XXV. two In Plate see women playing on the tympanum. representing a sacrifice to Priapus. we is playing with either the small is seen the crotala The sistrum or cymbals. fig. /. the Bacchante in fig.o, of the same of the Sphinx, Plate VIII. plate; also in the paw instruments of Several
;

from the touch." The in the worship of Isis; it

in two split properly an

fitted

percussion

are

exhibited in

drum

in

fig.A are the simple

the

large cymbals, and

"

On

the

musical

instruments

of the

ancients, cf. Montfaucon,

ISIS."

as

cited P. II. " 12. 2. id),vol. iii. p. 342, and

Supplem.

vol. iii.p. IS5.

De

"Calmet,
Veterum.

Dictionary, "c Traj.

in the ad

vol. iii.p. 337. ed. Chariest. 1703.

Fosbrohe's
1.
"

Encyclop. cited " 13. p. 704." Pfeiffer,on

a

F. A. Lampe,

Cymbalia by 0.
A.

Rhen.

12.; also in Ugolinus, cited " 197. Quart. Observ.

Loud.
vol.

the

Music

of

the

Hebrews,

translated

Taylor,
Musih.
"

Bill. Reposit. and

vi. p. 357. 5 vols. 4.

(with

plate.)" Sulzer, Allg. Theorie, Article

Instrum"tfaU

J.

Hawkins,

History of Music.

1776.

the Greeks has imposed upon the female sex among " 59). This state of subjection and degradation (cf. continued in the most Unmarried females even were nourishing times. very Their apartment in the house was commonly narrowly watched. (rtap^svwv) The married women at liberty were kept closed and fastened. only to go as far as the door of the court or yard. Mothers freedom. allowed a littlemore were In general, women allowed to appear in public but seldom, and then not were without wearing a veil (xd%vrttpov).

"

181.

The

restraint

alreadybeen

mentioned

married

veils ; the un required to wear were Sparta, however, only -married women The sex enjoyed generally far more libertyat might appear without them. innocent an Lycurgus hoped by removing restraints to promote Sparta than at Athens. But of intercourse. this freedom, however virtuous it might be at first, at familiarity length degenerated into licentiousness.
1
u.

In

On

the state of female Greeks. Osf.

society in Greece,
1S32."
A.

see

Land.

Quart. Rev. vol. sxii. 163.

considered physiologically

"

Bill. Repos. vol. ii. p. 47S.

to

"

Social 1839.

Condition
S."

cf

the ancient

Walker, Woman
17S2.
2 vols.

as

Mind, Morals,

"c der

Lond. Griech.

IV. Alex,

under, History of Women.

Lond.

S."Lenz,

as

cited " 59."

G.

Grundriss Bernliardy,

Lit. p. 36.

earlier same as employments women and shuttle (w/wfj) ; the They practicedweaving, with the loom CL(rr"s) beam, (!cn-o-(5"j ksXcovtss)supporting a crossloom was or upright ; two perpendicular beams the warp were from which the threads constituting (a-riiucov) hung ; the woof was in and poSavq. They also employed the needle ifucsrrpa, termed pawl's) KpoKfy, also tyvfyii and various furniture for household Embroidery (epyov Qpvyiwv use. making garments, portant imcultivated, being perhaps the most art much an Qpvyioi'wv, Phrygium) was or opus which effected also in colors (votKiXia), was part of the general art of variegating Curtains (-epovfiuara, applied to a gara term ment by painting and dyeing, and by weaving. brooch),and other articles, richly article of cloth fastened by a -zpovn or or any embroidered (-oXiKcara), were wrought for privatedwellings and for the temples (cf.v" 28).
2.

The

of the

continued

generally the

in the

" 59). ages(cf.

splendid work

on

Ancient

Tapestry
Art

was

commenced
from

at Paris

in 1S37, to be

completed in
Notices N.

4 vols. fol. with

cuts

and

engravings.

"

See Countess Lond. 1841.

of Ittlton, The
12." Cf. AT
ss

of Needle-work Hand-book

the earliest Ages ; with ; with

of the Ancient

Historical

Tapestries. 3d

ed.

Lambert,

of Needle-work

illustrations.

York, 1S42.

" 182.

The
and

marriage

state

was

much
laws.

promoted
were

guarded by the

In

the Greeks, and was respectedamong certain penalties particularly, Sparta after
or a

also, all who

were

inflicted upon such as remained wished to be commanders

to required
was

unmarried
or

orators,

to

At Athens certain age. hold any publicoffice,

hand
The

not

have real estate. a Polygamy on the other a family and own made in some cases. special permitted, although exceptions were

also prescribed, should a be allowed was marriage (ydfiof) age at which the at Athens, were than latter, to males; age being grantedto females younger until they were to forbidden thirty-five.At Sparta the usual age for marry
men

to
near

of

and for women thirty, marry was not allowed, was consanguinity

twenty.
or

at least

was

parties Marriage between proper generallyviewed as im-

sisters allowed to marry and scandalous. The Athenians, however, were mother father (6fx07ta.rpi.0vi), (6"oby the same althoughnot those by the same of the states, a citizen could In most fitjtptovi). only the daughter of a marry

citizen ; yet there

was

sometimes

an

exception.

PLATE

XXVI.

220
1.

GRECIAN

ANTIQUITIES.

with seventy. Adultery was cases punished, and in some Although polygamy Concubines permitted without restraint. generally allowed, concubinage was Prostitution was ("xaWariks) were exceedingly usually captives or purchased slaves. of religious and favored even the worship. In Athens by the whole common, system and. philosophersopenly associated with females of dissolute most statesmen distinguished famous for licentiousness. morals still more One The (Iraipat). city of Corinth was
was

not

of the

most

odious

forms

of licentiousness

among

the Greeks

was

the Traikpaaria ever ; how-

the relation and the habits of intercourse impurity might have been originally in Sparta and in Crete between the boys loved (kXsivol or dn-ai)and their lovers sacred and whatever excellent qualities ("/"t\rjTopes) might have belonged to the Theban been said to have hand(lepa "j"a\ayQ a body of 300 composed of lovers and their beloved, it is nevertheless that the hateful debauchery commonly true designatedby this term was extensivelypracticed. free from
,

Respecting
der Griech.

(he

prevalence

of

sensuality among
Hist, and Ant.

the Greeks, cf. Bill. Repoi. vol. ii. p. 441." of bk. Dorians, iv. ch. 6."

On 600.

cf. Berhardy, Grundriss paederasty,

Lit. p. 43."MUller,
a

Boyd's Potter, p.

first to consult the sought in marriage, it was necessary living,the brother or guardian (orirpojroe).The betrothing was usually made in a formal manner by the father. The partiespledged to each other mutual The fidelity, bridegroom also bestowed by kissing or by joiningright hands. the bride a present as a pledge of his honor, called appa, dppafiuv, The giving on nvfjarpov. of a dowry (t/xuJ, in Greece with the bride was custom a generally. At Athens fcpvfj) it was but small. In Sparta, a legal and indispensablerequisite, although the dowry was of the dowry, and however, Lycurgus nearly abolished the custom. In the settlement the stipulations called in, and the husband delivered connected with it,witnesses were an when he took the stipulated acknowledgment gifts. At Athens or receipt (irpouccSa), it was before the actual marriage, to present the bride before Diana with customary and prayers and was called dp/crsta, offerings was designed to appease ; this ceremony the goddess, who other divinities, was to marriage. There were supposed to be averse male and female, who therefore were imagined to preside over marriage, and were called yap.fihoi it was offer sacrifices on to Seoi, to whom entering into the necessary marriage contract. At the nuptialsthe betrothed 3 u. were pair,as well as the place of the festivity, with garlands and flowers. adorned the evening the bride was conducted Towards to the house of the bridegroom {oikov aytvdai)either on foot or in a carriage ('"ft"")The
2t.

When

virgin was
were

parents,

and

if they

not

bridesman,
went

who

before

dancing. When
or
a

her on this occasion, was called 7rdpovoj A proor ixapdvvp.^os. cession and her, bearing lighted torches, and accompanied with music the newly married to place couple entered the house, it was customary
was,
as

attended

figsand other varieties of fruit. The partiesthen sat down to well as and the nuptial ceremonies together, termed yapo;, with music attended called ijxbawi, and dancing. The was or v/jbes. After were songs the dancing, the pairwere with torches to the bridal chamber conducted which, (SaK"po;), well as the nuptial bed (\ix"s Mm-pov), was for the as usually highly decorated (rao-rdc) occasion. The and maids remained without, dancing and singing the men young friend of the bridegroom stood by as keeper of the door im6a\apuov a koijiyitikov, while This company the door in the morning, and returned what (S-iyxo/iuV). to was sung called the bridaMpuov of iycpriKov. The nuptial solemnities occupiedseveral days ; one the days was called enavXia ; another dTrdvha.
pour upon

their heads

banquet, which

See

lively description of

an

Athenian

ch. marriage in Barthclemy'sAnacharsis,

lxxvii.

On

the

marriage

customs

of Sparta

cf. MUllcr, bk. iv. ch. iv.

4. Children discriminated born of harlots or were as yvficm, lawfullybegotten; v68oi, the son ceased, at Athens, concubines; Set-oi, adopted. The paternal authorityover when the son It was had completed his nineteenth ancient custom for legian timate year. to divide their father's estate sons by lot,all having equal share, without respect to priority of birth ; allowing a small pittanceto such as *vere unlawfully begotten. The father could dissolve the legal connection between himself and his son, and thus disinherit him no by a form of proceeding termed dmKfjpvfe. If there were legitimatesons, the but
estate

their

nearest

of the father fell to the daughters, in such who relatives might claim them in marriage.
to inherit the property, (Jicyovoi)

case

were

When
to

termed there were

hr'uchipoi ;

descendants
the

it fell

by law

the

lineal no collateral relations

of the same father with the deceased, to brothers and (o-vyyevets) ; first to descendants children of brothers ; next with the deceased, of the same to descendants grandfather in every children of cousins, the issue of males to cousins and case taking precedence of the issue of females ; a firstcousin was termed dvapid;; a firstcousin's son, dveipiaSovs.
heir ((cAr/poi/d/joc) said to receive his inheritance (/cXijfpoj) either by right of descent was A male heir by right of descent (dyxicmia) or by right of consanguinity (avyykvcia). might take possession immediately; or, if any one hindered him, mightbring against that one
an

The

action

of

adopt whom
not

take

an

lawful issue were Persons who had no allowed to ejectment (spfiareia). they pleased ; but at Athens foreignersalthough adopted by citizens could unless they had received the freedom of the city. Free citizens inheritance,
"

P.

III.

DOMESTIC

AFFAIRS.

FUNERAL

RITES.

221

were

but there

after the time of Solon; permitted to dispose of their property by will (SiaBfiiai), certain conditions to be regarded. Wills were were signed and sealed before of
On

witnesses, and put into the hands

Potter, Arch.
Grac. bk. iv. ch. xw"Blanchard,
W.

trustees
Laws

who (oti/wXjitoc)
"c.

were

to

execute
Inscr.

them.
xii. 68. On tha

respecting Adoption, (cf.P. V. "

104.

in the Mem.
De

Acad.
Jure

subject of inheritances, Sir see

Ant. Jar. Fubl. Gnec.

Jones, in his Transl.

of Isaeus

3,)""unsen,

hered. Athen."

Schoman,

" 183.
reference sacred

Something
to

should
and

be

said

of the Funeral

Greek

customs
were

in later times considered

as

in
a

funerals
to

burials.

obsequies

therefore termed 6'ffta. oYxaia, vo/upa, departed,and were and denied suicides, They were especially only to notorious criminals, traitors, and the like, such as destroyed themselves to escape punishment,spendthrifts, whose disinterred. even remains, if they happened to obtain burial,were

duty

the

in the entrance laid out to view (nporideo-Oai) of it remained bier ("ptp"rpov), where a at or (/cXivrf) while here least one day,with the feet towards the gate. It was constantlywatched. A vase of lustral water stood by, to purify such as touched the corpse. (dp"aviov) Shortly before it was removed for burial, a piece of money, was usually an 6/3o\6g, placed in the for ferrying due to Charon the departed over the mouth, as the fare {Savaxri, iropdjuov) also put in the mouth, to apwas Styx. A cake made of flour and honey (jusXknrovTa) pease the

" 184 t. Some of the " 30, 31) been mentioned. robe, the color of which of flowers. The

customs

was

connected with the burial of the dead have already the corpse in a costly In later times it was to wrap common generally white ; and deck it with green boughs and garlands
was

house,

on

the

body ground, or

then bed

on

the
On

dog Cerberus, supposed

of the term

to

guard the
of the ancients

entrance

into Hades
state

('Mns).
see

the meaning
a

Hades, and death

the

opinions

respecting the

of the soul after death,

P. II. " 32.

As the

burial

soon

after

was

supposed

to

be

Greeks the
the

adopted
Mummy.
p. 269."

usually kept the Egyptian custom

custom

only until the corpse of embalming the dead.

see

pleasing to third day.

the

deceased
not

(cf.Horn.
appear, that

II. xxiii.

71)

It does

they
an

ever

Respecting

of embalming, 8."

De

Caylus, in
Mummies.

the

Mem.

Acad.

Inscr. xxiii. 119."/.

C. Warren,

Description of

tian Egyp1825.

Bost. 1S24.

Granville, On

Egyptian Mummies
Loud.

; in the Philos. Transactions 1834. 4.

of the Royal Soc. for the year

T. J. Petligren,

of Egyptian History

termed was sKKop.i"r), or htpopa, the carrying forth of the in the day time. performed before sunrise, but elsewhere In Greece, generally, young buried at break of day or early morning were persons twilight. The corpse was placed on a bier, or if the deceased had been a warrior, on the bearers {vtKpoQ"Krai) carried it on their shoulders lowed fola large shield, and (aptr/v tptyuv), The by the friends and relatives of both sexes. procession was commonly on token of higher respect when all went foot. horseback, or in carriages a on ; it was Sorrow for the deceased manifested and silence, was retirement, fasting, by solitary by wearing black and sordid garments, by covering the head with ashes, and plucking off the hair,by cries of lamentation, and by funeral dirges. The latter were performed by musicians the employed for the purpose as (Spfjvave^apxoi)-; one dirge(^wc) was sung borne forward ; another, at the funeral pile at the grave was corpse ; and a third, ; they called oAo^uppl; also iaXs/iot, were rakepioi.
t.

" 185

The

funeral

itself
was

corpse,

which

at

Athens

"

Funeral

chants

are

still common

in

Greece,termed

myriologues."

See Mrs.

Hemans,

Greek

Funeral

Chant, in her Poems.

Bost.

1827. vol. ii. p. 160.

"

186.
;

The

custom

of

Greeks
1 t.

the ceremonies

universal among the later burning the corpse became it have been mentioned before ("31). chiefly attending
were

without

The ashes and bones the city, amid many

in an gathered {inrokoyiov) blessingsand prayers for their

urn,

and

buried The
urns

commonly
used for

repose.

made of different materials, {KoKnat, \apvatcec, oo-roBnKat, daroSoxeTa, copol,"c.) were of the wood, stone, or precious metal, according to the rank and circumstances deceased. These formed sometimes inclosed in a sort of chest, which urns were was of stone other materials ; and to this chest, as well as to the urn, the term or capKotyayoc,
seems

this purpose

to

have
of there
urn

been
Alexander

applied.
was

The his coffin

body
or

conveyed
with great remains
was

from pomp

Babylon

to

Alexandria

funeral

conducted

containing
discovered
to Tomb

his
at

The by Ptolemy. inclosed, is said to the French in the

in a splendid carriage, and the golden Sarcophagus in which be

now

in

the of

British

Museum,
and

having
them
E. D.

been

Alexandria

by
1805. 8.

expedition

Bonaparte,

by

surrendered Clarke, The

le

the

English.
Camb. Cf. also Clarke's
en

of Alexander.

Travels, vol. iii.p. 164. ed. N. York. d'Alexandre, in

Mem. the

1815."

Quatr.

de Quincy, Sur C Ia On
s s e an

char

funeraire Am.

qui transporte de
a

Babylone plate. Cf.

Egypte

le corps

Mem.

de VJlcad.

des Inscr.

d'Hist. et Lit.
alabaster

vol. iv. p. 315, with

at

C.

de Caylus, in the of the kings, Lond.

de VJlcad.
Rev.

des Inscr. xxxi. 86.

Sarcophagus discovered the corpse when

Thebes, in the tombs

Quart.

xviii. 369 ; xix.

192,404.

Along
was

with

burned, it was customary kinds, and other articles; many These vessels 6epulchers. are
at

buried, and to deposit

of which sometimes material

the with the urns corpse containing the ashes when (Sf/KvOot),of different vases phials (tptaXiSec), cups, times been found in modern have by searching ancient of alabaster, not unfrequently of terra cotla, sometimes have T been

glass.

Some

made

of the

latter

gathered

from

the

catacombs

in the

island

222
Milo,
found the ancient

GRECIAN

ANTIQUITIES.

Melos,

one

of

the and

(cf. vases lamps, lachrymatory vessels, probably for oils and fumes. perlarge quantities of copper of the form call Etruscan; the earthen we larger are' painted are Many cups with a light pencil ; often spirit. The are only the outlines given, but generally with much tion queswhether settled in Pompeii the ancients of glass, was knew the use by the discoveries ; this is the first I have of among The vessels heard the Greeks. are generally flat at the bottom, and four inches and then suddenly tliey rise one inch, of this diameter, over; narrowing to the diameterofan inch and of seven is much thus eight inches a half, pass to the height or ; their shape
coins, $ 341. 7), with
.
.

ornaments

of

gold

Cyclades (cf.P. precious stones glass, earthen, and

V.

$ 146).
ears,

"

Among

the

decayed

bones

are

for the

like

that

of

candlestick

but

I have

several

other

forms, running
1829. 2 vols. 12."
are

through

considerable

variety."
The
above

quotation is from
some

Jones's Sketch
vases.
"

of Naval

Life.
vases

N.

Haven,
found P.

Cf. Silliman's of Amherst

Journal, vol. xvi. p. 333, College.

"

for engravings of notices of the

urns

of these
vases

Specimens

of the
see

at Milo

in the

cabinet

For

further

and

found

in sepulchers,

" 341, and

were

IV. " 173.

2 1. The games,

solemnities

of the funeral

concluded

with

an

oration
cases,
were

or

libations ; which, in many repasts, and sacrifices and in honor successive anniversaries offerings ; the sacrifices and

eulogy, with repeated on

were

of the dead
on

various
;

rpira, those
on

offered
to

on

the the

second time

the

when thirtieth,
at

day after the funeral ; ewara, of mourning expired, which

at

TpiamSes. Sparta, however, was

the

ninth

limited it is said and fruits

at
on offerings

days : x"a-i and hayitxpara, libations and offeringsof flowers various times ; ysvfaia, offeringson the birth-day of the deceased ; vtKvo-ia, the anniversary of the death. In the case of such as had died in war, the
"

eleven

oration
so

their funerals
that the

and

at

subsequent

anniversaries

of their decease,

was

viewed

as

appointed by the public magistrates. speaker for the occasion was Pericles was solemnized Thus a public funeral for those appointed, when the Athenians first killed in the Peloponnesian war (Thucyd. ii.34) ; and Demosthenes, when the same honor was rendered those who fell in the fatal battle of Choaronea to (cf. Clifford's Greece, ch. xlvii. sect. 6). important
For student funeral of with his
a

of the interesting view very games is referred to the twenty-third book of Patroclus. Solemn
at games

and

exercises

performed
Homer instituted of the

in

honor

of

the

dead,
of

the the

with the Arrian

of the Iliad, where rich prizes were

whole ceremonies

gives an account by Alexander

funeral
were

in honor

friend

Hepha;stion
magnificence,
Caylus,
ass e

Ecbatana;
to

conducted also

great
of
Comte
de

according
pile.

(lib.vii).
Acad.

Diodorus

Siculus

speaks
on

larly particu-

HephEestion's
Le

funeral

Cf.

bucher

in d'Hephaastion, Anc.
iv. p.

the Mem.
a

Inscr. xxxi.

76."

rfe Quincy, Qwffifr.

the 5am,e, in the Mem.

de VInslitut, CI

d'Hist. et Lit.

395, with the of

plate. and termed the eminent sons per-

anniversary of the death of friends early ages, in the celebrations festivals around y"ve.B\ia. "These preceded were by vigils,and celebrated their where lives the sacrament martyrs, were read, and eulogies pronounced, and public entertainments given gratuitously by the rich."
custom

The

of

honoring
by
some

by

festivals

was

followed

Christians

the

paprvpuv of the graves

administered,
in

See

L.

Coleman,

Antiq. of Christian

Church, p.

441.

"

/. P. Schwabe,

De

Veneratione

erga

Martyres

prim.

Ecclesia.

Lips.

174S.

4.

" 187.
with them

sepulchral monuments and splendor. great expense

in other

The

of

men distinguished were

were

built often
to

Monuments
were

spots, where
in their

their ashes
were own

not
to

erected frequently deposited.

also

1. In

early times, the Greeks

accustomed

place their dead

also
were

in

repositories,
made
sitories repo-

made

for such as had rendered eminent especially public services. But in the cities and the general custom to bury the dead without At Athens the most the chieflyby the highways. common near place of burial was
road

purpose, for the dead ; later ages it became

for the

houses.

Temples

sometimes

leadingto

the Peirasus, outside

of the Itonian

gate, which

on

that

account

was

buried styled the burial gate (Jipiai had fallen in battle,however, were nv\ai); those who in the outer Graves first were Cerameicus, at the public expense. at mere openings of paving and arching them with dug in the earth, imoyaia. Soon there was a custom The stone. marked mound or place of interment was simply by a barrow originally of earth {x"pa) ; which sometimes had rude stone placed afterwards (a%ia)was
or
a

circular

basis

of

masonry

On (Kprpris).

this

then,

stone

more

carefully prepared, a cippus

built. were includstructure, ing criminated disTwo parts are

truncated
2.

column

at

pvijpa and pvnpzlovwere the receptacle for the remains and

terms ;

The

length,larger and more imposing monuments applied to designate the whole

the monumental erections.

which last means called Si]k"?, (1) the grave strictly, a-nf]\amv, rvp0oc, ra^oc, ")piov, speciallythe portion under ground ; (2) the space around it, usuallyfenced with poles or of balustrade,called Spty/cdc, this space sort the a cnKdg; within spwc, o-ranj, TrEptotroifyii), have monumental erected. The various monuments and ornaments (o-rfjXai) were pillars been discriminated under four heads; 1. o-r^Xai, designatingupright tablets terminating of sepulchralpillars in an oval heading called bciQnpa, but applied to any form ; 2. K'wvcg,
"

columns;
of form_

3. rpdm^at, flat horizontal tablets; 4. vpya or vaika, small buildingsin the On the pillars, temples. other structures forming the tomb, were placed or often images of the deceased {ayaXpara),and also other orna inscriptions {btiypa-fiat) ; and
"

ments,

with

devices

denoting

their

character

and

pursuits

or

particular achieve-

p.

in.

domestic

affairs,

monuments

for

the

dead.

223

merits.

Thus
a

on

the

monument

of
upon

Diogenes
a

was

inscribed that of
have

the

figure
a

of

dog

on

that

of

Isocrates,
Tombs

syren

reclining
with of the

ram

on

Archimedes,
been tombs

sphere
at

and Athens

der. cylinand

adorned Some

sculptured
most

bas-reliefs remarkable

discovered
were

other in
See

places.

Greek

recently

discovered

Lycia.
De xiii.
Helleuen.

Boze,
p. 280,

Descript.
on a

d'un

Tombeau,

"c. Monument tombs 8. of with

in

the

Mem. with C.

de

VAcad.

des

Imcr.

iv.

648."

Arclimolo^ia,
Chancles in j
a

(as
and
Journal

cited

P.

IV.

" 243.
Die Graber second Miner

3),

vol.
der

Greek
1837.

sepulchral
On Lond. the 1841.

plate.

"

Also,
Account Cf.

specially,
of

Becker's

Stackelbere.

Berl. in Asia 8. with

Lycia,

Fellows, plates.

Discoveries Journal

Lycia, during

kept

during
in
Asia

Excursion Lond.
1839.

Minor.

thirty-eight

C.

Fellows,

an

Excursion,

twenty-two

plates.

3.

Cenotaphs
for

(.Kevoracpia,
their and remains. also that first
not

xevfipia.) They
such the
as

were

monuments
were

erected both funeral persons years way call

to

for persons honors could

the

dead,
who in had another admitted if for habitation
one

which
never

were

not obtained It the

at to
was

the
a

repositories
proper notion of where the

raised received unburied hundred

for

funeral,
of the

for

had of
a

place.
into

ancients,
without

ghosts

not ;

be and

regions
sea or

blessed his

wandering
be rites

in

misery

perished
was

body
and

could

found,
and

the

only

procure

repose
to

him

build for The

an

empty
4. A

tomb,
common

by

certain of appears is but the

an

invocations for many been

his

spirit
was

the called

prepared
"

it.
term

place cemetery,
the of grave

sepulture
to
a

individuals introduced

noXvav"pinv.
in accordance

Koinnrfipiov, faith,
the In and earlier often of and that

have

by
The followed
was

Christians,

with

their

temporary
of space afterwards buried their those the
near

sleeping-place. dead,
the made dead and church
common

early
the Jewish

Christians
custom

protested
of the of

against
them.

practice
the the fourth

burning
century, which the extent,

bodies open

burying
of church. which

appropriated
to

for members

burial the

princes
In
were

clergy,
periods,
vast

was

all

the

Christians and which of the

chiefly
of 341.

in

subterranean served
at

excavations,
once as

in dead.

days
See

persecution
8.

the

home

of

the

living
5.

the

repository of

The

custom

raising
that
it

splendid
became

monuments

in
to

honor

of

the

dead

at

length
The

led

to

such of
to

extravagance, the
be
monument

necessary

impose
" 72)

penal
occasioned It is

restraints. the
to

splendor

erected
as a

to

Mausolus
name

(cf.
to

P.

II.

word been

Mausoleum
more

applied
feet
De C
1

common

such
36
Acad.

structures.

said

have

than

400
See

in
Caylus,
a s s e

compass,
Tombeau d'flist.
"c. de

surrounded
Mausole,
in the

by
Mem.

beautiful
Inscr. xxvi.

columns.
321.
"

Sainte

Croix,

Tomb,

de

Maus.

in

the

Mem.

de

Vln-

stitut,

ii. 506.

In of

our

Plate marble been

XVIII.
at

are

some

specimens
in

of

monumental
to
was

structures. the ancient erected

to

Fig.

represents
;

tomb
monly com-

white

Mourghab
to

Persia,
Tomb

corresponding of Cyrus,
which declare
a

Pasargada by himself,
modern Absalom's
was a

it

has visited

supposed (cf.
Jlrrian,
P. Jerusalem said
no

be

the
;

and
structure.

by
Cf. which

Alexander

vi.

29)
3. P. been

some,

however,
2 represents In the

it
structure

be

more

Morier,
stands

cited
near

IV.

243.

Fig.
I.

called there xviii.

Pillar,
marble
one

(cf.
to

168

b).

time

of

Josephus
2 Sam.

structure

by

this

name,

have

reared

by
recent.

Absalom "The it
was

(cf.

18).
is

The

here

given standing

is,

however,
detached

doubt,
the which

comparatively living
is
a

lower hewn. and

portion Upon
the Over conical

quadrangular,
facades this basis
are

from above of masonry,

runs

rock,
frieze and low

from with the

which Doric whole which ii. p.

four

cut
a

Ionic
square "dome Cf.
at

pillars, piece
or

metopes
is crowned
a

triglyphs. by
a

rises and the flower."

smaller;
up cited into P.
a

tall the
a

tower;"
like of
an

cupola

spire,
171. vol. is
a

spreads
519.

little 3 cited

at

top
view IV. Hemera

opening
the Tomb

Robinson,
Rome
;

as

I.

$
1
:

Fig.
Pronti,

gives
P. and
or

of
4

Cestius

cf.
a

P.

IV. ;
over

226. them is

it is

taken Greek
as

from

243.
to

2. the

Fig. infernal
it Cf.

presents

the

gates

of
with

tomb his introduce iii. p.

inscription,
in the Hades.
act

Olycon
of See

gods
a

cury, Merof his

wand,

represented spirits
1813.

closing
P. II.

opening $
32. 1.

them,

being Calmet,

part

office "c.

to

departed
279. Chariest.

into

$ 56.

Dictionary,

vol.

PLATE

XXVla,

ATTIC

CIVIL

INSTITUTIONS.

Classes
Theso
were"

of

the

Population.
; Residents, Miroucoi ;

The

^Legislature.

Cititmi, UoXXrat
j and

Slaves, "of"\m IloXXreu, divided Bach

Each Hia

Strangers, H^'""t.
4

of all the lloXtrcu. J"$S6mlly, }K.KK\T)"rta, Senate, liovty, of 400 at first; then 600;

finally6c0 ;
;

50

from

each

tribe; by

lot.

hy Cecrops into

Tribes, "H\(u

; Qparplat, vJE0voj 'VvMj *("rp(" Into 30 Kindreds, Vivn, TptaKdctcs ; A4rJ.Y"wi', 'A/croia,Ilo.paWa. Tribes, KeKpOTric,

into il Races,

The

Executive.
!

Jlrchons, 'Ot *'ApxoVTES

Nine, by lot ; the

the

'.EMvu/aoc,,the Hao-tAe^s,
X""$, and
State the

HoA^apthe

by Clisthenes, ten jTnfccs, Solbn'l

I

; afterwards, twelve.

six Oeo-jUoO^rat ;

forming

Olassa, ncvraKoinoiMtiivm,
; 174

'InitcXs,

Council.

GiJVsc Zfivytrai,
A

according

to wealth,

division also into

A5)^oi,or

Wards.

The

Judiciary.
at

Jlrcopngus, 'Apn6nuyo$\

Supreme first,

Various
1.
The of

Public

Officers.
to

Epidclphinium} 'K-nl AeX^iWw, Kpipalladium, *Ktt1 na\Xnftf;u, Epiprytaneum, 'F.Ttinpvravsly,

Enphrcattium, lEv
the

^ I

in Actions

For

the
'CU

Executive. "EvSuea
the
i
a

ClerOUChi,KXtjpoC^ix,
lands sort

divide also
to

|
J
-^

o/
iJloorf.

itt colonics ; applied

ftpso!TTo7, Highest;
iirl

Eleven,

the settlers.

'lUVn^a, iSVZtBCtj

Sheriffs
the

No/moWXatcej
5.
"

perhaps
Ttio

samo.

For

PiVflutftvrs;Tlapdfiva-Tovt the

in CttfH

Treasury.
Atoi5. !

Tpfywrov, Avkov,
and

Katvdi;,Td
T"J

[ Actions,
J
kinds;

texiarcbi, Ayllapx01 chief; 80 subordinate. Toxotx, To|o"ai For the

; 1000.

B'x

Chief Tamias, Tafila; rf)c Ktjo-Ewc ;

for 4 years,
or

M^t^ov,
; two

The Diatetze, Aiairyral

pwWtt,
or

The

TafuoX/x01 Sub-Treasurers, Ta/tias

rtev rutv

KXqpOTol
Referees. The

AtpBxo^ ; Arbitrators ; jari'vata,

2.
The

Legislature.
'EtrtirrdTijs
rl)c UovXfJ;.

0-Tp"iTiumKc3v, -SeiopiKGiv,Ac.

Tafelas
President Collectors

Circuit a Forty') Tfirro-aptiKoTra,

Court

of Fines, npdKToptj.

for the

Afyfiot.

of Senate, The
President

Taxgathcrirs,'EsXoystc.
Ilcllcnatatnin;
tho Tribute
'

The
for
nt

Xautodiac, Navrofflxai,in naval afl'.iirs ; rirsBUS. fiw("Mte, 'EisToo-Tol,of 10 Aoyto-Tat

10

'Elrto-rart/c
rf)c 'KkkXijcioj.

F.MrjVoraniai,
Greek allies.
ovorsecrs

of Assembly,
The The The

from

The of and The

Proedri, lTpifeffprn. Prytanes, Ilpvravct;. iVomofflefffl, No/toMra(. Syndics, Edvducot. Orators,

same *Pijrt"pES, as

ten Poletx, nui,\!)Tai,

'Kvffvvol

; on

accounts

of officers.

sales. Thcori,

TliOSmothetaSy Gccr/toO^Trtt, on subjects fallingto other Courts.

Oraipol,deputies
for "c. festivals,

with

sents pre-

not

The
Tho

.Am

v*,),v

of taxes, 'KTuypaf/tste.

Actions
Public, AtKat

in
i^/iAriat
;

J^aw.
Which
included

Svvijyapot.
The

Registers of accounts, Aiaypa"/""f J.

care

having Ki/uVuip, oftheClepsydtai Fphiidor,

'

Auditors, 'Av7iypac\cZc. Receivers, 'Arroi^KTai.

"Erdstgij, 'Affaywy?), rpn0?;, 'Itio-tc, 'K(/"Jy^tr(ct ,Avd\)o\'i)\j."Ca, 'EtsayysAfaj

under the
came rpo.(/VJ)

The who The

Zvvyoa"}itls; Syngraphs,
collected

30,

for money GofacWfa, ICwAafcpsral] duo

to tho

the

highest crimes;

the votes.

temples.

"c. tnurrfer,

Clerks, Tpa/t/iarttc.

Searchers, on
on

Deits,ZtjrtjTn!,

Pmiare,

A^xnt

Iff^at ;

including actions

for

Heralds,

KljpwiMS.
6.

Confiscations, Mao-T?;psy.
Connected with

"C trespass,HAa/57/s ; (Ap/Y,

^meassadors, npctr/fors.
Tlie

rivXaydpoi, delegates Pylagori,

Trade.

Punishments.
7.t)f.da fi'/ic, ; Disgrace, 'Anfila
AovXtia
\ ;

to tho

'A/i0iKTtioWa.
with the

The The

Zito(J"vUkssSitophylaees,
EiriSfai. SllOliic,

; Slacmj,
;

3.

Oonnocted
Courts.

branding;

SWy/ia
;

Poititlgt

The

SftorriBtra, Eiro/itTpat.

T.TtjM)

Sonds,

Aeafiot
;

P-anis-hint-nty

Outwears of Port,

'Eiri/taAtyrat

fctiyi) ; Death, Qdvaros

was

'Oo-TpttKttr/idj,'

Tho
The

Jrcovagilie, 'ApeioKctylrcu.
'IMiao-Tai. lleliastic,

Tali" VEuipfaiv. 'E/itropioii, or

Banishment

for 10 years.

The The The

Ephctie, 'Fjflrai. Tribe-kings, $v\opa"ri\eX;.

who Paredri, ndpctfpoi, held by Archons.
sat

fi""pedWC"*Wj'MtT",0,'rf'',"'
"

Markets,

'Ayopavrf/tot,
.5\Ys(

Civic
Ooums,

Honors.
;

{.Fish, 'Otpovdjiot,
in

Seac, npo"6"pfa

'KtKrfvEj Sta(t"flj, 'ArAeta;

Pilots, N(ii'0t''AnK"S" 7, For Manners

Morals, and

"T^0ovot; Exemption,

Courts

2v npvT"i-'e^. fensJon,by EiT'ga-tc.

Dicasfs, Aisao-Tot. nt0COWI"anl"i Aoyttrral. Directors, 'FaiOvvoI. Stmimone.rs, KMjropt;. !7sto's, KiytcXfisS, 4. For Public Works and

Revenues.
(Enoptic, 'Otvdnrat,
to notice

wine-

Tt/"J/trtTrt; Tril/utes, fllrfpotj Rents, f\Yief|

mixing

at

banquets.

to Gty-iiascoawmi, ri'vatKo/edcr/iot,
watch

A"Tovpytfat
yfo,

T^X?/ ; ConiriluKonj,'Ets^opoi ; fferw*ce", ; the latter includingXop?/rv/tvao-tnp^'fa, 'Kori'ao-ij,

and

tlie dress of

women.

Gytiaconomi, Lands.

TvvatKovdfAot,
of wpmen.
to
see

to

Tpajpapftta. guard the conduct PhratoreSj ^paropss,

births. to

SnjitTmtoiiteitj'ETrto-Trfrat
of Buildings,
tu)v

the

Expenditures.
PuftliO rTrorftj,"Epya (T?;^o'(rta;
t.

'Epytov.

registerof SophronistSf

'ETuo-rdTat Supertofendehff

over Zto(f"pov("rTai,

0/ JTilttTS,
Guard

TcOV

{ilTrtTWV.

]0M(at Sftaio*,rio/trrai, k. Oonatiuer, Ami'o/i"l

;

A.

youth in Gymnasia.

of Founts,
C

Kpi]vo(px"\a%.
'OooTTocoi,

OrphanisUSt 'Op^avta-ral,
care

to

take

Theatric

Fee} Auopo\(a

Surveyors of

Ways,
Walls,

of orphans. of

Pay

of Senate, MtuO^s BovXsVTCIcd^; MttrObs FKK^ijcnacTiKds;

Ttt.xoirotoi.
care

Episcopi, 'EmtricdKoi,overseers
allied cities and office.

Pay of Assembly, Pay Pny of Army,

having Jlttt/nomi, 'Aarrvvd/toi,

"c. of streets,

occasional colonies;

Mtcr0d$

ZTpreTtwTiXiJs ;
Nav7tKL"$
; "c.

of Navy, MurQd$

224

226
attention that there
were

ROMAN

ANTIQUITIES.

every

the balance, it seems circumstance which could influence probable twice as many existed, in the time of Claudius, about provincialsas there
to

that the slaves were and of every at least equal sex age ; and world. The of ibis imperfect the free inhabitants of the Roman total amount and twenty millions of persons calculation would hundred rise to about one ; a that of modern degree of population which Europe, and forms the possibly exceeds the same been united under most of governnumerous society that has ever system ment." of either citizens, in number
DelaMalle,
"R. Sur la

libre,"c. population
on

de la Republ. Rom.
of

in the Mem. and

de VImtiliit, Classe Modern Times. Edinb.

de Hist, et Lit. Jlnc. 1753. 8."

vol.

i. on

461. the

Wallace, Dissertalion
Ancient

the
"

Numbers Amer.

Mankind

in Ancient

Hume,

Essay

of Populousness

Nations.

Quart. Register, vol. ix. 140.

" 191.

the authority of Originally

But

paces beyond the city. the dominion of Rome. and

widely spread, and

u.

great part of the known

1
on

extended six thousand scarcely succeedingkings considerably enlarged During the time of the republic her empire was rapidly and at length, by numerous important conquests, a world was to her subjected sway. he and
the the limits of the Roman

Romulus

In the

reign of Augustus

empire

were

the
on

the east, the cataracts of the Nile, the African deserts, and Mt. Atlas the ocean the west, and the Danube and the Rhine the north. on on of the

Euphrates the south,

some

Under

these limits were transcended. even succeeding emperors, in Asia The nia, following countries were subject to Rome: ; Colchis, Iberia, AlbaPontus, Armenia, Syria, Arabia, Pakestina, the Bosphorus, Cappadocia, Galatia, in Africa ; of Asia Minor Bithynia, Cilicia, Pamphylia, Lydia, in short the whole : and Mauretania: Marmarica, Gastulia, Africa Propria, Numidia, Egypt, Cyrenaica, and in Europe ; Italia,Hispania,Gallia, the Alps, Rhastia, Noricum, cedonia, MaIllyricum, In addition to Epirus, Grascia, Thracia, Mcesia, Dacia, and Pannonia. number these were of islands, from the Pillars of Hercules the Black to a sea, to which
2u.

Britain

may

be

added.
a

Augustus

made

division of the whole

gave
a

Hadrian of the last

afterwards

new

form made

to

Gaul, Aquitania and

Britannia, Illyricum,
was

The empire into twelve parts. ror empethis division, and separated Italy,Spain, Thracia and Africa into provinces. One
" "

the Great, who divided the empire into four Praefecturates, containing various dioceses and distinct provinces, for of new the government he appointed a number of which magistrates (cf." 309. 3).

changes of this kind

by

Constantine

The

most

complete
the Thesaurus

description of Anttq. Rom.

the

Roman

Empire,
i.
"

and

of its various

changes, is found
and

in Onuphrii ch. I.

Panvinii

Romanum

Im-

perium. in

of Grseuius, vol.

Cf. Gibbon,

Decl.

Fall, "c.
a

" 192.
is
1

In

few

centuries

the Romans
the
most

acquired

greatness

and

power,

which

and altogether singular

u.

remarkable

in all

history.

their warlike character, for highest degree contributed to this was their first origin distinguished. Bodily strength and superior constituted the grand object of their wishes and efforts,and war and agriculture prowess their only pursuits. A great part of the people were were directlyoccupied in with the rest of the citizens their constant wars ; the proportion of soldiers compared is estimated felt an equal interest have been to to eight. All the early Romans as one the conquered divided equally among in defending their country, because was territory them. be ascribed In addition to all this, much their policy in the manner to must of of allies,and in arranging the governmaintaining their conquests, in the treatment ment them of the provinces, and to the respect towards awakened in other nations. What in the which

they

were

from

k.

To

treat

of

these
seems

topics belongs
to

to

in Roman

affairs
u.

be

necessary

for

history ; yet a our object. builder

brief

view

of

the

principal

revolutions

" 193
to

Romulus,
common

the founder
accounts

and

of Rome,

was

the

first

king.

ing Accordceeded suc-

the

him;
cus,

Numa

(not altogether certain, however,) six Martins, Pompilius, Tulhts Hostilius, Ancus

other

kings

Tullius, and Tarquinius Superbiis; men of the nation. The remarkable most stances circumgrowth and stability the division of the peoor were during the regal form of government, events, ple into Tribes, Curia?, Classes,and Centuries and Plebeians ; the separation of Patricians and of the religious of the senate, worship ; the settlement ; the establishment of computing time, of the militarydiscipline, of the mode of the valuation and taxation
Servius
to

Tarq-uhiius Prisof active enterprise,who tributed con-

the

and

the

introduction
the

the

principlesof
a

government

but rather of
in

mixed
; but

be remarked, In general it may that money. under this first form were not strictly monarchical, of the subsequent adcharacter,' and really laid the foundation vantageous

of coined

system
wars

of the republic. During this whole this uninterrupted continuityof war make and
was

period, the Romans

to

were

volved in-

for

they

never

would
years,

peace

until

they had
B.C.

contributed conquered. The the

their

success,

continued

244

abolished

509, because

last
;

Superbus, bad

provoked

the

nobilityby arrogant

haughtiness

regal government king, Tarquinius and the people by

heavy impositions.

P.

HI.

INTRODUCTION.

227
and the wife p. bO. abolition of the

The have the

immediate been the

son."

occasion vile abuse

of

Tarquin's

expulsion
upon

monarchy,

is said

to

king's

committed Of. Goldsmith' 8 Rome,

was now a

Lucretia,

of Collatinus, by Sextus
ed. I'hila. 1835.

TarquiniUB,

by Finhock;
at

" 194

u.

Rome
more

free state,

governed
well
as

by the Plebeians, whose tribunes, constantly increased. During

the

first aristocratical, and then for a period sustained importance and power, by their the
;

this time

dominion their

of the

Romans,

us

was legislation judicious; and their morals comparatively rigid. For a considerable an period they maintained and proprietyof manners, elevated national character, in which a high spirit simplicity of enterprise, of justice, daring boldness and self-denial and the warmest a strong sense brilliant era in the Roman republic was patriotism, were prominent traits. The most the first half of the sixth century from the building of the city,and especiallyduring

vigorof

their constitution

was

augmented

"

the

sixteen of her

years

of the second

Punic

war,

at

the close of which

Rome

was

in possession

vanced greatest strength. But immediately after this, corruption of morals adthe mention of this,we the various with rapid steps. causes Among may and Asia, the long residence of the legions and officers amidst the victories in Greece of Corinth and Carthage ; each of these luxuries of the east, and at last the overthrow nacy, things contributed to the unhappy result. Through debauchery, luxury, and effemisuffered a universal of manners and the Romans morals, now degeneracy and the eastern nations although they gained from their intercourse with the Greeks of taste. increase of knowledge and much polish and refinement in matters an
A valuable work
on

this

is subject

the following

Chr.
des

Meiners, Geschiehte
VerfaltB
8."

des Verfalls

dor Sitten und

und

der

Staatsverfassung dcr
in den
ersten

Romer.

Leipz. I782. 8." Also, by

nach Ch. Geburt.
P.

same,

Geschictite und

der Kitten,Wissenschaften

Sprachc

der Romer Ad.

Jalirhunderton

Wien

Leipzig, I79t.
On the

More

minute,

but

is instructive, especially

Ferguson's Rise
the

and iv.

Frog, of Rom.
p. 679.

cited Republic,

V. " 299. 7.

slate

of morals

in ancient

Greece

and

Rome, Spirit of

Pilgrims,vol.

" 105
this
state,

u. Selfishness,avarice, and lust of in turn degeneracy ; and became causes

power

were

immediate for the

consequences

of in the

of the

most

melancholy disorders
supreme

and of those civil wars,

at

the leaders in which

contended

authority.

Octavius

of Augustus was the first posgained the point, and under the name sessor of the now established His reign throughout was ing flourisha Imperial throne. of his successors period of Roman history. Some worthy rulers. Put were
more

last

much

effectual and throne

more

fatal

was

the

influence

of those

emperors,

who

graced dis-

by the lowest voluptuousness and vilest despotism ; under these, the already prevailingcorruptionwas in rapid succession arose fullycompleted. Now the most violent and fatal internal commotions; the right of the strongest triumphed endeavored to prop ing over thing, and although particular every emperors up the sinkand nearer to final ruin. dominion, it constantly drew nearer
Goldsmith's Constantino

the

Rome,
the Great.

and

Gibbon's

Decline

and

Fall of the Roman

Empire.

Cf. P. V. 6 299. 7.

"

Bridge's Roman

Empire

under

"

196.

It may

be

seen

from

this brief delineation

of the Romans,

that their

with interesting and instructive incidents : and that a historymust be crowded familiar acquaintance with their constitution and customs must be highly useful. The utility of studyingthe Roman further reneeds, therefore, no commendation. antiquities

in indispensable importance of a knowledge of the antiquities there are other advantages, properly the history of the Romans, which render it worthy the attention of every lover of literature, and of every in one, It, is essential and taste. fact,who is not wholly indifferent to intellectual refinement as authors, whose a help in reading the distinguished Roman writings are preserved, and in obtaining a correct idea of the various works of Roman art. 2 u. best The be drawn, whence a antiquities sources, knowledge of Roman may doubtless the Roman writers themselves, particularly the historians. are There are also several Greek writers valuable in this respect, as they lived among the Romans, and being strangers, many strike them things must more important and remarkable as than they might seem citizens. the latter class of writers are to the native Among Polybius, Dionysius, Strabo, Plutarch, Appian and Dion Cassius, and even some later writers,as Procopius, Zonaras, Lydus, "c. Some aid may be derived also from the writings of the Christian Fathers. 3 u. In modern times Roman formed have been into a sort of science. antiquities materials drawn The from the sources gested just named, and various others, have been diinto regular systems the one branches hand, while, on the other, particular on of the subject have been examined in more full detail. Yet this has perhapsnever with sufficient knowledge of fact, or adequate or critical skill and discrimibeen done nation been sufficiently distinguishedfrom tho less important, ; the essential has not the general and universal from the particular ble nor and local ; nor has there been suitathe periods in which to note and the customs care introduced, were principles made notice rather than prevalent, or changed. These must are defects,which we
1
u.

But

besides

the

order

to

understand

228

ROMAN

ANTIQUITIES.

avoid in the brief treatise, upon without more moved labor than
;":.

which we now bo enter, and which cannot has hitherto been devoted to tho subject.
dor Anliquilliten, iiibrsundrra ISehandluug oiled P. V. " 7. 9. us
der Hum.

refully

I'lutlmr,

I'.'luT

Wissensohafiliclin

Hesrllndinig und wisscnschaft, "o.

some

Marb.

1B12. 8."

F. A.

Wolf, VorlesunseuUlnir Allerlhiuus

sS 197.
1, Tho

Wo

mention

here

of the principal writers

the Iwo
The

on

Roman

antiquities.
P, V. " 7.9, treats

CottecNmt largest

of separatetreatisesin

5lh vol. of

11 died PP"V'jVorleaungen,

following
:

of Roman Thesaurus Oranrfus,

id
Rhen.

istlqullles.

Jo. Qtorg.
c.

Antlqultatum Romanarum)
kccQunl

Leu

but useful 'and Instructive, la the following extenalve,

Mtieiuttt', I'lber
tier Sitleu ilu.l l.ehensart iler

6g. Troj.

IS void, fol, (For an 1684-99.

J. II. I..

Kmiier,

in

hi

[ho contents of this, tea

j.

Appendixlo nTmnett,olted below.)

Gronbvlui.
Von.

v.'isiliir.l.'Lirii /I'iten

Itepublik.

lU'ilin, ISI I. 8.

(EdtFht

(If, Polmw,

Supplement toGrasviuaand
Thesaurus

BuKmdnn). Worthy of mention

also is,VViteoalfsRoman
or Cdnveraatlonai i7t"7. 2 vols. 8.

17:17. fi VOll. ful. Mli. Hen::

de 3 Nnvtis Sullciljire,

Rom. antiq.

Bag.

oftKe Antiquities of Rome, Deeerlptlona The

are : following abridgments

Lond.

Com.

1710-19.

vols. fol.

Very useful on
iiiii's, in .Sum.

account of it" copiousness ami Auliq. Human.

its

good refer.
Cum. 1737.

Abriss
iiuucke.

iler :;i iei'li. un,l

innnseh,

Alli'ithllmer,von

Chr. Fried.

ritisei t.ivu.iii

Hair.

ts2l. Stendal,

vnia. As a

fol. system

Roman

and Anolenl Mythology, Antiquities,

for Classical a,d.1685.

ls:Hi. 12.

formally arranged, may

Corpus 1710.
-1.

be

Jo. mentioned,
c. 11.

Rosini

Schools; by C7,". A'. IHIlaway.

ZVioj.S.

Boston,1S3I

; -'I

Airiiq. Roman.

alisululissimum,

Y'Au,

Prmiisttri.

Can;

Manual

of Rom.

Antiquities,l.unil.
to

TraJ.ad
Some
rus nun

Rhen.

Amst. (Ed, J. P. ReiteitU.)

1743.

4.

TbesaU Ireatlsei In B. r/golinuj, are contained pertinent olarlaalmo Saorarum,complectensaeleotisslma Antlqultatum virorum Opuaeula Vet. Hebrsaorum Mores, Rltus ; In qulbua
at Profanarn

3. Wo
as

may

also refer here

Muntfancon's

AntiipiiteKvas

and descriptions Roman Illustrating bj Ha plntaa pilqu.e'e, well

as

.'M.'.'c

4 13). anllqutllea (of, oontaina many excellent delineations 1

e

illuatrantura Sacrom Sacri,"e, Opna ad Phllologlom utlllaalmurw Meusel,

as

The
Raccolta

[bllowlngwork
Tavolo

Vonet.
died

mi

69, 34
3tl

vols.

tut.

" 210, vol.

exhibits

tho writers

on

Roman

degllaniii'hi

eivili i i-osluini leli^iosi, militart rappresent. anilGreolo Romanl,trattl dagll Bgldani,Etruschl,

Antiquities,"e.
2. Under Thoi. J). Q. 1701. 4.
ir. tho

chi monuinenti.-iiis.'siaie, e,i India

in

tame,

iia

Comuolioa"

c/u^-l; inn,.
class of Afonu'ab
are

vols.

-i.

hundred plates each. one containing the subject of costume, we

the

: following

As

to especially pertaining

Oodwyn, Roman
stnwius,

15th ad. Antlqultloa,

Lond,

I6S9.

add,
4,
et

4. resin Bardoti,

deaAnplena

Romanarum Antlqultatum

Suntogma,

Jen.
A nsagea

PenplesiPar.
Esaai
sur

itso.

vols.

Le/ns, Lo

Costume,on

lea habillemeuts

let

de plus, peupli de 4.

Glosaarlum Anttq. Romanarum, Bocta", Kennett, Romie

two Paris, ; first

Lond, 1726. 8.
Ihr

L'Antlqultd, prouve* par

les monuments,

Liege,1776.
Autiquitirs of
/7ii..v.

Has.

Autiquns Notilia.
l.oml.
n:n.

nr

Rome, In
later

8.

The Hbju,

Costume

of the Ancients. Lond. isi2. 2 vols.

New

There

have been mas;

8. with
2 vols,

numerous 8.

engravingsIn outline.

ed, Lond.

1841

editions

American,

Phil, 1822. 8. Afafllof and Particularly,

limns, les

i.\ ;/.

Rltuum, quiolim apud Romance, obtlnuerunt, [Weujport,

Berl. 1784. 8, Compendium
an-

sm-i-iiH'i.i 14th ed, expllcatlo.

Martin,

Recherchea
"

sur

les do

cos-

C. (3. Sioiril;, Observation!'.! ail JVimpuWii

mrnurs, be, dea onclena

(tc. peuples,
""

ornd
first

298

Romanarum tlqultatum
c. .'. 11. Huiimunii, .'hen

i7.',7. s. .'l. M. (ed, Jfaftl). aim. Ajamerkungen fiber Nimyort's Handbuch

au planches,

trait. Par. 1804-6. 3 vols. 4.

The

volume
the Uo-

contains,
muis,

in

Ihe OOStume, manners, detail, great

tieiuuliis
In

Btc, of

from

the from

.1. 1 rfll

Allertlulnier.

Dread. 1786. 8.

t.ist ein|ierurs meii.ils

of CoUStOntlnOple. of eacii

Christ. E. Im. O. C.

CeRorittt, Compendium
2d ed.
win

Antlq.Rom,
8.

emu

adnot.

The
/.

urn engravings

taken

and monuments

,'IHH'll,"
Makhii.
Matouus

Hal.

1774.

CiianO, Ausfilhrliehn

Abhandlung
1:

iler

4. It is proper remains
See

also to refer hero

to works

tha illustrating

li'linisiiien

Alterllnllner, heralisse'iiliin von

4.

I.'.('. ,1th

Allou.i,

of Human
1'. !Y.

Antiquity,
I3S, 187, 188, 191,226,2-13, Par. 17SB-IS03.

J775-76. 4 vols.
C. Q.

!"" 130,

Iltynii Antiquitas romana,

8.

juris Inprlmla

romanl.

F.

*J.

d'Haroutanura, Daiild, Antlquitda

Curiosum, "0,

GOtt. 1779. P.F.A.

12 vols. 4.
ilea hlusllcben, wlasenachaftll' Beachrelbung

Nitsh,

W,
in one, of

tliuorarium Stiikrkt/,
ful. with iwo

Lond,

1760. 2 vols,

pnlitischon noil solles.lii'nsllli'hen, chin, sittln'hi'ii, Zustsndea der isomer,

1 11.,,.

kriegerischeil

hundred

; copper plates

nollees containing

iter Nanach den vereohtedehen iSeitallero

Roman The

monuments

In England,
tho

is

j.

11.

m.

Emails.

Erfurt,IS12.
1SI2. s.

2 vols. 8," Saute Work

Publications of

lustitutu

di

Ctnmsptmdmza

Archeo-

(by Ernestl).Erf. abridged K. Ph. Merits, ANOOYSA,

(of tho aacred
rites

founded a society fur orohasologlcal logioa, correspondence, Alterthihncr. 1791-97,

8. 1st

in

odor Horn's

pari pari

Rome

by

several

ilistinguisheil scholars and

Tho antiquaries.

of

ihe

Romana).

Barh

2d

Hultetimi
of new

commenced dell'rnsttiufo,
new

contains brief notices IS29,

(ofthe
Often
"2u,o.

civil

and private affairs), ed, bj P. RorriAaeA, Berl, I78B. Mum,

Roman

and discoveries Jly the

is

works,

with

other

articles "i special

volume

Alexander

An reprinted. Anollirr eid.

improved

Antiquities, ml. by James Boyd, Edlub.

"e.

Edtnb.

1791. 8.

interest.
of

title of MillHiiltilf, .Innali

liledili. the annual

dell'

ISM,
into

plates

The .lesisn.ilisl. essays,

Instituto, the Chief lleseriptions.

by /. 11. Major. Oxf.

1837.

8."

Trausl.

publication, gives

reviews, and

extended

German,
ISIS. 2

with

improvements,

by /. L. Meyer

(3d til.) Erlang.

Hirt,Mttller, Gerhard, Restner, Raoul'Rochette, B0ck,Panofka,

.^c. Mllllngen,

vols. 8. der Rftuwr. Wicu. 1805-6.

have

been

contrihutors.

J. K. Linger, Sitlcn unit Gebrauche 2 vols. 8. with

C.

On

various

points it will
as

bo

useful

so

consult

Lardner,
of tha

plains.
"0, ll'ihr, l\"l.rokc, I'uulij, cited " 13. 6. Customs

Q. 0. JCbphe, Autiqnitatps 1S0S.

Romana),

in xii. tab. descr.

Borl.
Also, Ancient

F, Sul't'utriier, Institutions, Mannci-s, and

Nations.

Translated from the

of Greek and

French

by

P.

Stockdale.

L.

Schaaff,Anliquitalen und
(la his Encydop.
8.
Abriss

Arch.lologle dor

Griochen

und W.

Smith, Dictionary
6. Other

Roman

Antiquities.'
given

Romer. 1820.

d. class.

Mlterthttmshiude).

Magdeb.
references lo authors
those
on

particular topics"re

F.Crmtier,
oei

iter romischen

zum Aiiliquittlten

Gebrauche

under

the

o( sections treating

topics. Pompeii,
and IflireV
the

Loijiz. 1824. Vorleaungen, Romas Fttss,

8.

8. from

Lwkhart's

Valerius,
are

Buhver's

Letters
ners man-

/. P.

Trauslaled Auliquities.

the Gorman,

from

Palmyra,

tictions professim; to exhibit

alter I'hrisl.

state of

"utf. 1640.

iu the firstcenturies

V.

III.

RELIGION

OF

THE

ROMANS.

229
did the Greek, under civil religion,

"
four

198.

We

shall

treat

distinct branches; thus

war,

government,

and

Roman as we Antiquities, the exhibiting separately private life. the

I. UEMGIOUS AFFAIRS.
'

affairs of

"
have

199.

As

the word
to this

is religion
term

of Roman Latin

ideas attached

in the

be well to notice it may origin, seems religio language. Originally,

earnest

the
to

signified every
by
the external
or

sort

of serious and motives.

exertion,

to

which used

one

was

pelled impress ex-

internal

Afterwards, it was

chieflyto

idea of duty towards the Deity and towards fellow-creatures; of religion. and the theory of this,as well as the practice, then took the name In the plural and practices the regulations number, the word usuallydesignates
to the worship and as of the Deity. And, in as much pertaining propitiation the knowledge and of duty towards men and the Divine Being will practice lead to a certain permanent of deportmoral and conscientiousness ment, sensibility the word also religiowas naturally employed as comprehending in its of morals. meaning this correctness must of the religion of the Romans, we " 200. In inquiringinto the origin revert to the originof the nation, alreadynoticed (" 189). There doubtless existed in Latium, long before the founding of Rome customs various religious the and worship of various divinities ; and it is not easy to trace out their gradualrise and establishment. By the subsequent colonies from Greece, Elis, and Arcadia, this native religion modifications ; received many additions and hence the great similarity the Greek between and Roman systems of mythology and worship (cf.P. II. " 8). In some the Roman traditions differ particulars

included

from
same.

those

The
as

of the Greeks, where the divinities and their chief attributes are the also adopted several religious Romans by the usages not practiced
e.

borrowed from which were g. in relation to auguries and auspices, To the latter source the ascribe we chiefly prevalence great may of superstition in the earliest part of the Roman history.
the

Greeks,

Etrurians. The

"

201.

connected
secret

with

of the Romans religion their politics.It was

was,

often

employed
the

like that of the Greeks, of as means a how

to

designsof
the

state, which

the

projectors knew
and from

render

intimately promoting and agreeable

mass

desirable,by

people were

help of superstition. Thus determined by pretended oracles

their most effective stimulus

inclinations

of the

of the

signs. Many

prises military enter-

and not seldom this source; the strongest motives it furnished to patriotic exertion,since love of country solemnities and held to be a religious was duty. The pomp of the religious festivals served
to

derived

foster and

to

deepen sentiments
same

of

awe

and and

fear towards

the

gods, and gods were

belief
was

thus contributed considered

as

to the

end.

The

much effecting

in all events

purpose and transactions, and

influence of the this

confirmed greatly

to the dignity of the gods therein.

by the artifice of the poets, who sought to impart incidents of their stories, the intervention and agency by describing
firstestablishment
the

" 202.
discordant

On

the

of the
means

Romulus city,
of

made

it
the

prominent
and
more

object to render
was carefully

national of which
of the

religiona

union
were

between

various Still

materials of many

the first inhabitants

successor

composed.

this object pursued by his

chief author
as

religious usages

of the

the who is viewed as Numa, in part, which were Romans,

has

been

interviev/s

borrowed from the Greeks and suggested, with a supernatural being,the nymph

Etrurians.

His pretended greater N uma's

fundamental in his efforts. The respect and success afterwards carried out more system, being retained,were
As

Egeria,secured of principles

knowledge
of
was

and
more

sound

advanced philosophy

among
mass

the

fullyand variously.Romans, the religious

and
to

notions
but

the

were portion intelligent

graduallyrectified
adhered inconsistent

elevated ;
common

this

confined in the

to

few, while

faith,even
the
On

period when
I
or a

the great the system became

the

and

cumbrous

by

deification
Numa,
treats cf.

of the emperors.
particular account
The Roman of the gods worshiped division
or

P, V. " 447."

by the Roman*,

we

of this wor" refer to the part (II.) 9. in (I'. II.)"',"

which

of the

of Mythology. subject

classification of their gods is noticed

230 " 203.

The

ROMAN

ANTIQUITIES.

great number

of the Roman

deities occasioned

largenumber

of

in Rome above four hundred assert, there were temples,of which, as some [four and twenty]. of temples, lempla,however, properly The name hundred ed belongas were solemnly consecrated only to such religious by the augurs; buildings this less also of and architecture, a circumstance, by they were by simple style

from distinguished Their

oftener
on

the

sedes
was

sacrse,

althoughthe
in entirely
to

names

are

often used

changeably. inter-

form

almost
was

Grecian

than

round.

It

customary
on
"

dedicate

taste, oblong rectangular them with various monies, cere-

of the building, and principal parts of a temple were the interior,appropriated for sanctior, adytuni), commonly the sanctuary (cella of sacrifice, the ceremonies and the exterior or court, serving for various purposes. often used, not only for religious solemnities, The temples,however, were the like. but also for meetings of the senate, select councils, and They surrounded with pillars, at least or usually stood in an open place,and were

also after

layingthe foundation and of remodeling or repairing

the

completion

it.

The

ornamented
On the structure

with
of ancient de

them

on

the
IV.

front.
" 234, and references
Acad.
there

cf. P. temples,

given.

On

the temples at

Rome,

cf. P. I. "" 5S-60."

"

See Simon,

Temples

l'ancienne

Rome,

in the Mem.

Inscr. i. 199.

adorned the interior of their temples,as did the Greeks, and painting, and with gods, with other works of sculpture consecrated of various kinds, called donaria. Every thing connected offerings held as sacred to the god or gods to whom it was with a temple was devoted." for such placesas were sacred if no buildings A generalname to the gods, even

"

204.

The

Romans

with

statues

of the

were more

there erected,was limited

fanurn.

The

word

delubrum,
but

on

the

other

hand, had

meaning, signifying properlyonly that

of the portion
in

temple where
a more

stood

sense.

the images of the gods, one or more; Small temples, also or chapels,
a

it is often used

placesfor
Among

worship without

ral generoofs and

only guarded by
to

wall, were
which Juno

termed

sacella.
were

the

gods, of
were

there

in thirty-two
the
most

the groves (Juci) crated consethe city,those of Vesta,

Egeria, Furina, and

" 205.
inscribed Mars

Lucina

were

noted. any

sometimes

merely with the name however, they were placed in temples.

arse;

erected apart from of the god to whom

A

temple,and
were was

were

then
ally, usu-

they

dedicated;
made
were

distinction

between
used

altaria and the offering

the

the

former

were

raised latter

higher {alia ara), and

were

for

sacrificial victim;

the

and libation. The prayer celestial gods ; the latter, to the

were
so

used in offering lower, and were consecrated former were to the more usually infernal. They stood one behind the other,and

placed that

the

images

of the

gods appeared behind

them.

which

There also a third kind of altar, anclabris or enclabris, a sort of table, on was laid by the the sacrificial utensils were placed and the entrails of victims were was sacra something still different, a table on which incense Haruspices. The mensa
1
u.

was

be burned, as various articles to of gold or some of metals, even of a white and other stones, metal gilded, but more commonly frequently of marble Sometimes color. they were hastilyformed of ashes, earth or turf,or the horns of Not unThe form of altars was victims. various, quadrangular oftener than round.

sometimes of fruit and

presented, and
"

offerings not

designed
made

food.

Altars

were

sometimes

frequently they
Different forms
a

were

adorned
altars of
to
are

w7ith
seen

sculpture and image-work.

our

of

in

Plate

XXVII. burnt is

Fig.
"c.

is
as

deaux,
in honor
;

representation drawn according

a

Solomon's
accounts

altar of the

of

Rabbins E.
an

Fig. t is the enclabris. fig.B, C, m. iv. 1); given by Prioffering (cf. 2 Cbron. described in Calmet, Diet. ; copied and
altar with erected
as a

vol.

iii. p. 144, 357, ed. of Roman D M letters what In below

Chariest. it is Diis the

1813.

"

Fig.

sepulchral
and bears in this XX. is
are seen

monument,
an

the

emperor; stand for

highly
Manibus.
"

ornamented The horns others

sculptures,
at
"

elevations

the In

corners

and

inscription in fig.
forms bust of

H,
of the

show the

is designated the

by
Plate

phrase
are

of
;

the altar."
on

Plate

other the

altar. and

Sup.
it
an

30,

four

the

altar

of Jupiter

in his claws this, in the original holding a thunderbolt ; beneath SVCCESSA is the OCTAVIA P.; i. e. Jovi Optimo monument, inscription, I. O. M. IVSSA is dancing Successa over a Maximo, jussa Octavia posuit. On the altar of Bacchus, a Bacchanal in one hand and the thyrsus in the other. The altar holding another prostrate wine-cup, cup it is of the four discovered with on (Nettuno); at Antium sculptured Neptune of Neptune is one this is inscribed, in the and in his right; above in his left hand the trident a dolphin original, of an often altar to Apollo; the very ARA NEPTVNI. The used the form as markable retripod was M. one given in this Plate corresponds to a representation on a silver coin of Consul JEm. See For various altars (as cited P. II. $ 12), ii. 242. 132. Sup. ii. 56. Lepidus. Montfaucon Roman have altars erections, see Suppl. vol. v. as sepulchral Montfaucon, vol. v. and edly repeatbeen found in England. Archaologia, as cited P. IV. $ 32. 5. vol. iii. p IIS, 324.

god,

eagle

"

"

"

PLATE

XXVII.

~32

ROMAN

ANTIQUITIES.

also to adorn altars with filletsor ribins, and garlands of herbs and the Romans well as temples afforded a place ot refuge among as Greeks (cf." 66), chieflyfor slaves from the cruelty of masters, for insolvent debtors and criminals, where it was impious to touch them, although contrivances might be employed (as e. g. kindling a fire around them) to force them away, or they might be confined there until they perished.
was common

2. It

flowers.

Altars

and

" 206.

of instruments great variety

and

vessels,vasa

sacra,

were

employed

in the sacrifices offered to the

1
u.

gods.

The the following the ax (bipennis,securis, d, d), or most : important were first struck; knives for stabbing {cultri, (malleus, c), with which the victim was entrails (secespitm) e, e), and others, long, two-edged, for dividing the flesh and ; the burnt for incense (acerra censer (thuribulum, 1), and the box containing the substance arcula the sacrifices (gultus) ; or thuraria, 5) ; a vessel used in dropping the wine upon in which the priestsand others offeringsacrifices tasted the wine (simpita flat vessel club

lum, b)
an

broad
vase

dishes with
one

or

bowls
or

oblong

two

(patera, i,2), for wine and the blood of the victims ; handles (capedo, capeduncula, capis,o, o) ; vessels to

hold the entrails (ollce which the entrails and flesh were extares) ; plates on brought to the altar (lances, disci, n) ; baskets, particularly the fruit offered (canistra); to contain small tables with three legs (Iripodes) instrument, having a tuft of hair,or the ; an like, for sprinkling the sacred water (aspergillum,f ) ; pans for the sacrificial fire (prce-

fericula) ; metallic
2. The numerals drawn

candlesticks
letters the

(candelabra, h)
in marked vol. the in
our

to

which the lamps

with XXVII. marked other the Latin The

were terms

attached.
in marked
are

and
to

included

parentheses
Plate

the

above

specification, refer
letters
are

from

figures thus Montfaucon,

figures
the

by

the

Pompeii, p. 130, as cited P. IV. J 226. fillet (vitta), which the sacred was fig.g shows (liguld); fig.3, a pitcher (urceus, culullus) used altar standing sculptured representations an on
B in exhibits his hand with
a a scene a

ii. p. 150. Those The Plate exhibits sometimes

by

numerals

from

from

the the

same

altar;
is led
;

articles of sacrificial apparatus ; the neck; hung from fig.4 is a ladle for the libations; from these taken figures are found in the court of a temple at Pompeii ; fig. in his robe is offering sacrifice; he holds magistrate

patera;
wreath
on

victim head

forward the

by the
side is
a

waist
an

his

behind

magistrate
his appear

popa is a

older lictors

servant

by

with
"

their

bearing a platter (discus); by fasces ; in the back ground

a

the

cultrarius,who holding a vase musician blowing the pillars of the temple

or

is naked
or

to

his

boy

pitcher, and flute, followed

with
;

decorated coin

garlands.

Fig. m also represents in (lituus) is seen augur's wand

in and

sacrifice hand

the

of

given by Montfaucon the principal person.

and may observer the modern
serve

from The
to

an

ancient

the

fig.D
of

is drawn and

from Roman

Egyptian
sacred
a

likewise the fork "c.

Greek cf. Exod.

monuments, utensils. The vessel like

of articles cluded ingroup illustrate also Hebrew among them the vel, sho-

will

notice
a

several
xxv.

tines, knives,
29.
"

teapot,

fire-pan, jars, bowls,

dishes,
other likewise

sacrifices.

hanging
for the various

hecatombs (tuba) sounded and at trumpet Fig. a, is the sacred is seen in Plate and also used at sacrifices, as was trumpet XXIX, XLV. In Plate is seen, the flute or clarionet, as is seen in Plate and Plate XLV. XXIX, from holds of the victim) the case the girdle of a priest (the one that the head (vagina) The

straight

"

knives

the

same

article sacrifice
;

is

given

in the
acerra

Sup.
and

Plate

31.
;

fig.18.

In

this
;

Plate

also

are as

instruments

of

1, 2, the

thurarium

form the differing from given in Plate ; 10, forms the as or patella; 9, the vessel given by Montfaucon prwferi; 8, patera for but for wine he describes the vessel the culum, which as a not as a fire, holding holding pan of the libation 13, malleus ; 14, Dolabra; 15, securis ; 16, seva, or seces; 11, 17, cultri; i%tuba; candelabra broad shallow platter ; 20, olla; 21, lituus; 22, pita ; 19, disctis, a ; 23, aspergillum, aspersorium, or lustrica.

given

by Montfaucon, of the simpulum

3, enclabris XXVII., fig. 1

4, thuribulum, 5, capis ; 6, 7,

" 207. The priestswere very orders, or colleges. These

Romulus
established the

numerous,
were

and

were

formed

into certain

mon com-

mostly established by the first kings; Luperci, Curiones, Haruspices ; Numa, the Flamines,

Ves tales,Salii, Augures, and Feciales. and the Epulones were introduced ; and Roman

During
under

the

republicthe
some
common

Rex

sacrorum
"

priestsmay

be

ranged

in two

the emperors general classes; those

others.
to

The

all the

gods {omnium

those to a particular deity deorum appropriated sacerdotes) ; and the Pontifices, Augures, Quindecemaddicti). Of the former were viri sacris faciundis, Fratres Arvales, Curiones, Epulones, Feciales, Haruspices, Of the latter class were the Flamines, Sodales Titienses,and Rex Sacrorum. and Vestales. Pinarii, Galli, Salii,Luperci,Potitii, instituted by Numa, origiheld by the Pontifices, " 208. The first rank was nally and then to fifteen. more even four, finally eight, only one, subsequently The chief of these was styled PontifexMaximus, who held the highestpriestly quently He and was office, appointed at first by the kings, subsedignity, power. whole but after 104 or body of Pontifices, by the college(Collegium) but it was to the college, B. C. by the people. Sylla restored the right again taken All the other priests and the vestals were from them. subject to the

(uninumini

Pontifex
1
u.

Maximus.
had the of oversight all the regulation of affairs, religious the festivals and

He

234
Etrurians

ROMAN

ANTIQUITIES.

covery primarily of Asiatic origin ; the disby fable to Tages, a son of Jupiter. increased The number of the Haruspices graduallywas to sixty. up even the From Their overseer was Haruspex. styled Magister Pubticus or Summits into three different modes of divided and objects their divination, they were and For, besides observing, the classes, extispices, prodigiatores. fulguratores, of the sacrifice, entrails of victims and the flame, the various circumstances as consulted in relation to lightningand smoke, "c, they also were places or dreams. and and likewise stricken it, they explainedprodigies by buildings
of

but seems to have directly, the art (Haruspicina) was

been

ascribed

u.

In

examining
of

the

entrails, they observed

the

the heart, and when exta muta. they called them an auspicious sacrifice. signify
2. The

condition

they could
On
the

chieflytheir color, their motion, and determine nothing from the appearances,
hand, the
term

other

iitare

was

used

to

college
had

of
;

Haruspices
these
seem

had
to

their

particular registers
accounts

and

orders and that

have

been

of
art

their
was

records, as observations,
one

also

the

other of
so at

gious relider thun-

memorials

lightning, and
the senate

ominous that
; the

occurrences. a

Their of

at

time

considered in it ;

tant impora

decreed

number

youth

should

be

regularlyinstructed
to

later Div. with

period

it fell into

disrepute
to

i. 41, 43. ii. 24, 29, 35. sacrifices

are

Tacitus,

Claudius emperor xi. 15. Most Ann.

"

attempted
of the ominous

revive

it.

Cf.

Cicero, De
connected

circumstances

alluded

by Virgil (Georg.
were

iii. 486).

"
the
was

211.

The

Epulones
were

gods.

There

three

first

the feasts (epulsd) attended of who on priests, B. C. 197; by Sylla the number appointed,

increased called Septemviri Epulones, and by Cassar at last to ten. to seven, couches of what called the Lectisiernia, when were They had the care were taken down, and spread for the gods as if about to feast,and their images were around the altars or tables loaded with dishes; the most placed on the couches of feast in in these honor of the the annual was Capitol. They important Jupiter were required to be present also at the sacred games to preserve good order. often taken for this office; those under sixteen, were Very young persons, even it and that Tiberius was even Lentulus, Caesar, performed so respectable, yet Like its duties. the Pontifices, a they wore toga prsetexta. The viri epulares must be confounded not with the epulones; the former were the priests, not but the guests at the repasts spoken of. class of priests officers existing a or " 212. The Feciales were long before the

buildingof Rome,
was

the Rutulians and other Italian states. The among Rome It continued to the beginning of the by Numa. of fewer, members. authority,and consisted of twenty, sometimes introduced
at

order

imperial They

may and Paler

be considered

It devolved him, or the upon of war, which declaration and to make the a warning, preceded enemy declaration solemn and form (clarigatio), a by uttering hurlinga spear (hasta also the customary priestswere sanguinea), into the enemy's limits. These
the

agreements pair atus.

whose body of priests, and to war. pertaining peace

as a

business
The

chieflyrelated to treaties called highest in rank was Feciales under him, to give the

armistice or cessation of hostilities. Their presence and an effecting in forming treaties and at the sacrifices therewith indispensable with the connected. also They were charged enforcingof treaties,and for their violation, the demanding of amends and also with guarding the security of foreign ambassadors at Rome. Bex held an office, which tuted instiwas " 213. The Rex sacrorum, or sacrificulus, first after the expulsionof the kings,and probably derived its name from offered by the kings the circumstance, that originally the public sacrifices were themselves under their immediate or oversight. Perhaps, as Livy suggests, both the office and from a desire that the royaldignitymight not name arose be wholly forgotten. This priest had a high rank, and at sacrificial feasts occupied the first place, although the duties were and not consisted numerous, the public and more chieflyin superintending important sacrifices. He was also required at the beginning of every month to offer sacrifice jointlywith the Pontifex and to convoke make the people (pnpulum-calare), known Maximus, the distance of the Nones of the month then commencing. from the Calends agents
aid in
was

still more

At
musi

the

Comilia

he

offered the

withdraw

from

the great public sacrifice, after which, however, called His wife was forum, and conceal himself.

ha Be-

P.

III.

RELIGIOUS

AFFAIRS.

CLASSES

OF

PRIESTS.

235
Juno.
office

gtna

sacrorum

she

was

also
to

and priestess,
was

offered

sacrifices to

His
tinued con-

residence, freelygranted
until the time
See Ambrosch, Studien und

him,

also often termed

the

Regia.

The

of Theodosius
41." Cf. L.

Great.
Diet, of Antiq. p. 823.

Andeutungen, p.

ScKmitz, in Smith's

"
were was

214.

The
Flamen

name

of Flamines
of

devoted
the

to

the service

Dialis,

or

chief

as given in general to all such priests of them particular deity. The most eminent priestof Jupiter. At the first institution of the was

but two and the Flabesides this, viz.: the Flamen Martialis men order,there were the number to fifteen and still higher. They rose Quirinalis. Afterwards divided into majores, who must be Patricians,and minores, who were were

taken border The

also from
Flamen
was

the Plebeians.
a

Their

dress

was

long white

robe with

purple

and (leena),

his wife

with a twig of olive. cap of conical form {apex) adorned Dialis had a lictor, and also a sella curulis and the toga prsetexta ; called Flaminica, and aided him in some parts of the worship on

joyed Jupiter. This priestlikewise held a seat in the senate, and enwhich the Flamines. to were Many privileges, peculiar of the Flamen duties and services were requiredof the Flamines, especially Dialis. derived from the god to whose vice serThey were by names distinguished of those so they were devoted, as Flamen Floralis, Pomonalis Neptunalis, ; Flavialis, "c. belonging to a deified Caesar, as Flamen Jugustalis, to the common " 215. The Salii were priestsof Mars Gradivus, and according from dancing (salire), certain festival days because on opinionhad their name and singingsongs in honor of Mars. they passed about the city dancing, They

the festivals

of

several

other

were

first instituted
to

by Numa.

The

immediate

occasion

of their institution, cording acto have

from hinder

the tradition, the famous was heaven ; this shield,and the eleven twelve its being stolen,which were Salii Palatini, when

shield,Jncile, said
others made

been

sent

exactlylike it in order to

by

the

carried all guarded by the Vestals, were they made their circuit around the city.

1 u. Their chief and leader in the procession was leaping was styled Prcesul, whose and the leaping of the others after him by redamtruare. expressed by the verb amtruare, They had their appropriateresidence (curia Saliorum) upon the Palatine Hill. Besides the music which accompanied their dancing, they struck their shields together, and the measure in that way noted of their songs, which celebrated the praises of the made the the artist who (cf.P. IV. " 114. 4.) and of Veturius Mamurius, god of war

eleven
2
u.

The

shields. order

was

highly respected, and

as a

was some

rendered of the

the

more

so

by the

sion acces-

of
relius
"

Scipio Africanus
Their
or

member,

and
was

Antoninus. Salii Collini Hostilius.

term

of service

not

especiallyM. Auemperors, btit only for a certain period. for life,

this

The

Quirinaleswere
On the Salii, and other

distinct from

body, and

established

by

Tullius
See

Liv. i. 20."

Ov. Fast. iii.259. Die

classes of
de

cf. O'dttling,Geschichte priests, Saliis Martis A. Apel's sacerdotibus

der Rom.
Romanos

Staatsverfass." liber

See also especiallyHartung,

Religion der ROmer."

Saltat.
sacr.

T. GutberUthi Rom. Berl.

apud

singularia.

Franequera, 1704.

8."

Cf.

De Seidel,

vet.

1S26."

Metrik, Th.

2. p. 647.

by

and established origin, which Pan ceived redesignation, from his guardingthe flocks against the wolf, Lupercus (ab arcendo lupos). brated celeHis temple was and his most from the same circumstance called Lupercal, the middle festival at Rome, Lupercalia. This festival began about of for whole The the and of city. was February, regarded as a season expiation Luperci,on this occasion, ran up and down the streets, naked exceptinga girdle of goat's skin about the waist ; they carried in their hands thongs of the same

"

216.

The

of Pan, Luperci,priests Their

name was

were

of Arcadian
that

Romulus.

derived

from

material, with
the
action
was

which

catomidiare.

they struck those whom they met; the word to express ascribed to these blows, A peculiarefficacy was
women

in rendering married particularly

1
m.

prolific.

There

were

three

distinct The

Quinliliani,and Julii.
Caesar
;

the others

were

last were after named

companies {sodalitates)of these priests ; the Fahiani, from Julius of later originand took their name their chief or head been had who individuals,

priests.
The Politii and Pinarii were 2 u. not companies or sodalities of Luperci, but priests of Hercules; held in important estimation, although their pretended not they were that Hercules, traced to the age of the hero himself. tradition was, The origin was

230

ROMAN

ANTIQUITIES.

during his residence in Italy with

tribes
or

Evandcr, instructed
which
was

in the

rites of his

families bearing this The Galli

were

name,

afterwards

retained

worship the by the priests.

of the

" 217.

priestsof Cybele the great mother

in

gods, so

called from
of their

the river Gallus

Phrygia, whose
those who

water

was

regardedas
it.
The

singularvirtues, renderingfrantic

drank

ing possesscircumstance

Atys. At the festival being castrated is referred to the fable respecting of their goddess, celebrated in March, and called Hilaria (cf. P. II. " 21), these imitated the phrensy of Atys by strange gestures, violent motions, and priests termed JLrchigallus. The and cutting. Their chief priest was self-scourging
order
was

not

highlyrespected.

order of Priestesses, of very an " 218. The Vestals, Virgincs Veslalcs,were The Vesta. constant d evoted the to early origin, preservationof the goddess and tbe princithe of the Palladium II. " 43, " 67) were pal fire holy (P. guarding first in duties of the Vestals. instituted four number; N'uma, were by They added by Tarquihius Priscus or Servius Tullius, and the number two were ever after remained six. Their called Vesta/is or leader, the eldest,was Virgo Maxima. selected (capered) between the age of six and ten, particular They were regard being had to their descent and their bodily vigorand perfection. The first They were obliged to continue in the office thirtyyears unmarried. in performing the second ten ten employed in learning the rites, years were others. them, and the rest in instructing Negligence in any of their duties was

severely punished.
alive in
two
a

If

any

one

violated

her
near

vow

of

chastity,she
Collina.
to

was

buried the

place called

Campus scelcralus,

the Porta
were

Besides of

duties principal

sacrifices,whose
and preparations

of these priestesses, they object is unknown. precise services connected from with
other

accustomed also had from

offer certain
care

They

the

some

sacrifices.

They enjoyed great

parental control;
them of
the
on a thority au-

respect, and
revenues

many

to deliver

privileges ; e. g. entire freedom punishment a criminal, who

devoted
to them
;

met accidentally

tain ; cer-

of lands out; Their

a

the

attendance

lictor,whenever
to obligation account

they went
an

public maintenance,
office
was

and

release from

take
pense. ex-

oath.

abolished

under

Theodosius,
P. II. " 67." Cf.

of its

For

of Vestals, see representations

Plata XXVIII.

and

given explanations

Nadal, Dupuy,

"c.

as

there cited.

before named

few words be added respecting the other classes of priests must bad the care of the " 207). The Quiiulecemviri (cf. sacrisfuc/uiul/s books val at the festi" 22G). The Fralrcs.ftrva.les served especially Sibylline (cf. called Jlmba.rvaUa P. II. " b'3), when dedicated the fields were and (cf. blessed, these priests (cf.P. IV. " 111), with passing over them in procession

" 219

a.

crowd

of attendants.

The

Sodales

Titii

or

Talii

had The
the

their

name

from
were
were

the also

Sabine

king Titus Tatius : each tribe had seven Sodales JLugustales, in honor of Augustus. or priests w ho the sacred rites common to priests, performed
1.

of them. several

There Curiones

thirty

Curiae.

Each
a

of the Curim

had
a

formed

college under
of priests
were

chief

president or priest called Curio; Curio maximus. president termed

classes had their assistants and

these

thirtypriests
;

Cf. " 251

servants

also

P. I. * 61. 2 it. The

all the various

{inhiislri).

wailing boys and maids, ramilli and Camilla; ; the assistants of the priests who offered and Jhniii/ia sacrifices,JluniJv.ii keepers of the temples, "; the aditui or d-i/ii those who a in a i ; brought the victims to the altars and slew them, popes", The vieliiinirii,cult rorii. ".C.,who accompanied tho tibicilies, tnhici/ivs, Jii/irincs, Bacriflcial rites with music, formed likewise another fraternity.
Among
these ihe
3. Tim those
wore

mystagogi
showed into

were

those

who the
j

initiated

others

into

mysteries ;
By

who

to

visiters

curiosities of the
chief antistitcs,

temples.

divided

three

classes

priests ; Roman
set

given to priests m" sacerdotes, ordinary priests; and

name some

the

is also

late

writers

the

nistri,meanest " 219 Romulus

b.

priests.

Respecting the emoluments

firstdivided
the

of the

priestslittleis known.
apart what,
was

When

Roman

be territory,

sufficient for the

performance of sacred rites, and provided a fund for defraying the

ium) for the Vestals; (stipend annual an stipend ; but

for the
expenses

the Augurs there is no

is said to have support of temples. Noma and to have appointed a stipend of religion, said to have also and the Curiones ceived reare that the priestsreceived any reguevidence lar the instances

salary, except

as

it may

seem

probable from

specified. Yet

there

vcrrrrr

P.

III.

RELIGIOUS

AFFAIRS.

PRAYERS.

SACRIFICES.

237

can

be

no
"

doubt

that, in

some

way

Two the Pontifex priests, support. of their office members of the senate.
to the civil magistrate ; and offices both civil and military.
Cf. did "See H.
De

made for their Flamen Dialis,were by virtue All the priestsheld their offices without sibility responwith few exceptions were allowed hold other to
or

other, sufficient provision was

and
the

Maximus

Leg. ii.9." Liv. xxxviii.

Sacerdotiis Rom.

47

; xxxix.

45."

Dionys. Hal.
iii."

iv.

8."

Also,Liv.
honneurs

i. 20."

Dionys. ii, 6, l."Tac.

aux

Ann. Mem.

iv. 16.
Acad.

Belelius, De
108.

in

vol. Sallengi-e,

JSurigny,Les

accordes

pretres, "c. in

the

Inscr. xxxi.

of priests, from ancient be in Plates Representations seen monuments, XIX., XX., may XLVI. in the Sup. Plates XXVII., XXVIII., XLV., XXIX., 28, 29, 32." In Plate XXVIII., ; also from the two taken Priests found at Autun a bas-relief are figures marked (Jlvgustodunum, cf. P. Ii $ 17) ; they represent two Gauls tons BriDruidce, or priests of the religion of the ancient and have is perhaps the Arch-Druid, ample robes, and wears long beards; one, who a ; both
crown

of

oak
the

leaves Druids,
see

and

holds

scepter,
and

the

other

holds

crescent The Celtic

or

half-moon.
Lond. 1827. 4." The work

Respecting

Fosbrohe, Encyclop. of Antiq.p. 768."

Hebrew."
"

G. Higgins,

Druids.
"

entitled "Identity of t]ie Religions called Druidical

"

Montfaucon,

vol. ii. p. 434.

Mayo, Mythology,

vol. ii. p. 209.

Edinb

Encyclop.

cf religious the Romans, we customs among to their to the gods. pertaining They prayers themselves prayed with the head covered or vailed (capitevelato). They bowed down around to the ground, in this posture moved completelyfrom rightto left, their hand the mouth and on right placed (adoratio), directed their face towards the altars and the east, where images of the gods were placed. In a higher their or knees, prostrated the degree of devotion they cast themselves upon the ground. They were whole accustomed to lay hold of the altar body upon of meal and wine with their prayers. and to make The was offerings prayer Public not were always offered with an audible voice. (precationes) prayers made solemn by a priestor a magistrate. The most prayer of this kind was that before the Comitia, by the Roman consul. Thanksgivings (supplicationes) also public and were general,for the purpose of entreating, appeasing, and which the in view the people made solemn a procession to the praising gods; of this sort were ad pulvinaria called supplicationes temples. Public occasions

" 220.

Of

the vast
some

multitude of those

will

notice first

these pulvinaria which on (pulvini), pillows and also termed supplicia,

deorum;

were

sort

of couches
statues

or

stools of the

with

cushions

or were

were
were

placed the appointed in

offered reference
on

honor
these the
"

of

gods. deities, or particular

were

They

of

all the

gods
Les

united.
term

The

prayers
has
Acad. Mem.

occasions

called obse-

craiiones, which
Burigny,
Mem. vol. iii.p. 69. is
no

usually
the

to

of danger. averting
Morin,
in Baisemains,"c. iadoratio), the
same

prieres des Paiennes, in

Inscr. vol. xlii. p. 27.

There

evidence

that public religiousinstruction such

formed
as are

any above

part of the duty of priests, or

and specified,

was

ever

connected

with

public

worship, which
or

consisted wholly in performing

was

rites

in offeringsand sacrifices. Nothing

like preaching

sacred

oratory

known.

"
were

221.

The

of sacrifices Animal
these

the

Romans
times

were (sacrificia)

offered either at
.

stated

or (stata, solennia), were

{ex accidente nata)

difference between

sacrifices

termed

words, viz. that the former on going out againsta foe, and the latter a sacrifice which little regarded by the writers, as another distinction,
a

They occasions particular hostise or victims ," the original sacrifice offered a designated victorious, is as on returning
very
on

various.

makes

the

former

smaller
1
u.

and

the latter
must to

greater sacrifice.

therefore previously selected. be without blemish, and were the altar, ornamented, like the person offeringthem, with garlands decked with gilt, and white of bullocks and rams of flowers; the horns were considered The their necks. filletswere willingapproach of the victim was hung over other hand unfavorable and resistance the favorable omen reluctance on as a as ; the ; The called admovere. was prieststhen commanded act of bringing the victim forward The animals

They

were

brought

favete). Then depart, and another priest ordered silence (Unguis' knife arid The to the gods, and after it the offeringof the victim. for the purpose, consecrated the altar were by sprinkling them with a mixture of salt and the meal of new barley or spelt roasted (mola salsa). The head of the victim was and this is what is properly expressed by the word immolare, sprinkled with the same, with maclare. although it is often synonymous business to kill the victim, having asked, Agonel The cultrarius, whose 2 m. was and the consul, praetor or priesthaving answered, Hocage, then struck the animal in
all the profane to followed the prayer the forehead and a third with his
ax or

caught the blood bv the haruspex, and if they

mallet in a
were

another,

next

cut

or

sacrificial vase. found

The

stabbed entrails

him
were

in the throat then

favorable, were,

examined after being cleansed, laid on

238
the altar and burned.

ROMAN

ANTIQUITIES.

Sometimes

the whole

animal

was

burned

{holocaustum)

but

to the priests. usually only a part, the rest being assigned to the sacrificial feast, or scattered, and wine was Upon the burning flesh incense was poured out ; the latter constituted the libation, and was accompanied with a formal address to the deity, used in the libation instead of wine. After all accipe libe?is. In early times milk was the priestsand those who the feast,of which came presented the sacrifice partook in and which lowed common, was usually accompanied with music and dancing,and often fol-

with
3. Music

games.

also in Plate with

a

represented trumpets;
adorned where the

usually accompanied Plates. our Compare

XXIX. wreath and the

the

offering of
XXVII.

the

where,
on

besides

his

head,
are

flute

tympanum

long straight, the trumpets, the double flute is played by a boy, who is of the also most as are officiating priests; Plate XLV., introduced (cf. P. II. $ 91. 2).
are seen

Plate

sacrifice,as fig.B, where

is shown

by
two

the

monuments

blood; made by libations usually of wine, but also were of other fluids; by burning incense or fragrantwood, such as cedar, fig,and myrtle; and by offering and also sometimes fruit as a tribute or tithe from the harvest {primitice) of flour and honey or of wax. cakes (liba) made
4.

There

sacrifices without

5. Illustrations of the are pouring out of libations given in Plate XXVII. fig.C, and in Plate in the latter is also seen the offering of fruit or cakes, together with it is from XX.; a libation; sacrifice without blood is taking someto Mercury; a sculpture in ivory, representing a a female thing from while of fruit or discus cakes and a cylindrical vase, a servant a (camilla) holds a vessel In the same of a bloodless sacrifice plate is the representation containing the libation. bas-relief of Constantine to Diana, from the Arch (cf. P. IV. $ 188. 2). The a on image of the and in her right hand, standing on her head on a goddess, with a crescent a pedestal, is spear
"

seen

between of hand the

a

two

trees;
;

on

one

of

which
are

is fixed

the

head

of

wild the the

boar emperor flame.

(aper)
In

the Plate

altar XLVI.

is in in is is with is

front
one a

image
volume,

three with

milites the

hastati hand
a

in attendance,

while upon

Trajan, holding
Marcus

other of

empties
to

patera P. IV.

representation
from blood

of the

sacrifice

bull

Jupiter Capitolinus
Cf.

by

the
"

drawn beautiful
out

perhaps

remarkable a anaglyph at Rome. sacrifice representation of the animal conducted of whom by priestesses, one the capedo (cf.$ 206).

$ 188. 3.

emperor In the

Aurelius,
32
a

Sup.
the
a

Plate sacrifice

performed by priests,and of is pouring a libation from

vessel

which

the Romans to make which " 222. It was vows (vota), very common among consisted in promises to render certain actual acknowledgments or generally returns, providedthe gods should grant the requests of those making the vows. A person said vota facer and e, concipere, doing this was suscipere, nuncupare,
was

called

voti

reus;
was

to

fulfil the
to

promise
voti

was

vota

reddere solvere,
compos.
were

he

who the

gained his wish thing desired was

vow
was

said

be

damnalus,
Often

voti

Sometimes
made

itself termed

votum.

publicvows
as was

for the
The

benefit of the whole

of the
L

considered people ; these were usually written upon a wax-tablet, which it was made. god to whom

the

most

binding.
the

preserved in

temple

Those who had survived shipwreck, especially, accustomed to hang up were in u. of their god (Neptune often)pictures representingthe circumstances temple of some carried about sometimes danger and deliverance {tabula votivce). Similar pictureswere by them in order to obtain charitable relief. the vows of a privatenature made 2 m. those, which a person to Juno were Among Lucina a Genius, on boys, on passing birth-day{vota natalitia); those made when or from childhood, cut off their hair and dedicated it to Apollo {vota capillitia) ; the vows of the sick in case of recovery; the vows of those in shipwreck for escape ; of those for subjectsto make for the welfare It also became on custom vows a journeys by land. of their emperors, renewed after the fifth, which tenth, or twentieth year of were their reign, and therefore called quinquennia, decennalia vicennalia. or

the

3.

DodweU,

de

diebus

veterum

in his natalitiis,

Pridea.

Acad.

Ox.

1692.

8. p.

153.

" 223.
one

The

dedication

of the

temples,sanctuaries
of the Romans. This

and
was

altars

was (dicatio),

of the
the

solemnities religious

originally performed
two magistrates appointed templis. The senate

by
must

kings,afterwards
for the

by
and

the

consuls, and often

duumviri

also

by

first decree and

purpose the service ; the

the form

called

dedicandis
must
was

Pontifex
of

Maximus and

be

present

at

the

lemnity so-

acclamations
On the
7

pronounce from the

at the

dedication, which
iv. 53." Cf. Hoohe's

accompanied
then followed.
x.

with

people. Sacrifices, games,

of
a

feasts
Rom.

ceremonies

dedication

temple,

see

Hist. Tacitus,

Hist. vol.

p. 282,

as

cited P. V

^ 299. 1

u.

Similar
was

to

this

was

the
to
a

expression

applied
the

utensils, fields,animals,
in which

"c.
or

of consecration {consecratio) ; only, the latter ceremony great variety of particularobjects,e. g. statues, sacred the other hand, was Resecralion, on action, a private transindividuals sometimes
were

people

freed used

from

their

vows;

this

was

also and

called
2.

religw?iesolvere.
The
term

inauguratiowas

as

synonymous

with

dedicalio

240
rations of the had
recourse

ROMAN

ANTIQUITIES.

to

gods. Besides the use the Sibylline Books, or

were

of their augurium and exlispiscium, they the pretendedprophecies of the Sibyl of

the

Cumas.
1
u.

These

Books
were

received

from
care

Sibyl by Tarquinius Superbus

stpne

(see P. V.

ground in the Capitol, in the custody of the Quindecemviri sacris faciundis (cf. " 219). In important emergencies, in general disasters, when circumstances omens inauspicious, were or were perplexing, and endeavored thence how they consulted the Sibyllinepredictions, to ascertain the offended deities could be appeased. 2 m. The burning of the Capitol, B. C. 84, occasioned the destruction of these books; there were from fragments and quotations. The to restore some attempts parts of them under this naine, however, are in all probability extant pieces now not genuine, but of later origin.
a

f 16). They

kept with great

in

vault under

in order to ascertain the result of an affair or " 227. The use of lots (sortes), with the Romans. small tablets or common undertaking, was They were very of wood blocks {tali) or metal, on which certain words or marks were inscribed, which were The most famous kept in an apartment in the temple of Fortune. those in the temple of this goddess at Prasneste, which in earlytimes were were very
1
as u.

frequently employed.
Those
at

Antium Those
"

were

also renowned

those

at

Casre and Falerium

sort
were were

it was

pretended, miraculously. Sometimes

use. ii.41.

lots of this

disappeared, provided and kept

called
lea

for domestic
"c. Virgilianae,

who

foretold the future

"

by

means
Hislor.
sur

of lots

Sortilegi.
Payens, Sortes

Cf. Ci'c. de Divinat. in Mem.

Liv.

xxi. "2. xxii. 1.

Z"u Resnel, Recberches

les Sorts appelleespar

Acad.

Inscr. vol. xix.

the practiceof augury (cf." 209), other artifices were pretended to foretell the future. Some by those who it by consulting the stars, and were called Astrologi,31athe?natici, to do or professed Chuldmi or Babylonii, as the art was firstpracticedin ChalGenelhliaci, and sometimes Others daea. professed to interpretdreams, Conjectores; others to have an internal Insane persons afflatus or inspiration, Harioli, Vaiicinatores. know were supposed to foreclass were the Ceriti,those rendered insane by Ceres; the the future ; in which Lunalici, by the moon; Fanalici, by" Lymphali, rendered so by the water-nymphs; of the Fauni, or of Faunus, the first builder of a fane (fanum). In short many the spirit of divination (cf." 75) were the Romans. of the Grecian arts practiced among have been the Romans; to 3. Magical arts, although prohibited, seem employed among in perhaps, however, chieflyby Greeks and other foreigners. Some passages Horace at Rome. openly avowed clearlyindicate that magical pretensions were Pliny fraudulent in all the world. The art, that has had sway speaks of magic as a most of fascinating Romans generally admitted the notion that certain persons had the power the them ; which Greeks termed others (fascinatio), by darting an evil look upon BaaKavia kind was (cf." 75. 6). To avert such malignant influences, an amulet of some the neck, called fascinum (cf.P. II. " 91. 2). sometimes on worn
2.

Besides

the

use

of lots and Romans

employed

among

the

"

Sec

Arclixologia (as cited P. IV. " 243. 3.) vol. xix. p. 70, on
V. Alsarius, De and Romans." Invidia Le
et

an

antique Bas-relief supposed to represent the fascination by

vol. xii."Class.
e

the

evil

eye.

"

Faacino

Veterum,

in Grxvius,
V

Journ. de Lit. 5. and

vol. xxxvi.
et Beaux

p.

185,

on

the

magic
and

of the Elan-

Greeks

Blond, sur Magie,

Acad. la Magie.

in the Mem.de

Institute C lass

Arts, i. 81."
Hist. Nat.
xxx.

Bonamy

chard, La Magie, "c. in the Mem.

Sciences

Inscr. Far.

vii. 23. xii. 49. 1829.

2

'Cf. Hot. Epod.

H."Plin.

l."Sulverte, Dej

Occultes, ou

Essaie

sur

vols. 8.

"

228.

The

division

therefore falls under

changes
the

in this, we
of the

of the priests, made at Rome of the year was and a care of religious affairs. Without noticingthe various that Romulus, remark Numa, and Julius Caesar were may the head of and computing dividing reckoned,
the year.

authors
was

methods principal into three of the month,

The in
these

month
three
1
u.

divided

parts by the Calends, Nones,

the Romans

and

Ides, and
from

computing
fixed
The hours

days points.
the

backwards

day

was

reckoned of

from
course

sunrise
were

to

sunset.

This

space

was

divided

into

of length at the different seasons The the year ; hence the phrase hora hibemia, equivalent to liora brevissima. night likewise divided into twelve hours (P. I. " 187), and also into four watches (vigilice). was been introduced to have of sun-dials (solaria), and of water-glasses(clepsydrce), The use seems at a comparatively lateperiod. twelve which (floras) of different
2. The first
one

dial
at

is said
was

to

have
set

been B.

invented C. about and

at

Lacedremon The

Rome carried

up
to

260.

"

of Cyrus the Great. in the time invented at clepsydra (K^txpiipa)was B. C. about

The A'".x-It the

a

andria,
was

and

thence

Athens

afterwaids,

160, introduced

at

Rome. which in which

perforationin the bottom, through by a vessel of water, having a minute issued water vessel, (stealing out, K\i\"jic viup) drop by drop, and fell into another As the water index to it an or graduated scale. .ightbody floated, having attached
formed

increased

'.T*C*.

P.

III.

RELIGIOUS

AFFAIRS.

FESTIVALS.

241

in the
an

receiving vessel, the floating body rose, and by its regularly increasing height furnished indication of time." so to a correct approximation (Bigelow's Technology, p. 365.) It was the varying that could be accommodated the orifice for letting out the water to constructed, from time business it was hours. to time A servant length of the Roman was employed, whose
"

to

examine
See

the

water-clock,

and

report
the

the

hour
the

to

his

master.
and et year,

the account
191-193.
"

of the divisions of time the references

among
we

Romans,

day, month,
Noctis

given under

Chronology ; cf. P. I. "" 187, Schriftm.

188,

To

there given

add Dissen, De

Partibus

"c. Diei,

in his Kleine

" 229.
of the

The

Romans

had

multitude with
dies

of festival

days,
those

set

apart for the service

games; which
these
no were

gods, and

celebrated

sacrifices, banquets, and

assembly of the was held, but the praetor administered justice; days, on he could not which termed nefasti. Days, of which do this, only a part were of each could be appropriated called intercisi ," those wholly to business, were considered were resigned to business, profesii.Such as were inauspicious the first after called dies religiosi reckoned these days they especially ; among the Calends, Nones, and Ides; which pustridiani. The festival they named

called dies

festi. The people or senate

days called

fasti were

on

days

were

termed

also

dies feriati, from ferise,

the

cessation

of

common

business.
1. The Roman festivals either nation ox were public, observed by the whole (feriaspublico;), held or. individuals festivals and were private, observed by families (feria private). Private births, marriages, days determined by the parties interested; being designed to commemorate in domestic the fericestatwie, deaths, or other important events public included history. The those of regular occurrence certain fixed days; the feriaiconceptivce, those held on ally on days annuappointed by civil magistrates or by the priesthood (jus pontificium); and the fence imperative, held those of the consul, the on or a dictator. special emergencies prstors, by command above mentioned As all common business the public ferice, the sancity of was on suspended which violated if the of the flamines, saw The was at work. or rex sacrorum, any any person number of the feria? and sometimes interfered with the the great length of their continuance Marcus Aurelius ordained that two hundred discharge of the public affairs of the state. proper and be open for business, and the remaining days might be feriai. thirty days of the year should The festivals had but were some particular names, designated by a distinctive commonly thet epibetween the alliance applied to the common name; as, e. g. Ferice Latince, commemorating the Romans and The Nundinal Latins; Feriai Sementivm, in seed-time, to pray for a good crop. sometimes reckoned the Feriai;they were the people from were regular days on which among the country assembled their various commodities for sale, market to expose days; called Nandince, because ninth It was the business of the Pontifices they occupied every day (Ov. Fast. i. 54). Fasti to prepare Fasti Kalendares, Sacri, in which or or annually a register called Kalendarium, the days were marked in each and month ent distinguished according as they belonged to the differmentioned classes above named the various festivals to take were as place ; and they were The Fasti Kalendares the Fasti Annates: the latter to be distinguished from are through the year. the most those termed Fasti Consulares. were registers of the magistrates; of which important were
" "

Hartung,
1593. fol.
"

Die Religion der Romer.

"

R. Mem.
"

Hospinian,
Acad.
Several

De

Festis Diebus
"

Judaeorum, Grsecorum, Romanorum, Nauze,

are

et Turcarum.

Tigur.
vol. xxvi.

Couture,

Les

Fastes, in the

Inscr. i. 60.

De

la

Calendrier

Romain,

in the
"

same

Afem."c. Calendar

p. 219.

"

Cf. Port

Royal Lat. Grammar.

in Smith's

Fragments
"

of Calendars

given

in

Grsevius, vol. viii. Prxnestinum,

see

fromPauty's
6." Respecting

is given Real-Encyclopadie the Fasti Annates

or

Diet, of Antiq P. V. " 508.

Respecting the Calendarium

P. IV. " 133.

see Historici,

"

230

1.

Of

the

numerous

Roman

we festivals,

will

mention

some

of the

in principal,
January, first day
the presents ; 1st of

order of the months.

day.
the The

festival of Janus,
on

on

ralia,

to

the
or

Manes,

the

times,
The
strence

Consuls

year, entered
on

which,

in

later office. called

expiation
It continued

accompanied purification of the

the from which
name

with

solemn

city, called
month end
were

ar fethe
ried car-

customary
were

their upon this day were from clients 9th. 11th

to

uatio, whence month,

to

of 18th

the
to

itself. of

the

the

they
from

sent to

their and

during
the and

patrons,
from

citizens
to
one

the

magistrates,
The and

friends

another. of
to

Jlgo15th. the

graves the living held 21st. boundaries. On the

presents of deceased friends feasts

time

and and

tives, relart

of love
to

nalia, also in honor The Carmentalia,

an
"

Janus. the

conciliation.

Terminalia,
first

Terminus,
which in

goddess
mother of

Carmenta,
Evander.

god

of

Arcadian
""

prophetess,
The

March.

day,

with

festival of seed, the began, a festival to Mars, Sementinai, or early times year of the with fered on difthe which the Jlnibarvalia, which procession or war-dance accompanied made tival from in Salii was (cf. $ 215); called also the festhe festival of the same name 25th. ; on which animals to

May
the The

they passed
be Peace slain The The in

over

the

fields with 30th.

sacrifice.

festival of
or

(Pax), first established

festival in honor

by
of the of
fuge re-

Augustus. Penates,
the

31st. household 1st.

shields of the three days. ; it lasted from 6th. Vestalia, different that held in June. different but 17th. Liberalia, to Bacchus, from 19th. the Bacchanalia. Quinqnatria, to

gods.
Lucaria, in memory of the or by Romulus, sack after the Romans
"

Minerva,
the last trumpets fled.

named

from called in

its duration

of five because then whose and the

was

days
the

February..

day
used 23d.

Tubilustrium,
sacred
to

formed asylum (lucus) of the their city by Brennus.

to

rites

were

puri
sacred

of

Hilaria,

This

day
13th.

was

also

cated dedi-

image
called April.

was

during
Lavatio On
to

it

Cybele, sprinkled
Detim.

purified, festival
cated. dedivol. whose

Juno

Sospita.
and the 15th.

honor 5th Pan

of Faunus December.

(cf.J 216). lus, deified by the 31

Sylvan Lupercalia, to Lycsean 17th. Quirinalia, to Romu

Quirinus.
18th. Fe-

in Faunalia, eods, repeated

also

Matris 1st

the whom

day, Veneralia,
whole
month

of Venus,
1

the

(Cf. Scholl,
p.

Hist.

Litt.
to

Rom.

name

24).

5th.

Megalesia,

Cybele,

242
priests,the procession.
wilh Tellus, scarcity, (lie
cow

ROMAN

ANTIQUITIES.

Galli

(cf. $ 217), on this made their 13th. Oerealia, to Ceres, attended

15. the
a

games of

in 17th.

honor

of

Mars.
to

13th.

To

Diana.

Portvnmalia,
"

games.

for the
on

Fordiridia, to of averting purpose

Curia

goddess
dearth
Or

harbors.

"18th.
or

the Portnmnus, to Consus, Covsnalia,

to

god
the

god of counsel
The seizure the

rather the

Equestrian
women

Neptune.
was memorated com-

occasion

each festival;

af which Noma furnished

to

instituted
a

of

Sabine

(forda) to be sacrificed to Palilia, a rural, country festival

of
to

Tellus.

pregnant -21st.
"

same

day.of the

21st.

Vinalia
to to

(the
as

second),
and the

or

festival 23d.

vintage

Jupiter

Pales,

dess god-

Venus.

Vulcanalia,

Vulcan

cnltle.

"

22d.
to

Vinalia,repeated

gust, in Au-

god

of

fire, for
Earth. On

consecrate

vine bicus,

in

Italy. that he

23.

Jupiter the growth of the Robigalia, to the god Ro"

25th.

security against tions. conflagraOpeconsiva,to Rhea, or Ops, or

1 lie 1st

fruit-bearing
September.
t

might
attended festival first

blighting(a rubigine)
or

protect 28th. with of the

the

grain
to

from
ra Flo-

Floralia, games Palatine

mactes.

Chloris,

(cf. $ 236).

Circus,
ceremony

to

30th. The
May. Lares Buna the
res,

Vesta,
to

stituted inlasted

from

by Augustus.
On the

day,

the

Festival

the
to men wo-

the the

temple

Prastites, and
Dea,
alone. 2d.

the

ceremonies the vestals

by

night and

performed by

25th. in for this

purpose, To Venus

day, to Jupiter Maiin the Mugni, or Rumani, Minerva and Jupiter, Juno, ; they the 4th day to the 12th. 13th. The of fixing a nail {clavus figendus) in of Jupiter, by a dictator for appointed to avert contagious pestilence.
4th. Ludi Oenctrix. wine sacred before
to
a

30th. the

Meditrinalia,

named the existence as Meditrina, is as doubtful (cf. 1'. 11. t"$ of the goddess herself. 15th. Festum 12th. jSugustalia, 110, 111). October. Moratorium, to Rlerproperly games for merchants (cf. P. II. J 5(5). 23d. of Augustus, instituted after the close curv, in honor i ulcanalia, to of his campaigns, Vulcan, called also JSMlustria particularly the Armenian, "Yoni the purifying of the sacred R. C. 19 or 20. 13th. Foulimilia, in which the trumpets. and relatives
on

public ways. or wandering

Compitalia, to the Lares 9th. Lfviuria, to tlieLemuspiritsof deceased ancestors

father's side

tasting
festival

new was

vintage;
of

that

goddess

health,

the

June.
to

On Dea

the

first

day

were

several Mars The

vals, festiExtrafestival

public

fountains To

were

crowned

wilh horse-race of which The

garlands.
on a

Carna,
4th. in
was

Juno

Moneta,
3d. of

15th.

Mars,
at

chiefly a
the end

the horse

and muraneus, liellona. to

Tempestas,
To

Campus
was

Martins,

Hercules.
the
to

'Jth. J'esta-

offered

in sacrifice.

19th.

.flrmilus-

lia, to Vesta,
men. to

memory
sent

gift of
which

bread
to

Food the

the

Vestals

be

trium, or review-muster, fered soldiers, and ofin full armor.

to

celebrated dedicated

only
to

by

gods;

and

the

asses,

turned

November.

13th. Joi'is. circus times 5th.

feast

ter, Jupi-

the

decked with and mills, were led garlands in 10th. Matiulia,to Manila, procession. celebrated matrons by Roman festival, a ; also
on

Kpitlam
theatre,
held
"

15th. Ludi
;

Plebeii, in the
also

or

the

they
not

were

ly frequentthe ple peo-

tit other

defined.

the
to

same

day,
for of the had
the

to

and

Concordia.

designed
those, who

Virilis, by women ; Quinquatria (parva), and of improvement pleasure

13th.
care

Fortmia

December. of
was

Faunalia,
as

kept
same

by
in

the

country,
one

the

by

the

inhabitants of the
most

of
to
a

the famous

February city." "17th.

festivals of wards afterIt

the

of 16th.

the

music

in

the

Saturnalia,
Rome,

worship temple
people
Jur.Y. hired Ludi

gods.
19th.

of
to

Vesta.
Pluto. lower Muses. the the the On

probably
Of and

2lth. classes.

Purifying of the To i e. Swmmanus, Fortuha Fortis, for

30th. To cules Her-

originally
extended
a

limited

single day,
more.

over

three, four, and

leisure and

was

festival of the

of

government first

day
their

the

occupants
6th.

of 5th. To

houses

changed

residence.

period in During it placed on a footing of equality with of the peculiar customs Many
memory

golden

general joy, in the Italy under

slaves their and
or were ters. mas-

of

Saturn.

.ipollinares, with
Fortune, his 7th. 15. To To

sacrifices.

were

similar Festival,

to

those

of the

Carnival,
See entitled

sports mas Christ-

Female

in memory of Coriolanus from the city (Liv. army

drawing withii. 40). Chr.

of modern p. 435.
"

Rome. work
vol.

Coleman's Rome in 19th.

Antiq.
to

The

Juno

Caprotina, for

young
"

women.

the Nineteenth

Century,
goddess
of the the Lares after

nalia.
August.

goddess

Castor and Pollux." 23d. JVeptu35th. Furiaalia, to the goddess Furina. On the 1st day festival the to a of Hope; and and gladiatorial sports

Opalia,
to

the

of

iii. p. 240. The Ops.

were as

talia, Compioften
as

the

crossways,

held

shortly
months.

Saturnalia,

well

in

|other

" 231.
Greeks
the

The from

public
whom

(ludi) amonggames the former borrowed

the them

Romans,
in

as

well

as

part, were

viewed

the amongfestival as

in honor of the gods. These usually at the expense of were games the emperors. of individuals, at the expense state, sometimes particularly and different in their character, as well as in the time They were place of their celebration. several held of Many were annually,or after a period years, at a occasions
time fixed also arose from occasions; hence the or variable; many particular instauraiiri. variety in distinctive appellations; e. g., ludi stati,imperative, Names were votivi,ijuinquenna/es, given dccennales, secu/arcs, htsfraks, "c. also in reference to their character, and the place where celebrated ; they were e. funebres. Only scenici,piscaiorii, triumphaks, g., ludi circcnscs, capitolini, the
most

famous The

of these

games

can

here
are

be the

noticed. Ludi

" 232.
was not

first to

be mentioned received

Circcnscs,or
the Circus

which from Magni. name They its formed free in taken a whole, a merely place, but, laige superb ediof theatre,commenced and lice; it was a kind Priscus, enlarged by Tarquinius and adorned by Julius Cwsar dictator. as
their
1 u. Its breadth was three and a half stadia than a stadium, and its length was more at (3187 feet). All around it were seats (fori) for spectators, so as to accommodate least 1:0,000 persons. In the middle, extending lengthwise, wall, called spina a was

Ludi

by way Maximus,

of eminence

P.

III.

RELIGIOUS

AFFAIRS.

FESTIVALS.

GAMES.

243

in lenglh. At each end of the wall were circi,4 feet high, 12 broad, and 1 stadium the goals(meta), around which three pyramids on a single base, which were the horses other 'J'lie wall had many The whole edifice also and chariots turned. ornaments. altogetherthe largestof the kind, although there were was highlyornamented j it was

eight other plaoes for races openingsor parts separatedby walls,

in Rome stood

and called

games,

called

Circi. the
a

At

one

end

were

12

waiting for the signal lo

drawn
across

start.

[Not
one

carceres, far from the

where
carceres,

horses and
whitened

chariots {alba

rope

and marking the commencement, who diviclcd half the end, of the race.] Those governed the chariots, were into certain classes (facliones or greges), distinguished by dresses of different colors. dedicated to the god of the sun. The whole circus was linen) was the other
2.

the circus;

half of it

Pliny (Hist.

N.

xxxvi.
as

24)

Btatcs

the the

number

of

persons

which

the

Circus

Maximus

was

capable of containing of 383,000,"Of number

Cirrus it'iiiniiniiis ; the

260,000; and
the other
in
a

structures

authority of Aurelius Victor lias been cited for the of this class the following were the principal: the
; i.lic Circus

(U.ir/is JHcxuviiriniis

Sallustieus ; the

Circus

or VaJFlorialis,

finished by ticanus,

where numbers of the splendid style,and signalizedas the scene in the centre of the perissuffered martyrdom upder that emperor; the obelisk tyle early Christians taken from Caracul 'la ; the l)nPeter the spina of this circus Cirrus lit' Sl. was ; the Circus the with of remains still the the Via viiiiu;." On ground plan, Appia there part superstructure, called the Circus of a small circus, commonly of Caracalla. Nero
""

as Qricvius,

cited " 197. 1. vol. ix. ; and Con

note

Pulimus,
Horn.

as

there
I7S0.

vol. cited,

v."

CI. L.

Ilianccmi, Discriziono
on

di ((Hellodi Caracalla, "c.

C. Fca.

(61." Jiurgen, The

Circus

Ibo

tlci Circhi partioolarmeuta quities. Appiau Way." Smith, Diet, of Anti-

The Ludi Cireenses were sometimes commonly held hut once a they year; maintained at public appointed on extraordinaryoccasions ; in both cases they were The solemn procession which preceded them, poni/xi, circe/i.si.s, moved from the cost. borne in splendid carriagesor frames (in thensts Capitol. The images of the gods were
3
u.

were

etfercutis),
or

on

men's the

or

on

foot, with
the
u.

shoulders (in kumcris), followed by a great train,on horseback Sacred rites were then performed, combatants, musicians, "c.
or

and

Circus wore of four kinds; chariotand strength, such as wrestling (lucla), agility and running boxing {"j)iir;ilui us), throwingthe discus (discijactus),leaping (saltus), of sieges and of battles on foot and on horseback, including (cursus); representations

" 233

games The.
two

opened.
names

shows

in the (spectacula)
of

races,

with

or

lour

horses;

contests

the

Liul.us

these
and

of wild beasts (ve.naiio). To describe Trojee( Virg.Mn. v. 515); fighting would limits. exceed our Many of the exercises, however, corparticularly responded
"

to

reeks those of the (,'

sometimes

with rich
which he

(cf.%1S 83). The victors were The victor in the gills in addition.
"

rewarded chariot-race

with

crowns a

received

palm-branch,
is

bore
a

in his hand.
Roman with \hepalm charioteer, in his ri^ht hand, and the reins in his left j ho

victorious in Ag. U, of Plate XVI. 1. We have body. closely girdedabout the chest cjpd Sec Lc jcux Brottier,
du

Cirque,

in the

Mem.

tic. VJIruil. del Inter, vol. xlv. p. 487." iV/JIst. el Bit. Am:,
vol.
x.

Mongez,

Sur

les animaux

promencs

ou

tuea

dans

les Cirques, in the Mem.

Classc it I'lnttilut,

p. 3C0.

u.

At

the time

of the Ludi

the Circus; particularly

were

the
V/ere

purpose

made in also called Naumachice. which and filledw-ith water, The vessels were malefactors, slaves, or conquered foes,and many by prisoners, usually manned
or were

also exhibited, not. in the Mngni, other spectacleswere ginally oriNaumachim, ,or representationsof naval battles. These basins o,r excavations made lor the sea, but afterwards in artificial

lost their lives the Circus

3. were

Maximus,
is said CTac. each

water
xx.

This spectacle sometimes was severely wounded. being introduced into it for the purpose.
fi6." Suet. Claud.

exhibited

in

Claudius

Ann.

21) lo have

exhibited

magnificent sea-lighton

lake Fucinus, in which

were common

there the

fifty ships DD
and
are

battles with 19,000 of naval coznbalaiilB.(nauma'0/H,an'{).^RepfeBentajfoni side,

on some

under

emperors,

commemorated

of the

imperial coins.

"

See

lie Schtjjcr,

Militia

Navali.

"

234.

The

Ludi

Sseculares, or
were

centurial

frames,

were

solemnized

with

much

exactly after the lapse of a century, but little a littleearlier or a later;usually in the month of April. For this occasion long" wore always made, the Sibyllinebooks were consulted, preparations and a sort of general purification or expiation of the whole city was previously offered to all the gods, those of the infernal world as well made. Sacrifices were those of Olympus, and while the men attended banquetsof the gods in their as
ceremony. sometimes

They

not

celebrated

temples,the
were

women

assembled

also
the

to presented

for prayer the Genii.

in the

temple of

Juno.

ings Thank-offer-

the

theatre from the Capitol to a large oti of Apollo and the games were exhibited, in honor Tiber, where Diana, collected to offer sacrifice in the matrons the second day the Roman (in were of praise to Apollo and Diana other solemnities, a Capitol. On the third, among song 1
u.

After

a sacrifices, procession advanced

banks

of the

was

sung

in the

temple of Palatine Apollo, by

select band

of young

men

and

virgin*

244
of Patrician
the
The

ROMAN

ANTIQUITIES.

rank.
of

The

carmen

smculare

of Horace
games
Ann.

was were

prepared

to

be

thus sung,

at

command
first celebration
Claud.

Augustus, in whose
place in
the

reign the
17 ; and Rom." 8S

celebrated.
in the reign of Claudius, A. D. 47 thousand 351.

took third

reign of Augustus, B.C.

(Toe.

x'i. 1 1) ; the second

(Suet.
years

21) ;

the

in the reign of Domitian, A. D. Cf. Hartung,

Die

the last in the reign of Philippus, A. D. 248, just one On

the

after the building of Rome."

Relig. d.

chronology of these games,

Class.

Journal,xvii.

u.

To

the
the

religioussolemnities,which
state,
were

were

held
various

for the

purpose

of

securing the
rendered histrionic

safety of
this
a

whole

afterwards

added

the hilarity. Among plays, and the feats of jugglers(prcestigiatores), persons (petauristce), rope-dancers (fwiambuli), and the like.
The

festival of universal

which amusements, diversions were pantomimes, who seemed

to

fly in the air

at the of

rope-dancer (KaXo/3dri?s, o-%Mi/o/?riTi;s) seems

exhibit funamlmli
the

usually to
in
a

have

been

Greek

(Juv. iii.SO).

Some

of the paintings found

Herculaneum like." See

placing themselves
cCErcolano

of attitudes, in the character gTeat variety few

of bacchanals, satyrs,and
are

work

styled AnticlU

(citedP. IV. " 243. 2),vol. iii." A

of the figures

given in Smith., Diet

Antiq. p. 434.

" 235.
Rome.
the

The

shows, gladiatorial
were or

They
;

Ludi Gladiatorii,were usually called Munera, as they would

greatlyadmired in to impart pleasure

whom

spectators,
in

bestow

respect

on

those

out

of g.

regard to
at

they
in

were

held

the

latter view
of the

they

were

e. appointed,

the funerals,or

memoration, com-

deceased.
were

u.

These of

shows

of Etrurian

origin, and

probably

grew

out

of the

ancient

departed. At Rome at first exhibited they were chieflyat funerals ; afterwards they were given by the iEdiles, Praetors, Quaestors, and Consuls, in the amphitheatres, especiallyon the festivals of the Saturnalia and Quinquatria. The gladiators Their residence uoi'oua\ot) were (gladiat supported at public expense. ores, called Indus, a name or often given to any place of instruction was arena or such exercises were learned or practiced; their overseer termed was building,where the combat often was procurator, and their instructor, lanista. In the public spectacles, carried to blood and even the conquered gladiatorbegged his life of to death, unless number of spectators. The of combatants the crowd and indeferminate, was originally The until fixed by Caesar. and gladiatorsbore various names accordingto their armor their mode of fighting. armed secutores with helmet, shield, and sword. 2. The were gladiatorstermed with the retiarii,who dressed in a short tunic with were usually matched They were or nothing on the head, bearing in the left hand a three-pointedlance (tride?is fuschia), the head of their adversary. The and in the right a net (rete) in order to throw it over armed like Gauls, and took the name from the image of a fish on their mirmillones were with those termed essedarii The thraces. helmet, and were usually matched fought from chariots, and the equiteson horseback helmets which covered wore ; the andabals Several their eyes, and according to some other classes writers, fought on horseback. It is to be observed that the term named. are gladiatores included those who fought with beasts well as those who termed fought with men as were ; although the former bestiarii. distinctively 3. At first gladiators were wholly composed of criminals and slaves ; but afterwards
custom
"

sacrificing prisoners at

funeral

solemnities

in honor

of the

free citizens of noble

or

An advertisement birth, and even women, foughton the arena. intended was to exhibit a (libellus) (editor)who put up by the person of the combatants and sometimes an account show, with a delineation or gladiatorial
"

public notice

On the day of exhibition the gladiators led along the arena in were pictureannexed. When his arms, it a gladiator lowered procession,and then matched for the contest. his fate depended on the spectators ; if they wished a sign of being vanquished ; was their thumbs him they pressed down to be saved, ; if to be slain,they turned up their If a vanquished gladiator was thumbs (pollicem premebant or vertebant). spared, he termed missio, hence an exhibition in which said to receive his discharge,which was was said to be sine missione. to be saved the lives of the vanquished were Vast not was and of brute animals numbers of men were destroyed. In the spectacles after the the Dacians, it is said that 10,000 gladiators fought, and 11,000 triumph of Trajan over killed. These shows animals were prohibitedby Constantine, but not fullysupwere pressed
"

until the time

In
on

of Honorius.
found short taken from are figures illustrating this subject, which at Pompeii. combat an equestrian Fig. 1 represents cloak

Plate tomb

XXX. of

are

several

sculptures
; the

the

Scaurus

anda-

fiara? are helmet foot

clothed with
a

in the

appear above the

of mail vizor the right arm. Two sort on covering the gladiators on and has the helmet the subligaculum, a short fixed figures 3 and 4. Each apron and holds the the on right arm, or long hips by a girdle. Fig. 3 has armor scutum, of buskin, and his left the ocrea shield ; on his right leg is a kind of the on or greave ; the rest his shield raised to he has lowered his hand as being vanquished, and body is naked; implore of the to them, whether spectators. Fig. 4 is behind him, waiting for the signal from mercy smaller bis antagonist or strike the death-blow carries a his shield, has armor ; he spare upon his legs. Fig. 6 presents of four gladiators; two a group are thighs and the high greaves upon of the secutores and is wounded in the leg, two net-men (retiarii). One follower* (secutores'),
"

(inducula), face, and a

and

armed

with

the

lance, round

buckler

(pa^ma),

in

"

246
thigh,
and
to

ROMAN

ANTIQUITIES.

likely from the trident of his antagonist him and insult his conquered thus seems to retiarius, who pushes rival. The with other retiarius is waiting to fight in his turn the who is hastening to secutor end the The letters of the figures are the against two sufferings of his wounded companion. of the persons with number of victories the names on sculptured represented, gained by them The the arena. tomb representing Fig. S, with a lance in each hand, is from a group on the same in the arena" bestiariits preparing himself contend to a young Fig. 5 is also from a sculpture on this tomb, driven with lance a representing a bull frantic with through his breast, and rage, he is wounded. the man rushing towards by whom
the

arm, receive

and, having
from

in vain of

implored
his comrade

mercy
a more

of

the

spectators,
death

he than

bends would

his be

knee

rently appa-

sword

speedy

See Mazois,

as

cited

P.

IV.

243.

2." Ant

Pompeii, p. 291,
1637.

as

cited P. IV. 226.

1.

For

minute

details

cf. /. respecting gladiators,

Lipsius, Saturnnlia, in his Works.

6 vols. fol.

with the festival of the goddess Flora, instituted at They were Rome, B. C. 24 ; afterwards discontinued for a period, but were renewed sequence they were again in conof a sterility the punishment for their of fruit,which viewed was as omission. to the evening of the 3d They lasted from the day above mentioned of May; offered ; those who sacrifices were no engaged in the celebration wore

" 236.
on

The

Ludi

Florales

were

united

held

the 28th

of

April (" 230).

garlandsof flowers,
to extreme

and

the

of peas " 237

and often descended indulgedin frequentbanquetings, also formed ; Parties for hunting and dancing were sediles curules, who had the care of the plays, distributed vast quantities and beans the populace in the Circus. among t. There other which we were or tion sports (ludi), may just mengames and licentiousness.

here. The Ludi

Megalenses,in
mutual
"

honor

of

Cybele, mother

of the

gods, celebrated

with

shows, and by higher ranks.

and
to

between of the (jnulitare) persons presents and entertainments The of the rape' of Proserpine, Ludi Cereales in the Circus, in the memory of her mother Ceres. The the consequent Martiales, dedicated sorrow
"

of Apollo, and generally preserving the Capitol from the Gauls. of the expulsion of the kings and the reThe covery Plebeii, in commemoration and in memory of freedom. of Neptune, of the The Consuales, in honor and 'AvyovaraXta), seizure of the Sabine The Ludi in (Ssffcurra, Augustales women. Ludi the Tiber, honor of Augustus. The Piscatorii, held on the sixth of June, near in behalf of the hshermen. the games occasioned and called ludi by vows Among such as were votivi, the principalwere promised and appointed by generals in war ; be ranked dewhich those already mentioned (" 231), the quinquennal.es, among may To the class cennales. five, ten, and twenty years. "c, given by the emperors every called extraordinarri, belonged such held at funerals, called Ludi Funebres as were ; and those appointed by Nero for youth on completing their minority in age called
Mars

Uhor,
The
"

or

the

avenger.

"

The

in Apollinares,
memory

honor

scenical.

"

to Jupiter, in Capitolini,

of his

"

"

"

"

"

Ludi

Juvenales.

" 238.
theatres

For

and scenici)
were

of these games, the dramatic {ludi especially exhibitingmany used. In the first ages, theatres and ampitheatres were gladiatorial,
"

constructed

merely of wood,
and similar
and
to

and

were

taken

down

after

being used.

Afterwards
Their the form of

they
a

were was

built of stone,

sometimes
the
most

construction for the

that of Greek
The

of great size and splendor. side or end had theatres; one

the other
was was tangular rec-

for prolonged semicircle,

spectators, and
famous

stage

actors.

theatre

that

built
so

C. 59 by the eedile M. Scaurus, at his own partlyof marble, and expense, sit in it. The theatres could capacious that eighty thousand spectators
B.

of

Pompey
1.

and

Marcellus

were,

also very

largeand

celebrated

; the

latter in part
of three parts, under one

still remains.
The
scena,

Roman

the

(cf.P. IV. theatre, like the Greek latter are orchestra, and cavea ; but the two

" 235), consisted

sometimes

included

in the Roman the chorus and musicians were placed on the stage (the cavea), because of seats in the orchestra occupied by the senators, and were the rows (or scena); The fourteen next and especially distinguished personages. foreign ambassadors, of the cavea were rows assigned to the equites,and the rest of the people. Women of Augustus. The occupied the portico surrounding the whole, by an arrangement
"

stage, or one3 part

portion allotted
was

to

the the

performers, had
term
scena

that

to

which

whole) more appropriately belongs, the scene fastened was by a curtain {aulceum). which
to hide the necessary columns, txoslra); statues,

parts distinguishedby name for the stage as (which is put sometimes concealed or ; the part sometimes scenery several
at

;
a

not

the

it was

scene,

was

drawn

up

by

pictures,and various
to

top but at the bottom, and, when machine for the purpose (called a of the most ornaments magnificent

character
h

were

exhibited, according
the
scene,

the

nature

place behind

where

the

actors

of the plays. The postscenium wTaa changed their dresses, and the "proscenium

P.

III.

REUGIOTJS

AFFAIRS.

AMPHITHEATRES.

247
actors

was

the space
was

in front of the termed

Roman

speaking
A BHBH is

The place usually occupied by the scene. cf. " 89). pulpitum (KoyeTov,
is

when

plan of the
the in order

theatre

orchestra
to

; the circle the show manner

given in our Plate XLIX. is presented complete of determining the

inscribed other one-third
was so

fig.2.
with the

The four

upper

half

of

the

circle

equilatrial
scena,

places
vertices and

for

the

the
on ;

scribed, triangles inpostscenium, the the the ends diameter theatre. of

and the

the

cunei

diameters of the

; these BB, HH orchestra

to

triangles
; then
was

are

that

their the

fall

severally
required
diameter orchestra.

their

angles give
twice the

points
of the

limits

(HH)
The

usually
or

(or more)

whole the of,

of

length given

the

scene

stage

diameter

the Romans 2. The mentioned are principalforms of dramatic entertainment among in another P. V. "" 308-320. the musical particularly Among part of this work ; see instruments the flute, and the lyre, or harp, and in later times the hyemployed were draulic The called cortina. sometimes common accompaniments of comedy organ, the flutes termed Serrana tibia dextrce or Lydia, and tibia sinistra or were or Tyria; been the terms them. There Ira's and also some to are applied ment disagreeimpares pares It is most these terms to what commonly supposed that the musician as mean.
"

used these
one

two
a

flutes
sort
were

at

once

or

double

Bounded
two

of bass, while the dextra termed united they were and

upon
XLIX. De

flute ; that had more the other

the

sinistra

had the

but

few

holes

and

holes the

with took

sharper tones, and when

other
names

impares, and

because
or

stopped by the left hand united and played sinistra were

was A "The

two right; when called by the musician, they were

by

dextra pares.

two

painting found
use

at

Pompeii

represents

flute-playerblowing upon

the

double

flute ;

see

our-Plate

XXVI.

fig.a, and cf. " 180. 2.

of

the

double

flute is seen
"

also in Plate

fig.B, and in Plate XXIX."

in vol. ii. Boltiger, Die Erfindung der Plate,

as

of Wicland's

Attisches

Museum.

A. Manutius,

Tibiis Veterum,

in Ugolinus, vol. xxxii.

cited " 197.

3. Masks

and

were masks

used on the Roman in great variety were probably similar to those of the Greeks.
are

stage as well Cf. " 89. 2.

fig.B B.
"

as

on

the Grecian

Several Les

represented in the beautiful mosaic

les Romains, in the Mem. cited
P.

given in Plate XLIX.

s s e

On

theatres,plays, masks, "c. cf. Bernardi,

Arte,

jeux sceniques chez

de Vlnstitut, C 1 a

d'Hist. et Lit. Ludis

vol. viii. p. 250.

"

Dunlop,

as

cited

P. V.

" 299.

8."

Work

styled Pompeii,

IV. " 226."/.

L. Falricius, De

Scenicis,in Gronovius, vol. viii." Bdttiger, atrical (theInscr.

Prolus. de

Personis

scenicis,vulgo Larvis.
Rom.

Vinaria?, 1794. 4." Francisco

1736. 4. with
"

de Ficoroni, Dissettatio de larvis scenicis, "c. Rom. in the Mem. de VAcad.

aes

Masques
vol. iv. p. 132.

of the Romans).

plates. Boindin, Sur les Masques, "c.

"
of

239.

The
The
name

firstamphitheatre was
of the

built B, C. 45
the

wood.
the
near

under stood

emperor Colosseum

Titus
or

erected Coliseum

by Julius Caesar,but merely ruins of which, (froma colossal statue of Nero, which
first of stone, the

constitute still one of the most remarkable curiosities of Rome. it), oval or elliptical. The form of ampitheatres used for was They were generally shows and the fighting of wild beasts. Both theatres and amphigladiatorial theatres were commonly dedicated to certain gods.
of two 1. The theatres joined ; thus Curio amphitheatre exhibited the appearance actuallyformed one, perhaps the first; wishing to outdo others in exhibitions of this in which matic dratwo sort, he constructed large theatres of wood looking opposite ways, he plays were performed in the morning ; then by machinery for the purpose them round to look at each as other, thus constituting suddenly wheeled so an theatre, amphiand presented a show of gladiators in the afternoon. The is someterm arena times where the properly the place in the centre put for the amphitheatre, but means called from its being covered with sand. The arena so gladiatorsfought, and was was with a wall, guarded with round surrounded wooden rollers turning in sockets, to prevent the animals from climbing up. Sometimes the arena completely surrounded was with a ditch filled with water the podium, raised was {euripus).Next around the arena 12 or 15 feet above the wall and protected by a sort of parapet. On it,projectingover this gallery or terrace, which wide three rows of moveable was enough for two or and persons of specialdistinction were seated ; here also seats, senators, ambassadors, the emperor had his seat (suggestus, or cubiculum). Above the podium were the fixed The seats first, next {gradus), divided into stories or sloping portionscalled maniana. fourteen rows of marble to the podium, included seats appropriated to the Equites. In the second and third maniana, were seats occupied by the people and called popularia. maniana The separated by passages were (pracinctiones) running in the direction of the also passages formed seats several (scala) running transversely; thus were ; there were in the shape of wedges after they were allowed (cunei). The women, compartments seated in a gallery or porticoexterior to the whole of the amphitheatre, were to attend and attendants in the highest gallery. The these, and servants general direction of the officer styled Villicus amphitheatri, and persons, committed to an amphitheatre was called designatores, employed to superintend the seating of the spectators. were By device of luxury, perfumed liquidswere tubes around a these conveyed in secret
the audience, sometimes which from the statues adorned structures, and scattered over the interior. The had also a remarkable Romans contrivance for covering the vast embraced in such a building; an of ropes area awning was suspended, by means stretched across the building and attached to masts above the sumor rose spars, which
"

248
mit of the walls. Near

ROMAN

ANTIQUITIES. wall of the Coliseum receive

the

the top of the

outer
to

there
spars,

are

above
ran

20" up

projectingblocks of stone, with holes through holes cut in the cornice.

2. In from
our

cut

ends

of the

which

Plate
to

XXX. outside

7, is fig.
of the

plan

of

the

amphitheatre
is 430

of

Pompeii.

Its

extreme

length,

outside

exterior

arcade,
called This

consists
some

chiefly of the rough of restorations trifling

stone.
"

masonry rubble. of the

opus rude mass

are

breadth is 335 feet. It feel; its greatest and quoins of squared incertum, with slone,
was

probably
into the

once arena

covered for the

with

facing
were were are

of

hewn

At

each

end

ellipse

entrances

combatants;

bodies also the dead were dragged out into the spoliarium. On the podium had of the duumvirs who presided ; there inscriptions containing the names There also fresco-paintings, which soon disappeared on being exposed to the atmosphere. accommodate of seats the building, as has been estimated, would twenty-four rows ; and such 10,000 persons as might stand. sitting,besides

through
found

these

several

above

Cornte de Caylus, Theatre existing ruins

of

of Curio, in the

Mem.

Mad.

Inscr. xxiii. 369." Loud. 1S82.

3

Cf. Pompeii, vols. 8.

"

as

cited P. IV.

" 226.

1.

On

various

amphitheatres, Stuart's
from
the

Diet, of Architecture. 1730.8.

A. Gordon,

History of the Ancient

Amphi

translated theatres,

Italian of

Mciffei. Lbnd.

II.

CIVIL

AFFAIRS.

"
to

240.

In order
to

to

understand

properlythe

civil constitution
its

of Rome

it is

necessary

consider
three

the different periods of distinctly

notice

the the

different forms

regal,consular, and
479

of government which first continued The imperial.

to

history; particularly tablished, were successively es244 years

to

to

B. C. 510;
overthrow

the second of the western

years,

B. C.
D.
of
a

31 ; and

the

third 506

empire,A.
was

476, and
mixed

afterwards

years in the eastern.

we

the
"

Under

the the

Kings

the

government

character, and

should

mate esti-

among
to
more

of the kings by a reference to the early kings and princes powers than according the Greeks, the chiefs of particular tribes (" 34), rather modern ideas of an unlimited authority. The essential prerogativesof of

the

Roman

of the the
cases

kings were and legislation

even

people ; yet
much

restrained

worship, the superintendence religious and and the decisions, judicial assembling of the senate in the exercise of these prerogatives, in most were they the senate and the people had in the by the part which
the

control of the

publicconcerns.
of borrowed from the Etrurians, and consisted ensigns of regal dignity were chair (sella) of ivory, or highly ornamented with ivory, a scepter a of the same material, with an eagle on its extremity, a white robe (toga)with purple who before went embroidery or borderings, "c. a body of twelve attendants (lictores), the king, carrying each a bundle of rods (fasces) with an ax (securis)in the middle.
1
a
u.

The

golden

crown,

In
are

Our

Plate

XXXI.

fig.1, is
on

cut

often

represented
monuments;

the

consular

representing the securis bound coins. Fig. 3, is a group

"

up of the

in the

fasces.

The drawn

fasces from XI.

royal
Juno.

scepters,

Egyptian fig.1, and

2

showing
scepters

various
are seen

forms in the

and hands

ornaments

at

extremity.

Cf.

Plate

fig.3,

where

of

Jupiter

and

The time, during which the regal form is said to have continued, is too long for m. in the traditions probable reigns of only seven kings, which is the number specified be remarked of the early Roman that the whole respecting this period. But it must considered as purely fabulous. Cf. P. V. $ 510. historyis at least uncertain, and is by some the

"
Two
the

241.

On

the

abolition of monarchy

the

constitution

became

aristocratical.
influence

were magistrates annuallychosen, with kings had possessed, and called Consuls (consules). No but a law (lexannalis)was for this office, requisite originally

the authority and

which
was

particular age
enacted
180 who

B. C,

that the

it should

be

held

by

no

person

under

forty-three. Those,

sought

office, were

Candida). The Centuries, usually towards that time until January of

and designahis, then

called candidati, from their peculiarlywhite election took place, in the assembly of the
the the he

shining robe (toga people,voting by

From
sul con-

end

of

July

or

the

beginning of August.

following year,
entered

The

cians

consuls had equal power. afterwards,however, one was ; plebeians.

two 1
u.

upon At both first,

was the person chosen his office under many were

called

solemnities.
the

chosen sometimes

from

often taken, and

patri both, from the

the same badges of office were and the robe with purple ornaments crown, public solemnities, as e. g. a triumph. Their
2
u.

as

those

of the
was

kings, excepting the golden

allowed them
on

; the

latter

certain

The

declaring the votes,

duties of the consuls consisted in taking the auspices,assembling the senate, in proposing business to which they first gave their own, among

P.

III.

CIVIL

AFFAIRS.

PRAETORS.

.EDILES.

349

and the people, fixing the comitia,appointing the judges,and preparingdesenate of the army, also usually commanders clarations of war. and were They were required the senate of all important occurrences. and inform attend to all its wants, to After usually proconsuls or governors of procompleting the year of their office they were vinces. the The of the consuls was gradually diminished, partly by the institution power of the office of dictator and tribunes, and partlyby the law which authorized appeal from the decisions of the consuls to the people. Under the emperors nothing more remained than the mere merely the agents to execute the imperial name ; they were secured. In the later ages also,their number were will, to whom a few privileges was
the term of continuance very of the western D. 541 (afterthe overthrow for life. conferred upon the reigning emperor

increased, and

short.

The

office

was

A.

empire, cf. P. I. "

214.

preserved until it was 6), when

issue of the battle of Pharsalia, B. C 48, between Pompey and Caesar, for introducing the imperial government established in was ; which the hands of Augustus by the issue of the battle of Actium, B. C. 31. The government became in fact, a military monarchy ; although the first emperors now adhered, in form, in a great degree. But under Tiberius, the immediate and customs to the old usages

" 242.

The

prepared the

way

successor

of Augustus,
emperors

the real
more

nature

of the

change began plainlyto

appear,

and under

succeeding

became

in their own persons created for adherents turned

De la

As and more obvious. the emperors of the offices of the state, and various new many the whole of government and partizans, system

concentrated offices were

was

at

length
of

into

grand scheme
the

for individual
under vol.
the
xv.

aggrandizement and luxury.

in the
Mem.

Bletterie,on

Roman

Government of Consuls;

Emperors,

Acad.

Inscr. vol. xix. 357, and

xxi. 299, power der

Emperors;

vol. xxiv. 261, power

392, of Tribunes

;xxvii. 43S, of Senate."

GBttling, Geschichte

Ram.

Staalsverfassung. Halle, 1840.

for any magistrate, in earlytimes the name " 243. Prastor was signifying leader (from prssire). But, in the year or merely an overseer, superintendant, B. C. 365, the administration
when chosen the

officer appointed to attend to the to an was appropriated at first chosen from justice. The Prastor was patricians, the communicated to Prastors were plebeians. Two consulshipwas
name

of

to the business of the citizens of strangers {Praetor peregrinus). there were and six, then ten, fourteen, four Praetors, Afterward sixteen,and even limited the number until Augustus, it seems, to twelve. eighteen,

B. C. year the other {Praetor urbanus), after the

243,
the

one

to attend

business

to that of Consul, and his principal next was dignityof the city-Praetor a holding courts of justicein the Tribunal {in or pro tribionali), building in the Forum appropriatedto the purpose (" 261). The Prastor on entering upon his of the rules and principles statement a office,always published by which he should be called his edict {edictum PrcBtoris). The guided in his trials and decisions ; this was In the absence of the Consul, usual form in giving his decisions was do, dico, addico. the cityPraetor took his place : he could also call meetings of the senate and hold Comitia of the great public games. also of some The insigniaof the ; he had the care the toga prcetexta, a sword and a spear (gladius et hasta), and an Prastor were dance attenof six lictors. In the provinces the Propraetorshad similar rank and authority, took the place of Consuls. in the same the Proconsuls manner as the Praetor published particular the general edict above mentioned, 2. Besides Such he copied from those of his predecessors were edicts from time to time. as An edict published at Rome, termed tralatitia; those framed by himself, nova. in a province,provinciale; sometimes named from the province, as edictum urbanum; Other edictum Siciliense. rived magistrates {honorati) published edicts also. The law determed from all the various edicts was jus honorarium; this term or phrase, in later times, was applied to a collection of Prastor's edicts regularlyarranged by order

u.

The

business

was

"

"

of the emperor
jEOuchard,
Sur

Hadrian

the

same

was Mem.

also called edictum

Mead. Inscr. vol. xxxix.

perpetuum.
of Consuls 1815." ; vol. xli. p, 1. of Praetors ; Weim.

les Edits des magistrats Romains,

279,edicts

xlii. 149, of JEdiles; xlv. 439, of Prefects."

D. E. Schroder, Die Pratorischen

Edicte.

Rein,

Das

Rdmische

Privat-

recht, "c.

Leipz. 1836.

" 244.

JEdiks

were

the

whose magistrates,
were

principal duty was

the

care

of the

(asdes). They buildings

of each. classes, plebeiiand curules, two B. C. 493; the latter, B. C. 266. At created first, The former were later a had the oversight Julius Caesar added two others, called Cereales who period,

of two

of the stores ,/Ediles whose

of

grain and
office
was

provision. In
usually
but

the Roman
a

also,there provinces,
The
office
seems

were tinued con-

for
the

year.

"

to

have

until the
1
u.

time

of Constantine

Great.
care

The 32

JEdiles

Plebeii had

the originally

of the

public and privatebuildings;

see

and

were

required to make

arrangements

for the

public

games,

to

the present

tt^n

250
of the public roads, and in short attend
2
u.

ROMAN

ANTIQUITIES.

the markets, regulate

to

prove

the

justness of weights and

measures,

the

police of

the

city.

Curules distinguished from them were by the toga prmtexta, and but afterwards at first taken They were solely from the patricians, of the great public games. also from the people. Their chief care was They had also the oversight of the temples, except that of Ceres, which always belonged to the the Curules the plebeian iEdiles, with whom probably shared, without distinction, business of the police. The JEdiles the sella curulis.
For tbe
see history,duties,"c. of the .ffidiles,

De Schubert,

Romanorum

iEdilibus.

Regiom.

1828.

8.

" 245.

Of

the

Tribunes

there
the

were

different kinds. remarkable.

of the

The
office

Tribunes The
at

of the

were people (tribuni plebis) the generaldisaffection and was

most

The

from originated
number

secession Their

plebeians,B. C.

493.

first two,

then

ten. finally five,

One

of them

itia for

tribunes. electing the encroachments against

the proper object was of the Senate and Consuls.

always presided of protection

In order
to

the Comthe

people
this

obtain

to themselves be adopted into plebeian families. In office,patriciansallowed the earliest times, the tribunes could the Senate, but had not enter their seats before the door of the Senate-room, where they heard all the deliberations, and

could

hinder Their

law, B. C. 131, it was

power
the
to

word the passage of any decree by the single veto. By the Atinian tors. decreed that the Tribunes should be of the rank of Sena-

and

influence
a

the

city and
over

circuit of

mile

confined constantlyincreased, although it was around it,beyond which they could not be

absent
1
u.

night.
Tribunes had
no

insigniaof office, except a kind of beadles were regarded as inviolable. persons from them the right, which ; he took they had exercised, of assembling the people by tribes, and thereby passing enactments binding {plebiscita) the whole of their negative or intercession nation, and left them only the power upon Their afterwards elevated (intercedere). authority, however, was again, but under the emperors Julius Caesar it was small ; it became stillmore under (cf. insignificant that the tribunes " 242), who the tribunitial power, nually anso appropriated to themselves elected had but merely the name and shadow abolished of it. The office was
lictors, nor
any

The

called vialores, who went Sylla abridged their power

before

them.

Their

in the time
2. The

of Constantine
of the Cf. offices.

the Great.
Tribunes
was

office

Military
$ 248.

highly important,

but

is not

ranked

among

the

permanent

" 246.
were

The
the

by by and charged with receiving

of bloodshed.

were Qusestors kings, then

among
the

the

earliest

of Rome, magistrates

first

pointed ap-

consuls, afterwards
the revenues,
for the

by

the

people.
the

managing
Those

and

with

They scrutiny

called Quasslores urbani,city were and those for the examination those for the provinces, Qusestores of provinciales ; capitalium,or parricidii.Originallythere capitaloffences, Qusestoresrerum but to four, and then eight; Sylla raised the number were two, afterwards

of certain kinds

twenty, and
I
u.

Julius

Caesar

to

forty.

oversight of the archives, the care of foreign amand other tokens of respect publicly oassadors, the charge of monuments, presents at first authorized, and the preservation of the treasures acquired in war. They were taken only from the Patricians, but afterwards partly from the Plebeians. Under the emperors there was kind of quaestors, called a qumstores candidate, who than imperial messengers secretaries, and or properly speaking, nothing more were, afterwards from their employment. called juris interpretes, arhitri,"c, were precum
The

Quaestors had

also the

Still later there

or

another kind, of considerable was importance, styled Qucestores palatii, Magistri officiorum. gustus 2. The by Au30, or at least 25, until reduced age requisitefor the Quaestor was The office was of the first steps to preferment in the commonwealth, one to 22. held

although sometimes
Pom.
Rechts.

by those who
in legitimo,

had

been
Acad.

Consuls.
p.

Dodwell, de Quassturse obeundae

tempore

his Prslecl.

362,as

cited P. V. " 542. 7.

"

Walter, Gescbichte

des

" 247.
years, but

The

office of the Censors

was (Censores) a

established
their Their

at

an

early period,
various ; the

B. C. 442.

There afterwards
some

were

two
a

at

time, holding
and
a

for five office originally

only
age,

year

half. take

duties
each

were

followingwere
account

of the principal ;
the

to

the

census

of the head

people,an
of
a

curate ac-

of

property, and

descent

of

divide

the

people into

their tribes and

errors rectify existing

family, to in the distribution,

P.

III.

CIVIL

AFFAIRS.

MAGISTRATES.

251

to

decide

the taxes make

of each
account

service,to

to enroll those who to military were obligated person, in the provinces, to inspect of the revenues the morals

the leasing of public lands, to attend to contracts superintend such as works, streets, bridges, aqueductsand the like. respecting public

of the citizens, to

u.

The
any

censors

were

authorized

to

inflictmarks

of

{nota censoria, ignominia), disgrace

to

from

evidence In
been

and

of the Romans, by the censors.

seems

which

which for any cause, in later times became

to

appeared
so

them
was or

excessive,

order

escape

the

censorial rebukes

suitable. The luxury considerably restrained punishments, the office

time. 2. The censorial power however, vested in Julius Caesar, first with the title of was, with the titleof Censor. afterward, for life, Prcefectus Augustus also assumed morum,
to

have

left vacant

for

some

the power, done by several of his same was although he declined the title. The the corruption of morals down time of Decius, A. D. 250, when to the of the kind. too great to allow magistracy or power any
He

cessors suc-

was

Palais, On

the

Roman

Censors, in

the

Man.

Mad.

Inscr. vol. i. p. e3."Niebuhr's

Hist, of Rome,

vol. ii. p. 296, ed. Phil. 1S35.

"
into

248.
ordinary

The

Roman and

magistrates were

variously

divided.

A and

common

division

was

Extraordinarii). The noticed : Consuls, Praetors, iEdiles, Tribunes been chief of the former have of the chief of the extraordinary magistrates (whose The people, Quaestors, and Censors. office was but occasional, being necessary stances) not only in particularcircumpermanent, the following; Dictator,Decemvirs, MilitaryTribunes, Praefect of the were
extraokpixary
"

(Magistratus Ordinarii

City, and
1
u.

Interrex.

The

first Dictator the

was

created

on

occasion

of the

same

sedition

or

insurrection

turbances, appointment of tribunes of the people (" 245) ; and similar disand other important emergencies occasioned difficult wars, the appointment of the subsequent Dictators. Sometimes they were appointed for less important reasons, and sports in the sickness of the Praetor, not by e. g. for regulating the public games of the Consuls. The Dictator was the people, but by one indeed always appointed by be a man the consul by order of the people or senate, and must of consular rank. The which occasioned
power

of the Dictator was War and peace, and the respects supreme. very great, in some decision of the most condemned important affairs,depended on him. Citizens, who were Liv. viii.33). The power to death and office of by him, could appeal to the people (cf. He could not the Dictator was limited to six months. of appropriate without consent As the senate of the army, commander he was or people any of the public money.
to

limits of Italy. No abused the power of this office so much one ever and after Sylla. Caesar by this office opened his way to absolute power, abolished. It was, his death the dictatorship however, offered to Augustus, who was refused the odious name title, or although he exercised all the power. confined
as

the

Cornelius

2. Plutarch the

epitome
p.
an

(Kennett,

dignity)
execute

the
;

that the Dictator attended lictors ; but was in by twenty-four assumed this number Livy, Sylla is said to have unwarrantably Dictator those of consular 123). The appointed (usually from or praetorian among business officer, styled Magister equitum, whose to command the was cavalry, and of the Dictator officer orders this sometimes was ; but appointed by the senate, or and

Polybius
89th

state

of

the

book

of

the of of

people
the

he
"

was

allowed
a

the

use

of
or

horse,
other

but

the

Dictator

could

not

ride

without with

the the

order power

people. Dictator, by
u.

Sometimes decree of

Consul,
senate

the

(ne

invested existing magistrate, was quid detrimenti capiat respublica).

The led

discontent
to

of the of

people under
a new

power,

the creation
the

the use, which the Consuls made of their office in the year B. C. 451, that of the Decemviri,

with

consular

appointed for
of the twelve office
4
u.
was

authority (decemviri consulari potestate, s. legibusferendis). They were This of forming a code of laws. rise to the laws specialpurpose gave i 265). As they soon tables (cf. their great power, the began to abuse
that of Consul restored.
same cause

abolished, B. C. 449, and

the

Tribunes

they

office of Military (tribuni militum consulari potestate),who, in the year B. C. 445, were pointed apin the place -of Consuls; dismissed after three months. but were Originally three patricians six in number, and three plebeians; afterwards were the number

From

(the popular discontent) originated the

varied, sometimes

three, sometimes

consuls sometimes elected, as were until the year B. C. 366, when the from among themselves.

four,six, or eight; sometimes militarytribunes and the plebeian or the patricianinterests prevailed, plebeians were quieted by the choice of a consul

the officer to whom The 5 u. Praefect of the city(Prmfectus the Consuls urbi) was in their absence, especially intrusted the charge of the police. Under in war, the emperors officeof great influence. this became a regular and permanent Interrex was 6. The officer created to hold elections when there was consul or an no
it properly belonged. The drawn from the titleof the name was magistrate, to whom when there was in the magistrate appointed by the senate, a temporary vacancy under the regal government. throne Less the following " 249. important occasional magistrates were ; the Prcefeclus of grain, in cases of scarcity charged with the procuring and distributing the annonm, :

252

ROMAN

ANTIQUITIES.

[minuendii Quinquevirimensarii, whose chief business was to reduce public expenses sumlibus) ; the Quinqueviri muris turribusque reficiendis, to see to repairs in publicis the walls and fortifications ; the Triumviri cedibus sacris reficiendis, to repairthe sacred
monetales, buildings; Triumviri having charge of the mint; Triumviri nocturni, to navales (classis ornandce superintend the nightlywatch ; Duumviri reficiendasque causa), the fleet, "c. Some of these,however, were for equipping and repairing not magistrates but they were chosen from among the most in the proper sense, respectable men. attendants of magistrates were The called in general apparitores; under or servants included which scribaa, notarii, actuarii,accensi, coactores, prascones, were interpreThe the executioner viatores, "c. Carnifex was or tetes, lictores, hangman.
" "

the magistrates which Besides have been named, permanent or " 250. various others whose occasional,there were pertained to the provinces authority in part such of Rome, been were have as magistrates. These provincial the proconsuls, named. Among them were propraetors, proquaestors, the legates,
"c. conquisitors, either (1) such Proconsuls were fixed by law ; or (2) such in war province or to command ; the time
on

as as

being consuls
were

had
a

their office

raised from

prolonged beyond privatestation to govern some

or (3) such as having been consuls went, immediately of their consulship,into provinces assigned to their charge under the legalexpiration the commonwealth of the provinces under (4) such as were appointed governors ; or called proconsuls. But the name and dignityproperly the empire ; as all these were The decided from what senate to belonged to the third of these classes. year year provinces should be consular ; and then the consuls, while only designati(cf."241), agreed
"

by lot which of them each should take on the expirationof his consulship. A vote of in their provinces. Their conferred on them the military command the people afterwards often attended with great' pomp. to the city was departure to their provinces and return but it was limited to a They enjoyed very absolute authority both civil and military, trial and liable their the a on offences to were return rigid most they commonly ; year, charged were (1)crimen peculatus,illuse of the public money, (2)majestatis, treachery or belonging to the senate people, and (3)repetimdarum, exassumption of powers or tortion or oppression towards the inhabitants. such as, after their praetorship, received The Proprmlors were provinces, in which lor a year they had supreme command, usually both civil and military.Their creation, similar to those of the Proconsuls administration, and responsibility were ; only they had but six lictors instead of twelve, and the praetorian provinces were usually smaller The Legati were the chief assistants of the Prothan the consular ; cf. " 260. 3. (4). consuls number and Propraetors. The and depended on the rank of the chief officer, of the provinces. They at length obtained the circumstances important authority aa each One attended Proconsul more or military commanders. or Qiieestor tor. PropraeHis business was to superintend the public accounts, and the supplies of the such as the chief officer appointed temporarily, on the absence Proquaestors were army. duties of the Quaestor were death of the provincialQuaestor (cf." 246). The or Ccesaris. to the officer styled Procurator The assignedunder the emperors conquiinferior officers not who sitores -were properly civil, were employed to raise soldiers, and by force if necessary. " 251.
had Romulus
of these We

may

notice here the division

or

throughout an
divided into ten
the

importantinfluence the cityitself and the

The tribes
were

on

the
the

which classification of the people, At the beginning, government.

"

whole

Curiae.

people into three tribes,and each of native Rhamnensis, consisting

Romans,
"

Servius

Tatiensis,of Sabines, and the iribitsLucerum, of all other foreigners. altered this division Tullius and made tribes,4 of the city thirty

rusticse).The latter at length (tribusurbanse),and 26 for the territories (tribus considered honorable. as more gained the precedency of the former, and were added Five tribes were later period at a not were ; and also others, which
permanent.
four Suburana The Snccusana, or riistic city tribes were Esquilina, Collina, Palatina ; the tribes, Romilia, Lemonia, Pupina, Galeria, Pollia, Voltinia, Claudia, iEmilia, Cornelia, Fabia, Roman Horatia, Menenia, Papiria, Sergia, Veturia, Crustumina belonged to the proper ; these the Etrurian there Sabawere tribes, Vejentina, Stellatina, Tromentina, territory ; in addition Publilia tina, Arniensis, Pomptina, or Papilia, Mcecia, Scaptia, Ufentina, Falerina; and the Sabine tribes, Aniensis, Terentina, Velina, Ciuirina; making thirty-one. Boivin, Ratione.
On the Rom.

Tribes, in

the

Mem.

Acad.

Inscr. vot.

i. 72.

"

G.

C. T. Franckc, De

Tribuum

Curiarum,

atque Centuriarum

Schlesw.

1624.

Respecting the buildings termed

Curix, cf. P. I. " 61.

" 252. Servius Tullius also divided the Roman equitable distribution of the public burdens, into
These classes
were

for the sake citizens,

six classes

of

an

subdivided

into centuries

according to property amounting in all to 193. In

254 " 254.

variance. The
The

ROMAN

ANTIQUITIES.

and patricians former

a

plebeians were
all the them B.

from

the
been

at

first held in

public
as

offices

beginning greatly at exclusively. The

already
to

plebeiansgained

share this

C. 493,

has

mentioned be

the patriciansoften allowed (cf." 245). into plebeian families, in order the more easily to to both common ranks, .or confined to plebeians, as
After

themselves
secure was

adopted
were

which offices,
the office

of tribunes.

The
and
1

power often

of
was

the

people rose to a great heightduring pervertedto the greatest abuses.

the time

of the

republic,

"

the two classes took place first B. C. 445. u. Intermarriage between Previously that of patron and client ; in which the intermarriages the only mutual relation was plebeian made free choice of some patricianas his guardian and patron, and this patrician in turn was obligated by certain duties to the plebeian as his client. At last this relation existed chiefly between and freedmen. masters 2. It was to have esteemed for a Patrician both clients, highly honorable many merit. The duties of this relation (clientela) hereditary and acquired by his own were considered of solemn as obligation. Virgil (JEn. vi. 605) joins the crime of injuring a client with that of abusing a parent ; the client on the other hand was expected to serve his patron, even with life in an extremity. Amidst all the dissensions which mark been the Roman of these and faithful observance to have a mutual history,there seems
to

duties.

In later times
at

cities and

nations

chose

as

patrons

families distinguished

or

individuals

Rome.

" 255.
was

Tt is necessary between to distinguish called Roman nobility {nobilitas Romano).

the Patrician The

latter
was

rank, and
a

what

ing resultdignity

from

merit, either personal or by holdinga curule office.

derived Patrician

from

ancestors,
was

and

acquired especially
for this,

although when united with merit this nobility themselves, were stylednovi
lu.

necessary it heightenedthe nobility. Such as homines.

descent

not

acquired

One of the principal distinctions of those possessing this nobility{nohiles)wa3 allowed them to form of images or busts in painted wax jus imaginum, which and carrying them in funeral their ancestors, in their halls (atria), placing them in cases The sometimes conferred right was processions (cf." 340. 3), and at other solemnities. as a reward, by an assembly of the people, and received with public thanks. The Roman between with contests the old and the new history is filled nobility. the
2.
or

curule
state.
was

chair of
The chair

office was Such was composed

a

one

which

entitled the person

holdingit to
censor, with extremities

use

the sella curulis and curule eedile.

the office of dictator,consul, praetor,

of

ivory,
four

or

at

least

highly

adorned
to

of

"stool

without

back,

with

crooked

feet, fixed

the

it, commonly being a sort of cross-pieces, joined

in the form of the letter X, and covered with leather that it axis, somewhat by a common ; so thus the together," and by the magistrate in his chariot; hence might be folded easily carried XXXI. In our Plate (Mul. Gell. iii. 18.) fig.9 is a representation of one swering anepithet curulis. been sometimes of a less portable to have the above description. But the sella appears and in fig.2 of this plate. These form two size, as seen figures are from monuments found, the chair described at Herculaneum. The above be distinguished at Pompeii, the other must one in which from the sella portatoria, or and cathedra sat a person a sedan carried was ; this was in the manner still common in the east. used by slaves, as well They were by private persons in time of Cssar. officers. the rulers and frequent as They were (Suet. Cres. 43. Claud. 28.) very is from and well to illustrate the selan serves la Fig. 10, in Plate XXXI. Egyptian monument, four bearers; bears staff" in his right hand, a are a fifth attendant portatoria. There perhaps of parasol of the palanquin. A the sort is badge of his office as conductor richly embroidered for the stretched behind of the chair, on The sedan the occupant itself is of a frame purpose. devices. adorned with The lotuses and other work, magistrates in the colonies elegant carved in a large chair called bisellium and sat of these on municipal towns public occasions ; two found of been have at silver, of extraordinary manship. workPompeii, made bronze, inlaid with
" "

See the

Musw

Borlonko,

cited P. IV.

" 213.

vol. ii. tav. 31. vi. tav. 28."

Pompeii,

p.

265, as ciled P. IV. " 226.

They

of high rank in Rome Equitesformed a distinctbody (ordoequester). taken from each of the three composed of 100 young men originally thus making three centuries tribes, was (300). Their number greatly increased that there the so were by kings, eighteencenturies under Servius Tullius. They became at length a distinct order, not includingall who served on horseback,

" 256.

The

were

but only such received some

as

were

chosen

into the rank.

In

the year

124

B. C,

the

order

important prerogatives, being chosen to act as judges,and to The property requisite farm the revenues. to qualify for election as a knight, one this period,was thousand at 400 sesterces (census equester') ; the age about sufficient to secure it. The not Censors eighteen; nobility of descent was intrusted with the scrutiny,and they presented to those were found worthy, a

PLATE

XXXI.

256
horse
was

ROMAN

ANTIQUITIES.

at

the

under

publicexpense ; hence the phrase,equo of the Censors. the constant supervision

merere publico

The

order

well The Patricians were illustres term as as eligibleto this order. number of equitesgreatly from ancient families. The applied to those descended into the order, if they the early emperors. admitted increased under Persons were inquiry into their character, or the free possessed the requisiteproperty, without birth of their father and grandfather. The 2 m. distinguishedby a golden ring {annulus aureus) or rings,and knights were border, narrower or by the tunica angusticlavia,a white tunic with its purple stripe, At the spectacles,their seat was who than that of the senators. to the senators, next were frequently chosen from the equestrians. They made annually, on the 15th- of July, a splendid procession (transvectio)through the city to the Capitol. 1. Plebeians
was

Marquardt,
1S40."

His'oria
De

Equitum

Romanorum.

Berl. 1840."

Zumpt,

Ueber

dieRomischen

Ritter und
as

den Ritterstand 2.

in Rom.

Berl.

Eylenius,

Ord.

equestri Vet.

Romanorum,

in Sallengrc, vol. i."P.

Burmann,

cited

" 338.

The consisted Senate, as has been already stated (" 253), originally of 200, and afterwards before the regal office was members, finally, the whole number to 600. abolished, of 300. Sylla added 300 Equites,raising

"

257.

of

100

Towards reduced
same.
"

the end

it to 600. The election

censors,

of the republic,the number was as great Under the number his successors was assembled
the

as

1000.
not

Augustus

Senators, when
was

in council,were
next

called

uniformlythe Paires Conscripti.

Their

at

first made

by

the

and

in

one

by by the consuls, afterwards kings, instance,after the battle of Cannse, by a Dictator.

was

Under

the

election. age, which

1
u.

a emperors, In the choice

Triumvirate

sometimes
to

formed

to

attend

to

the

must

not

of senators, regard was had be less than twenty-five.

character, property, and

two

The

Senators

were

distinguishedin

their

dress

particularly by

things ; the

tunica

C
2

tached laticlavia,a tunic cr waistcoat with a broad stripe of purple (latus clavus) atto it,and high black buskins (calceior ocrece nigri colons), which had the letter At public spectacles the Senators marked them. also sat in the foremost on part

of the
m.

assembled was by the Kings, Consuls, Dictators, Pragtors,or of a herald. In people, by public summons (edictum), or by means the object of assembling was the former There specified. case besides, certain were, days fixed for regular meetings of the senate, the Calends, Nones, and Ides of every festivals and in time of the Comitia month. On when the whole people were sembled, asTribunes of the
not meet. Augustus restricted the regular meetings to the be not place of assembling was exclusively fixed, but it must for the purpose The pitol set by the Augurs. temples, and the Causually selected, excepting always the Temple of Vesta. amongst them, were number of members The (numerus legitimus) to pass a decree {Senatus necessary The was consultum) 100; and, from the year B. C. 67, 200. meetings were opened after midday ; before and after the until near or early in the morning and continued lawful decree could be enacted. Sacrifices were no always offered light of the sun the senate, before entering and the auspices taken by the magistrate,who to hold was The assembled the place of meeting. magistrate, then, Consul, PraBtor, or whoever their in an the senate, proposed the business, and the members opinions usually gave In important or interestingcases, order. decided established by the questions were had the right of proSenators separating into two parts {itioin partes). The emperors posing questions to the senate, not properly, but at first only by specialpermission.-*" senate

Orchestra. The Senate

the

could

Calends

The Ides. apart and consecrated and

"

distinction
or

was

made

between

judgment
was

opinion, Senatus
or was

ratified by being engrossed or informality; decrees were lodged in the treasury (in JErarium condebantur) in the place of public records (tabularium), in the temple of Saturn. the supreme 3. "Although at Rome belonged to the people, yet they seldom power enacted the authority of the Senate. In all weighty affairs, the thing without any that the Senate first deliberate and decree, and method should usually observed was, But there were then the people order. things of great importance which the many Senate unless when itself, always determined brought before the people they were This right the Senate to have had, not seems by the intercessions of the Tribunes.
or was

less decisive, with attended some

out,

decree of the Senate, Senatus a consultum, and a the senwas aucloritas; the latter term applied,when tence passed without some not person's intercession or veto,

written

and

'

Senate assumed 1. The from any express law, but by the custom of their ancestors. duced, to themselves new guardianship of the public religion god could be intro; so that no their order. altar erected, nor the Sibylline books consulted, without nor Senate had the direction of the treasury, and distributed the public money at 2. The
"

"

pleasure. They appointed stipends to their generals and officers,and provisionsand 3. They settled the provinces,which clothingfor their armies. annually assigned were
"

P.

III.

CIVIL

AFFAIRS.

SENATE.

ASSEMBLIES

OF

THE

PEOFLE.

257

it seemed fit, they prolonged their command. and gave sent from Rome, body all ambassadors 5. They decreed all public they thought, proper. of an ovation or triumph, conferred the honor ; and with the title of Imperator, victorious generals. 6. They could decree the title of on King to any prince whom they pleased, and declare any one an enemy by a vote. either in Rome other parts of 7. They inquired into public crimes or or treasons, all the disputesamong the allied and dependent cities. Italy,and heard and determined the laws, but of absolving men 8. The}' exercised not a only of interpreting power, the from the obligation of them, and even of abrogating them. 9. They could postpone of any of the people, and prescribe a change of habit to the city,in cases assemblies imminent of the Senate was danger or calamity. But the power chieflyconspicuous in civil dissensions or dangerous tumults within the city, in which that solemn decree, take should Ultimum used to be passed (cf." 24S. 2), That the consuls Extremum, or should receive no Jiann." {Adam.) that the republic care
to
"

the Consuls

and

Prators

and, when

of their own out They nominated what to foreignambassadors answers thanksgivings for victories obtained

"

"

"

"

"

C. Middleton,

Treatise
Senate.

on

Rom. Cambr.

Senate. 1750. 8.
"

Lond.
N.

1747.

8.

Also

in his JSfiscell.Works.
on

Loud.

1755.

5 vols. S.

"

T. Chapman, "c,

Essay
Lond.

on

the

Rom. 8."

Hooke,
Trans,

Observations

the Roman
cited P.

Senate, as treated by Middleton, Chapman,

V.

1758.

Spehnan,

Dissertation,fee. in his
"

of Dionys.

Hal.

" 247. i."Bletlerie,

as

cited " 242."

Walter,

Geschichte

des Rom.

Rechts.

Bach, Zimmerin,

"c.

cited P. V. " 571.

" 258.
word
open the space

Assemblies
in the

comitium

of the whole termed Roman people were the place of assembling, originally signified
Roman

Comitia. which
was

The
an

afterwards Roman where

of Hostilius; it was forum, in front of the court-house the three to of ranks or orders of applied assembly itself, consisting and that held at the people, place, or Campus Martius, or the

Capitol.
ones,
was

Assemblies

of

one

or or

two

orders

were were

called Concilia

,"

and

less formal

merely notices

addresses

given

to

the

people, and

nothing

Condones. The termed Comitia were decided, were appointedonly by the highermagistrates,a Consul, Dictator, or, in the Consul's absence, a Praetor. The most of which considered in these assemblies, some important subjects were have been already mentioned incidentally. could be held, 184 in " 259. The days of the year, on which such assemblies

number,
in which

were

called dies comitiales.

were

Romulus

established

the

Comitia the

Curiata,
Comitia
most

the votes

Centuriata, in which

important; and
which
were

the
were

Tullius Curias (" 251); Servius the people voted by centuries, and which were Tribunes, B. C. 491, instituted the Comitia

given by

the

Tributa, in

the

votes

given by
at

tribes. first
were

The

termed

and Plebiscita,

decrees passed at the last mentioned bindingonly on the plebeians. The

"

which the principal business election of officers, became of the Comitia, was These made Comitia Centuriata. in the Campus the held at were chiefly

Martius,
1
u.

where

more or

than

50,000

persons

might
at

assemble.

The

consul

presiding magistrate

the

Comitia

of Centuries

elevated
passages

wooden

erection, called Tribunal. vonliculi)raised for the 193 {-pontes,

these and the tribunal
were

193 There small were centuries to ascend upon

occupied slips or narrow as they went

an

to

vote,
was

Both

called the

Septa or

Ovile.

Outside

surrounded by a balustrade, forming what of this the people stood until they were called The

in (intro vocatw) to vote classes. century by century through the six successive the names determined order, in which the centuries voted, was by lot (sortilio), into a box and drawn thrown out (sitella) by the presiding magistrate. The of ballots (tabellce), which by means of the bitores)standing at the entrances
were were

being
votes

citizens into
was

box

or

the

same

in the

case

chest (cista) at of elections, of

persons

passages the end of the

given to each citizen by just named, and were

passage. 60

persons
cast

(diri-

enacting laws, and

17

The of of

manner

by the of voting
or

passing decrees
age
were

judicialsentences.
to vote.

Only

between

and

years

allowed

of the public servants, "By the chests were placed some who, taking out the tablets of every tablet made a prick or point (punctum)in another century, for every Thus the business tablet, which they kept by them. being decided by most points tulit punctum, vious, occasion to the phrase, Omne and the like." (Kennett.) It is obgave the mode that in the Comitia Centuriata of voting must give the higher classes entire preponderance over the others. an
2.
"

Respecting

the I.

sue Huschhe, Zumpt, Coniitia,

"c. cited " 252."

FPaifer,Geschichte
Rom.

d. Rom.

Rechts.

Respectingthe Campus

Marlins, cf. P.

" 65.

"

G.

Piranesi, Campus

Martius

antiquse Urbis.

1762, fol.

of Roman " 260. The rights especially during the freedom

were

included citizenship
of but the state.

several life and

important privileges,
property of
a

The

citizen
no

in the 33

power

of

no

one

of the whole
r2

peopleappealed to thereon;

258
could magistrate his children, and and
in the

ROMAN

ANTIQUITIES.

his

he had punish him by stripes; dependents; he had a voice

full

rightover
had
; full

his property,
of the full

in the assemblies
testament

election of magistrates ; his last will and the most of voting was The right after his death.
this could other be be

people authority

bestowed conferred from

rights could
were

only by by the senate

which right,

the

including citizenship the people; citizenship embracing also. All

was

valued

freedmen

and

their

children
the
1

excluded

this

is what

properlymeant

by

Jus
u.

Quiritium.
Whoever
once

by banishment;

could not be deprived of it, citizenship, acquired Roman even lost only by voluntary resignation or by taking a foreign allegiance. The Jus Quiritium privatum, conferred on the colonies and municipal towns, of the Latin colonies comprehended in it fewer or less important privileges ; in the case it was
was

it

called Jus
the

Latii

or

were

been divided into private and public ; both under that designation Jus Quiritium, and sometimes be limited respectively to the these phrases seem of Jus civitatis; and sometimes to Jus belonged the following rights termed private or public. To the private, ; 1. secured the control of his person to each libertatis,which ; 2. Jus gentis et families, which secured the peculiarprivilegesof his descent ; 3. Jus patrium, the entire control his children ; 4. Jus dominii legitimi,the possession of legal property ; 5. Jus over lestamenti and hmreditatis, the right to inherit or bequeath property by will ; 6. Jus To the public, tutelar,the right to appoint by will guardiansfor his wife and children. the right of being enrolled belonged the following; 1. Jus census, by the censor; but citizens being enlisted at first, restriction which wards after2. Jus militicB, a none was abolished ; 3. Jus tributorum, which secured to the citizen taxation proportioned the right of voting, so highly valued ; 5. Jus honorum, to his wealth suffragii, ; 4. Jus but finally confined to patricians, to public offices,a right originally extended eligibility which included certain rightsin relation to religious to plebeians also ; 6. Jus sacrorum, who did not the rights of citizens icives) were worship.1 Those generally possess termed they resided. foreigners(peregrini)wherever which 3. This is a proper privileges, place for a brief view of the rights ana were the cities or nations conquered by them. The allowed forms of to by the Romans 2.

The

privilegesincluded rightsof a Roman

under the
common

Latiuitatis ; of the Italian, Jus It.alicum. Still more limited in the Jura provinciarum and Jura prcefecturarum. citizen have

are

included

"

"

government
(1.) The
sent

established
Coloniw
or

in such
were

cases

may
or

be
tracts

divided
of

into four.
persons natives from and of Rome
were

colonies persons, in the many in the

cities

to

inhabit. the whole the

These
power

although
colonies

mingling
of
were

which country, with the conquered affairs. with In the

gained
and

administration

later

periods

occupants, the republic

had served their out soldiers, who after thus foot, or ten in the horse, cf. $ 277), and who legal time (twenty years, laboring for their country were permitted to receive possessions in a colony, and spend their age in ease Trie colonies scattered the empire, and and over were plenty. governed by laws prescribed to them by the Romans. emperors,
"

under

planted

Niebuhr'.s Jure

Rome

(ed. Phil. 1835), vol. ii. p. 32." Frontinus,

Coloniarum

De

Coloni is." Essay

in

Madvidgii Opuscula (Haunise, 1834),

De

et Conditione

Pop. Romani.

"

Smith, Diet, of Antiq. p. 256.

(2.)
laws;

The

Municipia were retaining, if they

in and
some some

chose the

cities, which it, such

like the of

enjoyed
as were

the in

right
use

of

before of
our

governing themselves their subjection

country,
and and confined their
to

by
to

their

own

the

Romans. had

They
the

were name

respects of
even were Bom.

rights
in the the

corporate Roman

cities citizens. The

;

inhabitants

Originally
were

subsequently
;

formed Duumviri
des above

provinces.
officers
Ceber

colonire
senators

municipia
called

had

Italy, they were similar trates magisSmith,

Diet, of

the

chief Savigny,

the

Decuriones.
vol.
v."

Savigny,
p. 259.
"

Geschichte
as

Rechts."

das Jus Italicuni, in the Zeitschrift, "c.

Antiq.

Niebuhr,

cited, vol. ii. p. 37.

certain in Italy, whose towns curtailed for offences privileges were Prefectures were (3.) The suffered their own not to frame laws did the They were government. as against the Roman their own the to choose the colonic. 7nunicipia, nor magistrates, as did both municipia and from Rome. All the other cities of Italy, annually They were governed by a prefect sent called civitates feederatai, either colonial, municipia,or prwfecturm, were which not were enjoying and their own joined to the Romans only by confederacy or alliance. rights and customs, Zumpt,
Ueber den

Untersrhied

der Benennungen

Municipium, countries
at

Colonia, Pisefectura. of

Berl.

1840.

8.

(4.) The
remodeled pay
out

Provincial
as to as

were

foreign

larger
of
to

extent, the

which,
of

when

their
were

such from

taxes

governments, demanded,

the

pleasure

Romans.

They

were

conquered, were compelled

to

and

subjected
termed

the
or

authority
Proconsular
were

governors

annually
as

sent
or
"

Rome.
were

The

provinces

were

Praetorian

according
governed
were

Pranors proprstors

Proconsuls those

belonging cal and always

in the
For

belonging to the ; provinces governors to the senate, (cf.# 250). by proconsuls oppressive
administration.
; and

emperors These became

by
often

the

provincial system

governors of the one

tyrrannifeatures

most

odious

Roman

illustrations of this provincial tyranny, cf. Cicero's Orations

asainst Verres."

Middlelon's

Life of Cicero, vol. i. p. 94, Veil. 1568.

the 4.

as

citec

P. V.

\
"

404.

1.

On
on

the Gov.

Roman
of

provinces,
Rom.

cf.

C. Sigonius, De
the Mem.

antiquo

Jure

Provinciarum.
On

contained

in Grseoius,

vol. ii.

Burigny,

Provinces, in
Rechts."

Mad.

Inscr. xxvii. 64. C. Sigonius,

general subject of Roman

rights
Bon

Walter, Geschichte
Ii74.

des

Romischen

Zimmcrn,
1737.
6

cited P. V. 5 571." vols. fol.

De

Antiquo Jure Populi Romani

fol.

Also

in his Opera Omnia.

Mediol.

P.

III.

CIVIL

AFFAIRS.

JUDICIAL

PROCEEDINGS.

259
trials of The

"

261.

The
the

of judicial proceedings criminal and civil.

and

the Romans former

included involved

cases, private

The
either

the

publicand generalpeace and

"

nal public or crimiThe latter ordinary extraordinary. {judiciapublico)were time such fixed not to o r or as jurisdiction, "were place, belonged any regular but had a special assembly of the people apday of trial assigned, or a special pointed the people selected certain persons, as a sort of for them. Sometimes the Duumviri in cases commissioners of this kind ; such were or perduellionis also called quoestiones Quassitores. The ordinarypublic trials were perpetuae,

security;
trials

the claims latter,

rightsof

individuals.
or

"

and

were

first established

in

the

year

B.

C.

149, for the

most

common

state

offences.
the

In these

the

Prastor

chosen were assessores) {judices and last from at knights,

presided(cf. " 243), by whom from the annually,originally The all conditions-. judges
requisitenumber
of

assistant

judges

were were

senate, then from divided into taken

them.

several for each

1
u.

decurise,from
trial. Under

which

the

them

by

lot

the emperors,the

judges were

appointedby

of proceeding and a series of established usages plaintiff spoke againstthe defendant {actor, accusator) commonly then heard ; the opinion of the judges was given orally or were {reus) ; the witnesses he had in writing,and judgment was The acquitted could, when pronounced. person to trial for slander {calurnnia); the person condemned, ground for it, bring his accuser the other hand, was punished according to the law. on such as trials of a capital kind were held before the Comitia 2. Public Centuriata; involved minor only the question of some punishment, before the Comitia Tributa. be the accuser. In these cases some Having called an assembly, he magistratemust the person announced that on of a certain crime ; doing accuse a certain day he should this was named men bondsmust expressed by the phrase dicere diem; the person procure that day the magistrate on {vades, prades) or be kept in custody to the day named; tervening made his accusation, which was repeated three times, each after one day inincluding the charge and the punishment proposed, ; then a bill {rogatio), for three market-days ; on the third market-day, the accuser posted was again up repeated the charge, and the criminal or his advocate a {advocdtus, patronvs) made defence ; after which the Comitia for a certain day, to decide the trial was summoned, then by suffrages. In all public trials a certain order
The
were

observed.

On

the judicial

of affairs

the Romans,

the fullest authority is C. Sigonius, de judiciis, in his Opera Cf. Beaufort, Republique Romaine. 2d vol.
" "

Omnia,
des Rom.

cited " 260. vol. iii.; cited P. V.

also in 2d

vol. of Grxvius, H". F. Salmon, der Rom.

cited " 197."

De

Dunlop,

Rom.

Lit. vol. ii. p. 141, as Rechts."

the

" 299. 8.

"

Judiciis et Precis Romanorum,

De

in Sallengre, vol. iii.

Walter, Geschichte
Berl. 1826.
"

Gdttling,
collection

Geschichte of the

Staatsverfassung." Tigmlrom,

Judicibus

apud Romanos.

Valuable

only for

authorities." original

"

262.

In private affairs, the

the

and plaintiff petilor,

the other
one as

party to
to

accusation called petitio; the was commonly could compel defendant, is unde petitur. The plaintiff in some calling appear at court, not usually,however, without
the

witness

If the defendant step {antestatio).

chose

not

to

go, he

himself stated the matter give security or bail {satisdare). The plaintiff or object of his complaint {causa); if the defendant denied the thingcharged,it led to a formal trial {actio). There were kinds of actions; viz. : two principal
must
"

actiones in rem,

in personam,

which

related to the fulfilment of

obligations ; and

actiones

related to the recovery of property in possession of another. The in a case vindicatio ," of the former of the latter kind, was termed proceeding, which

kind, condictio.

All

trials belonged to private

the

of jurisdiction
about

the Praetor.

1 u. The Praetor named the judges, who, when the dispute was the restitution of property, were called recuperator es. Often for this purpose or a hundred a hundred and five were appointed from the different tribes, called centumvirale judicium. The the action Then were judges or jury, as well as the litigating parties, put under oath.
was

carried

forward from

orally, and

provision made
so were

for its execution. decided

after examination, judgment be important to It may

was pronounced, and distinguishjudges properly

called
to

not
or

be

by

who made in cases which arbitrators {abitri causarum), awards the exact dation, principlesof law but to be adjusted by accommoon their best discretion ; such cases termed were causa jidei bona et arbi-

traria.

The 2 u. usual places for trials were, the Campus in public cases, the Forum or Martius; and in private actions, other free places, or more frequently the Basilica P. I. " 61). (cf.

"
were

263.

Among

the

which demanded the principal public trials, penal offences, and offence againstthe dignity or following: Crimen an majestatis,

260

ROMAN

ANTIQUITIES.

security of the
freedom
of

and its magistrates; high treason againstthe perduellionis, people; peculatus,embezzling in any way the public property, records ; ambitus, bribery or corruption sacrilege, or counterfeiting falsifying money,
state

the

in an election; repetundarum, extortion, people to procure votes Quaestor, or other provincial Praetor, magistrate,made unjust exactions, for which vis demanded compensation was pub Iks, public violence,including ; ous variwere conspiracies,personal assaults, and various similar offences. There taken in more was trials; e. private offences of which public cognizance g. crimen inter sicarios,assassination; crimen veneficii, cide; parripoison;parricidii, falsi,forgery; adulierii and plagii,adultery and man-stealing. various. inflicted on those found guilty " 264. The punishments (pcense) were The followingwere the principal at first never mulcla, fines, which ; damnum, exceeded and two oxen were sheep, or the value of them, but afterwards thirty cords or chains upon increased; vincula, imprisonment with bonds, which were the hands and feet; verbera, blows inflicted on the freeborn with the rods of when
a
"

of

the

the

Lictors

(virgis), upon

slaves

with

; talio,satisfaction whips (Jlagellis)

in

kind, i. e. the punishment similar to the injury,e. g. an eye for an eye ; infamia or or ignominiu, disgrace infamy, which generally rendered the person incapable of enjoyingpublic offices;exilium, banishment, which either voluntary was When the and of all honors. or attended with a deprivation inflicted, was
banished to person was banished to a certain
most

he no particular place, place,relegatus. The

were

was

said

to be

interdictus

when
the

form

termed

deporlatio was
in distant
;

severe,

as

the

persons offenders

then other
a

sent

into

perpetualexile
sold; and

and

desolate

places or islands.
which crimes.
vincula

Two

punishments should
were

be noticed
mors,

servitus,

into slavery,

of

certain class

flicted death, in-

for heinous
1.

Under
or

the

term ;

were

included

several

varieties

as

catena,

chains

boits,

cords
iron

thongs
feet

shackles
the

fetters for the feet for the hands ; pedicce, manicce, manicles with for the neck ; columbar, a sort of stocks, a wooden frame
were

; nervus,

which

fastened

and

sometimes

the hands.

The soldier

confinement
or

holes in of nals crimiActs (cf. left wrist ancient

out
to

either in prison, or in private custody under a was xxviii. 16) ; the right wrist of the prisoner being fastened of the keeper ; the prisoner was sometimes chained to

officers
to
"

by
two

chain

the The

soldiers.

state-prisonof Rome,
travelers.
In the the
our

by the
is back
"

name

of the

Mamertine

Prison, is still pointed

now

Plate

XXXI.,

fig.A,
his

cut

showing
of

kind his
same

of feet

stocks and

used

in the
serve

East,
to

in which illustrate

criminal Roman of
; to

prostrate on above stocks the Mamertine of two

is confined

by
the

hands;
is
a

it may
cut

named. Prison. stories

Fig. B,
The the lower

Plate,
a

representing
called the Servius

one

of

the

stories

structure
one

is under is called

small

edifice

Church

of St. who and

to

Joseph
is said

it consists have the and built

Tullianum,

after

Tullius,

defying

assaults

it ; this is formed of time; here

were

of heavy

blocks

Paul

Peter

Jugurtha was the dungeon imprisoned;

!90. I."

of stone, arched without cement, over stoned to death here, according ; and presents
as

dition, tra-

most

appalling
6.

appearance.

Cf. Eustace, Tour, "c.

cited P. IV.

"

Fish, Travels,

be.

p.

300,

cited P. IV. " 186

2. The fastened scutica

was flagellum(^donf)

made

to

the end
a

of

stick, and
or

was
"

simple thong

sometimes strap, and the the time

were

iii.119. the Lex

3.

The modes

punishing of
years

Roman before

thongs (lord)or twisted cords (funes) with pieces of iron or lead. The Cf. Hor. i. rod or stick. ferula a mere citizens by the virga (paffSog) prohibited by was
of leathern loaded of Christ

Porcia, many
of

(cf.Acts
were

xvi. 22).

usually crucified (cruci it was to ajjigere) at first to hang [arbori suspendere), afterwards ; others customary behead from the to throw (securi percutere) or to strangle in prison (stra?igulare), or in river (projicere into the or a Tarpeian rock {de saxo cast sea or Tarpeio dejicere), latter mode of The the murder in the case of parricide, used projluentem). or was The relative. near criminal was first whipped, then sewed any up in a. leather sack (culeus, cf. Dionys. Hal. iv. 62), sometimes along with a serpent, or an ape, or a do."
death inflicting various. Slaves
,

The

and
not

burned

criminals we cock, and then thrown into the water. The bodies of executed sometimes or buried, unless, as was permitted, their friends purchased
"

'

privilegeof doing it ; but were usually exposed before the prison, on certain stairs (scalce) called gemonim which or they were dragged with a gemonii gradus ; down hook and cast into the Tiber. civil war The innocent victims of popular violence or were other sometimes thrust down these steps of infamy (Tac. Hist. iii.74). Three of capital punishment were modes also practiced,especiallyunder the emperors ; ad ludos, in which the criminals were tre obliged to fightwith wild beasts in the amphitheathe offenders with each other as gladiators (bestiarii), or ; ad metalla, in which condemned thrown were to work in mines ; ad bestias, in which to wild they were

262

ROMAN

ANTIQUITIES.

the person takinglease of -which ports and imports,

was

decumse, tithes

or

of the produce; tenth-parts

on

and There

the

called manceps portuum ," or scriptura, pasture tax, also taxes

on

paid
and
on

for

feeding cattle
on on

the

publiclands.

were

mines,

salt works,

which

the taxes

aqueducts,
1
u.

roads, on artisans,and the like.

called

Less yielded considerable revenue. the value of freed slaves (vicesima, a

importantwere on twentieth),

let by auction (locabantur sub liasta). Those who hired or publicani,the rent or hire paid being called "publicum. ; they were possessed property, and on taking the usually Roman knights, who of course lease advanced securities (proxies). Leases landed of the revea or nues large sum, gave often taken of whole ated by several knights associkingdoms and provinces were had in Rome (socieias or corpus), who superintendent of the concern a (magister in each societatis publicanorum) with a subordinate one province,or region (promagisof subalterns "c. to collect the revenue, keep the accounts, ter), and a multitude
were vectigalia were

The

farmed

them

The

publicans

so

often

mentioned

in the

New

Testament

were

of the

class

of subaltern
"

collectors

above

described, who

were

guilty of great extortion in all the provinces. Zaccheus, described

was

by Luke

(xix.2), as

chief among

the publicans" (apxt-TtXtiivris), 241.

probably 2.

promagister.

"

Bouchard,
are

Sur

les Publicains, "c. in the Mem. to

Jlcad. Inscr. xxxvii.

Martius Ostia, by Ancus (Plin. in the provinces. RockItaly,and from salt (SAec opvKToi) was ancients salt also and known was to the lakes, gathered springs ; of the it was formed where salt used made was yet most by a natural by artificial process; The salt-works were let by the evaporation of sea-water. usually public property, and were the most mans, to the Amons: government productive mines belonging to the Rohighest bidder, of letiniuli the 10) ; the gold mines were near Aquileia near gold mines (Polyb. xxxiv. said to have been are 25,000 men (Plin. H. Nat. xxxiii. 4) ; and the Vercelii, in which employed silver mines In Dacia and silver mines of Spain near were gold mines Carthago Nova. ing belongRomans. also to the mines Sardinia, and Africa, contained Macedonia, Illyricum, Thrace, from in Dacia which derived income. Those said to have the Romans are an yielded in 4Jie time of Nero fiftypounds of gold daily.

Salt-works Nat.

(salinm)
In

said

have

been

established

first at

Hist.

xxxi.

41).

later

times

they

were

numerous

in

On 1835." 1757.

the

mines

of Dacia, cf. Lond. mines

Quart.

Rev.

Oct. 1841, p. tO." On

those of

Spain,Roltin, Anc.

Hist. vol. i. p. 32, ed. N. Fodinis.

York,
Vienn.

On 4.

the ancient

De antiquis Auri, Argenti, Stanni, ^ris, Ferri, Plumbique generally, B. Caryophilus,

3. Besides
tax
on

the value

taxes

above sold

named,

we

may

mention

under
a

the
tax
on on

the
;
a

of
on

things
the

octaves)
tax
on

tax

doors

(centesima rerum venalium) ; of houses (ostiarium), sometimes

403. from
were

Vectigalia, the following: a liberti living in Italy (called the pillars (columnarium) ; a
became
were name so

bachelors the

(uxorium),
conquest of

4. After tribtda

imposed A. D. Macedonia, the revenue

on

first

the

provinces
They
the increase
as

great

that

the

previously assessed Augustus, and continued by

citizens
on

Roman
successors.

citizens

abolished. bestowed order

on

renewed and

again
of from

by
man Ro-

his

Caracalla the the

to

privilege

all done the

free

inhabitants

of

empire,
taxes

in levied

to

the

income

these

this was taxes; 5. Respecting known of drachms before

without
amount

lessening
of income xxxiii. of

them
at

provincial
different
to

the The

Roman annual

treasury
revenue

(cf. Pliny, Hist.

the

Nat. time In

17).
vast

is said

have

Pompey,
times the It does

and

to
sums

have
must

been have

by

him

increased

subjects. is periods not much been fiftymillions lions to eighty-five milmeet

(Plut. Pomp.
expenses great of the and

45).
civil other the

later

been

required to

the

various
the
to

government,
works. time
"

army,

roads,
officers is said

public
verus

until
to

of

Augustus
a

the public buildings, the navy, salaries that not regular annual appear afterwards common. they were ; but the and in architects.

aqueducts,
were

given

Alexander

Sederived

have

established

salary (salariam)
essential

haruspices,
from
D.
Rom.

mathematicians,

mechanicians,
the
liber

for rhetoricians, grammarians, salariuvi The term human life.

physicians,
was

sal

salt

being

one

of

things

supporting
Allona, Emp.
ch. 1S04.

H. ficgewiich, Histor. Versuch Staate. 1734.

4.

die Romischen

Finanzen.

8." R. Bosse, Grundzilge des Finanzwesens P. Burmann,

im

Braunschweig,

1803-4.

2 Bde.

8." Cf. Gibbon, Rom.

vi. xvii."

Vectigalia Populi Romani.

Leid.

"

268*.

In connection

with and

the Civil Affairs of Rome,

were

we

may

speak of the
or

principal employments
sanctioned.
1.

which pursuits regular

authorized publicly

Under

the
among

heads

of Teacher,

whatever
"

the Romans

Priest,Lawyer, and corresponded to the learned

and IV.

Respecting the business of instruction, conducted philosophers, we only refer to the notices given in other parts of this work
"" 123"128.
P. V. %

be included Physician, may times. professionsof modern by grammarians, rhetoricians,

407"412,

idolatryrequired a large number been sections given in former The (" 219 b). employment The jurisconsult himself by his knowledge of the pleader, who could distinguish or obtain honor and wealth ; to law or his talents and skill in managing causes, was sure of party the to suffer in the violence orator although exposed, of course, especially, The revolutions professionof medicine, atfirst not (cf.P. V. "" 390 571). 406, 558 much encouraged, had great patronage from the time of Augustus (cf.P. V. "" 543 that the employment was Some of Pliny (Hist. Nat. xxix. 5) show 552). statements the emperor received from lucrative ; a physician, named Stertinius, Quintus very
" "

P. (cf. of 455)." The established system has of different grades; a sufficient account of priests emoluments 219) and of their business (cf."" 207 and of the lawyer was profitable. highlyhonorable

416"422,

446"

"

"

"

P.

III.

CIVIL

AFFAIRS.

COMMERCE

AND

ARTS.

263
sacrifice

as

500,000 sesterces he could have

We may

per

annum,

obtained
that
a

600,000
of

yet represented himself as by privatepractice.

instruments the
were

making
a

thereby,
them
were

here

remark

number

surgical

found

in 1S19, in catheter
et

house

in Pompeii
mnea

; among

the of

the probe (specillum, p.i}\ri), "c. knives,

"

cautery

(naVTijmov),

the forceps (vulsella),

(KaQerijo,

fistula),different
2 vols.
8.

sorts

An

account

of them

is given in KUhn,

in the Opuscula

Academ.

Med.

Philolog.

Lips. 1828.

the early times, when a body of merchants, who were The citizens. Roman also extended, on the was commerce expulsion of the kings, by a treaty with the Carthaginians. Yet commercial pursuits nevertheless for the higher classes, who were regarded as unbecoming covertly and and indulged in speculations.They through agents not unfrequently engaged in them did this especiallyin connection with the slave-trade,which lucrative. The was very merchants abroad in the provinces, negotiaat Rome were styled mercatores ; those There and bankers tores. also brokers were ors {argentariiand mensarii), and contractof various kinds, besides the publicani (mentioned in the preceding section), whose
u.

Although
war

commerce

could

not

flourish much
every

at

Rome

in

of spirit

and

conquest Roman

engrossed

thing, yet

there

existed

contracts

may
a

be

viewed
among

as

sort states

of commercial of

transactions.
commerce.

Yet

Rome

never

acquired
The The

high rank
were were

the

antiquityin. point of
into who had

argentarii
mensarii
to

treasury
the
On

such

as

divided ordinary brokers ; they were public bankers, appointed by the state, could classes give security for it. Both

corporations (societales, corpora). loaned from the public money their offices in the buildings by
of Rom.
the Mem.

forum. Commerce,
"c.

among
9.
"

the Romans,
Be

Gibbon, Fall of Rom.

le commerce et

Emp.
des

ch. ii." The

Hist, "c.
in

Emp.

(given in Lardner's
e

Cab' d'Hist.

Cyclopaedia) bk. iii.ch.

el Lit. .inc.

Pastoret, Sur
v.

le luxe

Romaines,

de Vlnsiitut, C 1 ass
8.

vol. iii. p. 285 ; vol.

p. 76 ; and

vii. p. 125."

Emesti,

De

negotiatoribus Rom.

Lips. 1772.

stillless reputable than commerce. The mechanics and artisans foreigners,although they sometimes acquired Roman citizenship. Under Numa there were formed certain corporations of them, or colleges {collegia), which afterwards became Of this kind were the more respectable and numerous. The collegia fabrorum, tignariorum, dendrophororum, sagariorum, tabular iorunt, "c. of such a body was called prcefectus also their decuriones and maoverseer ; they had office was for the state, gistri,whose usually for five years. They performed work for individual citizens, who able to hold slaves. or not were
3
u.

Other

trades

were

were

slaves,

or

Respectingthese corporations, see 4.

more

G.

Pancirollus, De corporibus Artificum, in 2d vol. of Grsevius, cited " 197.

the various Among particularly. making

understood of the

arts

and

trades

pursued, the followingshould

a

be

here

noticed

(a) The
ancients

glass (vitrum, va\os). It has been making of glass. Pliny (Hist.

"

question
v.

of

some

interest

how that

far the the

art

Nat.

19. xxxvi.

26)

states
were

originated
Sidon. It

in accident,
was

on

the

banks in

of the

river for

Belus

; and

that

glass vessels

first made

in

known,

however,

Egypt,

pieces

of blue

of the mummies decorated with some Thebes, and are been discovered in the catacombs of the Greek glass have and comparisons of Virgil and Horace (cf. Virg. ./En. vii. 759. Hor. Od.i. xvii. 20. Sat. n. iii.222) indicate an perfection. Colored acquaintance with glass (vitrea) in a state of at least considerable been decorations used in mosaic glass is said to have (cf.P. IV. J 220. 2) in the time of Augustus. Imitations of gems formed The also by means of glass (cf.P. IV. $ 210). related were story by Tacitus of malleable however to Tiberius, (Ann. v. 42) of a vase incredible, shows glass shown had and that glass-making been introduced vessels of Rome. Numerous even at glass, panes of glass in a window, celebrated Portland have been found Vase has at Pompeii (cf. J 325). The found in tomb of Alexander be the to glass (cf.P. IV. $ 173); this was lately been pronounced who the laid, A. D. 220, upon Severns, in whose reign a special tax was glass-makers of Rome, it is said, as to require the assignment of the city then of a particular quarter were so numerous, for the place of their labors.
See

in the tombs at glass have been found and of paterae glass. Lachrymatories island allusions Milo(cf. $ 186. 1). The

Wilkinson, Ancient

Egyptians,vol.

iii.p. 88, as IV. " 231.

cited P. I, " 177.

1."

"

Boudet, Sur I'Art de

de

la

Verrerie, "c. in'.the Description de

VEgypte, vol. ix. p. 2\3."Belzoni, (b) The

cited P.

Mazois, Ruines

Pompel.

Par.

1830.

making of earthenware (fictile, darpainvov) or the art of pottery (ars figliKcpauiov, found Volaterrae at the Jews early known (Jerem. xviii. 3, 4). The vessels among and the Greeks in its existence the Etrurians places (cf. P. IV. } 173. 3) prove among The wheel doubt it was the Romans. be no (rpo%6s, can Italy. There early introduced among in Plautus rota (Epid. iii. 2. 35). figularis) of the potter (figulus, Kepauev;) is a subject of allusion Molds (cf. P. IV. used decorate with the vessels to figures in bas-relief (ruTroi, formm) were called of $$ 158, 188) and for forming the images on the architectural antefixa made appendages found Rome. molds have been terra cotta near (cf. P. IV. $$ 239,241); some specimens of these of potter's clay. made their water-pipes the Romans They established According to Vitruvius of the in some still discernible parts potteries in England; vestiges of which, it is said, are If their murrhina island, especially in Staffordshire. were porcelain (cf.P. IV. $ 195. 4), vasa that these have of perfection ; some the art must reached have a high degree attempted to show Th" vessels of a transparent in the eastern made stone were part of Asia. dug from fhe earth
na)." This and other
was
"

manufacture Roman
Lardner's Notices
"

of

bricks
are

(lateres coctiles)
said
the

was

well
to

understood. modern both

Bricks in

are

found

in very

ancient

ruins,
Cab. of Roman

which

to
on

be

superior
and

the

solidity and
"c.

beauty.
1830. p. 304, 346. Lond. 1750. 8.

Cyclopaedia,
earthen

vol.
are

Porcelain in W.

Glass."

S. Parkes, Chemical

Essays,
at

Lond.

vessels

found

Sherry, Description of the discoveries

"c. Heraclea, translated,

Cf. Seroux

Recueil d'Jlgincourt,

de Fragmens.

(c) The
persons of

baking
other

of bread

trades,

(panificium, ars pistoria). No had one collegium.

"

The made

bakers

at (pistores)
a

Rome

baking

trade,

it is

formed, like said, until B. C.

264
173. of In bakehouse

ROMAN

ANTIQUITIES.

(pistrinum,
baked in of the in molds the

or

bread

apparently
the ; whence found

discovered pistrilla) (artoptw); they were

at

Pompeii,
in
a

were

found

several inches

loaves

flat and

about
sort

eight
of of the

in diameter.

Before called

invention

mill of

(mola),
a

pistum

name

pistor, and
"cattle-mill"

manuaria) were slaves, chiefly females.

also used
;

the The

ruins

was pounded Two pistrinum. bakehouse at Pompeii corn

mortar

varieties
;

hand-mill this
was

(rnortarinm) (mola
done

grinding
ovikos,

with

by

(.mola asinaria,
down
water
were

pv\og
In

cf. Mattk. the

xviii.
stones
a

likewise

the

water-mill

{mola

aquaria, vdpaXcrtis), having

between of the them. the When

above later

6) was hopper
appear

fell the corn (jnfundibulum) from which been to have public mills turned by the the Goths, A. D. 536, and the aqueducts the Tiber. floating mills upon Cf. Vilruvius, moulin,
nut,
"c.
as x.

periods
was

there

aqueducts.

Rome is said
to

besieged
constructed

by

intercepted,
De

Belisarius

have

b."Jiusonius, Poem.
"

lit. 10."

Prccopius,

Bello Gofhico, i. 15 (cf.P. V. " 257)." Mongez, Sur les Veterum,

and C. L. De Hoheisel, Molis

meules

de

cited " 59.

as

F. L.

Goetzixis,De Molis

et Pistrinis

Manualibus, "cv, in Ugoli-

vol. xxix.

cited " 197. 1.

business ("Z) The The fullers, like the

was

of

the

fuller and

(fullo, yvatpng),
other

the formed

dresser
a

of

cloth

and A
was

washer fuller's

of clothes. establishment
a

"

bakers
or

tradesmen,
the mode of N.

collegium.
the On work the walls

termed attention
were

fullonica
from found the

fullonium;
which
serve

performing
xxxv.

sometimes of
a

subject
at

of

censors

(cf. Pliny, Hist.

to

5).
way clothes

fullonica
of

peii PomIt them

paintings
the

explain
sent

the

in which
to

dresses

were

cleansed.

would washed
The

seem

that home.

Romans

in the

cities

their

the

instead fuller,

having

at

paintings above
as

mentioned

are

given in the Museo

Borbonico, cited P. IV. " 212. vol. iv.

Cf. ShBUgcn,

"

Some

of them
et

in Gell, Pompeiana, Fullonias.

vol. ii. Rhen.

cited P. IV.

" 243. 2; also in Smith, Diet, of Antiq. p. 432."

Anliquitates Triturce

Traj. ad

1727.
"

been art of dyeing to have seems a (ars tinctoria,tinctura). This (e) The subject of special Establishments for dyeing were regard in the time of the empire. supported in various places ; for its woolen at Tarentum, e. g. celebrated was an manufactures, there imperial dye-house establishments under these were a fiaifietov); (baphium, superintendent (baphiispropositus) The of making the cloth been in them, to have whole work both the performed appears spinning of weaving A dye much used the (textrina). was (lanificium)and the business purple obtained of from various shell the Murex. from the resorted Phoenicia to Dyers to places improve
.

themselves
See

in the
Sur

art. des Anciens, in the Mem. de Classe VInstitut, de Lit. et Beaux

Jlmeilhon,

la teinture

Arts, vol. i. p. 549 j vol. iii.

p. 357."

Cf. notice of the

u.

color of the toga, " 332. 2. was

of the higher estimation than commerce or any well as those taken in war, territory, as citizens. noble Romans lived Many were chieflypossessed by respectable Roman the cultivation and improvement their own of them lands, and made a special upon proved, in the flourishing study. The periods of the ornamenting of their estates luxury. state, an important part of Roman 1. The wheat, but of various kinds; triticum was grain chieflycultivated was a and farina for meal. Barley, hordeum, common name ; far is put for any kind of corn,

" 269

Agriculture
the

in much
wide

trades

; and

fields of the

Roman

and

o"ts,-avena,

were were

Meadows, prata, of hay fcenum. under husbandry

,

to have they seem yielded two crops The breeding of cattle was an object of attention usually included stowed also behorses, sheep, and goats. Much care was chiefly, oxen,

also raised. cultivated

Flax, linum,
for

was

an

article cultivated

considerably.

mowing;

on

bees

(apes).
The

Trees,
Romans

also, both
were

forest, fruit and

ornamental,
"

received

their

of the various methods acquainted with most practiced for propagating the different species and varieties. But the culture of now took the precedence of all other cultivation (cf." 331 b). the vine finally share of attention.
'

Respecting the attention defining the boundaries cf. P. II. } 91. $ 483"489.
in

paid by
of 1. lands

the

Romans
means

to

by

of

the agriculture as a science, and care professional surveyors (agrimensores), see

taken P. V.

2.

Among
were

the the

instruments agricultural

the

parts

temo,
or

beam,
to

to

which
on

the

jugum
;

plow, aratrum, ranks or yoke for the oxen

a

first; its chief

was

attached:
the between

stiva, plow-tail

handle, having

its end

cross-bar
a

(manicula)

of which

plowman
the

took

hold

direct the instrument

buris,

beam and plowshare ; dentale or dens, the joined to its end the share ; vomer, the share ; aures, affixed to the the buris and received on the earth back ; culler, the colter. The to throw buris, and answering to mold-boards staff used for cleaning the plow, or beating off clods from it. In some rallum a was

crooked piece of wood piece of timber which was

attached ; but the plow most plows wheels were Other having neither colter nor mold-boards.

commonly
instruments

used
were

tdlus, shovel; raslrum, rake

with
two
or

sarculum,
and
;

hooked hoe for

iron

teeth

; occa

hoe or weeding-hook ; irpex,different kinds of harrows

more simple, ligo, spade ; 6abidens, a sort of hoe,

was

the

; marra,

tock mat-

dolabra, a sort of adz ; securis, ax ; falx, pruningand falcula, sickle. The knife ; falx messoria implements for beating out grain of flails; traha, a sort of sledge ; tribula, a board the perticce, sort or beam, were a set with stones by yoked pieces of iron, with a great weight laid upon it,and drawn or

cutting out

weeds

cattle.

all used upon These were in the center ; sometimes and hardened. carefullysmoothed elevated

driving
Jews.

oxen

or

horses

over

which was round space, a threshing-floor, area, laid with clay paved with stone, but commonly Sometimes the threshing was done by merely and the grain spread on this floor, the Greeks as among the

PLATE

XXXII.

34

265

266
In the forms Plate
aures

ROMAN

ANTIQUITIES.
Roman ; V, On the

XXXII.,
on

fig.ii. exhibits
buris ; D,
to

the

plow
is the Roman

is the

temo

B,

the

stiva In

the

the

dentale
"

vomer;

C,
the

the

culler.
as

; A, points to seen fig.iii. are P. V.

of

the

Syrian

plow,
XXXII.

falx, pruning-knife, and sickle. of the sickle in cutting wheat the and shows in the use Fig. 5 is from an Egyptian monument, of threshing grain; a roller with field. Fig. 7 is a Persian teeth, fitted drag, for the purpose from Sir R. K. Porler. the grain ; it is taken be drawn to so as Fig. iv. is another by cattle over it has from three wheels with iron for the same taken instrument Niebuhr; teeth, or purpose, trate serrated with figures may edges, drawn by cattle, the driver sitting on it. These partially illusPatav.1738. and tribula. traha Pontedera, Rusticarum, "c. the Roman Antiquitatum Fig. 8,
in Plate.
"

cf. $ 172. 3. is a cut showing

plow,
of

cf. DicTison,

cited

$ 489. 3.

varieties

chieflythe plaustra or vehw, were carriages used for agriculturalpurposes drawn four, and were commonly by oxen, usually two wheels, sometimes often had wheels without These and horses. but also by asses spokes, called tympana. The termed was body of these carriages (and indeed of any carriage) capsum, The the yoke, fastened to the beam and the draught-tree or beam, temo. jugum was The and also to the cattle by thongs, lora subjugia a cart sarracum was or wagon Pack-horses used in conveying wood, and the various products of the farm. (caballi) for carrying burdens used mules ; called sometimes were frequently asses or ; more their backs. from the packages {clitella) on clitellarii, had various carriages for conWe remark in this connection, that the Romans venience may the most The and amusement. chariot, currus, was always with common; six horsesThose with two wheels, but either two, three or four, or even two were termed always yoked bigw ; those with four, quadriga ; in the races, the horses were of private coach of the rich, sometimes abreast. The of solid silsort ver, a carruca was soft vehicle with The four wheels, an curiously carved. pilentum, was easy and rites. The used in conveying women to public games a carriage carpentum was arched with Ihensa wheels and an a was covering. The two splendid carriage with the images of the gods were and four horses, in which taken to the pulfour wheels
3.

The

which

had

"

"

"

"

"

vinaria

chieflyfor traveling. The rheda was a The horses were guided and stimulated larger travelingcarriage with four wheels. by the bit (frcenum) and reins (habence) and whip (flagellum). Bells (tintinnabula) in a string similar to those of the chariot-horses attached to the necks sometimes were
with
two
"

in the Circus, wheels, drawn

at

the Circensian

games

(" 233).

The

cisium

was

vehicle

by three mules, used

now

used. Fig. C,
in
our

Plate

XXXI. 5 shows medallion

is
a

an

ancient

with

leather.

Fig.
on a

Iriga.
(nummus

representation
on

Augustus holding a appears Cf. Moutfaucon, Sup. vol. i. p. 64. in which the spur made also case horseback, on (calear, nivrpov, cf. Virg. was Conveyance kind Saddles of some ^En. the stimulus. were sometimes xi.714) was used; (ephippia, iQiiriniiv) to be consisting, as is now supposed perhaps merely of cloth (vestis slragula); yet sometimes of a wooden and covered with frame, stuffed shown a soft material, and monuments1, by some
which in later times as least. Stirrups (stapia) we're also known52, girth (civgul-um, zona). horses. But the ancients used to shoe their the allusions of the questioned whether indicate to classical writers of seem clearly the fact that they did3, although, in the remains is scarcely found, if ever, in the representations of the horse. shoe ancient Some art the have attached to the was other hoof, not by nails, but by some means. supposed that a plate of metal fastened

at Rome biga, preserved in the Vatican ; it is covered 4 is a quadriga, which nearly corresponds to a very moduli maximi) at Paris, belonging to the Royal Cabinet and standard its with the eagle at top, driving four horses.

Fig.

by

"

It has

been

See

Ginzrot.

Ueber
3

Wagen

("

valuable

work
"

on

the the

history of Carriages").
passage from

Cf. Jlrchxvlogia, vol. viii. p. Ill,

in

as

cited

P.

IV. " 32. 5.

Mrchmologia, vol. iii. p. 35.

Lond. 1835.

See

Johnstm, given

" 329.
Re

3.

Respectingbridles, bits,"c.

cf. B.

Clark, Chalinography.

On

the vehicles of the ancients,

De Scheffer,

Vehicul.

"
the

270.

Here

will be the

weights and
into

place to coins of circulating

weight
the
;

notice what the Romans.

is most

important respecting

divided like the the libra or pound. This was was with those of the as, mennames tioned parts bore the same below. Various used in Weights, both parts and multiples of the pound, were often made of a black which stone have transacting business. They were some called Lydius lapis. Scales (libra) and steelyards (trutina), like the modern, were
1. The

principalRoman
ounces

os,

twelve

and

employed
Various Some
are

in

weighing.
of Roman

given by Montfaucon, vol. iii. p. 10(5,as cited ij 13. in a degree spherical. are Fig. 7, in our Plate XXXI. is a steelyard found at Pompeii original has an inscription, bearing a date which ; the responds corhad been to A. D. 77, and legally tested and proved in the asserting that the instrument at the Capitol. steelyard found same Fig. 8 is the movable weight belonging to another place. Cf. Archaiologia, found been also in England. "Roman cited P. IV. steelyards and weights have specimens weights
most
are

rectangular

solids;

but

of

them

"

"

$ 32. 5. vol. 2
u.

ix. p. 131.

Servius
on

Tullius
brass
were

was

the first who made

caused

money

to

be

coined
the
term

(cf.P. IV. " 134),

by stamping
common

the

image of cattle (pecudes whence

by barter,
or

pecunia).
metal. The

viously, Premost

exchanges
brass like that into twelve

by

means

of uncoined

coin, the
ounces

as,

was

a Roman originally

four,

triens

; ;

nine. d"drans

made a sextans uncia (uncia). Two five, a quincunx ; six, a semis ; seven, septunx Afterwards eleven, deunx. ten, decunx ; and

pound-in weight and was divided ; three, a quadrans ; ; eight,bes (bis triens); the as was gradually

P.

III.

CIVIL

AFFAIRS.

MONEY.

267
halfthe
as

reduced
ounce.

(Plin. H.

N.
was

Silver coin
to ten

xxxiii. 3) to an first stamped

ounce

in

quantity, and
most
was

finally even
common

to

B.

Denarius,

Quinarius, and
pounds

Sestertius.

C. 269; the The Denarius

coins were originallyreckoned

equal

of brass, and marked X, or \, but after the reduction of the as The B.C. value of it to an asses. 217, it passed as equal to sixteen ounce, proper also varied at different times. half the Denarius, The marked and Quinarius was V.
asse"

The IIS

Sestertius
name

was

fourth

part

of

the

(hence its
or asses.

semis

tertius),and
the

marked of the coin

Denarius, and originallyequal to 2j viated LLS, i. e. Libra Libra Semis, abbreas

HS. The

After

reduction
was

to

one
"

ounce,

the Sestertius
coin
was

passed

for four
at

Sestertius
most
a Lond.

often
common

called Nummus.
was

Gold

first stamped

Rome
to
De

B,
two
Asse

weight
J. Ward,

C. 207; the Denarii and

et Partibus

the
to

Quinarius, and in value

1719. 8.
"

Aureus or Solidus, equal in twenty-five Denarii.

the

ejus.

Cardwell, Lectures

on

the

Coinage of

Greeks

atid Romans.

3.

The
was

temple of Juno
coined
;

Moneta
moneta

was

the

term

(whence

impressed on stamp, The mint was under by the Nummularii.

on one

the coin and the The the and

care

place of the Roman mint, where their money money) referred originallyto the image, or or thing represented. reminding one of the person
monetales
or
a

the

of the 'Triumviri
on

the coins

were
a

examined

impression
reverse

the As

side and

on

the

rostrum
was
a

of
boat

Assipondium was ship ; on the Semis

of the
on a one

Janus and

bifrons Quadrans
silver
two

(called also Sembella

coins
or

Teruncius)

instead had with

"

rostrum.

The

Denarius, Quinarius, and Sestertius, often

head
IV.

side

chariot with

four horses, and on the other the sometimes impressed (cf. P. were
about 1350 about 15 cents,
as

of Roma " 139. 2).

helmet

; but

The

value

of the

other devices Denarius was

consular 3 1.
De

cents

experiments of Letronne, who carefullyweighed denarii ; that of the Sestertius, being one-fourth of it, was therefore about and 8 mills. The ratio of gold to silver in the republic was
"

deduced

from

the

10

to

E. Brerewood,
et chez

Ponderibus
"c.

et Pretiis Veterum

Nummorum.
ss e

Lond. d'Hist.

1614.

4.

"

Mongez,

sur

Tart du
"

Monnoyage

chez

les anciens

les moderns,
as

in the Mem.

de VInstitut, C 1 a

et Lit. Anc.

vol. ix. p. 1S7.

as Conger, ffijckh,

cited

"

174."

Hussey,

cited " 274. 2.

4.
or

The

usual
cent,
as

rate
a

of interest and
was

12 per

year,
a

one (fcenus) was paid monthly

as

for the the

use

of

hundred
was

month,
usura

on

Calends.
cent.

It

called
or

centesima,
Horace

in

hundred months

the interest would

equal the capital(caput

per

took who 60 speaks (Sat. i. hi. 12) of a usurer, in property exposed at sea (fcenus nauticum) the lender after she reached liked while the vessel was out ; but 12 per
cent.
"

might

For demand

money any

sors). invested of

interest he
rate

harbor, only the usual

When
was

person,

borrowing
be

form the

of

sale, he
term
was

said

to

legal

by the law
ed. Phil. 1835.

pledged himself and property in the to discharge his debt within nexus failing ; a person then said to be consigned to the creditor,and was
money,
Hudtwalker,
De fen. nautico Rom. Hamb. 1810. 4.

addiclus.
See Niebuhr, Hist, of Rome, vol. i. p. 437."

" 271
Sestertii

u.

The

they

Romans usually reckoned money called Sestertium Sestertia, e. ; duo

by
g.

Sestertii.

The
same

sum as

of
bis

1000

the signifies

the sum hundred thousand sestertii. When ten was they used or over, adverb in the case to the required, prefixingonly the numeral and leaving the hundred "c, to be supplied by the mind ten, twenty, Staterthtm
or

the word first number,

; e.

mille tertium Ses-

g. Decies

10,00,000 signified
Sestertii.
was
"

Sestertii

Quadragies

4 million talentum

The
if

reckoned They sometimes equal to 60 libra or pounds. following

case,

signified40,00,000, of large sums. by talents, in case

Sestertium expressions
then for
sums

1. Kennet
a

gives
agree,

the in

rule

for and

interpreting
gender,

the

Latin

of

money

numeral

number,

with

Sestertius,

simply

of another be joined with case so sesterces; if a numeral many adverb be thousand so tertium, it denotes sesterces; if a numeral many hundred thousand used so sesterces. alone, it denotes many We and have
on

precisely and the genitive plural, Sesbe or joined to the same,

it denotes of the value Roman wealth

record

some

luxury.
the above mentioned

Crassus,

for

instance,

from statements, is said to

which have

we

may

form lands

notion
to

possessed

the

of bis millies, i. e.

of the sesterce obtained the value sesterces rule, 2000X100,000=200,000,000 ; taking for the value have in the preceding section, we 3.8X200,000,000-:-1000=$7,600,000, of the land owned to have had, in slaves, building*, furniture, and money, by Crassus ; he is said sestrrces = much a centies, i.e. 100X100,000 single supper, as more. Caligula laid out upon with is said lo have at a feast 3.8 x 10,000,000-:-1000=$380,000 swallowed, Cleopatra Antony,

by
as

"

"

pearl

worth i.
Rom.
e.

the

same

sum,

centies

HS.

"

Cicero

is said

to

have

had

table

which

cost

centum

sestertium,
Cf. Adam, for the

100X1.000
Ant.

sesterces=$3800.
Edinb.

(ed. Boyd)

1834.

p. 432.

"

Perhaps

these

sums

would

be bk.

much

larger, if

due

allowance

were

made

in depreciation

the value

of the

metals. precious

Cf. Say's Polit. Economy,

i. ch. xxi. sect. 7.

2. In

the

Roman
;

numbers of D,
to

viz.

I for

they

sometimes 1000.

for expressof notation, letters of the alphabet were employed seven ing system 1, V for 5, X for 10. L for 50, C for 100, D for 500, and M for 1000. Instead |x! or CIC, or OC, instead of M, they also used used IC to signify 500; and
a

signify
;
e.

Sometimes for

line
;

drawn
;

over

letter

indicated Combinations letters

that of

it

was

to

be

multiplied by
usually
8 ;

1000

g. X
sum

stood

10,000

17, 50,000

"C,100,000."
the several

these
;
e.

letters g.

nified sig15
,

the

of the

numbers

represented by

separately

VIII,

XV,

268
LX,
the

ROMAN

ANTIQUITIES.

a letter I, V, or X was placed before representing a larger number, IC another to difference; e. g. IV, 4; XL, 40; XC, 90; and when C was indicated it annexed, a multiplication by 10; e. g. IC, 500; ICC, 5000; 1CCC, 50,000: in order also to signify the same multiplication of CIC, a C was prefixed as well as O annexed ; For of this last, 100,000. 10,000; CCCIOOO, CIO, 1000; CCIOO, multiple, however, any e.g. did not 100,000, the Romans a numeral adverb; employ letters; but prefixed to this expression as bis, to signify 200,000 ; ter, to signify 300,000; decies,to signify 10,00,000, "c.

60; CX,

110.

But

when

combination

expressed

the

of acquiring or transferring speak here of the modes pro of gaining the ownership {dominium). The following be named a made, and the or regular compact bargain was ; 1. Mancipatio, when may Roman citizens only ; 2. Cessio transfer was attended with certain formalities used among transferred his effects to another before the Praetor, or ruler of a injure, when person when a province ; chieflydone by debtors to creditors ; the cessio extra jus was an " 272. It may be in

place

to

or perty (res privates),

methods

insolvent

debtor

gave

up

his property

to

his creditors

3.

Usucapio,when

one

obtained

thing by having had it in,possession and use (usus auctoritate) ; 4. Emptio sub corona, the sold at special auction, with were purchasing of captives in war, who garlands (coro?ia) on their heads ; 5. Audio, public sale or auction ; 6. Adjudicatio, which referred either to dividingan inheritance among co-heirs or dividing stock among strictly partners, between boundaries neighbors, but is applied also to any assignment of proor settling perty of a judge or arbiter ; 7. Donatio, when by sentence thing w.as given to one any received by inheritance ; and this was for a present ; 8. Hcereditas, when property was could name either by bequest,from a testator, who his heirs in a written will ifeslamento) or in a declaration (viva voca) before witnesses ; or by law, which assigned the property of one relatives on the father's side. dying intestate to his children and after them to the nearest " 273 u. The public sale of property (audio, also called proscriptio) was very common In the place were the Romans. such sale was set up, whence held, a spear was among the phrase sub Tiasta venire or vendere. A notice or advertisement of the goods to be sold (tabula proscriptions, tabula auctionaria) was in previouslysuspended upon a pillar be obtained for such sales must of the cityPrastor. The some public place. Permission termed in cases where the sale superintendent of the sales was magister auctionum: of debt, he was the demands selected by the creditors, and was to meet was generally had the highest claim against the debtor. who The sale of confiscated the one goods termed to the public treasury. arisingtherefrom went was sectio; the money
One, of early origin, and considered things constituting!property. and Res Nee the all Mancipi Mancipi; Mancipi were such could be transferred could such as as by the form called Mancipatio ; the JVec Mancipi were transferred. Under the Res included not be thus Mancipi were farms within Italy (pradia rustica, had obtained the jus Italicum also urbana), and in any place which quadrupeds ; also slaves ; and with back which trained work and to tudes or neck; were country pearls (margaritm) ; prsdial servi(or servitutes meant was a right of making By a praedial servitude pradiorum rusticorum) of the land of another, the right of going through it on foot (servitus itineris); a as particular use of driving a beast (actus); of driving a loaded carriage (vim); of conducting water (aquceductus); making lime (calciscoquendm), "c.
Various distinctions
were

made

of

important,

was

into

Res

On Mus. Rebus
"

the subject of property among

the

Romans,

see

Unterjiolzen, Ueber
des

die verscbiedenen

Arten

des Eigenthums,
"

"c. in the Rhtin.

Dirkien, Ueber Mancipi

et

die

BeschKlnkungen gesetzlichen
"

Eigenthums,
"

in the Zeitschrift,vol. ii.

of

Eynkerskoeh,

Opusculum

da Pi'X-

Nee

Mancipi.
On

Savigny,

Das

Recht

der Besitzes.

Smith, Diet,

Antiq. under

Dominium,

Mancipatio,
vol. iii.

dium, Servitus, "c.

the form

in auctions, /. Rabirius, De

Hastarum

et Auctionum

Origine, in Grxvius,

of extent and capacityshould be explained here. Roman measures principal of length and surface were the following; digitus, a finger's made breath ; four of which a sixteen, a pes or lioot; palmus, or handbreadth ; and 125 of the latter formed 5 feet were a or pace; equal to apassus stadium, and 1,000 of In land-measures, the following were the most them, or 8 stadia, a milliare. common could be plowed in a day by one denominations yoke (jugo) of cattle, ; jiogerum, what 240 feet long, 120 broad, or containing 28,800 square feet ; actus quadratus, equal to and half the jugerum, being 120 feet square containing 14,400 feet ; clima, equal to an eighth of the jugerum, 60 feet square, containing 3,600 feet. of capacity for liquid and for dry things was the ligula,4 of The smallest measure " 274.
1
u.

The

The

measures

"

the half of a quartarius, was cyathus, and 6 an acetabulum; the acetabulum and the hemina, half of a sextarius nearly equal to our a hemina; also the Modius, pint. For dry things there was equal to 16 sextarii. In liquidsthe sextarius was two a sixth of the congius; 4 congii made an an urna; urnae, amphora; which which made
was a

the half of

and
For

20
a

amphora,
methods in

culeus.
in presented Plate XXXII to
a. may

fuller view

of the subject, the Tables

be consulted.

2.

Various

have

been

adopted
of the of the 2. of the has 4. Roman

determine
measures

the of

value

of

the

Roman and
are

important
means

is in

learning the values furnished by specimens the Capitoline Museum.

bars of of the the From brass the
or

several

length, extent,
;

foot, which capacity.. 1.

four of these The

is One served prefoot-

foot of

on

tombstones also have for from made

two
are

there

Several

foot-rules
a

been
use

discovered. in actual distances the

rules 3. The

were

iron

length
likewise

length
on

Roman

foot

pes, been

designed
deduced

measurements.

the
to

between Roman
one

the foot
at

milestones likewise

from the

Appian congius,
Paris;
the
same

Way.
the the
measure

Rome,
half
a

other

at

solid

have been Attempts of capacity, of which of the contents congius it may be remarked in

ascertain yet
to

are

in

preservation,
been have the been

said

have

cube

of

ves

measure,

passing,

there

attempts

270
to
or

ROMAN

ANTIQUITIES.
is said
now

deduce
water.

the 5.

value The

of

the

Roman
measurement

libra,

as

the

congius
these

to

have

held

ten
at

pounds
Rome
is a

of

wine

actual
to

of

ancient

buildings
various

standing
the

method is made

which

is thought

be

most

satisfactory.
the
on

By

methods

Roman

foot

nearly

equal

to

12 inches.
to

Gassendi's Laws.
ci^ed

experiment Among
KdstntT.
the

ascertain

Libra
Roman
as

from

the Congius

is related in Dm.
measures, the et

7. appended

to vol. be

iii.of Goguefs
named
v.

Origin of
lo those 8
."

"c.

authorities

the

money,

weights, and
G.

following may

in addition

" 270."
De

Maltkim,

and

Wurm,
R.

cited " 174."

de

Budxus,

De

Asse

partibus ejus, libri

Rom.

Lugd. 1551.
The treatises

/. F.

Qronov. and
an

Seslerliis. LB. in the 1 1th vol. of

1691."

Beverini, Syntagma
G.

ponderibus
Slate

et mensuris

Leipz. 1714.
the

8."

of Pxtus

others

Gr"vius, cited " 197."

old

Hooper,

of the Ancient
Also

Measures,
Oxf.

Attic,Roman,
fol." /.

and

Jewish, with

Appendix
Roman

concerning
Foot

the

English Money,

"c.

(published 1721).
Tables
of

in his works.
"c.

1751.
"

Greaves, Description
Observations
on

of the
Dr.

and

Denarius."/.
on

Arbuthnot,

Ancient
1754. 4."

Coins,
Of

Lond.
authors

1727. 4

B. Langwith, Letronne

Arbuthriofs
are

Dissertation eminent.

Coins, Weights,

"c.

Lond.

later

in Metrology,
are

and
tables

Wurm
of the

(cf.
Greek

" 174)
and

most

Cf. BouiileVs
measures."

Diclionnaire

Classique ;
mesures

in which

(as also in Conger's Essay)

des

good

Roman

weights and

Cf. also Freret, Les

the

lougues

anciens,
a s s e

in the d'Hist. Foot.

Mem.

.Scad. Inscr. vol. xxiv. vol. vi. 44. 8.

"

p. 432."

Gossettn, Systemes Essay

on

in metriques lineares d'antiquite,

Mem.
on

de Vlnstitut, C 1
the Roman and

et Lit. Anc.

R.

Hussey,

the ancient

Weights

and

Money,

with

an

Appendix

Greek

Oxf.

1837.

III.

AFFAIRS

OF

WAR.

like; warpre-eminently antiquity a rapid in and dominion. and remarkable advancement Hence an acquaintance power aid in forming a just idea with what must antiquities pertainsto their military and the original of their character of their greatness. sources

"

275.

The

Romans

were

of all the nations

of

of

and

by

an

uninterrupted series

great military enterprisesmade

from their chief historians as the primary source This knowledge is to be drawn 1 u. ; of Livy from the commentaries of Julius Ctesar, and the historical works particularly writers on Roman add the Greek and Tacitus we history,Polybius and ; to which may of their constant reference to militaryaffairs. Besides these sources, Appian, on account the Roman it their chief object to describe the Roman there writers who have made are in its various particulars Vegetius. art of war, ; viz. Hyginus, Frontinus, and
2
u.

It is from

these

sources

that those
their

who

have
on

formed

treatises and of the

Lexicon
S.

manuals

of

Roman
/.

have antiquities
de

derived

materials

this branch
C. de Aquino,

subject.
Romse, 1724.
on

Lipsius,
Nast

Militia

Romana
Romische vol.
on

(a comment.on

Polybius). Antv.
aus

1606. 4."

Militare.
A

2 vols,

fol.
"

und

Rosch,

KriegsalterthUmer,
of the Grxvius Art

echten

Quellen geschopft.
treatises the of Arts

Halle, 1782.
Schelius
and the of

good manual

this branch

of antiquities "The Romans.

N.
"

10th

(cited" 197) consists of military, in

Disc, The
on

by

R.

H.

others, on
Ancients
;

the military affairs of the found

P. in his Ancient

Cf

also

Rollin,

History of
the Rom. Art

and

Sciences

of

tory. His-

York,

1835.

2 vols. 8."

Duncan's

War,

in his Transl.
4
"

Csesar, cited
"

V. " 528.

7."
on

C. Gut'sRoman

card, Memoires Legion,

in
same

crit. et hist, sur

Mem.

plus, points d'antiquitesmilitaires. Berlin, 1773.

des
on

vols. 8.
De

Cf. " 42.

to

Le

Beau, Memoirs
the

"c.

in the

de
"

VAcad.

Inscr.

in different vols,

from

25th

to 42d.

Maizeroi,
"

complete

design Emp.

of

Le
ch.

Beau,
i.

Mem.

Sfc.vol. xlii

Heyne,

the Roman

Legion,

"c.

Cf. Class. Journ.

xi. 169.

Gibbon, in his Rom.

" 276.
must, Of but and the
we

On

account

of the
this
war

in the successive in of treating

art

frequent changes in periodsand revolutions

subject,pay
in its earliest
of
constant

the

of their
have

mans military system of the Rohistory,the antiquary

to

attention
but

the

order

of

time.
;

Roman
know
no

of the

that

warlike

state, we of the nation spirit

their

imperfect accounts
the the division

showed
career.
"

itself under
In

kings,
of the

gave

dubious three

intimations

future
a

people into
a

tribes,made
were

by Romulus,
taken

thousand

men

for foot soldiers and thus

hundred

for horsemen

from

each

and tribe,

the originated

first Roman

besides the 300 3,000 foot soldiers, in time of horsemen]. The 300 horsemen, called cekres, and constituting but reorganizedby disbanded a by Numa, bodyguard of the king, were peace Tullus Hostilius, and increased by the addition of 300 noble Albani; the whole
number
at

legion [containingtherefore

of 600

was

doubled
men.

by Tarquinius Priscus
in the
accounts

and

the

body of horsemen
number of
men

last
There

comprised 2,400
is
at
not a

perfect

agreement

given

respecting

the

in

the

(cf. Livy, i. 30, 36; Plutarch, Romul. ii. 13, 20; Cicero, De Republ. for some 20) ; and there is room the whole of the regal power number at the close doubt, whether and in the flourishing times of the republic should be stated as 24,00, or as 36,00,or as 54,00." See Zampt and Marqaardt, as cited " 256. 2.

cavalry

different

periods

" 277.
enrolled 45
were

No among
ranked

one

could

be

soldier

under
men,

17, and
liable from
oath

all between
to

17

and

45

were
over

the class of

younger
elder under
men,
a

and

service

; while

those

always received
time of service

among to service
was

the

excused

duty. military
10 for in

formal

{sacramentum).

They were, The regular

16
to

years
serve

for foot

and soldiers, of years

customary,
at

however,
of

this number
the

not horsemen; it was succession, and whoever,

the

age

50, had

no*

served

number prescribed

of

campaigns

was

still

P.

III.

MILITARY

AFFAIRS.

DIVISION

OF

THE

ARMY.

271
not
to

excused
in the
were wars

from rule
of

the rest.

Persons
to

as requisition

no were property (capite censi) service, because having nothing

of

included

lose, they

not

supposed
20

the time

to possess of service was

sometimes
the but 16.

sufficient bravery and patriotism. In protracted extended four years and under longer,

the who

emperors
were

years

became
serve

regularperiod,except
As

requiredto

all the soldiers

for the imperial guard, citizens Roman were

and free-born, the rank in high estimation ; and their peculiar of soldier was termed Freedmen could be admitted were rightsand privileges jus militiee. the Roman In the earliest times order of battle resembled only into naval service. the Grecian custom to form several a phalanx. Subsequently it was At a later periodthe method of three lines was platoonsor divisions. adopted, will be described which below (" 286). of Rome, has been mentioned, the army as was " 278. During the freedom
"

usually commanded
of
two two
a

by

one

of the

consuls. six hundred

consular

army

commonly
Romans.

sisted con-

legionsof foot, and

double
number
was

horse, all native

For

consuls

legioncontained and higher. In the second Punic and each legionhad at that time
many
as

4 legions and The 1,200 horse. requisite, but graduallyincreased to 6,000 3,000 foot-soldiers, originally
war

it consisted

of

6,200 foot with

there
the
were

300 of

horse ;
as

six tribunes, of whom

were

course

24

in all.

These
the

tribunes

chosen

by

people,partlyfrom
much
at

the

equites, partlyfrom
1. The Cf. number of

plebeians.
in 21 ;
a legion Polybius,

foot-soldiers

Livy, vii. 25;

2
u.

xxix.

24;

xliv.

appears iii. 12.

to

have

varied

different

times.

In

cases

of great

urgency,

those

who

had

served

their time

and

were

over

six-

their country, and to fillvacancies in to defend and-forty years of age, were yet bound the city legions; in such emergencies, freedmen and slaves were sometimes enlisted. called tumultarii Soldiers received at such times of sudden alarm (tumultus) were or

subitarii; those of them

3
u.

called volones. enlisting voluntarilywere enjoyed only by the senators, augurs, military duty was and others holding a priestly office, and persons or suffering some bodily weakness of service was, however, often granted defect. Remission of some part of the legalterm of bravery ; this was called vacatio Tionorata. as a reward Entire freedom from

"
most

279.

In the

levying of

the

soldiers consuls

the following were (delectus), announced

worthy of notice.

The

by

herald

the

time

the usages of a levy

his

citizen, liable to service, must (diem edicebani) ; then every appear, on perilof at the self Campus Martius ; each consul elected for himproperty and liberty, assisted The common soldiers were two by the military tribunes. legions, called successively taken from all the tribes, which and separately in an were selected at a time, of which the tribunes order decided by lot. Four men were the oath of fidelity Afterwards of each legion, in rotation, took (legerunt)one. and Tribunes, then by the Centurions taken, first by the Consuls (sacramenium) was the names and the Decuriones, and iastly soldiers. Then by the common of the latter class were and under the emperors placed in the roll of the legion, the righthand, that they might be recognized, branded if they a mark on was resorted to in necessities, called was attempted desertion. Compulsory levying, termed conscriplio. the allies was thing among conquisitio ; the same directed to another " 280. After the levy was made, the legionswere place and of assembling, in which formed divisions furnished with into they were the light troops, velites ; The younger and feebler were amis. placed among the older and richer among the heavy-armed ; to which class belonged the hastati, and iriarii. principes,
used in the flower of life, named from the long spear men line in battle; the principes were occupying the foremost in full vigor of middle age, standing in the second line in battle the men ; the triarii in age, veterans, advanced the third line in battle and laking thence the more constituting A legion,when it consisted of 3,000, had 1,200 hastati, 1,200 principes. their name. The and 600 Iriarii. last number the same former were always remained ; the two added variously increased, and light-armedtroops (velites or milites leves) were cording acto pleasure.
1
u.

The

haslali
at

were

young

by them

and first,

On

the

three ranks,

haslali,he,

Le Beau,

as

cited

" 275.

Man,
were

SfC.vol. xxix. p. 325.

On

this occasion

when

the troops

formed

into

the colors divisions,

or

stand-

272

ROMAN

ANTIQUITIES.

ards

were

brought forth from

The
men;

the

Capitol and

treasury, and

committed

to

the

proper

officers (cf." 282).

" 281.
a
"

subdivisions
and

were

manipuli originally
and

or

each centurise, containing

was

hundred

the leader

captain of
three

this number ranks of the

called

Centurio.

When

the

legion was
rank

divided
at first

into the

and hastati, principes,

triarii,each

legion,of course, of 60 regular all equal,consisting forty-five maniples. These maniples were The privates,two centurions, and a standard-bearer. maniples of the hastati
had
were

had

fifteen

maniples ; and

the whole

300

men

of

the

velites, distributed equallyamong

the
same;

them;

to

the

triariialso

allowed
u.

thirtycompanies of
The

the

principes had

none.

divided into 30 maniples, and each of the three period the legion was in maniples of the triarii contained stillthe same number, 60 men double the number, 120 each, 600 in all; those of the hastati and principescontained in each, 2,400 in all of both ranks ; among these were divided 1,200 light-armed men Each divided into two censoldiers; thus making a legion of 4,200. now maniple was turies, sometimes called ordines. The tenth part of a legion,three maniples of each called a cohors, and from the number of was rank, and therefore including 300 men, the legion contained contained, tricennaria; when men 4,200, the cohort had 420, and termed was quadrigenaria ; so also when larger,quingenaria and sexcenaria.
1 At

another
10.

ranks

into

On

the

cohort, Le Beau,

as

cited " 275.

Mem,

fyc vol. xxxii. p. 279.

every

centurions, distinguishedas prior and posterior; and now his assistant,called uragus, men subcenturio, and optio. The 300 horsedivided into 10 turmce, and each into 3 decurice, turma belonging to a legion were called decurio. consistingof 10 horsemen, whose head or chief was
2
u.

Each

maniple
had

had

two

centurion

"

"
The

282.

Each

maniple
was

had

chief

standard

its standard, placed in its midst when in battle. which always in the first maniple of the triarii, was

various;

the Roman standards styledprimus pilus. The images and figures were upon but the principal silver to the whole standard, common was a legion, blem eagle on a staff or pole,sometimes holding a thunderbolt in his claws, an emof the Roman Those of the infantry or success. were usually power termed signa ," those of the cavalry, vexilla ; the bearers,signiferi, vexillarii. or
1. The

vexillum,
spear
near

flag or

banner,

was

square

across

also they fought under this peculiarstandard (sub vexillo); they were the abbreviations for Senatus commonly seen subsignani. On the flagwere popuof the emperor, the name in golden or purple letters. The signum or lusque Eomanus, from this a was originally handful of hay, expressed by the word manipulus and it was called
"

for veterans, who called vexillarii, as

its upper end. It was used retained after their term were

bar fixed a for foot-soldiers,especially of service ; these were by distinction sometimes

piece of cloth, hung from

division of soldiers came Afterwards it was to be so called. a spear with the figure of a hand staff with a crosspiece of wood, sometimes above or it,in allusion perhaps to the word manipulus ; having below the crosspiece a small shield, round troduced oval, sometimes or Augustus intwo, bearing images of the gods or emperors. circumstance that
a

an

ensign formed

by fixing a globe
When
was

on

the head embraced

; cross;

of

spear

or

staff", denoting
as a

the dominion
new

of the world. imperial standard which

a

Constantine termed

Christianity,he
it is described from and ornamented

the Labarum of
a

with

transverse
or

yard
above

at

the

top, in the form

was

adopted a long pike this yard was hung a

;

silken veil of the

"

banner, of purple color, richly embroidered

the

the portion

standard
The

cross-yard
colors
were

Xp"7r6;.
In marked

standards

and

for the word wrought into a monogram veneration regarded with superstitious by all
of Roman
a

classes of the army.

our

Plate

XXXIII. letter C.
"

eleven

different is the hand

forms

standards
sort,

are

given,
standard

in
or

the

by the prophet's power

it
are as

Fig. D

of Mohammed,
Two

of sacred of
are

figures sign of the

sents represtandards Roman

carried

it is taken from his followers; among in religious processions in Persia. in the also
see

Morier marked A

(cited P. V.
ancient

$ 243.

3), who
Several

forms

Persian
"

also

given,
are the

figures
in Plate
L.

marked XXIX

B.

"

The

eight

Egyptian.

standards Respecting
vol. iv. p. 222.

seen

; cf.

$ 224.
Chr.

Labarum,

Coleman, Antiquities of

Church, Note

to Explanation prefixed

of Plates."

Cf. Class. Journ.

the standard The Romans used 2. Near usually the station of the musicians. was which be. served for that in their army the instruments only wind-music purpose ; may The tuba, is supposed the buccince,and the litui. distinguishedinto the tuba, the cornua, been to have exactly like our trumpet, running on wider and wider in a direct line to bent the orifice. The round ; they owe their name and original almost were cornua
"
" "
"

to

the horns of beasts, put have had the same rise,and

to

the

same

use

may
cornua,

derive unless

their

distinguishthese from

the

The in the ruder ages. buccince seem from bos and cano. It is hard name something less and not quite they were
"

to to
so

PLATE

XXXIII.

274
crooked.
"

ROMAN

ANTIQUITIES.

between the cornua and tubes, being almost rod of the augurs top, like the lituus or sacred ; These instruments being all made of brass, the of ceneatores, besides the particular of name terms have been to tubicines, comicines, buccinatores, "c. ; and there seems a set number assigned to every manipulus and turma ; besides several of higher order, and common took their station by the ensign and to the whole legion. In a battle, the former

The

litui

were

middle

kind

straight, only a little turning in at whence their name. they borrowed under the players on them went

the
"

the chief eagle in a or particular troop ; the others stood near company the alarm was to be given, at by the general and prime officers ; and when the word followed latter began it, and were of the general, these by the common of the rest, dispersed through the several parts of the army. sound Besides this clas sicum, or alarm, the soldiers gave a general shout at the first encounter, which in later original." (Kennet.) they called barritus, from a German ages

colors of their

ring, hard

"

A les

form

of

the the

Roman Mem.

cornu

is seen

in Plate XXVI.
"

fig.B ; of Galand,
De

the

lituus, probably, in fig.n. origine

et usu

See
in

Galand,

La

Trompette
as

chez cited

anciens, in

Acad.

Inscr. vol. i. p. 104.

Tuba;

apud Veteres,

Ugolinus, vol. xxxii.

J 197.

according to the class to which (parrna),about three feet in of ox-hide of a helmet diameter, a spear for hurling(hasta or velitaris), (cudo), the skin of a wild beast (galerus), hastali bore The and in later times a sword. a largeshield [scutum), three and a half and four feet long and over, of thin boards covered with leather and iron plate ; a short but stiff and pointedsword with iron points(pila),one of wood the right hip; two on (gladius), javelins helmet with crest a longerand the other shorter; an iron or brazen (galea), adorned with for the legs, plated with iron (ocrese), plumes (crista) ; greaves of mail (lurica), used in later times only for the right leg ; a coat of formed metal or hide, worked with little hooks of iron, and reaching from the over breast to the loins,or a breastplate (thorax)merely. The principes and triarii of the same used weapons kind ; excepting that the triarii had longerspears, called hastse longse, in later times lancese,and long swords, called spathse, or of smaller size, semi-spathse. when The shield was of the marked by the name soldier and the number of the legionand maniple to which he belonged. Whoever
-'" 283.
The
weapons of

the soldiers
a

differed

they belonged.

The

velites had

round

shield

"

"

"

returned of the
coat

from
were

battle

without
to

of

cavalry mail, an

similar last

the

his shield,forfeited his Grecian (cf." 138) :

or

life.
"

The
cap

weapons
a (cassis),

a or

war

oblong shield,greaves
was

boots, a lance

javelin,and sword
J 235. 3.
spear. A The
sort
a

and
The

dagger, which
horsemen
seen

used
XXX. Plate Both
;

only
have which
a

in close
small

fight.
shield.
a

is also soldier

in

; from

in fig.1, of Plate fig.2 of the same an antique gem.

round

Cf.

of shield barbarian and from

these

represents figures show

Roman

knight attacking
"

the which

horseman's is
seen a

scutum

XXXIII. in Plate gladius of the soldier are seen shield The 2). Trajan's Pillar (cf.P. IV. $ 18*8. and legionary with the accouterments baggage, (cf.# 298. 2)." The lorica or coat of mail may well as the as body are defended by mail; this
"

fig.1,
which

Roman

legionary,

taken

armor

of
"

Goliath,

the
coat
as

Philistine of mail
as

;
covers

4-7.

In

fig.8, a
the neck Dacian
a

also it presents the arms ; the ;

in fig. 2, which a represents in inarchto carry ing obliged always XXII. be seen in Plate the legs fig.5, in which is the to illustrate the figure given in Calmet his shield-bearing attendant. Cf. 1 Sam. xvii. he
was

is likewise

helmet from scale Cf.

here

seen

extends Column.
as

down In horse

behind Plate also. XXX.

"

to

defend

well horseman

head Plates

the XVII.
"

figure
covered and Also,
Le

is drawn with XXII.

Beau

Trajan's
armor; 139.

fig.n,
other
On
the

is

completely
cited " 139.

is his

For

articles
Roman

of armor,
armor,
see

see

$$ 45 and

Meyrick,as

(as cited " 275) in the Mem.

de VMcad.

fyc.vol. xxxix.

p. 437.

the Roman soldieryreceived no accounts, According to the common and wages (s/ipendium) during the first three hundred years of the city, first givento foot-soldiers B. C. 405, and to horsemen three years after. Each were soldier had a monthly allowance (demensum) of about two bushels of wheat, afterwards and a stipend of three asses stipendwas greater; per day. The Julius Cffisar doubled it sometimes still higher. rose it,and under the emperors The soldiers or bodies of them as sometimes doubled to particular were wages fixe"dfor the distribution reward a called duplicarii.Certain were days were ; such

"

284.

pay

of the allowance

of

corn.

Whatever
was

any

one

saved

of his pay
the

was

called

peculium caslrense
until
1
u.

half

of

which

always depositedwith
given
army
were

standards,

the term
Various in war, when

of service

expired.
were

extraordinary rewards
called
also dona militaria.
to

to

those

who
on

Donatives,
on

donativa,

the

selves distinguished themother hand, were

as e.

giftsor largesses distributed

of
success,

the

whole

sacrifices and
were

games

occasions, particular celebrated. Among

as, the
corona

g. in

cases

the

rewards,
or

olden

and

gilded crowns

particularly common;

castrensis

val-

P.

III.

MILITARY

AFFAIRS.

REWARDS.

PUNISHMENTS.

275

laris to him who who first scaled

the enemy's entrenchments muralis, to him ; corona navalis, for seizing a vessel of the enemy's walls; and corona in a sea-fight; also wreaths formed and crowns of leaves and blossoms; enemy as the corona citizen from civica,of oak leaves, conferred for freeing a death or captivity of the enemy at the hands obsidionalis, of grass, for delivering ; the corona a besieged of laurel, worn city; and the corona triumplialis, by a triumphing general. the
The various
crowns

first entered

above

named

are

exhibited

in Plate

XVI. ;

Fig. 7,
the

1 is the

civica
"

eastrensis

radiata,
2.
"

; 3, the obsidionalis ; 4, the such been to have as appears

muralis
worn

; 5, the navalis by the emperors.

triumphalis.

; fig.2, the Fig. 6 is the

There iron
on

were

smaller

rewards

(prmmia minora) of various kinds

a

; as

spear

out witha

any
or

spear

it (haslapura) ; a flag or banner, i. e. (vexillum), of different colors, with or without

streamer

on

the

end

of

lance

embroidery

trappings(phaleras),

for horses, and for men round went (aurece torques), which ; golden chains the neck, whereas the phalerce hung down the breast; bracelets (armillce), on ments ornafor the arms for the helmet in the form of horns ; catellm ; comicula, ornaments
ornaments

the torques were twisted (tortce)like a catenulce, chains composed of rings ; whereas Another (Adam). clasps or buckles for fastening a belt or garment." ; fibulas, form of reward service (vacatio) by release before the legal was an exemption from of service, the soldiers term .finished(cf." 278. 3). At the expirationof the term was received a bounty or donation in land or money, which was called emeritum sometimes ;
or

rope

those
The
an

who
torques

had
is seen

served
on

their time
Gladiator

out

being also called emeriti.

the

Dying

(cf.P. IV. " 186. 9)." See Archseologia (as cited P. IV. " 32. 5), vol. xxii. p. 285, on

ancient

bronze

bracelet.

and crimes were punishments inflicted for misdemeanors very and in camp. Theft, false testimony, neglectof watch, garrison visited with the punishment or was leaving a post assigned, cowardly flight, called fustuarium,in which, on a signalfrom a tribune,the whole legionfell to grace beatingthe offender with sticks, usuallyuntil his death ; if he escaped,his disWhen was a whole scarcely preferableto death. maniple had fled,this inflicted on tenth man, punishment was being taken by lot, and the rest every and received only barley instead of wheat chased from the camp, for their were Often inflicted in other allowance. loss of pay as disgracewas by ways, soldier of the triarii was graded dea privari), or loss of rank, e. g. when (siipendio could inflict punishments only after ininto the haslati. The tribunes vestigation of the case the other hand, could immediately and on ; the general,

"

285.

The

severe,

both

in

absolutely pronounce
wilful disobedience death
was

The latter was to death. sentence, even of orders,for insurrection and desertion. not uniform.

the sentence The mode

for of inflicting

"
a

286.

Of the Roman detail would

order of battle

idea a general (acies)

a

minute

belong rather

to

system

of tactics.

may be given here ; The legionswere

the next commonly ranged in three lines,the foremost occupiedby the hastati, Between each two by the principes,and the last by the triarii. maniples a

left,so that the maniples of the second line stood againstthe spaces space was and the first, the maniples of the third against the spaces of the second. These termed rectse vise,and were broad the maniples themselves. as as spaces were
of
1

u.

and and

of

called quincunx. It had the advantage both of stability was arrangement and was being easilychanged ; it avoided all confusion and interruption, cially espephalanx (" 142), which it could easilypenetrate put in oppositionto the Grecian

This

It was less fitted to resist a violent onset, and therefore was cipation often, in antiof attack, changed so as to close up the spaces. But in this form of arrangement the soldiers were mutually sustained and relieved by being in different lines, and of their separate by means maniples could easilychange the positionsfor attack and defence. in the maniples ranged six feet apart, and the men Originallythe lines were
route.

three
2.
as

feet from To

each than

other; in later times

room

the space

was

diminished

till the

soldier had

scarcely more
above

for his shield. the disposition of the soldiers in the three lines of hastati, principes,and triarii, Sallust. Bell. Jug. have described,some applied the phrase triplex acies (cf.

at least 49) ; others consider the phrase as sometimes meaning in three lines ; an arrangement in two lines being called acies the of drawing up for battle were occasionally used. army cuneus,

simply duplex.
We

arrangement Other methods mention here the

an

arranged in the form of a wedge in order to pierce and break collected into a close, the enemy's lines ; the globus, in which the troops were in which of extremity ; the forfex, the army firm, round body, usually adopted in case took a form something like that of an open pair of shears or the letter V, in prder ta
in which the army
was

276
receive the enemy when
in

ROMAN

ANTIQUITIES.

coming in the shape of a wedge ; the serra, in which the lines before making the engagement some parts of the front advanced the other parts, thus presenting an a littlelike the teeth of a saw. appearance
were

extended,

and

-\

" 287. The firstattack in a battle was customarily made by the light-armed wards troops, which in earlier times were ranged in front of the first line ; but afterstationed in the. intervals between the maniples, behind them, they were
or on

the

part of the
attack

wings, and made were light-armed

when

attack

in connection

with
the

the hastaii. A of

considerable The from

stationed

behind
at

triarii,to support them.

an

commenced

the

legion

was

the

distance

arrow-shot

As the light-armed the hastati adthe enemy. vanced, now discharged their arrows, hurled their javelins, and foughtwith their swords. If the enemy were not forced to give way, themselves or they were pressed hard, the signalwas

given for
the the
mean

retreat;

on

which

the

and light-armed

the

hastati drew

back

through

intervals

of the second

line, and

while, the

triarii continued

the principes advanced to the fight. In their in a stooping posture, leaning on

rightknee with the left foot advanced, coveringthemselves wTith their shields, and having their spears stuck in the ground with the pointsupwards ; the line thus If the principes were pelled compresented the appearance of a sort of wall. the triarii both to then and the retreat, rose, principesand the hastati being received into their intervals,renewed the action with close ranks (comThis and all three in a body (uno continente agmine). united pressis ordinibus) then sustained the of whole. attack was in the rear by the light-armed troops be noticed. " 288. Of the light-armed They troops a few thingsfurther may
were

commonly
also

called

velites ,* in early times, however,

rorarii

and

accensi,

and ferentarii.They carried no shields, optiones, adscriptitii, but slings,arrows, and swords. They were usually divided into javelins, and fifteen companies {expediti besides these manipuli, or expedite cohortes), there were 300 usually distributed among the hastati of the old legions. The these approached the light-armedoften sat behind the horsemen, and when enemy, sprang
off and

sometimes

sought

to

wound

and

push them

by

the

javelin and

sword.

1 u. the maniples of the three distributed among sometimes lines, about They were of three different classes, designated fortybeing joined to each maniple. They were who shot the who hurled the javelin; sagiltarii, by their principalweapon ; jaculatores, and funditores, who also balls with the sling. There stones cast or were ar{Ow; afterwards who threw stones by the aid of machines. tragulariiand balistarii,
"

In

Plate
u.

XXXIV.

fig.a,

is

Roman

funditor
not

fig.b, the

Sagittarius.

the light-armed, but probably were second line. The positionof the light-armed that most often changed ; but it would commonly they stood in seem during battle was and rushed forward and the triarii, to their the principes, three lines behind the hastati, the maniples. attacks through the intervals between called antesignani were Those of the first and soldiers of the first, or
2
"

The Roman the most respected cavalrywas part of their army, especially joyed long as it was composed wholly of knights, and this class of citizens enand rank already noticed (" 256). Even before the regular a high estimation B. C. 124, the cavalry consisted of this order in its full privileges, establishment the case of the noble was and Romans chiefly ; such indeed respectable young

"

289.
as

on

the

first creation his 300 who

youth among kings,

the Roman of the

who of the cavalry by Romulus, horsemen called celeres ; the same

received
was

the

most

noble the following

true

under

increased
to

their number. leave

the the the almost

Towards

the end

of the

republic,
cavalry
taken

knightsbegan
was

later armies

made

into pay in the provinces later times served only among

up where

military service, and thus who wholly of foreigners,

stationed.
or

the
were

legionswere
Frsetorians,

the

knights of imperial bodyguard

The

(cf." 309).
from the legions, often separated period also, the cavalrywas been stationed and had the been same as previously they regarded army, different from the wing. The on forces,commonly called aJse were especially the legionary bodies of light-horse, cavalry; they were composed of foreigners The number of horsemen and employed to guard the flanks of the army. nected conwith a legion has already been named (cf."" 276, 278, 281) ; commonly 300 ; sometimes The legionsof the auxiliaries (cf. 400. " 292) had the same

" 290.

At

that

while

"

"

278
and
on

ROMAN

ANTIQUITIES.

beasts termed

of burden. his

Eacb

person

in the

(agaso)to
were

carry

baggage. The servants calories. Originally there were

they
were

cavalryhad a horse and a servant and waiting boys of the legions

few persons
the of
to

but

in later times soldiers.

294.

often

so

many
a

as

surpass army

number
to the

this class,but of proper field

or

"

The
was

order of march,

when

Roman and

moved
the

into
then
to

the camp, followed

the

usuallyas follows. heavy-armed, both foot

the
to

The

light-armedwent
horse ; then

in advance persons
other

needed

pitch and
work
;

camp, prepare then the baggage of the horsemen

; ;

level the

grounds and

perform

necessary

guarded by
124 these horsemen

then the
came

after which
first the

general {dux) and of general himself under tribunes the military

the

his lieutenants his usual and This

escort

(Jegatt),
;

then last been

other officers. After of the army,

seems

followed

standards, next

choice

men

and
have

the servants
the
cases

usual

or managers of order of march; but it was of the in reference to the nature

and

muleteers

of the beasts.
course

to

changed and modified in ground, the country, and other

also the somewhat

different stances. circumdifferent.

And also

in
were

marching out of camp was the exposure both to danger, order to equalize other in position. to relieve each required
The order in

wings

and the

legions

Besides the arrangements for battle mentioned already(" 286), some be mentioned. The in marching should adopted particularly agmen when the army was disposed in a compact form, usuallythat quadratum was of the enemy, of a square, with the baggage in the centre, either in expectation the close retreat or a or on a pilatum, justum, was ; agmen array in marching. four-sided arrangement Orbis signified a as not a circular form, but such sented pre-

" 295.

others

front

on

every

side. them

The

testudo

was

also

an

diers, arrangement of the solso

in which

they stood

close

coveringover approached the walls

compact
distance. side breadth. The
turris

raisingtheir shields together, the shell over and the tortoise), (like
or

as

to

form

in which

they

of the enemy,
was
an

waited

to

oblong quadrangularform,
was

receive the enemy at a certain with the end or narrow considered

presented to
296.

the

foe; laterculus

the

same,

only

in its

"

but had

during a a more signified

time, e. g.
casira

The camp resembled in many of the Romans the Grecian, particulars for short time several peculiaradvantages. A camp a occupied only called casira, and in the later ages, mansio staiiva march casira was ; permanent
a

camp,
a

in which termed camp site

were

the army
casira

remained
or

over

winter, therefore
tents most

hiberna,

for a length of through summer,

sestiva.

The The

of such convenient

and This

rushes.

was possible

highest and
was

freest part of it was called

the

chosen

with hides,boards, straw, selected for the camp. The of the general. for the head-quarters

covered

prsetorium,and
of
war was

square.

Here for

the council
the

taking the
of the him
as

feet occupied a space of four hundred A particular spot in it was priated approauspices, augurale; and another for the erection of the held. sometimes of the addressed the army. conlubernales

tribunal,whence
were

commander

the the

tents

attended Near
entrance

upon
to

and volunteers),

of other

the tents of the prxlorium were the head-quarters was always next

general(the young belongingto his train. persons officers and the bodyguards. The
to

Patricians

In this space who

the enemy.

the Forum for a (v), an open space "yt " 297 t. On the right of the Preetorium (e),was the stores, market, and for martial courts ; and on the left the Qucestorium(w), where and the like were kept. A select portion of the cavalry, arms, equitesablecti money, also stationed on each side of the Prmtorium, and behind them et evocati (o, o) were the pedites ablecti et evocati (p, p). Next the tents of the Tribunes (**) and of were the Prefects free way, called principia (v), 100 feet (tt). Then a was or passage, from one of the side gates (c) to the other (d). wide, extending through the whole camp

The

of the camp called the lower part. what was rest was Through the center of this lower part ran 50 feet wide, extending another in the opposite direction. passage On each side of this last passage, the tents of the cavalry (h) and the triarii (i)were each side,was another passage 50 feet wide, and cast; then beyond these tents, on then the tents of the principes (k) and kastati (l) ; and after another similar passage

beyond these
These

on

each

side,the
were

tents at

five passages

crossed

of the auxiliaries, both cavalry (m; and in the center, by another right angles,

infantry(rr).
of the
same

PLATE

XXXI

V.

280 width, termed

of it. In each
the
was

ROMAN

ANTIQUITIES.

Via
tent

quintana (t) because

men,

five Around march

maniples
formed

were
a

encamped
contubernium,

on one

each

side

having
which
in
case

there were eleven oversightof the other ten. the

which

place of assembling
from
an

to

out

the tents was 200 a free space of camp, and served also for defense wall
or

of them feet wide,

of

an

attack whole
was

enemy.
was
a

Around ditch
or

the foss

camp

nine ordinarily

feet

ditch,fossa, and wide and seven

ditch, with

rampart,
; the

vallum.

The

deep

rampart rampart

high

these

measures,

however,

varied with circumstances. the

The

three feet formed was

sharp stakes (slides)fixed therein. cohort. On opening or gate, porta, guardedby a whole the head-quarters towards the called porta pratoria (a), being near These gates were called also qusestoria, as (b), on the opposite side of the camp, enemy ; porta decumana it ; porta principalis dextra the quoestorium was in earlier times near (d), and porta the principia. principalis sinistra (c),being near
of the earth thrown (agger) from each of the four sides was an
is seen in Plate XXXIV. ; it fig.P, as given in Boyd's ed. of Adam camp in paletters and signs included description of Polybius (Hist. vi. 24). The rentheses The in the Plan. in the above description refer severally to the corresponding marks the tents letters Q Q, in the Plan, designate occupied by the extraordinary cavalry of the allies; In fig.R is occasional allies. and R R, by the extraordinary foot of the allies ; S S, by strangers and and nine feet broad of a fossa, here a section deep; showing also the agger given as twelve A

plan

of

consular the

is drawn

from

"

"

sudes.

"
sense

excubiee

the

termed vigilise which maintained watches were by night were ," but is used in a more properlynight-watches, general signifies the name Two tribunes had constantly for each single post. ; statio was the same which two of the whole retained, at the longest, oversight camp,
298.

The

also

for two assemble The

months.

At

their tents with

all the

officers
to the

and

leaders
to

were

required

to

at daybreak and

watchword

(symbolum)
block
was on

of the little wooden

1
u.

general receive his commands. go called tessera, from the four sides or corners was which it was written.
them
to

The

watchword

centurions, and
centurions
were

by them
called

tablets, and
a

like manner whole maniple

men

in

tribunes, and by them to the carried it from the tribunes to the often written tesserarii. Short commands similar were on Before the headquarters rapidly circulated through the army.

given by the general

soldiers. Those

the

to

the

who

camp upon

occupied by guard, so that 240

were was

the

of the kept guard, particularlyby night. The outworks light-armed. Every maniple was obliged to place four men of two were always on the watch in a camp legions. The

night

of which

divided into four parts, of three hours the guards (vigiles) relieved by a were also
their guards and watchmen. duty, and make the formal round

each, also called watches,

new

at

the

end

set. to

The the
or

had watch
or
on

It

belonged

ries legions of the auxiliacavalry to inspect the visit the several posts

(circuitiovigilum)
the soldiers
were

stations.
2.

In the

of the Roman discipline

camp,

employed
These

walking wood, shooting image of a man

he should
be

whence the army in fact took and running completely armed

the
as an

its name,

exercitus.

exercises

in various exercises, included

arrow,

horses of vaulting upon ; leaping,swimming, hurling the javelin,carrying weights, attacking a wooden
"c.
run
"

enemy,

It

was

essential
armor

to

the

comfort

of the soldier, that

ing marchperfectease ; in common he was load consisting of his provisions a obliged to carry, in addition to his arms, and utensils, amounting in weight, it is supposed, at least to 60 pounds. customary The exercises were performed under the trainingof the campidoctores.
to or
"

able

walk

in his full

with

the (castra hiberna) of the Romans and, under were quarters strongly fortified, furnished with accommodation like a city, as storehouses, particularly, were every towns workshops .an are supposed (fdbricm), infirmary (valetudinariuiri), "c. Many European have had their origin in such to in England, whose establishments; names particularly those end in Chester Cf. Roy's Military Antiquities in Great Britain. or cester. (Jldam). emperors
"

3.

The

winter

" 299.

The

troops, and the double or

commenced siegeof a citywas lines (corona) were, encircling triple. In the attacks upon
sorts.

in

it with by completelyencircling' of populous cities, case times somethe city they employed various

methods, and engines of various

1
u.

The before mentioned tesludo the shields (" 295) was frequentlyused ; upon arranged other soldiers mounted, and so attempted to scale the walls. Higher walls kind they mounted a by the help of scaling-ladders (scalce). The crates, hurdles, were of basket-work of willow; they were attached in the of roof to stakes, borne as sort a hands of those who used this shelter over their heads, in advancing to make attack ; an also their walls, and on they were employed by the besieged as a breastwork on marches soft and they served as fascines to fill or cover miry places. Vinece were "oortable sheds or mantlets of lightboards, eight feet high, seven feet broad, and sixteen thus
"

"

P.

III.

MILITARY

AFFAIRS.

SIEGES.

281
hides, and
served
to

long. They
from the

were arrows

filled out

and covered with wickerwork of the enemy while the soldiers were
shows above.
"

or

tect pro-

undermining the walls.

approaching
crates, and the
a

Fig. 1, of Plate according to the

2
m.

XXXIV.
statement

the

use

of the shows

lestudo the

by

Fig. 2

manner

body of soldiers of forming the

wall

vinem.

moved

the plutei,wooden similar purpose covered with hides, and shelters, were these the slingers and archers especially rollers. Under or placed themselves, and sought to force the defenders from their walls,in order that the scalinga

For

upon

wheels

ladders

might

stronger were from testudo

in

be the more kind, yet applied. Of the same easily and effectually the musculi (wooden shelters to be distinguished ; and also the testudines before mentioned) ; these were men most commonly used to protect the work-

shelters

filling erecting a fortification, up the ditch,or they often covered the batteringram.
XXXIV. is
a

the

like.

With

some

of these

Fig. 8, Plate

plutens, advancing
was a

against

3. wall.

large beam employed to break in the walls of the managed immediately by the Originally it was hands of certain soldiers without protection, afterwards ters but was placed under the shelwho thrust it against the walls. Its name, just described,which covered the men derived from its front end, which was covered with iron in a form resembling aries, was head. Sometimes it was a ram's composed of several piecesunited, and so large that
3 u. The battering ram besieged city,in order
to enter

it.

125

men

were

required

to

work

it.
were falcali on

The f alces murales and asseres tear down the upper breastwork Two other instruments, which
grus

beams

with

the walls ;
were was an

they were probably of a

instrument

iron hooks, to break and the aid of ropes. similar use, termed the were

managed by

"

and

the

corvus.

"

The

terebra

employed

for

opening

hole

in

the walls.
In

fig.4,

of

Plate

XXXIV.
two

is the

battering-ram
into the In rollers.

cross-beam and

fixed

above frame

posts driven
upon
asser

substantial
"

placed
the

in its simple form, suspended by ropes from a In fig. to a complete 5, it is attached ground. under above a shelter as tioned. menfig.10, it appears

Fig.

shows

falcatus.

4 u. One of the most mounds to construct ordinary operations of a siegewas (agplaced the were geres) as high as the walls of the city,or higher. On these mounds and other shelters of the soldiers. towers militaryengines, also movable By means of boards, palisades, and wooden made grapnels, they were capable of sustainingsuch in them, the besieged of the great quantity of wood-work vast weights. On account often applied by mining under to was generally strove destroy them by fire,which ground.

These
ten
or

towers

(lurres) were
stories.

twenty
were
was

They

of various size and moved were upon

stories
passage
ram was

usually cast

arrows,

they reached the slope of the mound, they were its summit. To from on pieces by stories and reconstructed protect them with a fire, they were guarded by plates of iron, or coverings of hides, or moistened A solution of alum. with tow, long iron javelin fixed to a shaft of fir,wound smeared with pitchand resin, then set on fire and hurled upon the enemy from a tower, also applied to the tower from which called falarica,which was name was itself they thrown. The malleoli were of tow bunches similar, a sort of burning arrows, were or attached to javelins, designed to set on fire the works of the enemy.
taken
to

thrown sometimes When brought forward.

structure, often 120 feet high,and of wheels rollers. From the upper or javelins,and stones ; from the middle, a bridge or in the lower one to the walls ; and the battering over

Fig. 3, Plate
5
u.

XXXIV.

is most

specimen
common

of the

movable

towers.

One

of the

and

largest engines
were

was

the

catapulta,by which

arrows,

and particularly stones javelins,

"

hurled

in the fire (called aclides or pointed and hardened the catapulta?. In a siege there were usually a multitude is not well understood construction only know that ; we
were

Stakes, sharpgreat distance. sudes missiles) were also thrown from

a

of these
ropes

machines. cords threw

or

Their sinews with fatal

and

which they and other weapons, used in order to shoot the arrows the balista ; called also in later times onager, and efficacy. Of a similar kind was sometimes for throwing the javelin. For shooting arrows, designed chiefly poisoned, the Romans the scorpio, which could be managed made of an engine termed use by a singleman.
" "

Fig. 6, of

Plate

XXXIV.

is the

scorpio. Fig. 7
"

is the

but balista,

on

scale

more

reduced.

" 300.

The

modes

of defense

on

the part of the

besiegedwere

various.

than a hundred 1 u. pounds in weight, upon the be They hurled rocks, often more thrust down to the them siegers,poured upon boiling pitch or oil,and endeavored force back, or pull'up to themselves of iron hooks, and to kill, scaling-ladder by means The thrusts of the battering-ram they sought to the soldiers attempting to mount. and even baffle or weaken to by hanging sacks before it,and in various other ways, and springs. They likewise cast burning torches seize and draw it up by their ropes 36

2a2

282
the wooden
"

ROMAN

ANTIQUITIES.

upon
on

enginesof

the

besiegers,and

in other

ways

attempted

to

set

them

fire.
2.

be made, hind, walls bethey apprehended a breach would they reared new defend deep ditch before them. to They employed various methods themselves against the engines and darts of the besiegers. (Liv. xlii. 63.) But these, and every thing else belonging to this subject,will be best understood by reading the accounts of Syracuse by Marcellus preserved to us of ancient sieges,particularly (Liv.

Where

with

"

xxiv. 33), of Ambracia by Fulvius (Id. xxxviii. 4), of Alesia by Julius Caesar of Marseilles by his lieutenants (Cces. B. Civ. ii.), Gall, vii.), and of Jerusalem
de Vespasian (Joseph, Bell.

(de Bell.

by Titua

Jud.)."
the

" 301.
and

special cases.
harbors
1
u.

Romans hazarded and seldom a sea-fight, Afterwards, however, they acquireda permanent naval with at a always kept two fleets ready for sail,each manned legion, of The Misenum
warriors
as

In

early times

only in
power, the two

and

Ravenna.
this service the

enlisted in called classiarii,and were were them. from forces, but often taken among The of the fleet (classis) the Duumviri were highest officers or commanders originally Consul called prcefeclusclassis, and stationed a or a Praetor, who was navales, afterwards in the most distinguishedvessel (navis prastoria)known by its flag (vexillum. for its particularcommander Every other purpureum). ship had a tribune or centurion (navarchus). navis) stood the fighting Upon the upper deck (stega, constratum the
same

way

engaged in the legions of

land

men.

2. Besides

the navarchus Besides

rowers

or

commander sometimes

pilot(guhernator, rector) and

at

two,
or

the

prow.
were

the

classiarii

(called also magister navis), each ship had a who had an assistant (proreta) to watch fighting-men(marines, called also epibata),
were more

there who
3
u.

also the his voice

(remiges)who
a

or

less

numerous

according

to

the

size of the
with

galley ; these
and
were

under littlemallet
were

War-towers

often

cf. " 158,) director (hortalor,keXctottk, guided their motions. (portisculus) in the placed on board the vessels, commonly two, one
a

leader

or

fort part, the other in the hinder part. For the ferrecemanus, harpagones. and corvi were of this
sort ;

seizingand boarding a vessel of the enemy also other ments instruemployed ; there were
the like
were

combustible

materials

and

used

in order

to

fire the

ships of the
" 302 would

enemy.

On engaging in a fight, the sails (vela) were u. usually furled,because they The fleet easily take fire,and the vessel was managed by the rudder alone. in a sort of battle-array, and each vessel was signed aswas arranged by the commander maintain. A position as far as possible from its place, which it must land was The usually desired. larger vessels were usually placed in front, although the order of arrangement

following forms

the lunata, falcata. Before battle commenced, the omens offered. Then were examined, sacrifices and vows were all the ships was tack hung out a red flag,or a gilded shield, and the signal for atupon consisted was contest given by a trumpet (classicum). The partly in the rapid for the purpose and violent rushing of the vessels of against those of the enemy,
; acies

for naval combat mentioned are

was

by

no

means

uniform,

but

very

various.

The

simplex, cuneata,

of the rostra, which piercing the hostile ships by means were covered of the with iron the points, and made at galley, prow keel ; partly in throwing darts, spears, grappling irons, and actual close combat. " 303. The chief parts of a Roman The of the terms following were some

two

strong

beams

fast to both

at the sides of the

the

like ; and of
a

partly in

ship were

; prora,

statumina,
put wood
out

ribs
oars

of the rowers; seats scalmus, the piece of by thongs (stroppi) ; ; gubernaculum, clavus, rudder rudders were two common ; insigne, the image at the prow ; tutela, the image at the ornamental sometimes stern at the prow, having a sort ; aplustria, parts at the stern, of staff with a streamer the mast the place in which (taenia) ; malus, mast ; modius, of the fixed : antenncz, extremities was brachia, yards for the sails {vela) ; comua, The yards ; pedes, the ropes fastened to the comua. rigging and tackling in general called armamenta ing-lead, was rudentes, or funes ; the anchor, anchora ; sound; the ropes, molybdis ; the ballast, saburra. " 304. The Roman divided into three principal kinds, the war-galley, f'io ships were transport, and the ship of burden propelled chieflyby oars ; the seconJ ; the first was often towed sails. These classes were was by ropes ; the third depended mostly on called by various names. had the general name onerarice of naves Ships of burden ; much inferior in size to modern they were commonly trading vessels ; although some of vast bulk, as that which ships are mentioned brought from Egypt the great obelisk in the time of Caligula, said to be about often termed 1138 were tons. Ships of war constructed naves on longce,being longer than others ; naves turrita, from the towers them from their beaks ; and particularly triremes, quadriremes. ; also rostrata, aratm,
the
to

to draw sentina, pump (remi) ; sedilia, transtra,

oar was

(% 155). alveus, belly; holes to off bilge-water (nautea) ; foramina,

similar
prow;
to

those

Grecian

puppis,

stern;

which

the

tied

P.

III.

MILITARY
the number mentioned ;

AFFAIRS.

THE

TRIUMPH.

283

of benches in them of rowers ten as severally. As many lemy Livy (xlv. 35) speaks of a ship with sixteen banks ; and Ptoin which with forty banks. On the manner Philopator is said to have built one the benches and Grecian were arranged in the Roman galley we refer to " 156. 2. The Liburnicm after the model of the naves were light, fast-sailing ships, made addicted to piracy. The galley used by the Liburni, a people of Dalmatia or pJiaseli, also designed for kind of yacht or small bark, with few oars, naves a actuaries,were of a peculiar construction, with two ders, and rudexpedition. The Camarm were prows without at each one end, so that they could at pleasure be propelled either way {Tac. turning ; they could be covered with boards like the vaulted roof of a house.

"c,

from
are

banks

"

"

Mor.

Germ.

44.)
Plate
a

Fig. I, of
the each
stern

XXIII.

is

of

Roman
as

vessel, from
on a

side, by bands,
the upper

specimen of the pkaselus. Fig. 3 is the Liburnian galley." Fig. 2 is the two on a rudders, attached painting at Pompeii ; it shows and pivot, so that the lower larger ends could be raised out of water
"

by lashing
On
the

ends
see

down

to

the

deck.

Cf. Jlcts xsvii.

as

40. Possius, De
Liburnicarum in Constructione, upon their

ships of the Romans,

vot.

Bolwell, Sckejfer,
that

Le Roy, "c

cited " 156. 2.-7. had

been

Gr"vius,
Bides and

xii.

It

was

stated,in 1835,
matter.

the port of Pompeii

vessels thrown discovered, presenting

covered

by the volcanic

(Downfall of Babylon, Sept. 22, 1835, citing London

LiteraryGazette.)

commander, who had gained an " 305. The great publicreward of a Roman the triumph,a pompous show, which by sea or by land, was importantvictory in the time of the kings. This honor, however, could be was practicedeven had been or Consuls, Dictators, or Praetors; acquiredonly by those who were
it
was

not

awarded He

to

Proconsuls. claimed

Yet

in later times of
a

there
must

were

some

tions excep-

to this.

who

the honor

triumph

have

been

also,not

have of the army, and the victory must merely commander, but chief commander been gained in the provinceassigned to the Consul Praetor. The importance or of the campaign and the victory,and its advantage to the state, also came into consideration ; and the generalmust have brought back his army with to share him in the glory of the triumph and accompany him in procession. If the victory consisted only in the recovery of a lost province, it was with a not honored

triumph.

solemnitywhich (" 220). thanksgivingor supplicatio

" 306.
The
first

after a victory, was a place at Rome generalmust apply to the senate in order to obtain a triumph. often given by the Permission, however, was the will of A the law to senate. vote or was always passed people,contrary by the people permittingthe generalto retain his command (imperium) in the Then
the

took

he was city,on the day of his triumph, because in other circumstances required the city. The abuse his command before entering of the honors to lay down
of
a

triumph occasioned
fallen in battle.

the enactment,

lis Porcia, which

prohibited a triumph unless

B. C. 63, of the law called lex triumphaof the enemy at least five thousand

had

A general enjoyingthis honor was not to enter the cityuntil the day triumph,and his previous request to the senate must be made out of the The were city in the temple of Bellona. usuallydefrayed from the expenses in held where cases a a triumphal procession public treasury, except conqueror

" 307.

of his

done sometimes public authority,as was Before were a commonly very great. expenses

without

on

the Alban
the

mountain.

The the

triumph,
"

genera] usually

The Senate distributed presents to his soldiers and to others. went to meet triumphing generalas far as the gate by which he entered the city.
1
u.

The
were

order

of the

triumphal procession was

as

follows.
were

and and and

the lictors and magistrates in a body. of various kinds, the animals musicians from

They
to

followed in

First in the line, ordinarily, peters by the trumthe spoils sacrifice,

be

offered

the enemy, the weapons and chariots of the conquered, pictures emblems of the country reduced, the captive princes or generals, and other prisoners. Then the conqueror himself, seated in a high chariot, drawn by four came white of laurel. followed He was horses, robed in purple, and wearing a wreath by drawn his numerous train, consisting partly of his relatives, but chieflyof his army

booty taken

amid constant in regular order. The acclamations, through procession marched the whole sacrificed,and a portion of the city to the Capitol, where the victims were consecrated Afterwards were to the gods. ment, feasting,merrispoilsof the victorywere of the triumph lasted several days. The Often the scenes and games. spectacles,
out
"

pomp,

expense,

and

and

the whole on custom, of the emperors, it by some

constantly greater and greater, luxury attending them became of of its frequent occurrence, and the great abuse account and contemptible affaii reduced at last to a common was

284
"

ROMAN

ANTIQUITIES.

The
C.
2.

first triumph for

at victory

sea

Duillius, after his memorable

defeat of the

obtained (triumphus navalis) was Carthaginians, B. C.

sul by the Con261.

"

fuller P. IV. $ 133. For of Duillius, a see Respecting the pillar and inscription in honor of a triumphal display, read of Paulus iEmilins, after Plutarch's description of the triumph the capture of Perseus of Aurelian's See also the account triumph in his king of Macedonia. Life by Vopiscus (cf.Gibbon, ch. xi). The recorded is that of Belisarius, at Constantinople, last triumph total number of triumphs related Gibbon, ch. xli.) The by Procopius (cf. P. V. $ 257. three record down hundred and to calculated of Belisarius to that has been as amounting upon fifty. It may its origin in a custom be worthy had of remark, coronarium that the phrase aurvm nected conwith his victory was the triumph of a general ; the cities cf the province where obtained, and those of other which carried before to him were to send provinces also, used golden crowns, him in the triumphal procession. before carried him in Cn. Manlius had hundred two crowns his triumph on of his victories in Asia (Liv. xxxix. account 7). At length it became customary view
" " "

to

send,
v.

instead

of

the

crown,

sum

of

money,

which

was

called

aurum

coronarium

(cf. Aul.

Gell.

6).

" 308.
on

There

was

an

honor

lower

than

that

of
not

bestowed triumph, frequently

victorious

the generals,
the essential
on

ovatio.

This

did

the
not

triumph ;
in
a

peculiarities were,
or on

in form differ very much from the city that the generalentered
not

chariot,but
the

foot

horseback, robed
not

in in

the trabea, but

a

the

praeiextaonly, and
From \ovis).

at the

Capitoldid

offer bullocks

but sacrifice,

sheep

last circumstance, the name of the whole was scene probably taken. The less triumph on the Alban mount, already alluded to (" 307), was It held those whom the had refused to senate was a only by triumph pompous. and to whom in the city, The ovation ceremonies an only had been awarded.
were

similar
to

to

those

of

marched

the

temple
Roman

of

it triumph in the city. The procession, Jupiter Laliaris, situated on the mount.

is

supposed,
under the

"
1

309.

The

militarysystem

underwent

various

changes

emperors.
officer established ; he also created an By Augustus a standing army was the troops constitutingthe imperial Frcpfeclxis was prrstorio, who placed over Roman cohorts distributed in Italy. The militaryserbodyguard and the praetorian vice suffered by the new It soon became establishment. merely a system to support the authority of the emperors, the welfare ward of the country ; and to fornot to promote
u.

called

the part of the soldiers this end, many disorders and abuses on the same likewise, an cause, unhappy line of distinction was the militaryand the other classes of citizens. The divided the under first emperors, praetorian soldiers were,

were

From

overlooked. drawn between

cokorts, containing 1000

and
3500

men

each.
were

Under enrolled

Armenians

the later emperors they in their stead ; these were

were

equally into ten lished, entirelyabointo nine

divided

scholce,and
The

commanded

tributed twenty-five, disprcetoriancohorts just named, cohorts styled cohortes vigilum, which each, and seven In after times, the number of troops was to 20,000 men. together amounted greatly On increased, as well as the naval force. the division of the empire, the western comprised sixty-two legions, and the eastern seventy.

legions,not

by the officer styled Magister officiorum. under Augustus including the auxiliaries, were
Besides these
he

the provinces. among six citycoliorts of one thousand

had

ten

At

the

commencement
as

of follows

the
:

civil three

wars

related
;

by

Tacitus in

in

.egions, distributed them being in the

two

in Britannia

three

Hispania

portion
under

in Pannonia
more

; two

in Dalmatia

three

in Judea

four and in Upper Germany, belonging to Illyricum ; two Vespasian ; two in Egypt ; and one in called

thirty History, there were of ; eight in Gallia, three Lower Germany (cf.P, I. $ 17); in Syria, with four in Moesia;
Africa

his

(cf. P. I. } 173).

in the republic,was epithetpraetorian, applied to the cohort which guarded the pavilion of the general. After the time of Augustus of the praetorian the praefect the bands office was conferred and instrument of the emperor, was usually a mere made could implicitly The only on such as the emperors trust. or appointment was the commission conferred selected. by the emperor's deliveringa sword to the person there were tary Sometimes was at first only militwo praetorianpraefects. Their power and small ; but it became trials were brought before them, very great, and finally and there was Aurelius Marcus com to the emperor. no appeal but by a supplication honor to them, and increased their number mitted this judicial The to three. rian praetocohorts had the gates fortified camp the wall, between at the a city,without Viminalis and Esquilina. Under cohorts were Vitellius sixteen praetorian raised, and four to guard the city. Severus the new-modeled to four body and increased them times the ancient number. stroyed Constantine the Great suppressed them and definally their camp. Adam, p. 123, 485). (Borjol's 3. Important changes in the military made He by Constantine. were pointed apsystem called Magistri militia ; one for the whole two ge.neralcommanders army, of whom had command of all the cavalry, Magister equitum ; the other, of the whole infantry, Magister peditum.
2.
"

The

286
after her

ROMAN

ANTIQUITIES.

marriage. Sisters were by adding distinguished epithets major and minor, or prima, secunda, tertia,"c.
1.

to

this

name

the

Sometimes
was

the Romans

this however under stood

2

only

an

which had a fourth name, addition to the cognomen,

names was not

has been and

may same,
name

it.
"

The

order

of the

invariablythe
the
proper

styled the agnomen; properly included although they usually

be

as

above

stated. from

Under

the

emperors

of the

individual

was

frequently put last.

of the city,some its heterogeneous among of noble families was increased by descent, and the number of the the adoption of plebeians among the patricians. The following were some Fabia most distinguished races; (gens), Junia, Antonia, Julia, JEmilia, Pumpeia, Tullia, Horatia, Octavia, Valeria, PostJiumia, Sulpicia, Claudia, Papiria, Cornelia, JUanlia, Sempronia, Hortensia.
u.

Even

the first establishment

inhabitants

were

of noble

The Names

names were or

of families also

were

often

derived

from

the

employment

of which

an

ancestor
was

(cf.P.
first
a

V.

$ 483).
name, nick-

applied subriquet, became

De l'Autorite On que the Roman

to

individuals

by
ou

permanently
les

of ridicule ; that way attached to a person. burlesques peuvent avoir

see

at

mere

See

Mahudel,

Sobriquets
and

Surooms

dans

in the I'histoire,

Mem.

Acad.

Inscr. there
"

vol. xiv. p. 181.

names,

illustrious families,
ch.

SchblVs
noms

Hist. Litt. Rom. des Remains,

vol. iv. p. 367, and Acad.

references

given.

"

Gibbon, Dec. and Fall of Rom.

bk. viii. ch. 1. Niehbuhr's
"

Emp.

xxxi.

"

Boindin, Les

in the Mem.

Inscr. \. 154. On

Port

Royal Latin Gram.

races

Cf. CastcUio, De i.234.

"

antiquis Pueromm
Hist, of Rome.
"

vol. ii. Prasnominibus, in Grzvitis,

the subject of the

(gentes),see

Rome,

Maiden's

Gbttling,

as

cited " 242.

promoted by marriages, in between to preserve a complete separation and be to until B. C. 445. held a duty of plebeians patricians, Marriage was and who it fine tax. those to a or Roman, were neglected obliged every pay Citizens forbidden to marry were by specially permission strangers, except considered as interdicting granted. Certain degrees of consanguinitywere the Romans, the male marriage. Marriage took placeat an earlyage among but fourteenand the female only in the tivelflh being sometimes year.
"
312.

The

increase
the

of these

races

was

much

regard to which

Romans

aimed

free-born

citizens the right of marrying a of the prohibited, until the enactment and their sons, Poppaean law (A. D. 9) ; by this law the free-born, excepting senators allowed the daughters of freedmen. to marry were
1
u.

The

jus Quiritium conferred

To freedmen

only

on

Roman

woman.

this

was

The Lex Papia Popped of the was an enlarging and enforcement in the nibus;" by it, whoever city had three children, in other entitled certain certain to provinces five, was privileges ; while who lived in celibacy. those This to by Horace, subject is alluded

Lex

Julia

"

de maritandis

ordithe
on

in parts of Italy four, and disabilities were imposed Carm. Ssbc

vs.

20.

2.

legalmarriage
was

connuhium, the

used

contracting of a only between called only what was

nubium
See

termed Justa Nupthz, or Justum Matrimonium. The word to comprehensive term including all the conditions requisite be stated that there was conlegal marriage. Generally it may Roman between There connubium citizens. no slaves,but was
was as
a

contubernium.
Romanorum,
in Lemair"s

Gierig, Excursus

de

Contuberniis

Pliny,

as

cited P. V. " 470. 4.

vol. 2d. p. 231."

.iyrer,Diss, de

jure connubiorum

apud Romanos.

Gbtt. 1737.

" 313.
ment,

The

marriage was
the

always preceded by
gave This

solemn
the

affiance

or

betroth-

in which

father of the bride

his assent and

of (sponsio)
were

the

bridegroom.

compact

to the request (stipulatio) ceremonies attendingit

called sponsalia it often took place many ; of the partiesbetrothed. in the childhood The
at the
an

years

before the marriage, even

not

bridegroomwas

always

sent pre-

which betrothing,

was

sometimes

empowered substitute. only for the daughter,but

the
as

In

early times
Friends
was a a

effected by means the father's consent

son.

of letters,or
was

by

afterwards

also for the

and written

The
were

mutual

necessary consent of

partieswas
witnesses

the
; the

most

essential.
her betrothed with

marriage contract
from concluded of fortunate. of the

the bride received whole ceremony

In

ringas
feast.

usually present {legitimx tabellse) ; ; and the pledge of his fidelity

relations
and

sealed

was

"
power

314.

fixingthe day
or

care marriage,

was

taken of the conventio

to

select from
manum,

one

of those father's
and
was

esteemed
to

lucky
the

The husband

transference
was

bride
in

her

hands

called
and in this
a

accompanied
could
are

religious ceremony, (confarreatio). Marriages contracted

a

by

sort

of consecration
were

by

priest

form

the

most

solemn, and

not

be

dissolved
;

mentioned the

with living

Two other forms or modes easily as in other cases. and one was by prescription (wsws),the bride being taken home bridegroom for a year (usucapio) ; the other by a purchase(coso

P.

III.

DOMESTIC

AFFAIRS.

DIVORCES.

CHILDREN.

287

in emptio),
" 315

which

each

party gave

to

the

other

portion of money,
with
a

repeating
or

certain words.
u.

On

the

day of marriage, the bride

was

adorned

sort

of veil

culiar pe-

of the head (luteum flammeum), and a robe the waist with bound around the {tunica recta), which was The sacrifice ordered on the marriage-day was a laneum).
ornament

prepared for the occasion marriage girdle(cingulum sheep of two years of age,

presented especiallyto Juno as the goddess of marriage. The took place in conducting of the bride to the residence of the husband, which the evening, was with ceremonies. attended likewise She taken, as it were was the arms from of her mother, or if the mother of the next not was living, forcibly,
near over or

She relative. lifted was

the

went
over was

with the

threshold

distaff {coins)in her of both houses,

two

hand, and
as on a

it was each

with

feet.
a

She

supported by
or

youth,

one

careful to step was ominous touch it to side ; a third preceded

her with covered

lightedtorch

flambeau,
bride's

and

sometimes

fourth

followed

carrying in

toys the door posts of her new residence with white woollen lets filwith the fat of wolves and anointed them She then (hence uxor, quasi unxor). and called aloud for the bridegroom, stepped upon a sheepskin spread before the entrance, and offered her the key of the house, which she dewho livered immediately came the chief servant. Both touched fire and water, to as now a over symbol of
vase

{cumerum) {crepundia).-She bound

the

utensils

{nvbentis utensilia) and

also various

already adorned with garlands of flowers, purity and nuptialfidelity. The house was the work of the preceding day. After their arrival the marriage banquet {ccena nupand song. The husband after tialis) was held, which was accompanied with music scatterednuts among the youth and boys present. Finally the pair were ducted consupper the nuptial hymns the bed-chamber, to by the door of which {epithalamia) and maids. The next day the bride presented a thankwere men by young sung and an offeringto the gods, and the husband evening entertainment {repotia), gave distributed presents to the guests on their departure.
in latter times, quite common. (xlivorHa) especially were, the marriage had been solemnized in full formality, with the confarreaiio solemnities were justdescribed,particular especially site requicalled diffarreatio. In case for a divorce, and these were of a less formal called remancipatio or marriage contract, the divorce was usurpatio. On of the frequentabuses of divorce, it was restrained by law; and proaccount perly the men only enjoyed the right. The formula with which one dismissed iibi habeto. Sometimes tuas res the separation took place before his wife was and then it was called repudium ," the customary marriage,after the espousals,

"

316.

Divorces

When

the

espousals and

formula without with

The Greek

was

as

follows been

conditione

tua

non

utor.

If

woman

was was

divorced returned

having

her portion or guilty of adultery,

dowry

her.
situation
woman.

after marriage was in some respects better than that of the the household; she superintended tion the educapresided over of her children in the honors (cf.P. IV. $ 125); as being the mater familias, she shared paid of females the Romans lar simito the husband. was Yet, generally speaking, the condition among in Greece. The social elevation in condition females modern is times to their enjoyed by in a great degree to Christianity. justly ascribed very of the The
woman

Roman

Roman

matron

See " IS1, and

references Urania.

there

given.
8.

On

the regard to the On the influence

sex

as

illustrated by the writings of Tibullus, Ovid, Seneca, "c. cf. Buckminster's Sermons.
"

Ramdohr,

Venus

Lips. 1798.

of Christianity,see Cf. P. IV. " 83. 2.

Ctahing,

ence Social Influ-

of Christianity,in Bibl. Bepos. Sec. Series,vol. i. p. 195."

" 317.
was

Among
most

the Roman

customs

connected

with

the birth of children,that

the

remarkable

to

preserve his new-born of this point,the midwife

to
was

left it to the arbitrary will of the father whether child or leave it to perish. In reference to his decision

which

always placed it on
the

the
was

ground ;

if the it

father

chose

preserve intimation an

he it,

raised it from of his

choose
to

ground, and
to

said toller e

infantem; this

If the father did not

expressed his
custom

wish from

his own. as acknowledge purpose the ground, and thus to do this,he left the child on unnatural an ; this exposing was expose it (exponere)

educate

and

borrowed
of the

the Greeks,

by

which

children
to

were

left in the share therein.

streets, This

at particularly

the columna
was

and abandoned laetaria, very

over

their fate.
no

Generally the

power power times his

own.

father
not
son

great, but the mother

had

extended sell his Under

only

and

three

the life of his children,but the father could three times reclaim him, and appropriate all his gains as
to

the emperors,

lation " 318

allowingthe children
u.

hold
from

of its rigor,by the this power lost much the inheritance left by their mothers. the power of
a

regu

The

of freeing

son

father

was

effected by what

was

288
called

ROMAN

ANTIQUITIES.

of the son ; the freedom repeated selling sequent convindictam. The father and the legitima upon per and with a body son appeared together with the pretended purchaser, a friend of the first, of witnesses, before the tribunal of the praetor, and here the imaginary thrice repeated sale and thrice repeated manumission completed with certain established usages, was sale with a delay of the third. On the third sale, the sometimes by only a double The called pater fiduciarius; in the first two, dominus. of the purchaser was power father over otherwise his son was rarely terminated except by the death or banishment citizen (% 260). of the father ; it belonged to the peculiar rights of a Roman By his own and possessor of his own became master, emancipation the son property, of which, however, he must for his give the father half as an acknowledgment

emancipation, or
this
was

fictitious thrice
manumissio

termed

"

freedom.

in respect to children was that of " 319. Another custom among' the Romans his own adoption {adoptio). In this, the actual father of a child renounced them to another who received the child as rightsand claims, and committed his
1
own.

performed before a magistrate, usually the praetor. The in emancipation, which as same was always presupposed in adoption, and previously executed. sold to the Only in such a case, the son was the third time to the real father. There adopting father but twice, and did not revert kind of adoption by will or testament also sometimes a was (adoptio per testamentum), in order to preserve In such case the person a ceived family from extinction. adopted reconsiderable left by the person a adopting him, and bore his part of the estate
u.

The

ceremony

was

formalities

were

in part the

after his death. called adrogatio or arrogatio,differed from That, which was adoption only in the formalities connected, and in the circumstance that the person adopted was viously preof his actual father. his own The master (sui juris) and not in the power
name

2 t.

adoptio,before the praetor, but before the assembled by the aid of the High-priest ; neither it limited to individuals, but often included whole of a family. Upon the consent was the person the people to the arrangement, adopted into a family took a or persons faithful to the religionand worship of the family; remain solemn oath, that they would the adopted person lost the peculiar rights and this was called detestatio sacrorum, as of his former freed from the peculiar duties (sacra gentilitia) " 311), if (cf. was gens introduced. different from the one into which he was now
not transacted,as adrogatio was people, in the Comitia
was

the

Curiata, and

" 320
child This
was

w.

By what
declared
to

was

called the

natural (naturalis) or spurious (spurius) a legitimation, instated

to

to

be

and legitimate(legitimus), relation of the

in all the

rights of such.
not

affected,however,

child only
a

the

father, and

to

other

relatives, or
an

known custom not to the was fifth century under Theodosius the but in the municipal towns, itself, where second, and then scarcely at all in Rome it of the decuriones members of the senate introduced to supply the want or (cf, was " 260. 2). For, as this office could be received only by sons of decuriones, and was the fathers were allowed also very burdensome, it to their natural sons, by to transmit

equal early Romans

the whole family of the father. Such But this portion with the lawful children.
; it came

child shared

in the inheritance

first into

practice in

the

them

legitimated.
321.

"

The

education that for

necessary

of the received There viewed

Archaeology of
a

only remark,
the
were,

in treating youth is noticed particularly (cf.P. IV. "" 123-125). Here we no long time there were public schools, but the youth instruction from private or family teachers (peedagogi). Roman Literature
who in their houses

of the Roman

however, those
The
the Romans
as

gave

instruction to

number

of

youth together.

in the corporealexercises, especially

by

of literature and of the manners, heroic courage.

science. and

earlytimes, were essential object in education than the study a more however, an early cultivation They did not neglect,
love feelings, especially patriotism, Roman
was

of noble of

of

and liberty,

"

322

t. The
was

household

termed collectively which

them

familia,- but by
there
was

this word
of

large number.
amount

the body of slaves,of meant especially Persons in opulent circumstances had

often
to
a

sometimes

the
merous nu-

several

thousands. of both

The

Roman
"

women

of rank of
a

usually had
a

body of

servants

sexes.

The

slaves

into different classes

or decurise, accordingto their of them was instances, read registry kept,which was, in some treated as morning. Their condition was very hard, and they were

family were employments, and

divided

lar particuevery
tels, chat-

over

mere

rather than persons.

P.

III.

DOMESTIC

AFFAIRS.

SLAVES.

289

"

Slaves
the

in Rome
rich

occupied
of the The

every

conceivable
man's

man's

villa,to the
rich

meanest

from
woman

the
can

in the galleys,or labored jailors. Executioners were and scavengers. Slaves regulated the rich watermen Nor was it performed all the drudgery of the farm. the arts. unusual to teach slaves Virgil made one of his a poet, and Horace himself The The slave. the son a of an emancipated slave. was merry-andrew was cian, physithe surgeon, often slaves. So too the preceptor and pedagogue ; the reader were and the stage-player; the clerk and the amanuensis and the smith ; ; the architect

foster mother be reduced.

station, from the delegatesuperintending office of menial labor or obsequious vice; child, to the lowest degradation to which handled
some

public slaves
were

the

oar

the public works. Some slaves ; slaves were watchmen, palace in the city; and slaves
on

lictors ;

were

"

the

weaver

and

the

shoemaker

and

the

singer ; the ropedancer and

and the bearer the undertaker the wrestler, all

of the bier
were

armiger
slaves.

or

You squire was a slave. manufacturing industry, or Slaves engaged in commerce

notes ;

cannot an name occupation but it was public amusements, ;

; the pantomime bondmen. The connected with agriculture,

a

patrimony of
;

slaves

were

wholesale of banks
servants,

merchants
were

slaves

were

retailers; slaves shaved

The

and

the managers
of the house. The their

slaves."
as are

following
:
"

is

mentioned who visited

1. Of the

those

specification of some employed in the

of of the valet and and
to

principal
servus

such

most

frequently
the

master
a

house,
or

announced

cuMcularii the the master;

were

sort

chamber
were were

the

tonsores

cinerarii librarii

servants, such as secretaries balneatores

persons and them conducted in ; the servi names, often of enjoying the particular confidence attention
to ; the

admissionalis

received

paid
and

the the

beard

and
were

hair

of

the
;

masters

; the

amanuenses

copyists
upon

anagnosta
master at

readers

vestiarii children.

attended the their

the

wardrobe;
surgeons of servants functions. of dishes of

the and

waited

the

bath;

the

medici the

performed
"

duties several

multitude

designated spreader ;
tator, another

from

of physicians ; the nutrilii and ptedagogi took care table at meals, and were employed in waiting upon were these were, e. g. the Among couchservus lectisterniator,
or scissor, carver ; carptor detersor, table-wiper, "c.

structor,

arranger

;
"

diribitor, distributer
There
were

; prasgus-

taster; kind

pocillator,cup-bearer;
of house-service,

others

performing

hall slave ; dispene. g. the servus ostiarius, door-keeper ; atriensis, cellarius, pantry-keeper; sator, or arcarius, keeper of the stores; pulmentarius, pottage-maker; torch-bearer cunaria, cradie-rocker dulciarius, confectioner ; ; tcadiger, perfumer ; fla; cosmeta, 2. Others were had fan-carrier, "c. employed out of doors ; the servus bellifer, insularis,who his master's the oversight over with a went the errands; buildings; the servus pedibus, who who lecticarii,
or

carried
to

the
see

sedan
to

or

litter,"c.

"

large

number

of slaves these
were

were

country-seats,

the

husbandry

and

fruits; among

the

kept at the manors stewards villici,

or

superintendents; aratores, plowmen; sectores, hay-cutters; vindemiatores,

piscatores, fish-catr.hers;
for
a

muliones,

clod-breakers weed-pullers; occatores, ; fanivintagers ; jugarii, ox-drivers; opiliones, sheep-tenders; mule-drivers "c. ; gallinarii,hen-keepers, runcatores,
(he Romans.
"

full list, see

Blair's

Stale

of Slavery among De

Edinb.

1833.
De

8.

Cf. Am.
et
s s e eorum

Quart.

Rev.

vol.

xv.

71.

On

the

employment
1656.
4,
"

of slaves,see
sur

A. Popma,

Opens
des

Servorum

L. Mem.

Pignorius,

Servis

apud Veteres
et Beavx

ministeriis.

Patav.

Mongez,

les travaux

publ.

Romains, in

the

de VInstitui, C 1 a

de Lit.

Arts, i. 492.

"
were

323.

The

slave-trade
an

formed

ancient

nations,

importantpart

of

among business.

the

Romans,
Slave

as

with

most

of

the

merchants

armies, and always found attached to the Roman and Asia. Rome from Greece There often to various came were (mango7ies) laws often left unexecuted, or this traffic;which, however, were regulatingevaded by the arts of those were engaged in it. For exposing to view slaves offered for sale,scaffolds (catastae) erected in the market, and commonly were small tablets or scrolls (tituli) were suspended from the necks of the slaves, The their country, age, character, "c. pricevaried very much ; it.was stating
sometimes above
a

(venalitiarii) importersof slaves

thousand

denarii.

Of could

intellectual cultivation, and

accountants,
One
time that five
e. or

still greater value be employed as

were

such

as

sessed pos-

teachers, readers,
fiftydollars.
have
was

musicians, and the like.

denarii time would

thousand of Horace In

equal
a

(cf. $ 270. 3) about

one

hundred slave
common seems

and
to

In

the half

(Sat. II. vii. 43)

the

fair the

price

for

an

ordinary
of
a

been

about

sum.

of Justinian

legal valuation

slave hundred

But denarii, or about seventy-five dollars. sold for as much said to have been g. beautiful boys are iii. 6; viii. 13. Plin. H. denarii fiftythousand (cf. Mart.

hundred

vastly higher prices

as

twentysolidi,i. e. are mentioned;

sesterces,

two

thousand

N.

vii.

39, 40).
ways.

" 324 mode

master.

u.

The
to

of slaves liberating have

were

seems

been

There
the ; the latter

when
man

slave,with
was

last Then

case,

the

master

The most ancient the decease of the and other modes two was ; censu, ; the former per vindiclam the master's enrolled in the taxation list as a freedconsent, was before the praetor. In the formal and public enfranchisement a the appeared with his slave,before the tribunal, and commenced

took

place in several
per

by will, manumissio

testamentum,

on

ceremony

by striking him with a rod {vindicta); thus treating him as still his slave. and requests the liberation (asserlor liberlatis) protector or defender steps forward of the slave, by saying liunc liominem liberum esse aio, jure Quirilium; upon
the master, who has hitherto

which

kept hold
him, with 2 B

of

'ebat),and

gives up his right over 37

the

the slave, lets him go words, hunc hominem

emit(e manu liberum esse

290
volo. A declaration confirm

ROMAN

ANTIQUITIES.

sion. the concluby the praetor, that the slave should be free,formed this manumission, the freed slave sometimes and went to Terracina received in the temple of Feronia (P. II. " 91. 5) a cap or hat (pileus) as a badge of be under of age, nor the person not liberty. The slave to be freed must twenty years
To

settinghim
We who and may
were

free under
remark,
be be

thirty.
that
on

here
not not

the

country
land

farms termed and

there servi the

was

class

of

population
attached sold liable

termed
to

slaves, although
separated
sold had the without the land from

sometimes

terrw.

They
could
were

were

the

coloni, soil,

could

it; the
other.

coloni

be

together,
to not.

but

neither

of them

could but

the which
an

The
lived.

coloni, like slaves,

corporeal
The

they
for

right
on
see

of connubium he
and

(cf.$312. 2), which

slaves

had

punishment; colonus paid

xx.

yearly
On the
"

rent

subject of Roman
Roman

Slavery,
Slaves and

able

and interestingarticle in the Biblical Repository Acad, hiscr. vol.

xxxv.

Quart. Observer, No.

p. 113.
"

Oct.
322.

1835

Burigny,
Gallus.

Freedmen,

in the Mem.

p.

328,and

xxxvii.

Blair, cited "

"Becker's

" 325.
the

The

dwellings of
were more so

during the

first three

centuries,even

Gauls, the houses they were largerand

the

second

Punic

war,

both costly and splendid, the

case.

In the time in the

of

gance
1
u.

buildingand

and huts (casse), plunder of the city by (P. IV. " 241). On its being rebuilt, insignificant respectable. As luxury increased,especiallyafter the private and more dwellings(domus) became more within and without ; althoughthis was not universally and extravaAugustus, there was great magnificence ornamenting of houses.
the

Romans

were

at

first

mere

to the

capture and

of the larger houses and palaces were the following the principalornaments covering of the outer and inner walls with marble ; the use of phengites which was marble, in the place of the lapis specularis, or monly com{tptyyirris) transparent work the floors(pavimenta tesselata); and on employed for windows ; mosaic and precious stones, attached to the various decorations in ivory,marble, costly wood and door-posts. walls, ceiling,

Among
; the

discovered in Cappadocia phengites, according to Pliny (Nat. Hist, xxxvi. 22. 46), was from its translucency. of Nero, and this name The found took lapis specularis was be split into thin in Spain, Cyprus, Cappadocia, leaves, like slate, Sicily, and Africa ; it could translation of Adam, above five feet long each. "It apnot quoting the French Boyd remarks, pears is nothing else than the talc of Muscovy." that this stone Launay (cited P. IV. $ 195. 2), after various allusions it in Pliny and in the following words to others, expresses comparing etoit notre feuillet6 his conclusion le lapis specularis des Anciens : "que appelle Selcnite." gypse (vol. i. p. 314). made of this stone termed 3. Windows were specularia; it has been supposed that these were for the windows is said to have been used Horn chiefly in the better houses1.by the Romans and linen cloth. were mere (corneum Originally the windows speculare); also paper openings of lattice covered with closed sort a (clathri); sometimes {foramina, fenestra:)% sometimes by been of shutters with leaves not two (bifores fenestra). It has means generally supposed that before of Tiberius, nor 268. 4) was manufactured the time that it was used for at Rome glass (cf. first distinct mention of glass windows windows until a much later period ; the (vitrea specularia), in the fourth is said to be by Lactantius (De opificio Dei, 8) or by Jerome, century^; although discovered3 earlier. But much have been in the mirrors glass windows (specula) of glass were In the vaulted roof of the thermos baths) is a window, or two (of a room buildings at Pompeii. feet eight inches broad, closed by a single large pane of glass, high and three feet eight inches of an side to prevent two-fifths inch the thick, fixed into the wall, and ground on one on persons of this glass many found in the ruins. This roof from is fragments were looking into the bath: The in use the ancients. learned evident to have were seem an proof that glass windows among the subject of glass-making the ancients. The vast collection on been generally mistaken among utensils discovered is sufficient at Pompeii, to show that the of bottles, vases, glasses, and other It has been well ancients were acquainted with the art of glass-blowing." suggested, that these manufactured been in Italy, but have the East, especially from not vessels imported from may been first made. Another room glass is supposed to have belonging ta Tyre, the place where "was feet six inches feet wide, in the two baths the same lighted by a window high and three found four very beautiful set were bronze nuts of glass fastened by small frame of which panes the glass at pleasure." to remove and ingeniously contrived, with a view screies, very 2. The in the time
" "

"

/. M.

Suaresius, De Foraminibus
P.

lapidum

in priscis.andificiis, in Sallengre,
der

as

cited " 197. vol. i.

zur

Beckmann, History
Zeit.

of

Inventions, cited
a

IV. " 32. 1."

Cf. Voeel, Geschichte

Erfindungen

von

der

iltesten bis

neuesten

Leipz. 1841. 12.

Pompeii,

as

cited P. IV. " 226. 1. p. 162.

Cf. also " 268. 4.

4.

Paintings
unfavorable

in stucco

on

the

walls,
The

and various

fret-work
ornaments

on (laquearid)
were

decorations

in Roman
to

bouses.

the ceilings,were frequently of a character

the among ingly exceed-

purity

of mind.
On the mosaic of the ancients,P. IV. ""

On

architectural

ornaments, "c. cf. P. IV. " 239."

names

167,189, 220.

5
ter

u.

The

of the various

than

their

exact

design and

parts of The use.

Roman

house

are

known

to

us

much

bet-

following were

the

principal parts.

(1) The

vestibulum

the house-door and the street. From fore-court, an open space between or entered through the door or gate (janua or ostium) of the house into (2) the this, one in placed the images of ancestors atrium, aula or hall, in which on both sides were niches or cases (armaria). From this,one passed directlythrough into (3) the implua uncovered court, commonly vium; called also compluvium and cavadium, which was fell. In this was the proper dwelling-house, the rain-water where which 'tiihdivale),

P.

III.

DOMESTIC

AFFAIRS.

HOUSES.

291
to

had from

two
one

wings

with

covered

colonnade

or

porticoin front,in order

pass

unexposed

of these to another side-buildings. Of these apartments the apartment principalwas termed (4) the triclinium dining-room; the others were or cellos, having distinctive names from their use ; as cella vinaria, coquinaria,penuaria, "c. Besides these there were attached to the largerhouses various other appendages ; colonnades, baths, gardens, and the like. In general, almost all the apartments the lower were on
"

floor;
As

but

detached

houses
were

or

blocks, which

were

mostly occupied by
stories.
altitudes
as

tenants

on

lease (and called insula),

the population of Rome
was

higher and had

more

increased, the houses in the city were

raised to such

to occasion

danger,
should

and not

maximum

of

height

established
the

by law ; in the reign of Augustus it was

that enacted,

the height of

edifices private

exceed

seventy

feet from

ground." Gibbon, vol. 3d. p. 216, ed. N. Y. 1822. gate it

or

C. The and

door

(janua) was
the with

sometimes
so

made

of
were

iron

or

brass,
to
on

often ascend

highly ornamented,
to

usually

raised
was

above

ground,

that and

steps

hung green secured claustra), by bars (obices, bells (tintinnabula) were attached
Fig. In
servants
a, of Plate

occasions

branches locks
to
at

garlands. {sera), and keys

Fig. b, of the
same

necessary It turned

it.

On

festival
was or

and hinges (cardines),

(claves).

Knockers

(marculi, mallei)
also at Pompsii.

it. Pompeii."
found Plate, is a door-bolt,

XXXII.

represents a key found

the

atrium carried

was on

the

anciently the spinning and

kitchen

(eulina).
In this lares

Here
was

also the

the

mistress hearth

of

the

house

and the

weaving.
the

family

(focus), near

door,

it. Roman The houses, (cf.P. II. $ 111) around as well the Greek, seem had to have as no chimneys, but merely an opening in the roo'f to let offthe smoke the epithet fumosw smoke as ; hence applied to the images in the atrium ; to avoid much with as lees of oil : yet it is said that possible, the wood was carefully dried and anointed have found furnaces been in the ruins of ancient hearths chimneys or buildings'. Portable charcoal used for warming the different (foculi), in which was burnt, were a sort apartments; of stove the furnace wood also used, larger than was or (caminus), in which usually burnt, was In later periods, houses warmed brasier, and fixed in one were place. by a furnace, below, with The atrium sometimes ferent pipes passing from it to the rooms2. was divided, in later times, into difparts separated by curtains.
a

with

constant

fire of coals, and

"

Seeker's

Gallus,i.

102.

Cf. Har.

Sat. I.

v.

81."

Fitruv.

vii. 3.

Beckmann,

Hist,

of Inventions.

Cf. Plin.

Ep. ii. 17."

Sen.

Ep. 90.

In the open The around court, or often, if not usually, a fountain. apartments impluvium, was ill constructed, and and it,excepting the dining room, were properly called cells. usually small Those for the termed cubicula. The tablinum the was room designed for sleeping were family records archives. The solarium, or the gallery for pictures. The a room was on pinacotheca was the The and portico for taking the sun. protected by large tiles (tegulce), covering or roof was form called also used was to generally of an angular fastigium, a term highest part was ; the roof. Under cellars the better class of houses capacious designate the whole were (cellaria\ very which Staircases of wines. do not were sorts to specially prepared for storing various appear have been considered of much in the buildings at Pompeii. they are found consequence; In Plate XXXII. Diet, of Architecture as house, given in Stuart's fig. 1, is the plan of a Roman ^ is the vestibiUuvi : "a d, d, the ala? ; e, e, according to Vitruvius c, the tablinum; ; b, the atrium; nium; triclicellae familiarica;; /, cavadium; triclinium; triclinium; g, summer g, winter g, vernal k k k, cubicula?; iii, baths; pinacotheca; m. n, bibliotheca; o, peristyle; q, Cyzicene of the offices ; s, exedra for embroidery ries." oscus ; r r, courts ; t {, gardens ; u, rooms ; v v, sudato" " "

On

the

Roman

house, cf. TVilkins, Transl. Grapcddi

of Vitruvius, cited P. IV. " 243. 4. liber.

de

"

J. Minutolus,
der

de Roman,

domibus, in Sallengre,
P.

cited " 197."

Fr. M.
de

de partibus 51dium Palais

Parm.
ou

1505.

4."

Hirt, Geschichte

Baukunst, cited
Par. 1822.

IV. " 243. 4

"

"

Mazois,

Ruines

Pompei." Merovir, Le

Scaurus,

Description d'une Maison

Romaine.

8.

Smith, Diet

of Antiquities,p. 494.

7.

Among

couches
purposes

the various articles of furniture mentioned tables (mensa), chairs (.sella), are utensils for culinary (lecti), lamps (lucernce),"c. ; besides the numerous (cf." 329. 3), and articles pertaining to the bathing-room and the toilet (cf.
varieties of tables the round of table with three forms in the

$ 338).
Several
are

mentioned; Pompeii,
those for and

as

a cilliba,

legs
have

; the

monopodium
discovered
"

; the sigma or in the excavations the couches

or

mensa

lunata, Sec. (cf. $ 329. 2)." Chairs

at

different

been

other
at

varieties

are

represented
or

fresco

ings. paint-

Among

were

used

meals,

accubita,

lecti tricliniares

(cf. $ 329. 2);

and

of metal, sleeping; the latter had costly frames, sometimes of silver, bearing a matress bed of feathers (culcita, torus), with With feet (fulcra) sometimes or of rich coverings (vestes stragulte, peripetasmata, peristromata concliyliala). A great number forms and ancient been and found, particularly at Herculaneum Pompeii ; of various lamps have of them, the most to common cially espesizes, and different materials, from the most costly; many into the wrought of the those in bronze, beautiful most workmanship. They were are of various pended whimsical attached kinds, or susto most supports images and shapes; and were from the ceilings. XXXII. bottom 1 at the Several Plate of ancient ; in Nos. specimens given in our lamps are and branch placed or 3, they are suspended from a stand (lychnucus) ; in Nos. 2 and 4, they are Fig. a low upon tripod ; in No. 5, on a small erect pillar or stick (columella.) called candelabrum. bed, and the pillow. d is a couch, from or an showing the cushion Egyptian monument, the lecti cubiculares beds
"

R. H.

H.

Baber, AntiqueVases, Lamps,

; with
one

Tombs,

Urns, "c.

Lond.

1836. 4. containing P. V.

one

hundred

and

seventy

plates engraved

by

MoBes

descriptions." See
treats

also

Montfaucon (as cited

" 13), vol.

v.

p. 202."

.fc Antichi

d'Ercolano,

cited P. IV.

" 243. 2.

vol. of which

on particularly

this subject." The

Museo

Borbonko

(cited P. IV. " 212), contains

representation!

of very tasteful ancient

chairs.

$ 326.
Jhan

The

villas,or country
within the

seats, of the Romans

were

much

more

splendidusually
included
seve-

the houses

city. A complete establishment

of this kind

292

ROMAN

ANTIQUITIES.

the chief edifice,with its courts, b^ths, porticos, ral parts. 1. The villa urhana was villa rustica was 2. The for the residence of the lord. the name and terraces, applied the steward and mimerous slaves to the buildingsdesigned to accommodate (villicus), of the establishment those for various kinds of live stock ; e. g. gallinarium, for ; and
3. The villa fructuaria was another hens; aviarium, for bees; suile, for swine, "c. designed for storing the various products of the farm ; including the structures under villa rustica. 4. The hortus oil,and fruits ; often comprehended wine, corn, as in later times bestowed the garden, upon which was : being planted was great care often turned into fantastic shapes by with were trees, shrubs, and flowers, which sometimes of pipes and aqueducts; adorned slaves called topiarii by means ; watered sometimes with of park, of many walks and 5. There was sort statues. a acres, in which the fishpond was chieflydesigned for deer or other wild beasts, theriotrophium, (piscina)and the oyster-bed(vivarium).

part,

Many
had
a

of

these

beautiful Life

dleton's and of

villas, owned by distinguished Romans, in other besides several at Tusculum, of Cicero, sect. xii). Hortensius possessed
one
"

are

alluded

to

in the
from

classics. the

Cicero

places
sumptuous

further

villas and have

Laurentum

the the

Piscina

Mirabilis, of

subterraneous

Lit. ii. 128.) his Tusculan Hist. Rom. In villa he had a (Dunlop, he paid, according to Pliny (Nat. Hist. xxxv. by Cydias, for which Horace is supposed to have i. e. above owned at Tibur, not a villa $5,000. 12), 144,000 sesterces, Remarks in his ed. of (Anthon's so splendid, yet affording a retreat delightful to the poet. Horace.) at Laurentum, Pliny (Ep. ii. 17), has given a description of one belonging to himself of Architecture.) of great extent and But the villa of the empegrandeur. (Stuart's Dictionary ror its buildings and erected; Adrian, Tivoli, was near magnificent ever probably the most it is said, of at least six miles in circumference; its ruins have an area, plantations covered furnished of the survived finest remains of ancient have to modern art. (Cf. time, and many P. IV. $} 173, 188. Stvart's been discovered at Ruins, called the Villa of Lvcidlus, have Diet.) feet below the the extreme point of Pausilypus (cf.P. I. $ 42), in ground used for vineyards, two found said to have been in good order. The the buildings are surface; (Gent. Mag. Ap. 1842.) of the excavations of Pompeii have the walls brought to light a specimen of a villa just without belonged Diomedes. to one (See a livelv description of it in Johnson's place, supposed to have Philos. of Trav. p. 235, as cited P. IV. $ 190.)
orator.

arcadps, under this distinguished

promontory

Bauli, is

vaulted edifice, to supposed by some

city (cf.Midat Tusculum, Bauli, divided by four rows been the fish-pond of

sinsle

painting, the Argonauts,

"

"

"

"

"

"

Rob.

CasteTl,The
in

Villas of the

Ancients

illustrated. On

Lond. of

172?. Roman

fol." Sufeer's

Theorie, i. 305."
in England,

G. Grenius,

De

Rusticatione

Romanorum,

Sallengre, cited " 197. vol. i.

vol. xviii. p. 203, and

remains

villse discovered

Archxolcgia, (as cited P. IV.

1 243. 3), vol. viii. p. 363.

xix. 176, with

plans.

" 327.
the
course

The

manner

of life among

the

Romans

undeiwent

many

changes in

of their

morals, but in
its influence their the
on

favorable to their history. In the early periods these were later times exerted highly injurious. Their constant prosperity and these affected their private life and manners, their feelings,
and
amusements.
manners were

pursuits,social character,
war,

At

and first,

even

down

to

first Punic and

their domestic

characterized
was

in by simplicity in the

thought

action, and
which

united

with but

this

there

moderation

tion gratificatheir

of the senses,

they

seldom

and

sparingly indulged.

From

in refinement and primitive rudeness, they graduallyadvanced urbanity, and The ere more long passed into an opposite extreme. they became acquainted with and the conveniences of the people they conquered, especially pleasures

the Greeks consequence

and

Asiatics, and

the

more more

their riches

and

abundance

increased

in

prevalent became pride and luxury in life. In place of their former heroic virtues, their bravery and self-denial, private now appeared effeminacy, vanity, and idleness. Magnificence in buildings,
luxurious followed

of these

conquests, the

indulgencein
of
course.

food and

fondness liquors,

for dress and

entertainments,

" 3-28. It is not avocations, among

uniform of daily to decide what a was course certainly a great variety in pursuits, conduct, and people presenting of life. There routine in the succession manner however, a sort of regular was, the Romans, particularly with the more of daily employments able respectamong easy
a

and
1
u.

orderly citizens.
morning hours
In the houses.

appropriated to religious worship in the temples, or were of the lower class were accustomed morning, also, persons call upon their superiorswith to their patrons. salutations, especially clients upon the third hour (cf." 228) the business of the courts, comitia, and other assemAbout blies commenced. Between this hour and noon the promenades for pleawere were sure conversation in the porticos, the forum, and other public places. About the or sixth hour or mid-day, they had a slightrepast, after which it was to take customary little rest or sleep. The afternoon was a and recreation, spent mostly in amusements the ninth or tenth hour in visiting, bathing, and attending public spectacles. About the usual time for the evening meal. was
The their
own

294
the

ROMAN

ANTIQUITIES.

opposite couches
middle these like
of

were

extended
"

left from, the

were

couch.

The

in oppositedirections ; on the righttowards, on the couch-frames and their supports (fulcra) {spondee)

wood,
;
on or

ivory, or
was

sometimes
a

metal;

sometimes

they
in it

were

veneered
cloth

with

toise-shell tor-

sort

of cushion
was

which

had

stuffing (tomentum)
a

feathers of rich

the

and

this

sometimes
"

covered

with

of wool, (stragula)often

tables (mensce) were often highly ornamented. embroidery and purple dye. The foot ; chiefly The used by the sick ; the circular, with one monopodium, was lunala was tripes(Hor. Sat. i. iii.13) of the poorer people had three feet. The mensa semicircular used under a the table, accommodating or eight persons, usually seven its resemblance in form called sigma from letter C ; the to the ; it was emperors slibadium it. term designated the couch or sofa which surrounded
in the small have the ground plan of a summer triclinium garden of fig.1, we af Pompeii; and view of the couches also and the table in the a Sallust, found The In this plan, A designates the summus lectus ; B, the medins center. couches, ; C, the imus. of course in this instance, are of masonry, and covered with The cushions and were tapestry. of marble. In fig.5, of the same round table in the center was Plate, also from see Pompeii, we and a splendid lectus, with a cushion richly ornamented pillow (pulvinar). Plate XXXV. of the hou?e
"

In

their hands and used towels (mantilia) eating,the guests always washed They were usually furnished each with a napkin (mappa) for wiping while the hands For bringing on and using the food {cibum) there were at the table. various articles of furniture, as dishes {lances, palrince) and the like ; but nothing like our fork, it is supposed (cf.P. IV. " 135. 2); although the excavations at Pompeii have that the Romans been shown have dered consiwere acquainted with many things,which
3.

Before

for

drying

them.

as
"

modern

inventions.
which

of the various is excited implements of domestic surprise by a survey economy from of Pompeii, where the tomb luxury, employed by the ancients, as disinterred they slept since and with in use, be natuthe beginning of the Christian those must as now compared ral, era, else it would This culous mirabe so universal. not surprise is not solely occasioned by the almost of these centuries. We astonished I are preservation so (though objects during many know had for their could their of Pompeii ovens not bread, and stamp why) that the bakers had for Christmas-pies loaves that the the cooks names colanders, molds on pots, stew-pans, stowed and twelfth and their wines cakes that the aldermen at the gormands greatest distance from cafes for supplying wines and hot-bath that had mulled stoves to their the kitchen the in all kinds of 'doctor's ing remainthat the apothecary's shop abounded stuff,' a box of pills guests for the fine lady that the to this day, gilt, palate of some squeamish Pompeian surgeon's room armamentum displayed a terrific chirurgicum' of torturing instruments; others, among and
" " " " "

The

'

'

Weiss's

rouge, cheek
were

in the Strand invention Dilator,' the boast of modern foot to hare's and the other carmine, cosmetics, with that the and
masters

"

that them the

the

female

toilets

disclosed

lay

"

and the

mistresses

had and

little bells
oxen

to

summon same

gracefully on the slaves (for servants

to at
warn

pallid
there
carts
same

none),
"

that

asses,

mules,
the

had where

the
two

noisy instruments,
could
not

and time
corners

wheelbarrows that of lower

came

from

entering

streets, Latin
were

vehicles

pass in

the

play-bills,quack
the streets, the

advertisements,
bad dice

notices
"

cheat the unwary Calabrian to ingeniously loaded had bits in their mouths, that horses gaming-table omitted for their latter are in statues, on stirrups at their sides, cruppers though the two rumps, the benefit of antiquarian disquisitions that windows were glazed when preferred to light vvas like the Irish, had their wakes, their howlthat the Pompeians, air, which was rarely the case" the had that checkers public houses ings, and their whisky drinkings at funerals painted on their walls, as at present" that the chimist's shop had for its sign a serpent devouring a pineapple, ladies employed of prudence defeating death that the Pompeian male eurs, accouchsymbolical of their similar those of who had all the implements the modern midart to men nearly of the occupants wives and the names that the houses were numbered, painted on the walls that decide entiously, conscithat, in the public tribunals, the magistrates protested to Heaven they would while the witnesses most swore speak solemnly that they would nothing but truth in the theatre, leaving the gallery for the women, that the men all the good seats where occupied officers were and had order their passions and to preserve women appointed that, in short, men into flame and their enjoyments, burst !" son, {Johnpropensities, their cares long before Vesuvius
at
a

price than

in monstrous 8s. 6d. that

"

that

of sights, shows, "c, were tickets carved were opera

pasted up at the ivory, though

who

within

vortex

of the

Pompeian
"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

before
On
"

cited.)
at

curiositiesfound
Borbanico.

Pompeii,
an

cf. Class. Journ.

iv.

p. 305."

Library nf Entertaining
manners

Knowledge,

vols. xxiv.

xxv"

Pompeii.
and Fall of

Museo

For

interesting account

of the luxurious

of the later Roman

nobles, Gibbon,

Dec.

Rom.

Enlp. chap. xxxL

" 330.
first
was

At

the

suppers

of the rich,there
or

were

commonly
to

three
the

courses.

The
to

termed

guslus

appetite; it consisted not wine, they drank usually,

course

designed sharpen gustatio, of eggs {ova),salad, radishes, and

but

rather

than
like.

satisfy
this
second called

With

mead,
on

or

mixture

formed
cartas.

the

essential dishes
were

part of the

caput
the

The

brought

meal, and by slaves

of honey. The the principaldish was

in baskets
or vases

fitted for

purpose
of choice
the

the dessert (bellaria), ing consistwas (reposiloria). The third course fruits (mala), pastry, and confectionery.
introduction Sat.
I.

1. Hence feast. Cf.

of iii. 6."

the
"

phrase,
An
account

ah

ovo

ad the

mala,
fare

from

the

beginning
for
a

to

the

end is

of

the

Horace,

of

provided the

social

supper,

given
wav

by Pliny, Epist. i. 15. 2

great number

of

servants

were

employed

about

evening meal

in

one

P.

III.

DOMESTIC

AFFAIRS.

BANQUETS.

295

or

another ;

some

of them

have
; the

already
demand

who

arranged the tables Roman luxury, there was

3. It may

carptor, who
advert
to

much
to

be proper

here

(cf. " 322) ; e. g. the structor, In (he times of food, "c. for skilful cooks (coqui, archimagiri). the Roman hospitality. The rights of hospitality the

been

named divided

highly respected ; the term hospes was applied both to the host and the guest, and to them. always indicated mutual obligations between sometimes created between These rightsand obligationswere residing at a persons distance and even in different countries, by an The interchange of presents. joining of right hands was practiced as a sort of pledge of this fellowship (arrha hospitalis) ; of tallywas used consistingof a piece of wood sometimes into two sort similar a cut each of the European kept one (tesseka hospitalis) ; some parts, of which person with the names The cabinets have of friends inscribed. specimens of these tessera Romans had a custom the next (called mulitatio) of inviting on day those whom they had met at another person's house.
were (jus hospilii)
"

persons

Fig. 4, in Plate XXXV., joining hands, and

ix. 229.
x.

is
one

copy

of
to

painting
the other

found the

at

Herculaneum,

which

exhibits

two

giving

tessera.
7. S.

Cf. Class. Journ. Eeris Veterum,

On the

229.

xviii. 75." Foslroke

(as cited " 13),p. 63?."

De Tesseris
De

Casalius, De Tricliniis, Hospitalitate et Tes1670. 12. also

"

in Gronovivs,

vol. ix."J.P.

Tomasinus,
/.

Hospitalitatis.Amst.

in Gronovius,

vol. ix.

general subject of Roman

meals,

"c.

C. BuLengeras,

Conviviis, in Gronovius, vol. ix.

Cf. also

"" 166-168.

"331a.
master

In

social banquets, held

or

at

evening,it was

customary

to

choose

to have magister convivii or arbiter bibendi ," he seems been chosen by a throw of dice (Hor. Od. ii. vii. 25). To his direction every all that related to submitted, particularly thing connected with the banquet was

of the feast,rex

and the social intercourse for the time. After the completionof the drinking, continued late in the night. It was to drink meal, the drinkingwas customary of the gods and heroes being usuallyhonored in the first healths, the memory the different courses place. Not only after the meal, but also duringit,between and dishes, social games or practiced,especially plays were playing with dice.
"

u.

There
two

were or

two

kinds

with and

sides
were

ends tali

rounded,
were

of dice, tali and having therefore

tesserm.

The

former which

four

sides,on

oblong, were they might fall,

which

numbered

(quaternio). Four
and The
;

Venereus the and

or

worst

tesserm

Venus, was throw, called Canis, had six sides, numbered

best

successively one (unio), six (senio),three (ternio),and four used in playing ; the most fortunate throw, called Jaclus when different number each of the four, a was on uppermost
was

when

the

same

number

was

like modern

dice. Three

only

were

uppermost used
ones.

on

all.

in

ing play-

the

throw
were

was

from of
a

which
tower

the dice

thrown,
on

three sixes, and the poorest three aces or called fritillus or was turricula, which
not
so

The

vessel

box

in the form

tabula
was a

or table ; the board Another lusoria. game kind of trick-track or

"

they
often

were

received,
was was

was

termed

played
It

called Duodena with twelve

was

forus, alveus, and scripta,

counters
"

backgammon.
a

played with playing

at games

fifteen

or

stones

of different {calculi}

colors, upon
manners

table

marked

lines. carried

Jn
to

the the

general corruption of Roman

the love of

highest extreme.
Cf. Simon, Jeux de hazard, chez les Remains, in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. i. 120.

2.

In the time

of the
a

Republic, it was
supper

occasionallyto

common

customary in his halls

this

for the patror" to invite all his clients Under called cmna recta. was

it became the emperors, a porcustomary to give to the clients, instead of a supper, tion in a small basket, sportula. At length a quantity of moof food to carry home ney substituted instead of this, to the amount of about 100 was quadrantes, or 25
asses,
sums

which of money

was

also

called

sportula. This
orators

word

was

also

distributed
"

by

and

others for the purpose

Acad. Inscr. i. 161.

employed to designate of gaining favor.

Cf. Juv.

i. 95. 118.

Mart.

iii.T."Be

Mantour,

in the Mem.

" 331 b. As wine was social evening banquets

the and

beverage chieflyused
games,
we

by the Romans,
here
some

will introduce

been to have so Scarcely any thing else seems for domestic all his arrangements comfort, as to be there was 1. Hence approved wines. great attention to the cultivation of the vine ; of agriculture. The soil of Campania was sidered conto the neglect of other branches even desirable in Italy,for vineyards. Many varieties of grape as perhaps the most
"

especiallyat their subremarks the ject. on in important to the rich Roman choice and well furnished with

and Pliny ; no cultivated : about fiftysorts are mentioned by Columella to common spared to obtain the best kinds for the vineyards. It was the elm and to certain trees vines by attaching them (arbusla), particularly
were
was

expense
rear

the

and
to

the vines reach the

and

trees

were

thus

said

to

be

married

the vines

were

allowed

poplar ; usually

still greater, in the rich soils ; in a height of 30 or 40 feet, sometimes soils less favorable,the usual height was only from 8 to 12 feet. 2. The vintage or about the last of September, or in October. They were gathering of the grapes was for pressing corbes) and carried directlyto the room picked in osier baskets (fiscinae,
"

296 (torcularium) where

,

ROMAN

ANTIQUITIES.

they

were

first trodden obtain

a

(calcabantur), and
was

then

press

sometimes

in order

to

richer wine, the grape

subjected exposed to the

to
sun

the
a

been have wine-press (torcular) seems common to days after gathering. The fixed a beam simply an upright frame, in which was (prelum) loaded with weights, attached and having ropes it more as to work so easily. The juice (muslum) passed through a sort of strainer (colum) into a vat (lacus),in which it remained in order to undergo about fermentation nine days, or was put into large vessels (dolia)for the same The lixipium) was juice which ran from the grapes without pressing [mustum purpose. pains to avoid its fermentation ; usually preserved separately,and often with much it in a close vessel and sink it in a pond for a mode of doing which to secure one was of a month Sometimes the juice obtained more. boiled or by pressing was space down instead of being allowed to ferment, in a place fitted up for this process and called defrutarium ; the must thus inspissated and reduced to one-half its original termed such had been reduced was as quantity, was defrutum ; the carenum only to

few

two-thirds

; sapa

was

the

name

when

reduced
must

to

one-third.

"

3. Various

means

were

used for the purparticularly were pose. methods devised also for modifying or preserving the flavor both Various were and the inspissatedjuice ; aromatic herbs and of the fermented drugs of different introduced to effect the object. In order the maturity of wines, kinds were to hasten mellow often subjected to the action of artificial heat them, they were to ripen and in the flues of the furnaces, or in and smoke, by placing the vessels containing them for a time passed prepared for the purpose (fumarium), where the smoke room some

employed

for

the fermented clarifying

; eggs

"

around It is

them.

These

forced wines

are

said

to

have been
a

tended to probable that the process give the wines became consolidated such stated that they sometimes to
to

in great thicker

request

at

Rome.

consistency ; it is

them in hot water. for keeping their wine, was dissolve

are

"

a degree that it was sary necesused by the Romans, commonly the amphora, called also quadrantal ; the terms

4.

The

vessel

most

gallons ; generally of an elegant form, having neck with two handles, and tapering towards the bottom, so that they might a narrow easily be fixed in the ground or sand of the wine-cellar, and kept in an upright position. lined with some The and commonly preparation of pitch or wax amphora was covered also with a coating made of pitch and the ashes aromatic substances, and was
six
"

testa, cadus, and diota of clay baked, and sort

applied to

the

same

or

similar

vessel.

It

was

made

of

held about

of the vine. stopper

was

When confined also

the wine and made

had

been

in the vessel

suitable

plaster.* Skins
seem

(utres), which were have remained to also

to

perfectly close by a coating of the same the only kind of vessel used originally
until
been

time, the cover kind, or

for the of
sorts

or

of

pose, pur-

later times.
but

For

the

richer

wine,

probably of a much smaller size carrying wine from place to place, very large vessels made of leather or hide, supported and guarded by a frame been used. A painting found in a wine-shop at Pompeii exand hoops, seem to have hibits of a wagon vessel of this kind occupying the whole with four wheels a or car 5. The better kinds of wine and drawn were usually valued more by two horses. of the more None wines were reckoned highly in proportion to their age. generous fit for drinking before the fifth year, and the majorityof them were kept for a much that of a longer period. The most pleasant and grateful for drinking, however, was middle a man, higher price. The opulent Roage ; although the older might command
appear

glass vessels
than the

have

earthen

amphora

(Martial,

employed ; Ep. ii.40).

For

"

been attached mentioned, vast importance to his wine establishment. such person attached the wine-cellar (cella the house and villa of every was in part, if vinaria). This (called also apotheca,cf. Hor. Sat. n. v. 7) was commonly the wine not ground, and was frequently very spacious. Here wholly, under was ranged along the walls, sunk to a greater or kept, usually, in amphorm, which were
as

has

Hence

to

less

depth

in the sand

in office when

; each the wine ; because

one was

oldest and
at

choicest end

of the Consul indicatingthe name interior the phrase ; nota, signifying such, being placed first in the cellar, would naturally be

having

mark

(nola)

made

hence

the

the

remote

of the
or

cellar,

or

because,
The

on

account

of these

qualities, it

was

lodged in an inner cell large, extending round

from port-holes

garden, and amphorae still stand labelled seventeen centuries ago." the amphorae found, some not Among many years in Vermilsince, at Leptis (cf. lion, Beechy'stravels),was one with the following inscription cassio c. maeio cos. l. forming three lines on the vessel. 6. Of the Italian wines, the most celebrated the Falernian JSTassic (vinum Falernum, Massicum), and were been which the product of the same of Sinuessa to have seem region, in the vicinity ; and the vinum the hills of Setia. Setinum, the beverage of Augustus, produced on
above;
"

apartment. and under

some

villa of Diomedes

the whole

of the

(cf. J 326) has a cellar very lighted and ventilated by as they were packed and

"

Others in much the vinum Calenurn ; of a third Ccecubum, Surrentinum, repute were the Albanum and Sabinum. rank were The Sicilian wines were rated generally after these. Of foreign wines, the Romans seemed to have placed the Lesbian, Chian, and the first;cf. " 161. Different kinds of wine were Thasian, among used at the same the guests were treated with different sorts according to their banquet ; and sometimes

P.

III.

DOMESTIC

AFFAIRS.

DRINKING-CUPS.

COSTUMES.

297

rank.

"

7.

From

the

fact that the wines

use,

dilute them
purpose
warm

for actual
or

among
seems

the Romans

hot water

made

in

large vase
cups
names

called

crater.

it was inspissated, common to the Greeks; for this among been to have frequentlyused. The mixture was From this it was poured or conveyed by a ladle
were so
as

often well

as

into {cyathus)
Some of the

of which {pocula),

there

were

almost

countless

varieties.

of the drinking-cup were employed to designate varieties the following; made of wood calices, vhialce, scyphi, cymbia, batiolm. They were (fagina pocula), or of earth of glass (vitrea), and of amber (succina); also of bronze, silver, and gold, with various (fictilia); ornaments (torenmata, or vasa precious stones, and of the substance called sculpta) ; of gems still remaining articles murrka. show (cf. P. IV. $ 195. 4). The skill in specimens of these great workmanship. In
our o

Plate
a

XXXV. filled with

are

seen

number

of the

vessels

connected

with

the

ancient

use

of wine.

peii copied from paintings on the walls of an edifice found at Pomfrom called and the and shows an Fig. 6 is drawn Egyptian monument; a mode the grapes collected in a vat. of obtaining the juice by treading on the Fig. 2 is copied from above found it shows mode of carrying wine at Pompeii; for as a about painting mentioned from the leathern in the carriage, and vessel another slave sale; a slave is filling an amphora holds second a ments; amphora to be filled. Figs. 6, c, and d, are wine-vessels, from Egyptian monuand still in actual in b, a form c use exactly resembling the Roman amphora; very found at Pompeii; A is probably a drinking-cup. Figs. e,f, g,i, represent glass vessels Egypt for water. several Figs, n and o are also drinking-vessels; n is the drinking-horn, Kepas, pvrov; found illustrate at Pompeii have been the Greek crater ; o may specimens ; cf. Boyd's Potter, been two to have in a mold. seem cut, or else cast Fig. 7 shows elegant glass cups which p. 699. of another of the Bacchanal, form, probably the calix, kv\i%; a cup Fig. 5 presents, in the hand the small stands wine-vessels also table which on he by the splendid couch on which appear in the other his head and reclines with the thyrsus hand from a garland on monument peii. Pom; a of those the table of the Bacchanal, given on on seen a Fig. 3 is a vessel of form like one the patera, often used in libations. ; it represents larger scale, and showing its ornaments

Fig.

is

jar

grapes, Pantheon.
"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

Cf. Pownall,

on

Roman

"

drinking-cup wrought History

of

of solid crystal,"Archxologia, cited

"

P. IV. " 32. 5. vol. vii. p. ISO. Wines of the Ancients. Lond.

On

the
"

topics of
A.

the

above
De

section,Henderson's
Vino
ac

Wines, cited " 161.

"

E.

Barry, On

the

1775. 4. vol. ix.

Turnebus,

ejus Usu

et

Abusu, in Gronoiilus, vol. ix.

"

ji. Baccius, De
an

Conviviis

Velerum,

in Gronovius,

"

Pliny, Hist. Nat. xiv."

p. 199
ss." as

Columella,

xii.
an

B. Parsons, Anti-Bacchus

Essay

on

Intoxicating Drinks.
12. p. 192, 245.

Bepr. H. York, 1840. 12.

The last two "works

R. B.

Grindrod, Bacchus;

Essay

on

Intemperance.

Repr. N. York, 1840.

valuable

advocating perfect temperance."

" 332.
the the

underwent of dress among the Romans ent changes in differless in respect to form than the quality and expensiveness of The most materials,and the ornaments. general and peculiar garment of The fashion
but periods,
"

Romans
Gens
or

was

the

toga,

national

characteristic,whence
the

the

Romans
It

were

termed
a

togata,and
sort

Togati,while

Greeks

were

termed
to

Palliati. It

was

loose robe

to the not

breast, but

of cloak, extending from the neck the breast,and without above open

the feet, close below

was

sleeves.

up therefore of

the body. but thrown It was over put on, properly speaking, wool, and white in color ; black, toga pulla,being used only on

commonly
funeral folds

sions. occa-

The
that

toga

worn

in the house

was

less

loose

and

ample (togarestricta) ;
many

used

in

going out, commonly

and larger

flowingwith
with

(fusa).

1. Some

of the

also worn at the age was which was assumed in a very formal the toga virilis or pura, before the Praetor, in the Forum. The trabea is described a as mented manner toga ornawith purple horizontal stripes (cf." 209) is said to by the augurs ; that worn this
"

and magistrates wore priests by freeborn youth, who, (because generally white)

it bordered

purple (toga pratexta) ; of seventeen, exchanged it for

have termed
2.
was

been

of

purple and
one

saffron

color.

"

The

angular extremities
to
a

of the

toga

were

lacinia.
statue at

of

Marcus "he

Tullius, by
is adds color. with

some

supposed
clothed and
seems

be

descendant the

of

the of

great Cicero,
otfice of the

found

Pompeii;

represented
value This

in

toga prmtexta,
the

robe

and, which painted with a deep purple violet of being a garment instead texta, dyed with this precious color; at
Roman

magistrates;

singularity to to give reason

hem,
as

this robe is entirely statue, for believing that the pra?-

was one one

enormous

hundred thousand

denarii denarii.

usually explained, was entirely republic. The price of this purple the less costly sort, is said have been the violet, though to worth by Pliny red is valued 4s. the the the Id.) same (about "3, pound; by authority at only
a

purple
later

it is

least

in the

times

of

the

It

was

obtained p. 205.

from

Ihemurex,

shell-fish

found

in various

parts

of the

Mediterranean."
On
the age

Pompeii,
sur

for assuming

the toga, cf. Dodwell, de aetate tog. vir. sumenda?, in his Prsdect. Acad,
la teinture des

(citedP. V. " 542. 7.) p. 245."

On

the color

of the toga,Arneilhon,

anciens, as cited " 26S.

4.

(c).

" 333.
to the

The
was

garment
worn

which
close

the
to the

Romans

wore

under

{tunica). It
knees. It with
was

body,

without

the tunic the robe, was sleeves, and extending almost the
was

It

hips.
worn

of a girdle above was entirelyopen, and fastened by means In later times the tunic commonly, like the toga, white.
"

generally, poorer classes of citizens linen the only clothing, this was under-garmentor shirt (indusium, except the The higher classes never appeared abroad subucula) which had small sleeves.
sleeves. With slaves

and

the

38

298
"without the addition under
1
u.

ROMAN

ANTIQUITIES.

called it,
and

of the toga. In winter the latter often tunica interior or interula.

sons wore
a

wore

another

ment gar-

Senators the

their

tunic bordered

stripeof purple, called

whence
clavia.
2. The such emperors
as

clavus

had knights (equites)

was

tunic

of the

senators

the right side with a but narrower stripes, ; called laticlavia,that of the knights angustion

in front

two

such

exercised

the

persons

they

considered

prerogative worthy of the

of

bestowing
Cf.

the

distinction ii. 9.

of

the

laticlave

upon

honor.

Pliny, Ep.

" 334

t.

The
women

women

used reached

the tunic, with down

to

as girdle,

well

as an

the men;

only

that of the instita. them

form

the feet.

They
worn

wore or

also

over-garment

extending to
Some
the

the

called stola, feet, having a broad the

border
over

called fringe (limbus)

consider
same

pallato
The

be
women

robe

both

garment.

sometimes of
women

the stola ; others think fine robe of a circular wore a

was

called cyclas. The mourning robe The rica, covering the head and shoulders.

called ricinium
a

or or

amiculum

was

short mantle,

vail,worn
"

by the
at

women.

found within the cellar of the temple of was life, fallingto her feet and above it a toga. The border of the former is gilt inch and ; the latter is edged with a red purple bandeau, an wide ; the right arm is pressed upon the bosom, with the hand elevated to a quarter the chin, while the left hand holds up the toga." A statue, of the

female

size of
in
a

Fortune

Pompeii, clothed

tunic

"

335.
was

There
a

were

other woolen

kinds

of outer
used

garments
in

more

or

less in
name

use. was

The also
about

Isena
the

thick

given

to the

purple robe
a

over-coat, of the Flamines

journeying; this
was

" 214), which (cf. paludamentum,

with
was a

fastened

neck

with
cloak
the

buckle

or

clasp. The
bordered
sagum

Grecian and

of scarlet color The and

or a chlamys, was long by generals purple,used specially

high military officers.

only
back

soldier's cloak

of red color, covering

a kind shoulders, fastened by a clasp. The lacerna was of rain cloak, very broad, and usuallywith a hood or covering for the head robe similar to the toga, and a (cucullus, more capitiuni). The pxnula was

used frequently
The woolen.
seem was

under

the emperors. the Roman

materials
to

of which

garments
the

were

made,
a

until them Silk was unknown to have remained ignorant how silk was among them

close of the the

produced, for

chieflylinen and were Romans republic. The long time after the article
of the Seres. with
a woven

introduced
at

by importation from

country

Nor
state,

did

they

first
even

use

purpose

in texture intermixing linen or woolen the silk stuffs, which were brought from the east in
texture

it without

it; for which

were

unraveled of Cos. almost

vestments

cloth of this mixed

vestments
or

is said

to

have
to

been

The Coan like muslin

gauze

(vesles Com) appear called ventus hence

have

firstfabricated in the island been of a very loose texture, wind. The Seric

textilus, woven

such as consisted of pure silk. The supposed to mean been dered consito have term applied to both, although it seems at length known to come appropriatefor the Coan article ; as that was more as from a worm (/?fy/?u", bombyx),while the Seric was still imagined to be gathered from Silk was considered the leaves of trees ( Virg. Georg. ii.121). as chieflyfor proper ii. 33) is the senate In the reign of Tiberius the garments of females. {Tacit. Ann. should said to have decreed (A. D. 16) that men not disgracethemselves by wearing silk apparel (veslisserica). The Heliogabulus (slain A. D. 222) is severely emperor robe of pure silk. condemned a as being the first who wore (vestes Sericm) are sometimes bombycina was
Cf. Article Seres, in Anthon's

Letnpriere, and Sericum, in Smitk's

vol.

Diet, of Antiquities. Maillot

Rom. and

On

the Roman
"

costume,

see

0. Ferrades

rius, De
chez Mem.

Re

Vestiaria,in Grxvius,
Mem.
"

vi.

"

Becker, Gallus, vol. ii.

"

Martin, cited " 197.

ch.
some

Ameilhon, Origine de

L'usage
le

Soie
the

les ancien6, in the

Acad.

Inscr.

vol. xlvi. p. 452.

"

Gibbon,
Loud.

Emp.
8. For

xl.

"

Mahudel,

Soie, in

SfC.vol.

v.

p. 21S.

J.R.

Foster, De

Bysso Antiquorum.

1776.

Plate see illustrations,

XXV.

; cf. " 169

for explanations.

part of the

it a uncovered, or drew over on festivals, journeys, and in war. of bonnet At the festival of the Saturnalia,particularly, sort a or they wore the birth woolen free allowed to was or w hich, only by however, cap (pileus), of broad-brirnmed but forbidden to slaves. The sort was a manumission, petasus various coverings for the feet. The calhat1, used in journeying. There were cei were like our somewhat shoes, and covered the whole foot,and often with and the lower part of the leg. their lacings(corrigia, covered the ankles ligula) Shoes of strong untanned The caligse termed perones. leather were a kind were

"

336.

The

Romans

usuallywent
at

with

the head

toga;

except

sacred

rites and

"

P.

III.

DOMESTIC

AFFAIRS.

PERSONAL

ORNAMENTS.

299

of half-boot, worn by soldiers. and only the bottom of the feet, above. passing
The
a

The
were

solesc and fastened

were sandals, covering crepidse by leather thongs and bands (vinculo)

shoe
or

golden
men

of the

yellow, or
made

of the leg,and had on the top of the foot of senators came up to the middle silver crescent, letter C (hence lunata The or shoes pellis, patricialuna). were of a red, commonly white, sometimes usually black ; those of women of a reddish dye ; worn mullei other color. The firstby the kings, afterwards were had
borne any

by those who
of wool
or

curule

office.

Sometimes

the Romans

used

socks

The thighs and legs were sometimes bound around goat's hair, udones. with a sort of scarfs (fascia), which all in the Roman dress that corresponded to were modern and stockings (tibialia). 'The shoes of pantaloons or breeches (femoralid) cothurni comedians socci ; those of tragedians, termed (cf." 89) ; those of pantowere mimes, the rattling or a was mere appendages to them, scabella. The soccus slipper, been to have frequently of yellow color ; the crepida seems nearly the same very ; the sandal made of vegetable leaves or twigs ; and the baxa baxa was and crepida were a used by comedians well as the soccus.2 as
"

The 1.

head-covering
Various

termed

petams,

is seen

in

our

Piale XXIV.

fig.3.

See

P. V. "" 317-319." ;
see

D.

L'Aulnaye, as

cited P. V.

" 319.

forms

of coverings for the feet and

legs are

given in Plate XXIV.

the explanation, " 169. 2.

" 337.
Romans

The
to

buildingof
draw
1
u.

allowed ancient hair,both of the head and beard, was by the more but the fifth and seldom In cut. after the was century grow freely, the city,it first became to cut the hair more frequently, custom a common also
to

and

frizzle and and

anoint it.
it

the hair backwards When

bind

Young persons in a knot, for together

of

were a

accustomed

to

sort

of ornament.

and

honor

part of it cast of Neptune.

it
to some

assumed the toga virilis was into the fire in honor

It
was

also customary,

(cf." 332), the hair of the youth was shorn in Apollo, and a part of it into the water the first shaving of the beard, to conseon crate
false hair the
were were

deity. Under the emperors peruke (capillamentum,galericulum). the ornaments of the youth 2. Among
the

used, by
sort

contrivance

like

was

bulla, a
sons

of

ball,which

hung
highei forms,

from

neck

on

the

breast.

The

boys, who

of citizens of the

of gold (bulla aurea) ; it was usually a hollow sphere ; but other one ranks, wore introduced. The the image of a heart, were and particularly of freedmen and sons citizens used only a leathern ball (bulla scortea). This ornament laid aside was poorer when the toga virilis was assumed (cf." 332), to the lares or other divinities.
our

on

which

occasion

the bulla

was

crated conse-

Fig. 1, of
upon their

Plate
;
on

XXV.

necks

richly
the
serve

ornamented

formerly worn The figure

"

neck
to
as

may

of the Hindoo by loose women altar-shaped box, worn temples Boxes with like this, or bags, seem been to have jewels. Cf. Isa. iii. 20 (the tablets), and to contain Sol. Sovg, i. 13. perfumes. illustrate the Roman the neck. bulla, as hung from is
an

See

Mmitfaucon, Antiq. Eipl.

Inscr.

cited " 13.

vol.

v.

p. 68.

"

Baudelot, Bulle que les enfants Rom.

portoient

au

cou, in the Mem,

Acad.

vol. iii.p. 211.

bestowed by the women " 338. Still greater care was upon the dress of their in locks and curls, and adorned with hair,which plaited they frizzled, golden modest fashion was and ribins. The most the use chains, with pearls, rings, of a broad ribin or fillet(vitta), by which they gatheredand bound the hair in a the Besides ointments bunch knot. or by which they made their hair more color and even to to scatter it fashionable in later times became it, glossy, gold dust upon
1
.

it.
Roman
women

The
as

often used white

paint (fucus) to improve the color of the face

used
we

as

well

Various (cerussa or creta) and red (minium). likewise (medicamina, smegmata), were (unguenta), cosmetics, and washes Of the various cosmetics similar purpose. Effeminate did the same. men the hair ; both the
The also also

ointments for
a

mention
rosaceum,

amaracinum, : following
mirrors of silver; $ 268. 4.

iasminum,
the toilet
were

nardinum,
made Nat. of

asipum,

metopium,

usinum. (specula) used

sometimes of
at

glass (Plin.

Hist.

xxxvi.

brass or steel, polished metal, commonly 26, 36). Cf. Menard, cited $ 169. 6; cf.

of the Roman ladies were the personal ornaments necklaces, and ear-rings, Among of of gold, pearls, and gems, sometimes finger-rings. The ear-rings (inaures) were immense The value.

splendid gold necklaces

men

of twisted chain sort a neck, which was of various plate (circulus auri). Finger-rings (annuli) were and devices, commonly forms with engraved gems (cf.P. IV. "" 205, 206), and set used not merely for ornaments, but for sealingpapers, caskets, and even largepackages vessels ; hence perhaps they obtained the name of symbola. The a ring was or very and equites the men (cf. $ 256. 2) were ornament common only senators among ; originally

Necklaces (monilia) were found in Etruscan also used an for the ornament
a

often tombs

of
are

gold set
now

with

gems;

in

the British

several Museum.

{torques),or

circular

300
allowed
to

ROMAN

ANTIQUITIES.

wear

gold rings ; plebeians

could
an a

allowance triumphed also wore ; those who and other female ornaments were kept in

only iron rings except by special Jewels ring{ferreus sine gemma). casket {pyxis,or pyxidula) made of gold,
wear

iron

"

tortoise-shell,ivory, or other precious material.

A gold ring, with an Pompeii. forty-one silver coins and found thousand of brass. In several of the nouses skeletons with above lets were one rings, braceOf these further (armillai), necklaces, and other ornaments. an specimens we only mention had attached chanalian two was a Bacpearl pendants ; and a breast-pin, to which ear-ring of gold, which hand and a a figure, with glass in the other, having bat's wings joined patera in one his body. This curious and belts of grapes two to his shoulders, passing across breast-pin is XLVII. Plate Plate, figs.o,and h, and r, are fig.i. In the same given in our ear-pendants, from the Montfaucon. was passed through the ear. ring which P'ig. Fig. 4 shows g ig a pendant with This Plate also shows or some a variety a part of the head-dress. pin to attach it to a bandeau The in fig.1, of Plate of rings: cf. P. IV. $ 206." XLIV., cf. P. IV. " 186. 9; and torques is seen A mirror, with box of pins, "c. the monile a necklace, upon or probably, in fig. 5, Plate XXXV. in Plate XXV. 3 and 4. Fig. 2 is a metallic for coins and jewels, a toilet-table, is seen figs. purse forms This various of the head-dress. from plate also shows an Egyptian monument. Luxe des im Putzzimmer eiiaer reichen Rbmerirm. 1806. 2 th. 8."Nadal, Cf. R. A. BCttiger, Sabina, oder Morgenscenen Leipz^ 2. Specimens engraved gem of
most

of

these

ornaments
near

have

been
a

found

at

set

in it, was

found

temple,

in

box

along

with

"

"

"

"

dames

Romaines,
Bat.

in the

Mem.

Acad.

Inscr. vol. iv. p. 227.

De Jure

"

Becker, Gallus.
1734. TJltraj.
"

On

rings and their use,

De

J.

Kirchmann,
Amst.

De

Annulis. 1676. 12.

Lug. 3.

1672.

12." P. Burmann,

Annulorum.
a

C. Bartholinus,

Inauribus

Veterurn.

The

following
"

pertinent here. delicacy of shape

from passage, What is admirable all the utensils

letter

by

traveler

visiting Naples
nineteenth domestic life.

and

Pompeii,
is the
must
see

may

be

of

of the to us, barbarians which in Roman served

century,
One

exquisite
those

of all sizes, those calefactors little bronze (for every candelebras, lamps, vases charming thing of bronze), those was so tripods, scales, beds, chairs, those graceful and ingeniously wrought fill up whole the Naples Museum. One above the toilet at all, see rooms must, shields, which of the Roman arsenal ladies, their combs, toothpicks, curling-irons, and the pots of vegetable and Thus and deceived mineral found in a boudoir. the Roman ladies used people; rouge rouge add like our necklaces, ladies, those rings, and ridiculous ear-rings, which nothing they wore, diminish times resemble that not to beauty and one another, in spite of the space ugliness. How

separates

them

!"

" 339.

It remains
customs

yet

to

mention

some

of the

more

remarkable
from

features in the
and As

funeral

of

the Romans.

The

dying

received and

their relatives
soon
as

of love by embraces friends present the last tokens closed their eyes the relatives nearest were dead, from It their fingers. The the slaves
was

kisses. and

and mouth,

drew

the

they rings

then washed in hot water, and anointed by corpse was of funerals (libilinarius). the of charge taking (pollinctores) person then covered with clothingsuitable to the rank of the deceased, which,

like that been

white. Such had of the mourners, sometimes as " 340. 4) was (cf. adorned with a crown of palm leaf. The weje by a victory distinguished of the house, placed on a bier, and then brought into the vestibulum corpse was
there
or

left for outcries

sorrow.

some

days.

This
the

bier,kctus feralis. During

termed was exposure time of this exposure,

the

and the collocatio,

there
were

couch

loud and
the

accompanied by (conclamatio), of cypress or pine was A branch

Children and

and frequent of grief strongest expressions usuallyfixed before the door of

were

house.

"

youth

of

both

sexes

interred

by night, with

lightedtorches, without
with
Claude Lub. 1672. more de or

attendants;
of the Ancients.

less ceremony
the Funerals

but adults,on the other hand, by day, and accordingto their rank.
Rom. 1600. 4."/.

Ouichard, On

Kirchmann,

De

Funeribus

Romanorum

(Libri

iv.

12.

"

340.

Among

the earliest times.

exequiae) (elatio, was the following, chiefly. The funeral of a distinguished were viously preperson in the cityby a herald,and therefore called funus indtctivum, announced funus publicum. In the procesdefrayedby the city, and, if the expenses were sion, and women hired as mourners the musicians (cornicines,tibicines) (prssftcas) the funeral songs (lessus, and singing lamentations advanced nsenise, first, uttering who bore the those then 333 cf. P. V. " came images of the ancestors ; next b) ; then followed playars, the relatives,all in black, with other indications of grief; of them the one histriones), (archimimus)imitating mimics, and dancers (ludii, from and actions of the deceased, and others quotingpertinent words passages dramatic writings; after them followed the corpse, carried by bearers; *u"d of both sexes. a train, frequently lastly, very numerous,
1
men
u.

both the Romans, The ceremonies

and burning were interring connected with

the

practiced from

funeral

The
of the

corpse

was

borne

in

deceased,

butoften,

on

In the case tinguishedcitizens. bier (sandapila), by ordinary coffin-bearers (vespillones, sandapilarii). a small

the shoulders,usually by the fr"*ed' (lectica) on of high rank, by senators ""and the most b irae of the poorer and lower classes, the corpse was

couch

in

case

302
The
on

ROMAN

ANTIQUITIES.

rich

and and of

noble

among

the

Greeks sometimes That

and

Romans made of

were

elegant
name

the

costly couches, feretrum or capulum.

In
our

ivory,
to a

of Herod

is said have

their to exposed, and carried burial, and gold; designated by gilded with have been all of gold, and inlaid with

precious
remarks for for

stones. ;

Plate

XVIII.

tig. e,

we

funeral

couch,
seem

which
to

will have word

illustrate used

these

in India. The Jews used as now given by Roberts bier the vop6";or coffin (cf. Luke vii. 14); yet the Septuagint a the bier of Abner (cf.2 Sam. iii. 31). it is
u.

sometimes

has

the

/cAiVjj, or

couch,

The

procession,when
had
been
a a

formally conducted,
person of

if the of
or

deceased

distinction,the
was

harangue {rostra), and magistrate, sometimes

is struck the with
to

eulogy (laudatio)
between of
a

passed through the forum, where, laid before the place body was delivered by some relative or friend,
senate. and

by appointment of the
difference Roman

One

the
a

Egyptian
II.

customs.

The

Egyptians

brought

deceased

trial, instead

eulogy.

Cf.

P.

j 34.

3.

with the funeral eulogy as well as men. For 3. Women sometimes, honored were the honor of a of Cassius, received and widow example, Junta, the sister of Brutus The images of not less than public funeral and a panegyric spoken from the rostrum. in the procession ; viginti clarissimarum illustrious families were seen familiatwenty The sunt. (Tac. Ann. iii. 76.) rum images of ancestors, which imagines anielalaz the higher class of Romans thus used at funerals, were the busts which kept in were
"

their halls (cf.P. IV.

In Jlnthon's
to

$ 164).
in
a

Horace,
deceased

note these

on

Sat.

I. were

vi. 17, is the Jidam these

the

mode the

in which
at

before
to

images funerals, as

following exhibited, deserves

(Rom.
busts
"

remark

"

One

particular
were were

tive relaried car-

attention.

They
actors

not

Dr. and

Ant.)
or

On
"

personate this topic, however,

the

individual

ancestors, consult Polybius. vi. 51, 52. 2.

"

but states, images formed Mil. 13"

Cicero, pro

part Dion

of

employed disguise." Cassius, Ivi. 134.

the

Pliny,
4.
"

Hist. to

Nat.

xxxv.

Suetonius,

Vesp.

19.

As
on

the

mourning habits, it has

went
wear

been

these

occasions the

attired like
mourners was

already observed, that the senators knights, the magistrates like senators,
black. But
we

times some-

"c,
that

and

that the

common was

for

may

used ordinary color to express their grief, ; yet of the empire when abundance of party colors came after the establishment in fashion, into contempt, much that at last it became the old primitivewhite grew to so proper the authofor their mourning clothes. The of fact is evident from rity the women matter this as the subject of one of his problems [or Questions, of Plutarch, who states for the practice." Kennett. cf. P. V. " 249. 2] and gives several reasons

though this

further remark, alike by both sexes

"

"
case

341. of

The

place of burning,as

also of

was interring,

without

the

city.

In

the former, the procession finds the funeral pile (rogus,pyra) already its heightbeing in proportion of the deceased. to the rank and wealth prepared,

Upon
it with with

this

they lay the

face

corpse,

oil; it is then deceased,

were

kindled

with

with spicesor anointed it over having sprinkled the do it nearest relatives,who a torch by

(aversi). Weapons, garments, and other articles possessed the pile: also various thrown thingswhich were upon the whole to the dead was sumed, con(munera, dona). When presentedas offerings the embers were quenched with wine; then followed the collectingof the bones urna) of clay, stone, placedin an urn (feralis (ossilegium) ; these were of the ashes, also spices and perfumes,and sometimes metals, along with some or the urn small phialof tears (lachrymss) was a solemnly deposited ; and
averted

by

the

in the earth
1
v..

{tumulus)or

tomb

conditorium, cinerarium). (sepulchrum,

the
area

most
or

common,

not to be burned, but merely interred, which was altogether Corpses that were the Romans, were placed in a marble coffin called common practice among to the dead was a (monumenta) sarcophagus. The erection of monuments very the spot of universal not almost practice. They were always raised over
"

burial.
2.

Over

the grave
an

of

one

buried

in the

ground, it was

customary
was

to

raise

at

least

mound received

of earth

of the deceased, and somename thing is given in sepulchral monument, part of which between the representations of the Dii Plate XXXVI. the square pannel, seen our bust of the deceased Manes, was tached ata occupied by an inscription. Sometimes was Columns small cippi, for sepulchral to the monument. pillars, or particularly the Romans, been well as the Greeks to have common as inscriptions, appear among the body was buried (cf." 187). Sometimes was an inscription put on the coffin,when in the earth ; and when burned the body was an was inscription taining placed on the urn conthe bones usually began, as on the urns preserved in the British ; the inscription with the letters D. M. or D. M. S., i. e. Diis Manibus Sacrum. Monuments Museum, the spot of burial (tumuli inanes erected among the Romans or not on were cenotaphia) of his life and character.
In

When monumental a (tumulus). (titulus, epitaphium) with the inscription the

structure

erected, it usually

"

for the same 3. There

reasons were

as

among

the Greeks.

public and

private places of burial.

The

public were

commonly

in

xxx.t\.

P.

III.

DOMESTIC

AFFAIRS.

TOMBS.

303

whom the honor of such Campus Martius or Campus Esquilinus,for great men, on Those without conferred for the poor were burial-place was by vote of the senate. the Esquiline gate, and called puliculae. The were private burial-places usually in of the roads the highways; the sides of some gardens or fields near leadingto Rome for the distance of miles from the gates of the city. were occupied by tombs the
a

4. One of

of the

streets

discovered excavated

at

Pompeii
be of

is called considered
a

the
a

street

of the

tombs.

The of such small

a

family
chamber,
wall.
two

tomb

Naevoleia

Tyche,
is

here, may
consists admission

the Romans among the side of which

entrance to
a

generally. "It door a giving

is at the

to

square a small level Its front

representation building, containing a surrounded court by

of is the
outer

fair

structures

high
rise

by The

the

chamber

back.

From

the

wall
a

there

steps,

supporting
"

marble of solid
same

cippus
bench

richly
for the
are

ornamented.

occupied by

bas-relief

and

tion. inscrip-

and round the funeral ral sevechamber, runs from their resemblance wall, called columbaria of a pigeon-house. found three of glass, the holes Some to here, and many lamps were urns, fifteen inches the rest of common of large size, one of them in height earth. The were glass urns in diameter, and burnt a bones, and were cases. by ten protected by leaden They contained of mingled oil. This has been to consist wine, and water, liquid which analyzed and found In 1780, the beautiful be little doubt, was the libation the ashes." liquid, there can poured upon found of Scipio, preserved in the Museum was Pio-Clementinum, antique called the Sarcophagus in a tomb It is of the stone the Appian calli'd peperino or "lapis Jilbanus, a volcanic near Way. du peperin le the lake of Albano." Visconti, in describing it,says, "est near production found six de haut de long, sur The et a douze et cinq de large." plus compact, palmes inscription on it A
sort

reception
hollowed

of

urns

niches

for the

purpose

in the

"

is

given
was

under found

the

head

of Roman
same

inscriptions;
to

see

P.

IV.

133.2.

bust

with

corona

on

the

nead

in the

tomb.

usually built under ground, and called and other places in ancient Etruria. Cf. P. IV. " 173. 3. of the hypogaea of Tarquinia, in Etruria, are similar to "Many those found in Egypt, containing a number of rooms and corridors branching out in the rooms of a large size, the roof is supported by various directions ; and when are coated with stucco and ornamented with paintare pillars. The walls of many ings, square the arrival of the soul in Hades, and the punishments inflicted representing,sometimes the guilty; but, in general, mythological, heroic, and civil subjects." on
5. tombs
are

Common

are

said

Rave
at

been

hypogaa.

Such

those discovered

Voleterrse

For

an

account

of the discovery of various 1S29.

tombs

in Etruria
"

in 1829,

see

Chevalier
as

Kestner, in the

Annali

delV Institute references

di Car*

respondenza 6. Roman with

Archelogxca. Rom.

vol. 1st,p. 101.

Cf. /. Millingen,

cited P. IV. " 173. 3, and

other

there given.

skeletons.

been found in England, sepulchers have A (Stuart's Diet, of Architecture.)

"

times, places
said Essex
to

of these the circumstance One burialUstrina, from in 1821, at Littington ; many discovered sepulchral vessels collected, which were are was In the in the in be preserved library of Clare Hall, at Cambridge. parish of Ashdon, artificial sepulchral of Bartlow several known Hills. mounds, are county, by the name

Ustrinum,

or

with containing urns burial-place of burning the corpse. Roman

ashes
was

and

sarcophagi
later

called, in the

"

Many
ones

have
;

in number
were

been to have supposed them in a line, and four larger ones relics were opened in 1832, and
one,
was

cast

four

up after smaller which foot of them with

a

battle in

with
a

the

Danes.

They
front. The

are

eight
Roman

ones seem

line

in their

smaller

found brick

origin.
two

In

found
a

remarkable

sepnlcher
and
was

or

feet

three
or

and

half

inches

wide,
vessels.

and

one

them of clearly to prove six feet and inches three coffin, eleven inches high. There were,
a

long,
in this inches

brick

coffin
ten

chest, three
and
a

glass

One

sort

of urn,

eleven it
was

and

half

high, and
full of bones with
a was

quarter

inches

in diameter,
a

reeded of
a

handle;
human examination head of of

nearly
on a

two-thirds top of the

clear
seen

pale yellow liquor, covering was lying a gold ring, which

of two
was on

deposit
to

burnt

bones;

the

found

be

signet-ring having
on

carnelian
contents

intaglio,
of the
on

the

device coin and brick of

bearded

ears

of much

corn.

urn, a brass the obverse, of the

found,
the
reverse

very
a

Afterwards, corroded, bearing

to

of the the emperor Redux. in

our

the

Hadrian
A

figure supposed
vessels
was

be

that

Fortuna is

coffin, with
the

the mounds

in

it

as

fig.h

h.

One with A

larger
was

opened
other
was

in

they were April,

among

found,
1835.
An two most
p.

given
like

representation Plate XVIII. above de other

urn

the

one

scribed,
articles.
See P.

bones,
bronze

found;
with

also

similar

vessels,
the

bronze remarkable.

strigiles,and

vase,

colored

enamels,
32.

IV. " !73. 2."

Archseologia (as cited P. IV. "

5), vol.

xxv.

p. 1. vol. xxvi.

300, 368, with engravings.

The of relatives the tears are shed phials, or small vessels, which supposed to have received been found in great and of various forms. termed number, funerals, have They are matories lachrysaid kneaded The have been and tears to with are (urnce lachrymales). compounded odoriferous It has also been balsams. contained supposed that the vessels might have merely a which The were preparation of fragrant essences, figuratively called tears. lachrymatories found 7.
at

in the

ancient of

tombs

are

sometimes

of terra of the

gla^s (cf.$
island
vasa

268.

4).
are

Many
ancient

cotta, sometimes latter material

one

of alabaster have been

(cf. P.

IV.

quently J 195. 5), frethe

combs cata-

gathered
forms d.
On

from of

in the and
See
see

Milo, the
1a

Melos,
in
our

of

the

unguentaria
s s e

given
et Lit.

Plate

XVIII.
sur

Cyclades. fig. a, and

vases

Several

tories lachrymaat

fig.d

Mem. I.

de

C VInstilut,

d'Bist.

Jlnc. vol.

vii. p. 92.

lachrymatoires.

the vessels found

Milo,

" 186.

8. It has been mentioned (cf.} 187. 4) that usually deposited their dead in subterranean are more antiquity, none singular than these to admire their prodigious extent, the most recollections
were

the

Christians

under

the the

pagan

emperors
at

of

Rome

excavations. abodes laborious associated. of the

"Among
dead
; and

monuments

of Christian
a

one

feels

loss
or

whether the resting inte-

industry
Like

that

provided
caves was

them,
in
so an

with

which
at

they
base

are

the

Moorish

generally
that
no

excavated

the

of

aperture

of

the

ground
.

having
. .

appeared, and no been penetrated,

One
was

traces

lonely hill, and the entrance were discernible, except

of the
vast

Spain, they cealed carefully coneye,

out

by
had
so

experienced
hollowed the end
as

and

dungeons
miles from which

that

been late

underneath. sixteenth

discovered various

about

three

Rome

of the

century,

the

size

and

apartments

of

excited

universal

astonishment,

304

ROMAN

ANTIQUITIES.

Numbers

still and

remain,
the
as

bearing
monuments

the of

names

of

their found

respective
in

founders,
the
most

and

affording
proofs

by
of p.

their their

inscriptions having
been

antiquity by
the

them,

satisfactory
Christian

used

hiding-places of

Christians."

(Coleman's

Antiquities, the
case

421.)

"

342.

A in
ten
was

period
each

mourning
case

was

observed fixed of
the
or

in

memory
;
a

of in
the

deceased
of

its

duration continued

particular
In
at
on

was

by
emperors, that

law

widows

it

months.

the
their

time

general
sons;
a

mourning

(Indus previously
after

publicus)
not

appointed
except

decease

of

their

thing

practiced,
funeral in

occasions
it
was

of

great

public
to to connect

calamity.
the

"

Immediately (called
a

the

obsequies,
sacrifice
to

also

customary and

slay

victims

inferiae)
funeral

offered

the

departed,

therewith

solemn

repast
"

(silicernium).
the
to

Among
is open

tombs

at

Pompeii
the walls borders table."

there
are

is

funeral

triclinium

for

the of is

celebration animals of in in
stone

of the with

these
center
a

feasts. of the

It

the

sky,
which

and have the

ornamented flowers. A view of The it

by

paintings

compartments,
in the
center to

of

triclinium from Mazois

made

pedestal
of quities. Anti-

receive

is

given

Smith's

Diet,

1
was

u.

When

the

deceased and
meat
were

was

of
was

distinguished
sometimes

character,
distributed
at

this
among

repast
the
or

or

entertainment

publicly
funeral

given,

people
of

{visceralio).
On

These such

sacrifices

annually
(ludi

repeated

the

graves

spot

interment.

occasions,

public

games

funebres)
their

were

appointed,

especially

gladiatorial

sports.
2.

Gladiatorial celebrations. the

shows

probably
And,

had

origin,
were

as

has

been
on

observed
many

("

235),

in

funeral

although
of

they
them

exhibited
at

other
men, to

occasions,
all
persons his

"yet

primitive
in but the

custom

presenting

the
was

funerals
it

of

great

along
of death
;

prevailed quality,
and this
as

city

and

Roman rich
man

provinces
was

nor

confined

only

almost
very

every

honored for
in

with

this

solemnity
the tells deceased

after
number
us

they
their

commonly by long people

provided
custom.

their
to

wills,
this

defining
purpose

of
a

tors gladiain

due
common on

Suetonius money

of

funeral,

which
to

the

extorted

by

force

from

the

person's

heirs,

be
3. A

expended
very vivid is

this

account."
of the funeral in of the his

(Kennetl.)
sacrifices fifth father
a

picture given
to

and of Anchises. trial of the

games

annually
where mentions

repeated
he describes

at

the

graves the
a

of

the

deceased

by
the

Virgil
manes a

book

iEneid,
He

honors in

rendered

by

iEneas
a

particularly
arrows, and
a

contest

rowing

galleys,
battle

foot-race,
simulacra).

boxing-match,
Cf.
"

skill

in

shooting

mock

trian eques-

(pugnts
The the

187.

343

1.

greatest
emperors,

funeral

solemnity
like
the

among

the

Romans of
person

was

the

deification
heroes.

(conseIt took

cratio)

of in
a

something
Martius,
where

the

apotheosis
of
the

Grecian
to set

place
upon

the

Campus
funeral
alive the

image
whenever

be
on

deified

was

placed
viously pre-

lofty
bound

pile.
upon
to

From

this aloft

pile,
in the

it

was

fire,
to

an

eagle,
ideas
surname

it, flew

air;

which,
person

according
then also received with under funeral. with
a

the

of

the
or

people,

bore

soul

Olympus. solemnity
The
was

The
was

deified

the

appellation
games

Divus.

This

accompanied
not

religious
the first The

rites,
Christian

public
perors. emwas

and

banquets.
ceremony

custom

did

entirely
from
manner

cease

This burned these

The

wholly
in

distinct usual

the and

true

body

and rites
whole

the
were

ashes

buried with
by
de

the the

splendid

show,

before

performed
is well described Tractatus

image
(cf. P. Argent
V.

of

wax. in his Cf.

"

ceremony

Berodian

" 254),
1730.

the

fourth

book

of

History.

Mencken,

Disputati

4fi Consecratione."

Schcepflin,

Apotheosi.

INDEX

OF

GREEK

WORDS.

108 ,AKjiO}v,

A0a.p(5dKzwra,190 'APcfaXot,]63 190 'AyaBotpyoi, 'AydXporo, 147, 222 'AyiXai, 189, 192 AytXdaToi, 192 'AyeMrris, 192
'

'

108 'AKp6d"TOV} 153 'Akovtiov, 'Akovtwis,173 204 'Axpdrio-pa,

212 'Ai"0paV:o, "AvoSos,171 'AlTSpWJ,106 182 'Avr"ypa"p"(V,

206 'ApXirpf/cXiyoj, 180 'ApXpvrEs, 200 'AaavSiov, 186 'Aoiffeia, 216 'Aortas,
I

'AKpofloklOTOU, 194
'AKpodivia, 149,
'

'AvrAia,200 'Avrpa, 162

'AoKapov,217
Atr/cauXof, 217
200 'Ao-Kospa, "Aom"a, "/r', 197

199

"Airuf,194
'

AxpoKspaia,

202

Avrtapoaia, 185
196 [AfiVij, 186 'A7ray(oyj;,

AyKoiva,

202

'Aynvpa, 200 127 'AyXai'o, 147, 163 'Ay*"r/ioi, 'Ayopui, 17, 32, 33,
36, 183

'Ayopaios,109 168 'AypioJvia, 'Ayporepa,102 156 'Ayxtya-XOL, 220 'Ay%io-7"c'a, 189 'Ayeoy;?, 'Aya"J/ briraQids, 174
eiavSpias, 171 AytSvEj lepot173
175 'Aycji/icrrai, 'Aywi'oM-ai,175

'AxpSvia, 200, 204 29 'A"-po7roX(f, 200 'Ax-poo-rdXia, 204 'AKpoyrfipia., 'AKraia, 178 28 'Aicri?, 153 'Afcto/fq, "Axwv, 153 'AXaXaypo;, 198 A\dppara, 210 'AAsHirai, 210 210 'AXErarrjptoi/,
'

153, |A"nri?,
1

194

'A7rarovp"a, 168 'ATraxiXia, 220 128 'A7r*yXtcori7", 'Ant, 123 202 'Anofiddpat, 'AirodsKTCU, 182, 212
"

95 Acrrsponrirtls ,

AarparEuroi,

199

'

209 Airo?svrr)piov
,

'A"0"rO(, 189 'Am"icfipvj-ist 220

193 Affd/fXTjrot, 216 'ArroppaJ-i;, 198 'A7rof"OCio-pdf,
'

206 'Aovufiokoi, 98 'Ao-"pd\ios, 'AreXeia, 178, 187 'Anp.ro, 186, 191,204 "Aripoi,187 'Arpowog,128 AiyouoraXia, 246

AiXij, 210 Aprils,

217 217 AvXrirpts,

AXeicrpvopavreia,168 AXE^rrjpta, 153

101 'AXeJikcocos-,

Airorponoi, 136
164 'Airoiprjrai, 208 'Ap,3v\ai, 208 'Apl3v\r), 109 'Apyei"p6"Tris, 'ApyvpTns, 182 213 'Apyvpoxcmetov, 221 'Ap"dviov, 'ApsKwayn-ai,184 184 'ApEiwrayoy, *ApW| 105 162 'Apfjreipai, 204 "Apurrov, 220 'ApKreia, 'Appa, 172, 220 202 "Appsva, 202 'Apitcvurral, 216 'AppoviKr), 190 'Appotrrat,
'

AtiXdy, 172, 216

198 'Aiini,

"AXej dpvKTol, 262

'AXEupopas/ma, 167
'AXii/Jijo-iff, 173

AvrOKpdroip, 190

'AycovoOzrris, 171
119 'AdSr/payta, 214 "A"Sif,

Airoporia, 119
AiropdXoi, 199 Airdx0UJ', 178 Avroxpla, 170
192 'AfiapioJrai, 172 "Atpeais, 'Afhai, 189 "A"p\aora,200
'

"AXpa,

172

"AXj "roj, 207

172 'AXri?f*y, 173 'AXiJrot, 'AXurdpvjj,173

"A"5W, 99, 100, 221 'Advvarot, 183, 199

'Aduroi/ 160

'MAvia,

168, 169

'AXwa,

112, 168
"
"

169 'AStovicurnds,

A"Wi"5"a, 169
187 'Atiairoi,

131 'Apay5y"y, 208 "Apjref,

A(ppo"iaia,168

'Aprpi$\ri"rTpov, 158
107 'Apipiyvrisis, 183 'AptyiKrvovia, 'ApipiKrooviKa a9\at 174 194 'Apipnnroi, 200 Aptpitrpvpvoi,
"

AEnpuyi'a, 187
104 'Aflijwi, 28 'A0rjvai, 171 'A0)ji"oia,

105 'A"ppo8irri, 3 'Aipoppobs,

Boirr;, 209

'A9i;^,'28
'AS\r,Tal,175 'Ad\o6sT"u, 175

BdK%"', 162
B"ur%Eta, 169

'Ap^opevg, 213,
Ai/a/?a9pd?, 210 'Avd/3arris, 172
187 'Ayay/rtuoi/, 106 Avaovopkvrj,
''

214

Appoovvoi,

190

'A0Xo*, 172
AiyriVki, 188
Aiyioxof,
104

212 'Aporpov, 'Apovpa,214 203 "Apn-ayEj, 216 'Ap-irao-rov, 128 "Apirvtai, 220 ''Appa, 220 'Appafiiov,

Bd/f^of, 109 BaX^iy, 172

210 Ba7rricrri]p!0^,

~Bdpa8pov, 187
217 Bapv(3pop.os, 180 Bdcrai/Of, 150 Bao-tXEr;, Bo(7iX"5f,170,181,207 114

Aiyfe, 104 Aldmp, 204 ATkXov, 190 Alviypara, 207 Ai'oXoj,113, 116 Alperoi, 180 'Airai, 220
AlrnTiKa,
163

AvaOf]para, 148

31 'Av"kciov,

'AvokXimwoXt;, 173
181 'Av"Kpiats, 209 'Ai/afupife, 204 'Avau/iaxoi, 180 'Ai/^paTro"KUTTfjXoi, 159 'Avipdirolov, 'AwJpEia,192
'

101, "Aprefus,

Bao-Kavia, 168, 240 Barirp, 172 Bau, 214

BaipEroi/,264

AiVio, 185 Ai^aXajToj, 159, 199 Aixpv, 153

Aiupa',
176

Av"pokrppia, 186

'Axdrtov, 202 'AKajTopiSat,162 'Axcorrpa,218 'A/ava/oV, 196

39

210 'AvSpavirts, 128 'Avepoi, 220 'AvetpiaSovs,

'Aveif/i6s, 220
'AvOcarrjpia, 168, 61 'Avdiarripioiv,
169

'Aprkpov,202 193 "Apruvoi, 'Apxaycrai,189 'Apxeia,190 'ApXErov,160 162 'Apxitpciai, 162 'Apxtspeis, 162 'Apxitpuavvri, 172 'ApXtOeojpos, 203 'ApxiKvfiepvnrris, 262 'ApxireXwyj/s,
2c2

BsffnXoi, 163 BsiAaiot, 190 19 BElEXoiTEf, BeX^, 153 BeXopavrda, 52 Bi;0""r"5a, Bijpa, 33 Bijpara, 186 305
167

306

INDEX

OF

GREEK

WORDS.

BXavrai, 2.08
60 Bortlpopiav,

Bdfyo?, 149 Boiorapxai,192. BoXij, 202 Bfy/?o?,168

298 BojxBuI,

rpi^ot, 207 132 Tpvijy, 2"12 IHiiK, 38 r"i0etoi/, TvXiov, 154 182 Tvpvaariapxia, 175 riy^atn-ite,
rwaocEibv,
159

Ai/epora, 154

A'lKrva,158 194 Aipid^ai, 168, 169 Aioi/vo-ia,

Aidvvaog, 109
160 Ai07r"rr7,

60 ''EKaTOppaiuiv, 147 "EKaTOftpr;, 96 'EKardjtt/?"ia, 29 'EK'ardpjTO^oi',

196 'Eraroi/rapxia, 220 "Evyoi/ot, 117 'FkyWt"j, 101 "Em7/?6Xoj,

Aioaripua, 167 Atoowupia,

136

Bopsa;, 128

Borpvg,212
BoCat, 189

rwa("-a)i/, 159, 210

BoMtcu, 163 BouXeioj/, 33,

BovXsuqig,186

135 AidaKOvpoi, AmXiKnacr/wj,197 28 AnruXoi/, Ataxa;, 173

'E"f(tX"7(rtai, 183, 190

221 'TSiKKOjiiir}, 'E"cXoy"r;, 182, 185 167 'EKoran/cot, "E"ra"TOi, 196 221 'FjKipopa,

184

177 BooXjurai, 32 Boi)X"urJjpia, 184 Bovkzvrfipiov, BouXi), 177, 184

AaSovxos, 170 Aof/zowf,129 167 Aaipov6\y]TTTOi,

Aoirpdf, 207
A"ktvXov

AupQcpai,209 A%w?, 153, 157

172 Ai'ppotpopoi,

'EXai'(jf arsipavog,191
212 ''EXato;, 147 'EXaido-n-o^a, 61 'EXat/oj/Jo'Xia, 61 'EXa(p^/?oX(a)i', 198 'EXettoXij, 'EXsuati/ia, 168, 169 208 "EX"c"j,

alps,173 AaxruXof, 214

Aa"pvr],163
168 Aa"pvt}'p6pia, 59 A"(Xr/, 204 AetXii/dv, 204 Asitti/oi;,

Auo0o\ia, 183
185 AlWK'tOl',

BovS, 213 BpafeTov, 172

168 Bpavp-jjvia, Bpovmoi/,176 167 Bpovr^rOf, 158 Bj3d\0!, Bpd.xoj, 187, 191

AavaKri, 221

Aiw^oiTia, 184, 185

Bup"ra,57 Bwioj, 166 Bcopol,148, 160 87 Bo"p:d;, 7w d.oSsKa,

AcKaJapxoi,196 AE/cacWxot,177
Askos, 191
186 AjK-ao-fioj,

AcKOTSVTripiov,182
Aottt), 182 60 AEKtXIpBlVOl, 203 AtXi^iv,

147 raXoxTo'oTroy^a,

FapriXia,96 61 ra/itjXiaiv, TafoiXiOi Seoi,220 Tapes, 206, 218, 220

Taarpa, 200
167 Tdarpr,,

Atfioj,167
Aara?, 207 Acpfio, 199 Aec^o;, 187 AeapOTrjpiov,187
189 A"(77ro(noj'a'i)Tai, 61 Aexfipcpa, Ai/Xia,168 181 At'ipapxoi, 110, 112 "r,p.rjrrip, 168 Arjpfirpia, 61 Aiiprjrpihs, 182 Aiipio-rrpara.
-

Taarpopavrsia, 167

Aiufij, 185 Akott/,213 AoKipaaia,181 AdXio;, 109 AdXiXOf, 172 AdX"w, 202 170 Aopidf, Adpara, 203 194 Aoparoipdpoi, 204 Adpm""r, Adpu, 153 ; fVt,197 199 AopuuXcoroi, AouXa'a, 187 AoOXoi, 159, 180, 207 153 AovpoSoxri, 184, 213 Apatyii), 194 ApsnavrjipSpoi, Apbravov, 203 Apd^o?, 172 164 Apt)"f/JLCLVTlKal,
Avpavarai, Awopoi, 172
Awfaa
Acodwi/al'oi'

'BWawitKai, 173, 175 174 'EXX";ra(5("-aro)/, 'EXXiji/coy 183 o-tivlclpiov, 'EXXd^m, 208
212 "EXu//a, 217 "EXuuoj, 176 'Epfffc; 208 'Ep/3a-ai, 'EpPania, 220 198 'Epfiarfipiov, 'EpffoM,198 *Ep0o\ov,196, 200 190 'YjpiriXwpoi, 216 Epirvsvora, 149 'Ei/dyia/ja, 222 'Evayio-fioro, "Evapa,199 186 "Evfcfif, "Ei/faa, 181, 185 167 'Ei/0oi)"r((wrai,

TsiomoSiapaTa,210
rswaria, 222 177, 189 r^ij, Tepavo;, 176

188

172 AvwSeKaSpopoi, 87 -"EOI, xaXxsioi',

Tspdaxrai,188 Ttpowfa, 190, 192

165

'EvvaEr^pij, 174 "Ewara, 222

60 'EvvatpQivoi, 29 'Ew"d:ri)Xoi',

rep'/W, 196,
rsp"m'a, 190
Tapvpa, 200 Tecopopm, 192

198

193 A?7/"ioupyoi, 177, 178 AiJ/ioi, Anpoaioi, 180, 181 Ajjw, 112 208 Aiafiadpa,

AtocWaib?, 95 Awpa, 148, 207 186 AcopoioKia,

E

'Ei/EtpDravEia),185
167 'Evtim'ioi', 'Ej/uo), 105, 119 185 'ElKPptOLTTOT 197 'Evto/^oria,
,

Hya;, 125 Ti'yypa,217

riyypavru,
169 169 Tiyypair^df, Yiyypos, 169 Tiyypiai,169 105 rXa'VKOTriy, rXafif,213 rXeSraj,204 Tvaysvs, 264

AiaypatpEis 182
,

185 "Ey/cXr;p:a, 200 'Eymi'Xia, 209 "EyKoixffojta, 204 'EyKOifitcUTTiKoi, 196 'E-yxEipi'Aov,

Aidd^a, 150 183 A"ii5d?""j, 221 A(o9"7/07, Aiacnjrai,186

109 Aia/crcop, 186 AiaXXaKrfjpiot., 183 Aiai/Oji/ai, 190 Aiapxi?, 172 AiauXfSpdjUOi, AiauXoj, 172 213 Ai"5paxp.oi/, 109 At6vpap/3os,

'Evcona, 208
197 'EfsXiy/iSs, 'E^Taorui,180 189 "E^/?oi, 107 'EfwXai/ioi, 209 'E{copig, 190 'EjrdHcXoi;, 198 'ETraXfEtf,

"Ey%oj, 153 'Eiioha, 200

208 '"E0""pa, 177 "EBvr,,

IVifruH, 220 Tvfiviog,162

rVu0i asavrov,

165

60 rvoi^coi/,

roi/wrereiV,147
130 Topydi/jf,

AtiVoXsia,168
Aucai, 186 AiKaia, 221
Ai/cai/iKOt

EiVaj, 61 E6w3"" 187 204 ~E!\amvrj, 102 EtXEifluio, 189 Ei'X(OT"?,

209 El'/na, 189 Ei'p"i/"j, 117,127, YJpnvr,, EiVayy"Xia, 186 182 Eif (pzpovTts, 182 "Eiacpopal, 197

'ETaiXia, 220
189 'E7rdJi'a/croi, 'E7n/?d0pai, 198, 202 202 'Eki/I"tcu, 136 'Eiriyovoi, 'Emypappara, 199 222 'ETrtypafjfiai, 182 'ETiypa0"r;, 206 'ETTljEiTTi'a, 185 'E?rtAe\(ptvi"p, 202 'Ewti5po/wj,

Topyoviov, 131

Topyiipa,187
Tpaimi, 141

Xdyoi,204

Auracrrai,185
185 AlKdtTTl'iptOV, A"ij| 117, 127, 180, 186

tpapparevs, 181, 182,

193

l"0i;, 186

"EmT6p(3aia, 168

308
Kawia, 208 263 Kavrrjpiov, KsctJaj,or KaiaSas, 187, 191 KsKpomij 178 208 KEicpv"pa\o;, Ksksvarris, 203, 282 KcXnr.es, 154, 172 223 Kevfipia, K"j/ord"/"a, 191, 223 Khrrims, 191
"

INDEX

OF

GREEK

WORDS.

212 Koi'tt), 210 Koiro)i/, Kfyuj,208 202 Koi/roi, 194 KovTO"p6poi, K"wriy, 191, 196 214 KdTTTra, Kdpai, 208 Kdp,, 213
"

AdX"""f, 128
204 AEraoi/atirai,

147 MeKtcnrovoa, MEXuraai, 162 MEXirroSro. 221

126 MeXiropiivri,

AEmwaiinoi', 186
Ks.maaTpa.Tiov,186 Asmara-Krai, 199
186 A"nrOrdf(Oi/, AeiTOvpyiai,181 Aocrpov, 149, 220 217 A"7rraX"ai,

Mepapx'ia,19S
202 Mardfyij, 200 Meo-"5to(Xos, MEco^^dXiov, 194 MsoovavTai, 202 Msaovpiai, 202 MEffaodrai,188 MsTafloM, 197 60 MErayEtri/icoi', 206 MEraddpTTia, MErofrai, 171, 178, 182

Kopar,, 208
208 Kdpi.p/?oy,

A"7rrdv, 213 Aeaxn,

189 91 AsuKavdl);, AcoKupa, 181 Afetoy, 212, 220 209 Aii"5oy, 221 Afjicvdoi,

KEirpov,266 Kspaia, 202 32 KepapsiKo;, Kzpapkvg,263 K"pd/"oi/, 214, 263 KEpapoy, 187 KiPas, 208, 217, 297 Kipara,196, 202 217 1itpa.Ti.vri, Kspariov,214 95 Kspaiii/ioy, 176 KEpnwooraTrEroi', 109 KepScJog,

Kopvvri, 196

K"p/ci';, 218
Ksp/ia,213 Kepovxot,202 206 KEipaXi; idirvov,
K?j7roi'Ad-jviJoy, 169 130 Kijpsy, 167 Kripop.avTe(a, 197 K/jpwcaov, 148, Kr)p\"l, KfjpDK-e;, 150, 162, 170, 181, 197, 207 185 KiyitXi"y, K(9dpa, 216 Kikwvos, 208 29 Ktp.'.ovu"v nix0;, 217 Kii/dpa, Warr,, 212 170 K"n-o"pdpoi,

Kdpuy, 153 191 Kdcrpoi, Konvog, 173 207 Kdrra/?uy, KoruXq, 214 Kdrwrr"j,119 KoSpoi, 207 Kd.xXoi, 198, 214 214 Ko^Xidpioi', Kox\(ov, 214 Kpdwiy, 153 207 KparijpEy, Kpanjp, 204, 207 208 liprjcjepvov, Kp^dy, 187 208 KpijTrZ"y, Upwk, 222 Kpidy, 198 Kpovpara, 217 Kpwi?, 218 115 KpoK07r"7rXoj, KporaXov, 218 Kpwrrefa, 189 Kpt5/Moy, 208 207 Kiia0ot, Kiiupoi,180, 183, 206
200 KvavfyPoXoi, 206 Ki"/3sia, KvfepvrjTW, 203 175 Ki'/?coTr/"ny, 216 KvfiiGTriTripcs, KwXoy, 32, 62, 194 I"X,J, 207, 297 KSXurty,173 107 KuXXowddijf, 217 Kvpf3a\a,

Arcvaia, 169
181 Ariliapxoi, 185 Afjfiy,

A*)ro", 116

USTOLKIOV,178 214 Msrpiirrjg, MircOTroi/, 196, 200 263 Mi;Xi7,

Mjjvdf

AiOo0o\ia, 187 198 Ai8o/]6\ot, 196 Atfloj, 180 Afttoy7rpari)p, 188 Aip.va.Tai,
Aiva, 158 a;^, J28 Atjcavoj, 216

"C. (arapiwiUj

61

Mijpoi, 148

Mrixaval, 198
Mw""7,
176 200 MiXTOTtaprioi, MroSdy /JouXEunVdj,

"c.

183

Mi'rpa,208
Mirpi;, 194

Aoyd"y,

191

AoyEio./, 176, 247

Adyia, 164
180 Aoyiorot,"

Aoyicrrrjy,203 147 Aoi/Jai,

Aofi'ay, 101, 166

AovTijpwv, 212 Aovrpov, 210 Aoipeiov, 212

KXd(5"jt 147 l/crjjpioi,

KXeimu, 220
210 KA"'j, 126 KXeiSi,

Ad"poy,153 Aoxayoi, 196 102 Ae"X"i'a, Adxos, 196, 197 Avicaia, 116, 168 31 Awriijcoi/oy,
M

KXEi^foa, 185,
168 HXrjioveg,

240

167 KXrjpopavTsia, 220 KXripovopo;,

220 KXijpoy, 180 KXjjpcoroi, 185 KXijrfjpEy, 185 KXjjrfflp,

Kwin, 153 Kw?;ydy, 102 188 Kwdfffliiptf,

KvvocovpeTg
188
,

KOVoy, 200 Kityajy, 187, 191

Kwdco*, 217

Mayadts, 217 Mdyai/a, 198 Mdyoi, 167 Md?a, 206 Majat, 190 60 M.aipaKTr}piLov, 162 Ma(i/dd"s, 29 Ma/cpd (tkeXij,
Mavpal
!/ij"f 154
.

'M"a, 213 Mw?pa, 222 222 MvripicTov, 220 Mvrjorpov, Mvofa, 192 Mofiuvry,189 UoTpai, 128 MoXtt^, 207 Mo\v/3Swcu, 153 MdvauXoy, 217 154 Moj/ijpEiy, 154 Movoicpora, 244 Movo/iaxoi, Mdpot, 188, 197 Mopiai, 171 130 MopipEiiy, Mop^, 130 Moui/BXia,33, 61 Movvvxiov, 31
MoBi/uxtwi/, 61

MoScrai,126 MowEroi/, 31
216 MoixriKr), 216 ipi\r), M"eoi, 83 MD^oXoyia, 83 Movancri 264 di'"cdy, MdX(ov"y, 180

KXi'/zawf,198, 210

EX"ai,

206

KXii/q, 212, 221, 302 KXfaiy, 197 157 KXkTjKOJ, KXoidy, 187, 191 128 KX"o0c3, 153 Kj/rjfu"y, 148 Kviaa-ri, KdyJ, 170 Kofiopwn,208 K68opvos,176
197 Ko(Xfp./?oXov, 200 KotXi), KoiXoi, 60 223 KocfirjTfipiov,

KcoXunvui, 167 119 Kd3p.oy,

K'oveiov, 187 KtoTrai,202

MaicpaiirzTpai, 31 206 MaXdw,

MaXXdy,
208

MuXoy

KcomyXdrat, 202
KawfjpiJ, 200

Kwy, 187
A

A"KKOg, 149
208 AaKioviKai, 170 Aapiradwv ftpepa, 221 Adpya/c"y, 196 Aao-Tjioi', Adipupa, 199

Mai/rera,164 Mavrcvpara, 164 Mavrofij,164, 166 185 Mapriip"j, 222 y"j/"0Xia, Maprupco!/ 174 yiaamyo"p6poi, 191 MaoTiycocrif, Maaril, 260 Md^aipa, 196 214 MtJi^i/off, Usi\ixai, 173 MeX^, 153

499 Mvpid/?(/?Xoi/, M%"!jK"y, 173

Mvarfipia, 169
MuoTi/cdy arjxog, 170 MdJ^oy, 119

Nd/?Xa, 217
Nacdta, 222
Naoi, 160
162 ~Nao"pvKaKS;, NaiJapxny,203 Naurai, 202

INDEX

OF

GREEK

WORDS.

309
149 Tlcpikmvov, Il"pi"pya, 167
166 TlepiriyriTai, 153 XlepiKCipaXaia , 222 TlepioiKoSop}), 189 IlepiotKoi, 148 TLepmCTaapLara, 197 nEpCToXEroi/, 197 TlepiiroXoi,

203 Nai"$t"XaK"?, 149 Nwpdfamw, N"po0a7rrai, 221 NsKpopavTeia, 167 Nsiciaia, 22_2 Ns^aa or Ns/iaTa,174

188 "O^towt, 218 'Opxmarpiovg, "O/waJ, 170 194 'OurpaXd?,

naX/iol,168 naXrdi',153
189 IlapPa"xt\cia, 192 na///?otaina, 173 IIap.p.axoi, Ila^dxto)/,173 188 nd/i0uXot,

'OpipaXog yrjg, 165

167 'OveipoKpirai, 167 'Ovupoitokoi, *Oi/si/30f, 130, 167 167 'Owipoa/cOTOi, 198 'OJu/fcXyy, 54 'Of'Sff pyxo?, 'Ot"t9^oj, 29, 160 202 "On-Xa, 'OTrXirai, 153, 193 172 'OnXirodpopoi, 194 "OttXoi/, 167 "Opap.a, 'Opyas,162 "Opyia,169 214 'Opyuia, 102 'OpemmiTO;, 216 "Opfto;, 173 'Op0o7rdX";, 164 "OpKia rkjivniv, 95 "OpKtog,
-

117 N^io-iy, 189 NaxJa/zcofey, 61 Neoiirivla,

nai/, 116

IIava9^aia, 168, 171

nai/adi/vaiKdi/, 171
206 nai/"5ai"7ia!, 172 TXav^ajiiKoi,

Nsupwfera, 216 NsC/Joy,153

95 N""/""X()y"p"r)7?, 162 Nttoxdpoi, 200 Nf/"j aptp'mpupvoi, Nrjora'a,171 216 Ni?rr;, Ni/07, 29 No'Soi,220

HspipfiavTripiov, 160,
163 209 IfepWKEXlf, 198 n"p!r"i?(;icr//df, 200 Il"pirdi/"ia, 194 TLspupspeia, 202 Tlspuppaypara, 218 neptfvq, 148, 218 IlEpoi/jjjKara, HspasQdvri 99 IlEraXa, 187
,

36, 106 nd^oj, 208 Jlav"oxtiov , 29 ndi/Jpoo-oy, 31 JIdi/0"Oi/, 174 IIa!/(;y"p(f, Ilaj/ifcdi/ SeTpa, 116 nairoiWi}
icrropia,

No^eij,200 Ndwa, 221 213 N"V"rp.a, 181 NojxoQiTdi,

Nopoi, 216 N^o"r, 188
"

252

ndTnroj irptSrog, 176

napd/Juorov,186
185 liapaypoKpi), 153 Tiapaifiarrjg, 185 riapa/cara/?oXJy, IlapoXia,178 ndpaXoj, 42, 187 194 THapapLripiSia, 220 U.apavvp(jjog, 196 n.apa%ifpiSiov, 194 IlapairXevpiSia, 200 Tlapaarinov, 162 Ilapdo-iroi, 162 Ilapao-ircoi', 185 napaordo-t?, 198 Xla.poiovvOnp.aTa., 181 ndp"(5poi, 200 ITapsiai, 29 llopOevoi, napflsj/oy, 104, 105 napflsxuw,178, 218 ndpoxo?, 220 220 natrrdy, m"Xa, 208

187 nEraXiff^df,
208 riETaaoj,

Etfrpatpaxpcu,

"C.

31

NoiAOtpvXaKe;, 172,
181, 190 NfSroj,128

198 Tterpofltikoi, 170 nirpco/xa, 206 U."TT"ia, n^yOjuai'ma, 167 200 Il7?JaXcoi/, 217 nijKrif, nij^uf,214 mXWia, 208 nrXoj, 208 180 IIivaKJa, IliVafayuprwdj, 167 niori; Arrixi;, 164 188 Ilirai/drai, IfXayiauXoy,216 nXaunov, 197 nXa"f, 171 IlXard^iara, 38, 190 214 TiXkdpov, 200 IlXsupai,

184 "Op/coy (tovXevriKog, 163 "Op/cof p.tyag,

NvpKpm, Nfy"K

126

"Opuot,33
208 "Opftos, 167 'OpwwKdVroi, 167 'OpvSojxavTUg, 95 'Opaivecpfig, 187 "Opuyp.a, 'Opwus, 207 221 '0"na, 166 "Ocri0(,

126 Nti/z^aia, 212

E"wa, 207 Hwioj, 95, 158 Ewoi, 178 Harris, 214

E""?, 153, 187

zvarapxris

175
,

Etiordj, 173 194 "EvaTCKpdpoi, Ewrpa,

210

'Oowrrjp, 166 168 'O"TK0"p6pia, 221 'Oaroo"oX"'", 221 'O"n-o0fj"rai, 221 'OoroXoyioi/,
'OarpaKivov, 263
187 'Oarpoucurpxis, 187 "OcrTpaKOv, 168 'Otrxpip6pia, "Orrai,168

HXfjdowa

ayopa,

32

'0/?oXd?,213,214,221 135 'Oyd~o"5ioi/, 176 "Oy/toj, 109 '0"5i7yo"r,

202 '0"5for"?, 'OAPY2HS
NYM-

n^si/,

193

OiXai, 147 OoXdxvra, 148

Oupa, 196, 200

$AI2, 110 202 'O0di"a",

O'ial 200
OIkLtm, 180
187 O'Urtjia,

Oipayol, 277 Oipaydy, 196 Oipavia, 31, 126 114 OOpaj/d;,

33 n"(pa("iif, 31 IlEicrtai/d/criOf, 202 Ilsioyjara, 29 IlfiXacryi/cd!', nsXavoi, 163 IMdrat, 160 165 Il"X"ld"5"5, 165 IleXsiai, 196 TleXsKvs,

217 nXifwrpoi/, nxivdtov, 197

nXwa/^of,208
TlXovTOg,118 91 nXoSrajj/, n^f, 32, 183 IK"?, 202 31 no("iX)j, 218 IIoiKiXfa, no/cdf,208 noXipapxog, 181, 190, 192, 196 JToXtay, 29, 105 noXrrai, 178 223 IIoXudw5pioi', noXfeora, 218
126 noXv/^i/ia,

OiKOvopog,180 210 07/cof,

O'lKOdKOmKOV
,

200 34 IlfXoTrOf 'OcpdaXpog, vrjaog, 194 ovyKksiziv, rfeXraorat, 'O"p9a\povg 149 168

ntXm,

194, 196
168

28 OiKOVpoXo(f"ug, Oivopavnia, 167 Oiv6p"\i,206 O7f0; p.vppwirr]g, 204

'Oxacov,194 153 'Oxrfj, rd if1 193 '0'\;i7ftar")i',

206 "O^oi",
n
,

tlsXupia, 91,

163 Xlsixpara, 196 Ils//7rdoap^0i, 196 nsju7r"j,

nsiracrr/pif,174 nayx-paTiaorat, 173

173 Tlayicpariov,

Oivoxioi, 207
153 Oi'crra,

167 Oicoi/ioriKi),
60 'O/craerripis,

n"mi/, 198

204 'OXtyotfpdpot,

'OXardfe,200 'OXwi, 202

221 'OXoipup^oi, 31 'OXD/iTrEfoi/,

naufepaorta,220 YlaiSovopos, 189, 190 IlaXi?,37, 173 220 JlaXXa/ci"y, HaXXaj, 104

Tlo\vp6pot, 204 183 nhradXov, 172 no/zTrai, 177 TlcvraKOtTioijiiSipvoi, Tlopmuov, 31 197 n"lT^/fO"T7-fif, n^ai/a, 148, 163 n"JT17p"If,202 Hopdniov,221 194 157 nfTrXot, ndp7ra/c"j, UhrXog, 171 noraJsw, 61 IIeVXou dfioi, 171 98 TIotT"iS"Sv, 208 Tltpi/JapiScs, nouf, 214 160 nspifaXos, UpaKTop"g,182, 185

310 Tlpeefcig, 181, 197 190 Jlpor/Juy, 210 XlpoavXiov,

153 1Jpo0\fipaTa, 210 Ilpo/SoXai,

INDEX

OF

GREEK

WORDS.

186 TLvpitaia, 196 Ilvp60o\oi,

163 S/ci'XXa, 167 YKiopavrtia, Etipov, 128 61 Sfif'poipopicji', SKdXiov,207 Smwoy, 172

'SvvoSog'Xpupumiovwe,
183 160 Suvoi/cErai, SiiTOy/^a,196 Svpiyf, 217 Swo-trfa,190, 206 S^ay"ro;/,148 148 2(payig,

TlpofiovXevpa, 183,

188

Upoypappa, 188 174 Xlpoyripvourpara, 190 Ilp66iKOt, npujo^oj,210 IlpooWa, 186 Upozipia,or TtpotApa 187,191, 199 npo'4"oi,183, 184 112 Tlpoijpdaia,
IIpotKMa, 220

167 Ilvpopavreia, 198 Xlvpipopoi, 166 IKcrioy, 182 IlajXijrai, IM/ia, 153-

5XSXa, 199

S"iXaf, 163 199 SttirdAi^

167 'PaffSonavreia,
260 'Pd/?"5oy, 173 'Pa/?JoOxot, 'Pd^aiw,206 218 'Pa"piy, 181 'Prj-ropes, 191 'Pifrpai, 199 'PapwnrlSss, 196 J/curdXia, SdXoy, 173 Sopoi, 221

SipoTpa, 216
153 SipEi'tor;, 200 Sxp"iai,

Zopdy, 123, 302 HjrapTiov,214

S^oira/Jdrai, 202, 244 202 Iscpvia, Sdjrsipa, Xurijp,29

Upoil, 220 202 IIpO/C"M-OI, TlpopSTumoia, 194 npojwta, 207 npdfEi/oi, 190, 207 163 Tlpo-rroXoi dzoiv, 206 Ilpd-opia, UpoTrv\aia, 29, 160,
178 206 TSpoaKerpaXata, 162 IIpocrd"5(a,

'Pi'^ij, 173 218 *Po"5dw,, 115 'Po"3o"5d/cn"Xoy,

'PoSoi/wo,
206 202 'Pvp.ara, 'PVs, 212

Sa^Xaiov, 222 214 T "STTi8ap.il, 163 S'rX(iy%i'0(7-*f07rra, Tawfa, 209 163 SrXayXJ'do'K'OTroy, TdKTlKOl,197 STrd"oy,162 TdXai/rov,213 221 "w"5ai, 147 TdXtp.ot, StomSJ;, 163, 197 TapiiaitS"v hpSu, 162,
172 XraiioSpopoi, 182 203 Ta/Haj., 182 Tapiag TrpoadSov, 176 ruv OetopiKoiv, 167 Tavi)7rr"puy"y,

Tutw, 207, 297

SrdcJioi/, 32, 172 SrdXtKEy,158

Srariip, 213 Eraupdy, 187

Sayrjwj,158
194 "dy,ua,

npoorarire, 178
194 UpotTTEpfiiia, 176 IIpotrcoTT-Ero!', nporWcaBai, 221 202 Ilpdroi/oi, 166 IlpixprJTai, 197 ITpoi/ivAajcai,

Srcipn,200 Xrippara, 147, 163

171 STeipai'Tiipopog , ZrEipawu, 187 Sritpavog, 148, 191

Tafiapxoi, 196

Tdfis, 196

ZaXmyyeg, 198, 217 196 SaX7riy(friJ5,

Td^oy, 222
Ttytoi,210 TBpnnroi, 172 "C. T"iXoy v6tiov, 194 TeXa/iiiv, 106 TsXsairiyapos, TeXet^, 163, 169 TeXtj,181 T"Xoy, 196, 197 Ttk"vai, 182 T"/i"i/oy, 160, 162

SaXniyf,217
Zap0VKr,,217 214 Wapiti, 208 Sdi/"5aXa,

Sr"j"oy, 148
222 XrijXai, ErijX/r, 149, 187 218 ST)'jp.MJ/, Sriy/w, 180, 187 197 SrfjtfM, 167 ~ZTVxpp.avTcia, ZrXeyyiy, 210
Srod

31

npdxooj, 212 204 IIpo'x"p-a, 185 Xlpoiapoaia, rip/iva,200 202 Ilpup.j'ijo-ia, npiTai/sra,113, 182,
185

Savip,187
196 Snptffcro, 221 ZapKotyayo;, Si/Saora,246 98 S","T1^0W1/, 217 Sturrpoi/, SeXwn, 101, 114

jiaicpa,33

Tippa, 172
126 Ttp^tx"pri, 186 TEaaapdieoi/ra, 60 Terpaerripig, T"rpaXoyia, 171 Terpawpoi, 172 202 T"rpi?p";, 193 TerpufidXov /3'iog, TirriyEy,208 181, 186 Ttp.fip.aTa, 203 Toi'xap,\oy, Torxot, 200
To

Sroai, 31

Upwavtia, 184 lipvravuov,33, 184 Ilpurdray, 183, 184,

188

npvTavls, 192 npwpa,

200 203 npcopdr)7f, 203 npcopriif, Hrappol, 168

Ilrfpa, 200
200 IlrEpiyiov,

Unixfs, 200

Tlvav"pubv,60 173 IIuy/"7, 174 IIi'flaioTai, 165 Jltifc'a, Tlvdia,174

IIudiKd; vopog, 174

IK0"H, 190 165 ro9ioi/, rafoof, 101, 165

n"euvff,
167

203 Sro'XapXOf, 209 SeXXoi, 164 SroXij, 212 SrdXoy, 200 S^x-ov, 196 Su/fdy, 160, 170, 222 SrpaTriyia, 5%a. 222 Srpcmjydf, 190, 193, 198 S^ia, 196, 203 196 SrjpeiO(j"6pog, Expand, 196 # 196 Sifewaj, 189 ~ZTpaTOKr)pv\, 214 116 Sirdpioi/, XrpoyyiiX";, 209 Sirijtrij cv 7rpvTavsi(ji,"Zrpfyiov, 187 STpiipara,206 212 SiTOd'ti'a, Suyycvcta, 220 212 2,iTO"6icat, XtiyyEmy, 220 212 Str07r(oXai, 2fi"w, 212 186 SiTOy,212 YvKOtyavTia, 212 186 'SiroipvXaKeg, "ZvKtxpavrai, Sira), 112 Si"p./?oXa, 168, 197, Eirwai, 212 198, 207 206 5"aXpot, 202 "Sv/iPoXfi, 175

SsXuw,

KairoV, 186

Tdpovpoi,165 Tdjoy, 153 Tofdrai, 181 Tolocpdpog, 101, 102 To^ro, 202 206 Tpdm^a fevrkpa, 222 Tpdir"?(", 207 Tpa7r"^07roidy,
200 Tpd"p)7f,

Sra///ia,172 171 YKa(prj(j"6poi, SjceXij naicpa,

222 Skettjj, 200 X/ccojj, 176 2/c77vft, 150 S(ri?7rrpoi', 180 S(cia"5))0opia, 172 'Sict.atiriipopoi, 2"oy, 190 29

160 "Svpftaipoi, 197 ~S,vppa\ia, 182 'S.vppopiai, 207 "Dp.7r"5cr(a, 206 'ZvpTrocrlapXog, 181 Sw"3(ico(, Swnyopoi, 181, 185 197 2ui"07/"j, Swdfipara, 198
Siiwaoi.

Tpfipara,200 Tpicwd"ry, 177,

222

188,

nwrijf, 173

Thikayopai,183 II uXaia, 183 ikx"7,210 nsp, 187 n"pa, 149 IKpyoy, 197, 198

160

Tpiafay, 173 Tpifavtov,209 186, 217 Tpiycavoi/, 174 Tpi"T"piKOt, 182 Tpirjpapxia, 182, 203 Tpifjpapxoi,

INDEX

OF

GREEK

WORDS.

311

TpiipaSXij?,
Tpcfipetg, TpactyaKo;, TpiitXiviov, Tpipopipo;, Tpiirodss, Tpirous Tpira, 154,

203

"Ywoy,
200,
202

130 222 182 208

*iX"f"voi,
*"/?u,
208

207

XXaiVa, XXai/if,

157.
209 209

208

'Wyaia, 'Xiroypapparug,

109

""o(3fiTcop, *or/?of,
201
100

130

XKi"iv, Xoai,
T031',

206,
102 149

210

'Y7roi%ara, 'YjroSco//ara, 'Y7n5/ca"oTOj;,

165

147, 187,
,

149,
214

222

200,
210 176 188 185 173

$"OVlK"2v, 4"(5j/oy, ^oppiyl, "Ex5pot, "Sopnjyoi, Gparpiat, QparpiKa,

"I"p"ara,
181 186

'EOT

185

Xoii/tf Xopriyia,

182 182 176 214 213

^jjorjjpioj,
222 104 189 216 102

'XnoKpiral, 'X-nop.ziov";, 'XTropvoaia,

216

Xop?7yoi, Xopdj,

Tpiroyheia,
TpiTruss,

200

Xo%,
189

'Yjrakia,

177,
206 32

Xpij/zo, Xpfipara Xpripanapo;,

Tpftop"y, TpaaSins, TpArawv, Tpfeis, Tpomi, Tpo^os, Tpvrrava,

200 202

OscopiKa,
167
164 164 164 164 210 272 91

176

149,

199

$a(i/iyJa, 4"aiw5X^, "f"a"car,

206

216 209

"J"p"arr"H, "f"pt)yioi'(i)i'

'Ev, ipyov,
191 178

185 218
'

Xpqcrpol,

XpfyerjuoXdyot,
Xprjapoipopoi, Xpijorjjpia, Xpt"ora, Xp"n-dj,

*tiyf",
196

187, 177,
197 194

187,
198 222 187

263

""a\ayyapxia,
*dXay", "d\apa, ^aX^pdv, *dX/aj, *dXoir, 196,
194 33 200 153

*"Xoi, "J"uXaKcti, "f"i"Xdpxw, ""\apx"H,

197

Tfy/?oy,
Tvparava, Tfyiraiw, Twroj, TiXV,

181,

196 185

Xpfooj, Xwp.a,

217
263 118
"

"J"uXo/?""nX"rj,
Qvokyi, 167 "I"""ma,
206 198

149,198,

222

"JdiTaiTjiia, Qaphpa,
Y

153 168 168

X

faXi-rjpioi/,

217 209

^apjiaxa, "J"ap//a/c"ia,
180 264

"eXX"w,
"i}0"7/ia,

"YaXoj,
"Xl3peois

263

Xairr,,
187

208

183,
183 186

188

Hky],

Qappamv, *a"f, 4"d"ny, 157,

186

186,
208

XaXma,
XoKKlOtKOg,

107,
36 213 163 127 203

171

"#", *io6ia, fittSpa, *iXoi,

'Y"5paXn-rjj, "YcSpauXis, 'Xipia"popia, 'Xipiaipopoi, 'XSpop.avreia, 'Y"5p6"nroi/(5a, "YJpo^opoi, 'YXXay,

188 220 220

217 180 172 167

XoXkovs,
290 190

217

"f""yymjy, 3""i"5ina,

Xapiarnpia, Xdptrtj,
221

153,

194

VvOCopavreia, YvxocTaaia,
183 183
a

167
100

^tperpov,
*"pi""), ^rfycov, ^fjpai, ""%";, *6"oif,
212 220

149,

Xfip

aiiripa,

147
207

Xsiporoi^Toi,
185

180, 182,
200

XstpoTovfa,

168 118 170 207 221 220 190

XEXfiicr/xara,
XsKuvt), Xepyii//, Xr;j/i"r"oj, Xt\iapxia, XcXiapx"', Xit"v,
106
198 148 200

'fl/?ai, 'iWtro!/,
'aWi, "ilia,

188 32

'Xplvouoi,
"Yfjm*, *Yi/i/i",
or

167
210

"Ymj,
202 210 192

*taXn, *taXt"5"s,

"Ynipai, 'YirepaSa,
"YTrifcooi,

196 196

'SlpoQzTtZv, 'SLooKOttia,
208

148
167

"J"iXijrop"j, ""iXiVia,
196

157,
102

"flp"u, 'Stpata,

117,
168

127

"XTTTipeTris,

180,

^tKojieiofis,

XtTwi'ij,

INDEX

OF

LATIN

WORDS.

A.

Ambarvalia,
241 278 Ambitus

112, 236,
260

Ablecti, 277,
Accensi,

crimen,
109 173 298

252, 276

Ambrosia, Amentum,

Accipe
Aocubita,

libens,
291 259

238

Arrogatio, 288 figlina, 263 pistoria, 263 tincloria, 264 Arx, 17, 233
Ars

Bideus,
Bifrons,

264

93, 267
266 109 232 254 267 62

Bigae,

Bimater,

Amiculum,
Amor,
106 239 268

As, 266 Ascolia,

109 232 Aspergillum, 232 Aspersorium, Asseres falcati, 281 Assertor libertatis, 289

Bipennis, Bisellium,
Bis

Aecusator, Acerra,

millies,

232, Acetabulum,
Acidalia, Acies, Aclides, Actia,
Actiones in 26 in rem, 101 106

275,
281

282 100

107 Amphigyeis, 19 Amphitheatra, Amphitrite, 98, 125 268, 296 Amphora,

Bissextus, Boiae, 260

Bombycina, 298 Bombyx,

Bona

298

Acinaces,

Amtruare,

235 106 289 282

Assessores,

259 267

Anadyomene,
Anagnostae,
personam, 259

Assipondium,
Astraea,
117

Boreas,

93, 24J Dea, 116, 128

282

Anchora, Ancile,

94, 235
105

Actius, Actor, 259

Actuarial, Actuarii,
Actus

Ancilia,
233

Anclabris,230
252

Astroiogi, 240 Asyla, 162 17 Asylum, Atergatis, 106

Athena,
105

Braces, 209 Brachia, 29, Brontes, 107 Bubo, 233

Bubona, Buccinte,
134 120 272

Ad

268 quadratus, bestias, ad ludos,

"c, 260 Addiclus, 267 Adjudicatio, 268 237 Admovere, 106 Adonia, Adoptio, 288 Adoratio, 237 Adrastia, 117 Adscriptitii, 87,
Adulterii

Anculas, 120 Anculi, 120 Andabatae, 244 Angusticlavia, Anima mundi, 233 Annales,
Annuli,
Annulus 299 aureus, 263 282 107

Atlantiades, 109 Atlantides, 114, 256,298

116

Bulla, Buris,

299 264

Atria,

254

Atriensis, 289 Atrium, 290,

Atropos,
256 128 268

291

Caballi, 266 Cabiri, 136

Caduceus, Caducifer, Cadus,
233 296 10 105 128 123

Auctio,
Auctores

108,
109

124

Antefixa,
Antennae, Anteros,
276 260

classici, 253
278

Augurale,
276

Antesignani,
Antestatio, Antistites, Anubis, Aonides,
124 126 236

Auguratorium, 232, Augures,

Auguriuro,

Caerites,

233

Caesia,
Cassias, Calathus,
246

259

233, 240
236

crimen,

259 Advocatus, 230 Adytum, -2Ecastor, 136 .Edepol, 136, 239 iEdes iEdiles.
sacra,

Augustales, Augustalia,
Augustus, 290 Aula, Aulffium,
264 Aures, 267 Aureus, 61

242,

117,230

19, 246, 219

Apaturia, 109 Apes, 264 Apex, 233, 235 Apis, 123

Aplustria, Apotheca, Apotheosis,
282 293

246

Calcar, 266 Calceus, 298 Calcei nigri coloris,256 Calculi, 295 Caldarium,293
Calendar,
61

^Editui, 236 125 iEgeon, Mgis, 104

Aello,
JEnea 128 124

Aurora,
Aurum

114

Apodyterium,
296

coronanum,284
233 233

137, 304
252

Auspices, Auspicium,
Auster,

Calices, 297 Caligaj, 298 Calliope, 127 Calones, 278

Calumnia,
259 283 238

.aSlurus,

fistula, 263
274

iEneatores, ^Eolus, 116

^irarium,

Apparitores, Aprilis, 61 Aquaductus,

Aquilo,
128

128 285 264 302 292 233

Auxilia,
19

Avena,

Camarae, Camilla,
Camilli"

Aversi,
Aviarium,

Camilla;,
239 291 126

236

256,
128 278

261

Ars,

230 289 264

Africus,
Agaso,

Aratores, Aratrum,
Arbiter Arbitri Arbori

Avigerium,
295 259 260 B. 110 Bacchs, Bacchanalia,

Camillus, Caminus,
Camcenae,

Agelae, 189 Agger, 15, 280, 281 quadratum, Agmen

pilatum,
"c. 278

bibendi,
causarum,

suspendere,
302 289 236

168

Area,

Bacchus,

109 281 276 293

Agmine,
nente,

uno

conti276

Arcarius,

Balista, Balnea,
Balneator,

Agnomen, Agonalia,
Agone,
237

286 241

Archigallus, 94, Archirnagiri, 295

Balistarii,

18,

300 Archimimus, 232 Arcula thuraria, Arcus 264

293 289 264 274

Balneatores,
19

Agoraeus, 109 Agrimensores, Agrotera,

Alas, 276
Alba Alba

triumphales,
264 247 32 263

Area, Arena,

Baphium, Barritus,
Basilic", Bassareus,

17, 18, 259

109 264 297

Areopagus,
11

linea, 243

Longa,

Argentarii, Argiva, 96
Aries,
281

Batillus,
Batiola;,

128 Alecto, Ales, 109 293 Alipts, Alites, 233 230 Altaria, 282, 295 Alveus,

Armamenta,
Armamentum

282 Chirur294

gicum,
Armaria, Armiger,

290 289 300 242 295

Baxa, 299 Bellaria, 294 Bellica, 105 Bellona, 105, Berecynthia,

Bes,
286

120 93

Amanuensis, Amaracinum, Amaracus,

289 299 107

Armillae, 275,
Armilustrium,
Arrha

hospitalis,

Bestiarii, 244, 260 Bibendi arbiter, 295 Biceps, 93

16 Campi, 280 Campidoctores, Martius, 16, Campus 105, 239, 259 sceleratus,236 Campus Candelabra, 232, 291 Candidati, 248 130 Canens, Canis, 295 Canistra, 232 124 Canopus, 123 Cantharus, Canus, 91 Capedo, 232, 238 232 Capeduncula, 299 Capillamentum, Capillitia vota, 238 Capis, 232 Capite censi, 271 Capite velato, 237 Capitium, 298 Capitolinus, 95 17 Capitolium, Capsarii, 293

312

INDEX

OF

LATIN

WORDS.

313
Cynthia, 102 Cynthius, 101 Cypria, 106 Cytherea, 106
D.

Capsum, 266 Capulum, 302 Caput, 267

294 Caput coenfB, Carceres, 243 Cardir.es, 291 296 Carenum, Carmen seculare,

Cippus, 302 Circi, 18 Circuitio vigilum,

Circulus Circus

Constitutiones,261
Constratum 280

navis,

282

auri, 299

Consuales, 246 Consualia, 98, 242

Consulares, 285 Consul designatus,248 Consules,248 Consus, 98

244

Carmentalia,
Carmine
care, certo

241
evo-

Flaminius, Sallustius, "c. 243 Circus Maximus, 18,242 Cisium, 266 Cista, 270 Cives, 258
Civitates

Damnum,

260 61 251

December,
Decemviri,

239 242

Conticinium, 60 Contubernales, 278 federata3,258 Contubernium, 280,2S6

Conventio 286 in 295
manum,

Carna

Dea,

Carnifex, 252 266 Carpentum, Carptor, 2b9, 295 Carruca, 266 Cass, 290 Casa Romuli, 17 Cassis, 274 Castalia, 127 Castalides, 126
Castra na, "c.

Clarigatio, 234 Classiarii,282

253 Classic'],

Coqui, 274, 282

Decennalia, 238 Decreta, 261 Decun.ae, 262 Decunx, 266 DecuriEe, 259, 272, 277,
288

Classicum.

stativa, hiber278, 280

Classis, 282 Clathri, 290 Claustra, 291 Chives, 291 Claviger, 93 Clavus, 282, 298 Clavus figendus,

Corbes, 295 Corneumspeculare,290 Cnrnicines,274 Cornicula,275 Comix, 233

Comu,217

Decuriones, 276, 288

258,

263

Dedicatio templi, 238 296 Defrutarium,

Cornua, 272,282
242

Defrutum, Delectus,
Delia,
102 101

296 271

Clepsydra, 60,
Clientela, 254

240

Catapulta, 281
Catasts, 289 Catelloe,275' Catena?, 260 CatenulEe, 275
Cathedra,
254

Clima, 268 Clio, 127 266 Clitellae, 266 Clitellarii, Cloaca?, 19

Corona, 280, 303 Corona castrensis,muralis, civica, "c. 274, 275 Corona, emptio sub,
268

Delius,

Delpliicus,

101 101 230 181 274 267

Corpus, 262 285 Correctores,

Corrigia, 298 Cortina, 247

Delphinus, Delubrum, Demarchi, Deinensum,

Denarius,

Catomidiare, 235 Caupona, 208 Causa, 259 Causae fidei bonae, Cavcedium, 290 Cavea, 246 Celseno, 128 Celeres, 270, 276
Cellse, 291 Cellaria, 291

Clotho, 128 Clusius,93

259

Dens,

264

Ccelus, 113, 116 Coemptio, 286 Coena, 293 Coenacula, 293 Coena nuptialis, 287
Coena recta, 295 293

Corns, 128 Corvus, 233, 281,282 Corybantes, 94

Cosmeta,289 Cosmi, 191, 192 Cothurni, 299
119 Cotytto,

Dentale, 264 260 Deportatio,

Designatores, Detersor, 289

Detestatio 288

247

sacrorum, 266

Deunx,

Coenationes,

Deus,

95 239

Cellarius,
Cella Cella

289 230 "c.

sanctior,

Cceus, 124 285 Cognomen, Cohors, 271

vinaria,
296

291,

Cohortes

vigitum,

284

Covinus, 194 Crater, 297 Crates, 260 Crepida?, 299

Devotio,

Cenotaphia,

302

250 Censores, Census, equester,

19, 247 Collegia fabrorum, tignariorum, "c, 263 Coliseum,

254

Crepundia, 287
Creta,
Crimen
299 113

Devovere, 239 Dexter, 233 Diana, 101, 114 Diana Bubastis, Dianus, 93
Dicatio,238 Dicere diem, Dictator, 251

124

Cribrum,

Centauri,
Centesima Centesima

131
rerum ve-

Collegium, Collina, 120

Collis

232 16

majestatis, peculatus.252,259,

259, 271

naliurn, 262
usura, 267 113 267

hortulorum, Coilocatio, 300 Coloni, 290

260

Crista, 274Crius, 124

Centies,
Centum

Colonise, 258

Crotala,218
Cruci

Centimani,

Colossus, 42
Colum,
296 260 303 291 19

affigere,260

sestertium,267 Centumvirale cium, judi259

Cubicula, 291
Cubicularii, 289 Cubiculum, 247 Cucullus, 298 Cudo, 274

Columnar,
Columbaria,

Dictynna, 102 Dies comiliales, 257 festi,fasti,"c. 241 Diespiter, 95 DiffarreatiOj 287 Digitus, 268 Dii majorum et minorum

Centuriae,
Centuriata

272

Columella,
Columnse,
Columna

Diis

87 gentium, 302 Manibus, 109

Comitia,
272

257, 259

Centurio,
Cerberus,

100, 132

Cercopithecus, 124 Cereales, 246, 249 Cerealia, 112, 242 Ceres, 110 Ceriti,240 Cerussa,creta,299 Cessio, in jure j extra jus, 268
Cestus,
106

lactaria, 287 262 Columnarium, Colus, 287 Comes dioeceseos, 285 285 Comites, Comitia, 234, 257, 259

Culcita,291
Culeus, 260,268

Dionysia, Dioscuri,

Culina, 291
Culter,
264

135 Dioscuria, 136 Diota, 213, 296

Diree, 233 Diribitores, 257

Disci, 232
Disci

Cultrarius,232,236,237 Diribitor,289
Cultri,232 Cultrum, 104 Culullus, 232 Cumerum,287 Cunaria,289

Compitales, 129 Compitalia, 129, 242 290 Compluvium,

Comus,
119 257

jactus^ Dispensator, Divortia, 287

Divus, 304 266 Dodrans,

243 289

Concilia,

Cunei,
Cuneus,
Curatores

247

Chaldsei, 240 Charybdis, 132 Chimaera, 131, 132 Chirurgi, 277 Chitone, 102 Chlamys, 298 Chloris, 120, 242 Cibum, 294 Cilliba,291 Cinerarii, 289 Cinerarium, 302

257 Conciones, 300 Conclamatio, Concordia, 122, 242 Condere lustrum, 239

196,275
aquarum, 19

Dolabra,

232, 264

Condictio,

259 302

Conditorium, Confarreatio,

Cingula, 96 Cingulum, 266 Cingulum laneum, Cippi,302 40

287

286, 287 Congius, 268 Conjectores, 240 286, 290 Connubium, Conquisitio, 271 Conquisitores, 252 Conscriptio, 271 Consecratio, 238, 304 Consentes, 87 Consivius, 93

Curiae, 17, 16, 236, 252 Curia Saliorum, 235 Curiones, 232, 236 Currus, 266 Cursus, 243
Curules,249

Dolia,296
268 Dominium, 288 Dominus, Domus, 20, 290

Dona,
Dona

302 274 militaria, 230 268

Custos, 93 Cyathus, 268, 297 Cybele, 93, 112 Cyclas, 298

Donaria,
Donatio,

Donati?a,274
Doris, 98 Druida;, 237

Cyllenius,109 Cyllopodes,107 Cymbia, 297 Cynocephali, 124 2D

Dryades,
Duces,
285

126

Dulciarius, 289

314
scripta, 295 Duplex acies, 275 Duplicarii, 274 Duumviri, 233, 239.252, 258, 259, 261, 262 Dux, 278
Duodena Falsi

INDEX

OF

LATIN

WORDS.

crimen,

260

239Falsum, Falx, 264 118 Fama, Fa m ilia,235, 288 FamiliEe Familiares.

Fossa, 280 266 Fraenum,

Fratres 236

Arvales, 232,

Heliconiades, 126 Helius, 100, 114 Hemina, 268

Heraclidae,
188

jus,

258

Dyndymena,
B. Echidna! 132 261

93

129

Fraus, 122 Frisidarium, Fritillus, 295

293 277

Hercules, 134 Hermae, 109

Hermanubis, 108 Hermes,
124

Edicta,
Edictuni 249

Edictum, 249, 256

perpetuum,

Fanatici, 240 Fanum, 230, 240 Far, Farina, 264 Fasces, 232, 213 Fasci"e, 299
Fascinatio. 24

Frumentarii,

Fucus, 299 Fulcra, 291, 294 234 Fulguratores, Fullo, 264 Fnllonica, 264

Fascinum,
230

119, 240
241 241

Fullonium,
Fumarium, Funambuli,

264 296 244 276

.

Editor, 244 Egeria, 93,

119 Fascinus, Fasti Annales,

Hesperides, 134 Hilaria, 94, 236, 241 Hippocrene, 127, 131 Hippocrenides, 126 Hippodromi, 18 Hippolytus, 98 Hippona, 120
Histriones,
300 238

Elaeothesium, 293
Elatio, 300 Eleusinia, 112 Elicius, 95 Elysium, 99
Emeriti,
275 275 corona, 125 268

Consulares,
dies, 241

Funditores,
Funes,
Funus

260, 282

Emeritum, Emptio sub

Enceladus,

Enclahris, 230 Ensis falcatus, 195 Enyalius, 105 Ephialtes, 125 Ephippia, 266 Epibats, 282 Epidelius, 101 Epilaenia, 109 Epistols, 251 Epitaenia, 109 Epitaphium, 302 Epithalamia, 287
Epulse,
234

Kalendares, 241 Fastigium 291 Fauna, 130 Faunalia, 241, 242 Fauni, 130 Faunus, 130 Febris, 120 Februa, 61, 100 Februarius, 61 Februatio, 241 Februus, 100
Feciales, 232, 234 299 Femoralia, 290 Fenestra, Feralia, 241

indictiyum, publicum, 300 Furiae, 128 Furina, 123 Furinalia, 128, 242
Fuscina,
244 275

Hocage, 237 Holocaustum, Honor, 122

Honorati,
249

Horae, 117, 127, 240 Hora hiberna, brevissima,

240 264 Hordeum, Horologium, 60

Fustuariurn,
G.

Hortator, Gaia, 93, 112 Galea, 274 299 Galericulum, Galerus, 233. 274 Galli, 94,232, 236 60 Gallicinium, Gallinarii, 289

232

Ferentarii, 276 Feretrius, 95

302 Feretrum, Feriae, 241 Feriae Latins, 120 Feronia, Ferreee manus,

Hortus, 292 Horus, 122, 124 Hospes, 295 Hostiae, 237 Hydra, 131 Hydraulis,217 Hygeia, 117, 118 Hyperion, 114,124

Gallinarium,292
Gallus,
233 96 Ganymedes, Gausape, 293 Gemonise, 260 Genethliaci, 210

Hypogaea,

303

I.

11, 241
282

Epulares, 234 Epulones, 232, 234 Jovis, 242 Epulum Equestris, 118 Equites, 244, 253, 278,
29S

Ferula, 260 Festi dies, 241

Festum mercatorum, 109, 242

Genii,
Genio

129

indulgere,
285

129

Gens,
Gens

togata, 297
244

Iapetus, 124 299 Iasminum, Idaea, 93 Idalia, 106 Ignis, 113 Isnominia, 251, 260 Ilithyia,96, 102
Illustres, 256

Equo
256

publico

merere,

Fibulae, 275 Fictile, 263, 297

Fides,
Fides 122

Gentilitia, 288
Gladiatores,

Imagines,
Immolare,

302 237

Erato, 127 Erigone, 117 Er3^cina, 106 Erynnis, 112 EssedEe,194

Essedarii, 244 247 Euripus, Eurus, 116, 128

Gladius,
Gladius

274
et

Graeca, 164 Fidicines, 236

263 263

hasta, 249

Glaucus,

98 275 105

Figlina, Figulus,
Fiscinae

Globus,
Gradivus

corbes, 295

Fiscus, 261 Flabellifer, 289

Mars, Gradus, 247 Gratise, 127 Greges, 243

Grus,
281 Gubernaculum,

277 Impedimenta, Imperator, 257 Imperium, 283 Impluvium, 290, 291 Inanes

"

tumuli,

302

Inauguratio,
Inaures, 299 Incubatio, 166
282

238

Euryale, 130 Euryphaessa, Euterpe, 127

Evocali,
278 280 300 280 260 246 276

Flagellis, 260
114

Flagellum,104,260,266
Flamines, FlaminiEe, Flaminica,

Indigetes,
Inducula,
Indusiuru,

87 244 297

232, 235, 298

236 235 236

Gubernator,

282 294

Excubite, Exequise,
Exercitus,

Gustus, Gustatio, Guttus, 232

H.

Infamia,

260

Flaminii,
Flarnmeum

luteum,287
Habens,
Hades. 99

Exilium,
Exostra,

Expediti, Exponere
287

infantem,
300 234

120, 242 Floralia, 120, 242, 246 25 Flumina inferorum, Foculi, 291 Focus, 291 Flora,
Foederatae 258

266 268 125 126

Haereditas,

304 Inferiae, Infundibulum, Ingenui, 285 Ino, 125 Insigne, 282

264

Exsequiae,
Exta muta,

civitates,
289

Halcyoneus, Hamadryades, Harioli, 240 Harpagones,

Harpocrates,

Inslita, 298 Insulae, 291

282 124

Extispices, 233 Extispicium, 240 Extraordinarii, 251,277 257 Extremum,

F.

Foenisectores, 264 Fcenum, Foenus, 267

Haruspices,
237

232, 233,
234 274

Fontinalia,

242 !

Haruspicina,
Hasta pura,

Fabiani, 235 Fabri, 277

Fora, 17 Foramina, 282, 290 Forda, 242 Fordicidia, 242

Forfex 275

Intercedere, 250 dies, 241 Interdictus, 260 Interrex, 251 Interula, 298 Inuus, 116 Inventor, 95
Intercisi

Fabrics,

280

253 Fabrum, 243 Factiones,

Fori, 242 Formae, 263

sanguinea, 234 velitaris,274 venire sub, 268 Hastae, 274 Hastati, 271, 274, 276,
278 61 Hebdomades, Hebe, 96 Hecate, 101, 102 Helirea, 186 Heliastae, 181

Invidia,

122

Iris,96, 115 Irpex, 264 Isia, 123 Isis,122

Itio in partes, 256

Fagina,
Falarica,
Falces

297 2S1 281

Fortuna, 118, 303 Fortuna Fortis, 242

virilis, 242 Forum, 17, 259, 302

murales, Falcifer, 91 Falcula, 264

Jactus

Veneris,
276

295

Jaculatores,

Forus,

295

"Janua, 93, 290,291

316
Notae interior,296 Notarii, 252 Notus, 116, 128 61 November, Novi homines, 254 Nox, 115 Nubentis Numerus

INDEX

OF

LATIN

WORDS.

Pallantias,
Pallas,
105

114

Pierus,

126

Palliati,297 Palmus,268 Paludamentum,

Pan,
116 193

Pietas, 122 Pila, 274 266 Pilentum,

298

Praefericula, 232,239 300 PraeficEe, Prssgustator, 289

Praemia

Pileus,290,298
Pilumnus,
Pilus 120

minora, 285 Praenomen,

275

utensilia,287 Panstolium,
legitimus,256
267 267 moduli
max-

Nummularii,

Nummus,
Nummus

Panathenaea, 104, 171 173 Pancratium, 107 Pandora, 130 Panes,

primus, 272 Pinacotheca, 291 Pinarii, 232,235

Piraeus, 31 Piscarium, Piscatores,
Piscatorii Piscina 17 289

Presides, 285 Praestigiatores,244 Praesul, 235 Praetor, 249, 259

Praetorium,
278 293

Prandium,
246

imi, 266 Nundinas, 61, 241 Nuptiae justs, 286 Nuptialis, 96 Nnptialis coena,287 Nutritii, 289 Nyctelius, 109 19 Nymphsea, 126 Nymphaeum,
O.

Panificium,
Pantheon,

263 17

Ludi,

Prata, 264 Precationes,

Precum

236

Paphia,
Paralus,

106 42 128

Pares,
Pares,
247

impares,

tibiae

mirabilis, 292 Pistores, 263 264 Pistrilla, Pistrinum, 264

Pistum,264

arbitri,250

Prelum, 296 Priapus, 119 Primitiae, 238 Princip"s,271,275,276.

278

Parilia, 120 Parma, 244, 274

Obices, Obolus,

291 100

Obsecrationes,237
Occa, 264 Occator,
Occatores,
120 2S9

Parnassides, 126 Parricidii,260 Passus, 268 Patareus, 101 Patella, 232

Patellarii, 129 Patera, 96, 300 232 Pater*,
Pater
'

Plagii, 260 Plaustra,266 PlebeiijEdiles,249 Plebiscita,250,257, Plebs, 2-53 Pleiades, 108 Plutei, 281 Pluto, 99
Plutus,
Pluvius 118
or

Principia, 278 Proconsul, 252, 285

261

Procurator, 244
Procurator 252 Caesaris

Prodigia,233
Prodigiatores, 234 Profesti, 241 Projicere in profluen-

Occidens, 128 Oceanus, 98, 124 Ocrea?, 244, 256, 274 Octavae, 262 October, 61 Ocypeta, 128 Odea, 19, 32, 33 Odrysius, 105 Oesipum, 299 Olitorium, 17
Ollae

fiduciarius,288
patratus,
234

Patres

conscripti, 256 minorum gentium.

253

Patricii,253 Patrinae, 294 Patronus, 259 Patulcius, 93 Pavimenta tessalata,

290

Pluvialis, 95 Pnyx, 32 tum, 260 Promagister, 262 Pocillator,289 Pocula fagina, vitrea, Propraetor, 252 297 Propylaea, 29 "c, Pndium, 247, 248 Proqua;stor, 252 Prora, 282 Poscile,31, 36
Poena;, 260 Pol, 239 Polias Minerva,
Policem

Proreta,282
Proscenium, 216 Proscriptio, 268 Proserpina, 106 Proteus, 98 Provinciae, 258 184 Prytaneum, Psylli, 56 Publicani, 262 Publicum, 262

29, 104 premebant,

244

extares,

232

vertebant,

Onager, 281 Opalia, 242 Opeconsiva, 212 Opigena, 96 Opiliones, 289 Ops, 93 225 Oppidum, Optimus Maximus, Optio, 272 Optiones, 276
Opus
incertum, 261
-

Pax, 122, 241 Pecudes, 266 Peculates, 252,260

Peculium 274
"

castrense,
266

Pollinctores, 300 Polus, 116 127 Polyhymnia, 119, 120 Pomona, circensis, 243 Pompa
Pons

95

248

Orationes 278

principum,

Orbis,

Pecunia, Pedes, 282 Pedicae, 260 Pedites, 278 Pegasus, 26, 131 Pelopidae, 136 Pelops, 136 Peloria, 91 Penates, 129
Perduellionis,
260

Milvius, 16 "c,

iElius,

Pugilatus,243
Pugnae simulacra,
Pullarius,
233 289 304

Pontes, 257 Ponticuli,257

Pontifex

Pulli, 233
232

Maximus,

Pulmentarius,

Orchestra,

246

Pontiftcss, 232 Popaj, 222, 236 Popina, sue Caupona. Popularirx, 247 Populonizs, 96
Populum Populus,
Porta mana, c^iare, 2i"3 234

Pulpitum, Pulvinar,
Pulvinaria,

247 294

237, 266
293

Pulvinus,
Punctum 270

(omne

tulit),

Orcus, 100 Ordines, 271 Ordinibus compressis,

276 Ordo

equester, 254 plebeius, 253 126 Oreades,

Peregrini,258 Peregrini dii,87 Periceci, 189 Peripetasmata, 291 Peristromata, 291 Perones, 298 Perpetuae quaestiones,
259

praetois, decu"t., "80

Porta

Camem-ailis,

15 "c, salutaris, 118

Orion,
Oscines,

125 233 109

Portenta,233
Porticus milliariaw 282 261 242 125 246 241 126
."

Oscophoria, Osiris, 122 Ossilegium,

Ostiarhim,

Perpol, 239 Perseus, 133

Perticae, 264

Portisculus,

Portorium,
Portumnalia,

Puppis, 282 Puteal, 17 Puticulae, 303 Pylae Caspiae, 46 Pylotis, 105 Pyra, 302 Pyramis Cestii, 20 107 Pyrakmon, Pythius, 101 Pyxis or Pyxidula,

300

302 262

Ostiarius, 289 Ostium, 290 Otus, 125

Ova,
Ovatio, 294 284 257

Pes, 268 Pessinuntia, 93 Petasus, 108, 298 Petauristae, 244 Petitio, 259 Petitor, 259
Petrseus,
98

Portumnus, Postcenium,
Postridiani,

Potamides,

Potitii, 232, 235

Atadrans, 266, 293 Qusdrantal, 296 266 Quaa igae, Quadri^enaria, 272
Quadiiremes,
282 259 259

Prsecinctiones, 2*7
Praecones,
252

Ovile,

120 Pabulum, Padagogi, 288, 289 Paenula, 298 Palatinus, 16 Palatium, 16,20

Pales,

120

Palilia, 120, 242

Palla, 298

Palladium, 94, 101, 113

Phalarae, 275 Phantasus, 130 Phaseli, 283 Phengites, 290 PhiaUe, 297 Phobetor, 130 Ph(Bbe, 102, 117, 124 Phorcus, 98 Phylarchi, 181 Phyx, 32 Piaculum, 239 Pierides, 126

Quaesitorts,
Quaestione/
ur^a-

Praedes, 259,262 Praedia, rustica,

na, 268 258

Prsefecti, 277
Praefecturae, Praefectus
annonae,

^gypti, 285 251,261

251

palatii, 250, 285 2S** Quaestores, Quaestorium, 27* Quartarius, 268

s*cri

Quaestor

Quaternio,

295

classis, 2S1
morum,

praetorio,284, 285 urbis,251, 2S5

Quinarius, 267Quincunx, 265, SS* 23* Quindecemviri,

240

INDEX

OF

LATIN

WORDS.

317
237,283 Supplicationes, Supplicia,237 Symbola, 280,
T. 299

Quingenaria,
Quinquatria, 241, 242 Quinquennia, Quinqueviri,

272

Sapa,

296

Sistrum,
302

104, 171,
23S 252

Sarcinae, 277

119,218 Sitella,257
Smegmata,
299 101

Sarcophagus, Sarculum,264 Sarracum, 266

Satisdare,
259

Sminlhse, 42 Smintheus, 42,

Socci, 299 Societas, 262 Socii, 277

via,. 280 Quintana Quintiliani, 235 Ctuintilis, 61 Quirinalia, 241 Quirinales, 235 Quirinus Mars, 105 Quirit.es,11, 16 Quiritium jus, 258
R.

Sator,

91

TabellEe, 257 legitimes,286

Saturnalia, 91,242 91 Saturnia,

Tablinum,
Tabula 268

291

Saturnus, 91 Saxo Tarpeio dejicere,

260

Rallum,

264

264 Rastrum, Rectae vise, 275

Scabella, 299 Seals, 247, 260, 280 262 Scalmus, Scena, 246 Scholae, 284 Scias, 36

Sodales, Titii, 232, 236 Augustales, 236 Sodalilates, 235 Sol, 114 Solaria, 240 Solarium, 60, 291
Soleae, 299 Solennia, 237 Solidus, 267
Somnus. 130

auctionaria,

lusnria, 295
Tabulae

proscriptionis, 268 duodeeim, 261

238

voliva?.

Rector, 282 Recuperatores,259 Regia, 233, 234 Regina Sacrorum,

16 Viarum, 260 Releeatus,

Scissor, Scorpio,
234

289 281

Soracle,120 100 Soranus,

Tabularia, 17 Tabularium, 17, 256 Trediger, 289 Taenia, 282 Talaria, 108
267 Talentum, Tali, 240, 295 Talio, 260 136 Tantalides, 99 Tartarus, Tatiensis, 252

Scribce, 252, 277

Sors,

267 240

Religio, 229 Religione solvere, 238 Religiosi dies, 241 Remancipatio, 287 Remi, Remiges, 2S2 men, criRepetundarum 252, 260

Scriptura, 262 Scutica, 260 Scutum, 244, 274 Scylla, 132 Scyphi, 297 Secespitae, 232 Sectio, 268
Securi

Sortes,

percutere,
244

260

Securis, 232, 248, 264

Secutores,

Repositoria,294
Repotia, 287 287 Repndium,
Rescripta,
Res 261 Nee 268

Mancipi,
Mancipi,

Sedilia, 282 Segetia, Seia, 120 Selecti, 87 Sella, 248, 291 Sella curulis, 235, 250,
254

privatae, 268 ne Respublica,

detrimenti

quid capiat,

portatoria, 254 Sembella, 267 Sementina, 241

Semis,
266 87 18

251, 257 Retiarii, 214

Semones,
Senacula,
295 234 234 Senatus

Reus,
Res

259

convivii,
sacrificulus,
sacrorum,

auctoritas,256 consultum,256,261

232,
252 117

Rhamnensis,

Senio, 295 Sentina, 282

Sortilegi,240 Sortitio,257 Sospita, 96 Spathae, 274 Specillum, 263 Spectacula, 243 Specula, 290,299 Specularia, 290 Spes, 122 Sphaeristerium, 293 Spina circi, 242, 243 Spoliarium, 248 Spondae, 294 Sponsalia, 286 Sponsio, 286 Sponsor, 95 Sportula, 295 Spurius, 288 Stadium, 18, 32, 268 Stapife, 266 Stata, 237 Stater Daricus, 213 Statio, 280 Stator, 95
.

Tegulae, 291 Telesphorus, 118 Tellus, 93, 112 Temo, 264, 266
242 Tempestas, Tempi a, 230, 233

Tepidarium,
Terebra,
281

293

Tergemina, 102 Terminalia, 119, 241 Terminus, 119

Ternio,
295

Terpsichore, 127 Teruncius, 267

290 Tesselatum, Tessera, 280, 295 Tesserae, 295

Tesserarii,
Testa,
296 Testamenti

280

jus, 258
268

Testamento,

Rhamnusia,

91 Rhea, 266 Rneda, Rica, Ricinium,298

Septa, 257 Septunx, 266

Serae, 291 123 Serapea,

Statumen, Statumina,

15 282

Testudo, 278, 280, 281 Tethys, 124

Textrina, 264

Stega, 282 Sterculinus, Steropes,

Stheno,
107

Stercu-

tius, 91, 120

130

Robigalia, 242 Rogatio, 250 Rngus, 302

Roma,
119

Serapis, 123 Septemviri, 234 Septicollis,15, 225

Sepulchrum, Seres, 298' Serra, 276
Servi 302

Thalia, 127 18 Theatra, Themis, 117, 124

Romaica,216 Rorarii, 276 Rosa, Sub; 206 299 Rosaceum, Rostra, 17, 282, 302 Rudentes, 282 Rudera, 15
Runcatores,
289 120

terrae, 290 Servitutes praediorum, 268

Servitus,
Servus

260, 268 admissionalis, cubicularius, "c,

289 267 267

Stibadium, 294 Stipendio privari,275 Stipendium, 236, 274 Stipulatio, 286 Stiva, 264 Stola,298 Stragula, 294, 291 Strangulare, 260 Strategi, 196
Strense, 241 120 Strenua,

Thensa, 266 Theriotrophium,

292

19, 290 Thermae, 60, 134 Theseus, 27 Thesmophora, 181 Thesmothetae, Thetis, 98 274 Thorax, 244 Thraces, 109 Thriambus,

Thurarium,
Thuribulum,

232 232

Runcina,

Sestertius, Sestertium,

Strigiles,293, 303 Stroppi, 282

Structor, Suarium, Subdivale, 289, 295
105 17 290

Saburra, Sacella,
Sacra

282 230 236

Seva,

232

Sacertodes,

272 Sexcenaria, 266 Sextans,

Strymonius,

288 gentilitia, 271 2?0, Sacramentum, Sacrificia,237 Sacrorum jus, 258 Sagitarii,276 Sagum, 298 Salarium, 262 Saligenita, 106

Sextarius,
Sextilis, 61

268

Subcenturio,272 Subitarii, 271 Subligaculum, 244 Subsignani, 272

128 Subsolanus, 297 Subucula, Succina, 297 Sudes, 280, 281

Ttvurius, 105 Thymbraeus, 101 Thyoneus, 109 Thyrsiger, 109 Thyrsus, 110 Tibiae,dextrae,sinistraef
119, 239

Sicae, 196
Sicarii, 196

Tibialia, 299 Tibicines, 236,

300

Sicarios,
260

crimen

inter,

Salii, 105,232,235,241 Salinae, 262 Saltus, 243

Sigma, 291, 294 Signa, 233,272 Signiferi,272

Sileni, 130 Silenus, 110

Tinctoria, 264 Tinctura, 264 266, 291 Tintinnabula,

Tisiphone,

128

Suffragiijus, 258 Sugeestus, 17,247

Suile, 292 Summanus,
242

Titaea, 91, 112 Titanides, 91, 117 Tiluli, 289

Salus,

118 217 300

Sambuca,

Sandapila,

300 Sandipilarii,

Silicernium, 304 232 Simpulum, Sinister, 233 Sirennusae, 126

100, 129,

Suovetaurilia, 105, 239 2d2

Titulus,302 Toga, 248, 297 Candida, 248 fusa, 297

318

INDEX

OF

LATIN

WORDS.

Toga,

praetexta,

233.

Tuba?,

232.

239,

272 274

Valetudinarium,
Vallonia,
242 120 280

280

Vicennalia, Vicesima,
Vici,
17 262

238

234, 284,
pulla,

235,
297 297

249,

250'

Tubicines,'
Tubilustrium,

236,

241,
260 297

Vallum,
Vasa

Tulliamim,
299

murrhina,
297

263,

Victima3,237 Victimarii,
236 95 120 106

virilis, Togati,
Tollere 297

297,

Tunica,

angusticlavia,
287 298
.

256,

sacra,

232 297 303

Victor, Victoria, Victrix,

Vicus

infantem,
294 289 292 296 296 297 aurea?, 300 291

sculpta,

Tomentum, Tonsores,

laticlavia,
recta, 287

256,

298

unguentaria,
Vates,
16 16 240 261 95 266 95 2S2

albus,
280

"c,

17

Topiarii,
Torcular,

Tumultuarii, Tumultus,
Tumulus,

271

Vaticanus,
Vaticinatores,

Vigiles, Vigiliee,
Villa

7,
302

271

59, urbana,

240,

280

Torcularium, Toreumata, Torques

299,

Vectigalia,
277

rustica,

Turmee, 275, Turricula, Turris,

Tutela,

272,
295

Vedius, Vehffl,

"c, Villicus,
Villicus 247

292

292,

289

278,
282

281

Vejovis, Vela,

amphitheatri,

Torus, Trabea, Tragularii, Traha, Tralatitia, Transtra,

233,

284 276

Tympana, Tympanum, Typhosus, 122,

266

Velites, 119,218

271,

274,
289

276

Vinalia,
Vinaria

242

Venalitiarii, Venatio,
Veneficii 243

cella,

296 299 289

264,

266 249

or

Typhon,
132

Vincula,
260

260,

125,

crimen,
241 128

Vindemiatores,
Vindicatio, Vindicta,
2S9 259

262 IT.

Veneralia, Venti,
Ventorum Ventus

Transvectio,256 Triarii, 276, Tribula, Tribunal,

Tribuni

271,
278

272,

275,

Udones, Ultimum,

299 257 105 266 293 299

Ara, textilis,
105,
295 242 125 260 285 106

116 298

Vinese,
Vinum cubum,

198,

280 Cae296

Falernum, "c,
118 236

264,

266

Ultor, Unciae,

Venus,

17,249,257,278 militun),
251

Genetris, Marina,

Virgo,

117, maxima,

Unctuarium,

plebis, Tribus,

250 cs;, rusti-

Unguenta,
Unio, Unxia, Uragus, Urania, Uranus, Urbs, Urceus, Urna,
268 225 232 295 96

Arerbera, Vernse, Verticordia,

Virgis,260
Viri

urbanae,
252

epulares,
122

234

Virtus,
Vis

Tributa,
Tributa

261

272, 106, 91,

277 127, 113

Vertumnus,il9 Vespera, Vespillones,

Vesta,
60 300

puhlicae,

260 304 91

comitia,257,261
272

Visceratio, Vitisator,
242 236

Tricennaria,
Triclinium.

291,293,304
244 266 109 102 266 217 261 294

18,

93, 113, 241,

230,

Vitrea,
Vitrea

263

Tridens, Triens, Trieterica, Triformis, Triga, Trigonon, Trinundinum, Tripes,

Triplex Tripodes,

Vestales, Vestalia,
302 303 Vestes 298

232,
242

specularia,
263

290

Vitrum, Vitta,
Viva

feralis,
Urns

Coae,

Sericae,

232,
voce,

299 268 292 271 120

lachrymales,
299

Usinum, Ustrina, Usucapio, Usura,

275 267

Vestiarii,
303 286 Vestis 291

289

Vivarium, 266,
Volones,

Ustrinum,

stragula,

268,

Volusia, 290,
300

Vestibulum,
287 286 287

Vomer,

264 238 reus, 238 246

acies,
232 233 282 264

Usurpatio, Usus,
Utensil

Veto,

250 272 285

Vota,
Voti Votivi

268, ia,
296 267

Vexillarii,

Tripudium, Triremes, Triticum,

Triton,

Vexillationes, Vexillum,
Vexillum

ludi,

Utres, Uxor, Uxorium,

272,

275

Vulcanalia, Vulcanus,
Vulpium

107, 107,
combustio

242 108

purpureum,

98,

125 104

262 Via

282

Tritnnia, Triumphalis Triumphus, Triumviri, Trivia, Tropsea, Trutinae,

102

Quintana, Sacra,

280

112

lex,

283 284 267 Vacatio 275

V.

Appia,

".C.,

Vulsella, Vulturius,

263 101

283, 252,

honorata,

271,
Vise,

15

15,

16 129 250 285

Vacuna,
199

120 259 232

Viales,
Viatores,

19,
266

Vades, Vagina,

Zephyrus,
Zona,
266

116,

128

Vicarii,

GEOGRAPHICAL

INDEX.

Allemanni, Abana, 50 Abdera, 21 Absynthi, or

21

Allia, 11
Allobroges, Apsynthi,
Alos,
24 7 6

Alpes, Graiae, "c,

Alpheus,
34

Abydos, 21, 47
Abyla, 9, 57 Abyssinia, 55 Acarnania, 24, 26 Ace, or Aco, 50 Achaia, 34 Acharnae, 28 Achelous, 21, 26, 25 Acheron, Acidalia (fount), Aciris, 13
Acradina,
Acritas 40 Prom. 33 24 Mon24 34

Altis,
Amanus,

34 48 44 47 25

Amardus,

Amasia,
Ambracia,
Ambracius 41

Argaeus Mons, 48 Argia, 34 Argos, in Argolis, Amphilochius, A/ia, 44, 46 Aria Palus, 44 51 Arimathea, 10 Ariminum, 46 Armenia, 6 Armorica, Arnus, 10
Arpi,
12 11 Arpinum, Arsacidae, 44 Arsinoe, 53, 54, 56; Arsissa Artabrum

34 26

Batavi, 6 Bebrycia, Belgae, 6 Belgica, 7

Benacus, Beneventum,

47

10 12

Berasa,
Berenice,

50

53, 54,56
50 51

Berytus, Bethel,
Bethesda

(pool),
51 50 51 6

52

Sinus,

21

Bethlehem, Bethsaida, Bethsan, Bibracte,

27

46 Amida, Arnisus, 47 Amitftrnum, Amphipolis,

11 22 26 24 57 12

Palus,
Prom.

46 9

Amphissa,

Acro-Ceraunia, Acro-Ceraunii, tes, 21, 22,

Acte,
Actium 28 26 Prom.

Acro-Corinthus,
Actium,

Amphryssus, Ampsagus, Amsanctus, Amyclae, 36 Anactorium, Anamurium, 42 Anaphe,

Anapus, Anas,
9 40

46 Artacoana, Artaxata, 46 42 Artemisium,

Arza,
26 49

46 27

Ascra,

25,
47 21 57

26

Adramyltium, Adrianopolis, Adrumetum, Adulis, 55 Ma, 46, 135

JEdui,
6

or JEgades JEgates, .^Egaeum Mare, 21 JEge, 34 34, 42 ^gina, iEgissa or iEgissus, 34 ^gium, 21 iEgos Potamos, ^Egusa, 41 Mgypti torrens, 53 ^gyptiis, 53 iElanites Sinus, 53 .SInone, 42 -2Enos, 21 JEnus, 7

41

Anchesmus, 25,28 10 Ancona, 48 Ancyra, Andros, 42 Angli, 5 Anio, 10, 11 Anthela, 27 Anticyra, 27 50 Anti-Libanus, Antiochia, 48, 50
in in

Asculum, 10, 12 Asia, 43 Asia Minor, 46 Asinarius, 41 48 Aspendus, Asphaltites Lacus

52

Bilbilis,8 Bithynia, 47 Bceotia, 27 Boii, 10 26 Boium, 10 Bononia, 5, 6 Borysthenes, Bosphorus, 6, 20, Bozra, 52
Bradanus,
13

21

51,

28 Brauron, Brigantes, 38 Lacus, Briganlinus

Britannia,
53 55 27 13 Prom. 10 12 Brivates

38

Assyria,
Astaboras,

Portus,
9

Brixia,

Atalanta, Aternum,
Athenaeum

Brundusium,

13, 16
13

Athesis,
Athos,
22

Bruttia-tellus, Bruttii, 13 13 Bruttium, Bura, 34

Buthrotum,
25 13 57

Pisidia,

48

Atinum,
Atlanticus

13

Syria, 50 25 Antirrhium,
Antium, Anxur, Aous,
24 48

Oceanus,
57

Atlantis,
Atlas,
57

11
11

Buxentum, Byrsa, 56 Byzantium,

20

Atropatene,

44 44 C. 13

Atropatia,
Attica,
47 28

Apamea,
on on

Rbjyndacus,

folios Mohs

Insulae,
or

41
.

^Eolia,
55 42

47 40

iEstuarium

Itunae,

Ethiopia, ^Ethria,
jEtna, Africa,
41

.Etolia,

26 53 57 56

48 Marsyas, on Orontes, 50 Aphetae, 24 Apia, 34 Apollonia, 20, 22, 56 Apulia, 12 Aquae Sextise, 6 Aquileia, 9

Aufidus, 12, Augusta Emerita, 9 9 Taurinorum, 7 Vindelicorum, 6 Augustodunum, Aulis, 27, 42 Aurea Cnersonesus, 3,
43

Cabira,

48 27

Cadmea, Caere, 10 Caesarea,

Caesarea ad

7, 51, 57 Augusta,
48

Argseum,

Ausonia,
Auxume,

9 55

Aquinum,

11 6 6

Interior, Propria, 27 Aganippe, Agathyrsi, 5 Agrigentum, Agylla, 10 48 Alabanda,

Alani,
Alba 46

Aquitani, Aquitania,

Aventinus,
Avernus

"c,

16 12

Lacus,
22

Arabia, 53
Arabicus 41

Axius, Sinus,
44 25 26 53

Arachosia,
Aracthus,

B.

Aracynthus,
Aragus,
46 7

Longa,
48

11,225
46 11

Arar, Ararat, Araxes, Araxes, Arbela,

Arbiti

Albania,
Albania? Albanus

44,
or

46

Pylce,
Lacus,
6

Phasis,

46

44 53

Albis,
Albulus

Lacus,
13

11

Montes,
34

44

Babylonia, 52 Bactra, 46 Bactriana, 46 Bsetica, 8, 9 9 Bffitis, Bagdat, 52 57 Bagradas, Baias, 12 Baleares Insuls,
Barce,
56 13

40

Alburnus, Aleria, 40

Arcadia,
Arcati

Regio,
11

43

Barium,
Basanites

Alesia, 6 48, Alexandria, Alfenias, 12 11 Algidum,

Ardea,
54 Arduenna

Mons,
13

54

Sylva,
25 8

Basilicata,
Bastarnicae

Arethon,

Alpes,
9

Philippi, 50 Caieta, 11 Calabria, 13, 14 Calabria-citra, 13 Calagurris, 8 Calaris, 40 Calauria, 42 Calle, 8 Callipolis, 13,21 Calor (fl.),12 Calpas, 47 Calpe, 9, 57 48 Calycadnus, Calydon, 26 Cambunii Montes, 22,24 10 Camerinum, 41 Camicus, 11 Campania, 42 Camyrus, Cana, 47 Canae, 50 Canaria, 57
Cannae.
13

21,

Arevaci,

Bastuli,

319

320
Canopicum "c, 54
Cantabri, 9 Cantii, 38
,

GEOGRAPHICAL

INDEX.

Ostium,

Cichyrus,

25

Cico'nes, 21 Cilicia, 48 Cimbri, 5

Cimmericus

Canusium,
Capernaum,

13
50 16

Bospho-

Caphareus, 42 Capitolinus, "c. Cappadocia, 48

40 Capres, Capsa, 57 11 Capua,

6, 46 Cimmerii, 46 Cimmerium, Circeii, 11

rus,

12

Cirrha,
i
"

27

Cisalpina Gallia, 6, 9 Cispadana, 9

Cissa, 21 Cithseron, 26, 28 Citium, 53 Clanius, 12. 47 Clazomenae,

Carambis, 47 Carambucis,
Cardia, 21 53 Carduchi,
Carduchi

Cynocephali, 124 Cynos, 27 Cynos Cephale, 24 Cynthus Mons, 42 Cyprus, 53 Cyrenaica, 56 Cyrene, 56 Cyrnos, 40 Cyropolis,46 Cyrus, 44, 46 Cythera, 41 Cythus, 42 Cytinium, 26 Cyzicus, 47
D.

Epirus, 21, 24 12 Equotuticum, Eretria, 42 Eridanus, 9, 10

Erigon, 22 26 Erineum,

Mons, 34 Erymanthus Erythrae, 47 Erythraeum Mare, 44 Erytopolis, 36

Etruria,
10 42 26

Eubcea,
Evenus,

Euganei, 9 Eupatoria,
Euphrates, Eurupa, Eurotas,
4 36

47 48 42

Montes,
"

46

Daci,
Dacia,

8 8

Euripus, 25,27,

Caria, 48 44 Carmania, 50 Carmel, Carni, 9 8 Carpates, 42 Carpathus,

Clusium, 10 Clypea, 57 Cnemis, 27

Cnidus,
48 25

Dactyli, 43 Dalmatia, 8
Damascus,
6 50

Eurymedon,
Euxinns, rium,

48

5, 21
ad 57 53 Mer-

Cocytus,
Codanus

Sinus,

Carphia,
Carrhse, Carteia, Carthago

26 52 9 56 8

Ccele-Syria, or Coslo-Syria, Coelius, 16

Colchis, 46 Collis hortulorum,
Colonia

Danapris, 5 Danubius, 7 Daphne, 50

8 Dardania, 12 Daunia, 16 9
,"

Exploratio

Ezion-Geber,
P.

50

Carthago,

Nova,

Decapolis, Decelia,28
27 Delium, Delos, 42

51

Falerii, 10
Falisci, 10 Fidenas, 11
Flanaticus Flavia

Carystus, 42 Casia Regio, 3, 43

Casilinnm,
11 44

Caspia; Caspiuiu Mare,

Cassandria,

Pylae, 46 6,
22

Patricia, Colophon, 47 Colossse, 48 50 Comagene, 48 Comana, Comaria, 43

Comata,
7 8

Delphi,
Delta, Derbe,

27

Sinus,

7 40

Delphinum,28
54 24 48

Canadensis,

Demetrias,

Florentia, 10 Formiee, 11

Cassiterides, 38, 40 Castalia,27 Castrum Minervse,

Catabathmus, Catti, 5
Caucasus, Caudinae 46 54

Fortunat8eInsula3,3,57
Forum Fossa Fretum

Complutum,
13

10 Comum, 13 Consentia,

Furculae,
12 15 47 7 28

12

Caudium, Caulon,

Cayster,
Cebenna,

Constantinopolis, Copais Lacus, 27 Coptos, 54 Coracesium, 48 Coras, 26 Corcyra, 41

9 Corduha, 10 Corfinium,

20

DesertaLibyas, 57 48 Dindymus, Dioclea, 8 Diospolis, 51, 54 Dirce Mons, 28 Dodona,25 Dolonei, 21

Dorion, Doris, 26 Doriscus,
24 21 44 41

Julii,6 Trajani, Gaditanum,

54

Fossa?, 40
or

9 Herculeum, 40 Siculum,

Frisii,5
Fucinus

Lacus,
G.

10

Cecropia,
Celts,
6

Corinthia,
Corinthiacus 25 9

34

Drangiana, Drepanum, Sinus,21

Drilo, 22
Dromus

Celtiberi, 8
Celtica, 6

Celticum,

34 Cenchrese, 9 Cenomanni, Centum Cellae, 10 Ceos, 42

Cephalenia, 41 Cephissus, 26, 27, 28 Ceramicus, 28, 32

47 Cerasus, 13 Cerbalus, Certa, 57 Chaberis, 43 27 Chseronea, 47 Chalcedon, Chalcidice, 22 Chaicis, 22, 26, 42 Chaldaea, 52

Corinthus, 34 Corioli, 11 Coronea, 27 Corsica, 40 Corycus, 47 Cos, 42 Cosetani, 8 Cotiaris, 3, 43

CottiEe, 7

Achillei, 6 Dryopes, 26 Dulichium, 41

7 Duranius, Durius, 8, 9 34 Dyme,

50 Gabara, Gabii, 11 Gadara, 50, 52 9 Gades,

Gaetulia, 57 Galatia, 6, 7,48

Galesus, 13 Galileea, 50 Gallia, 6 Gallonim Portus, 52 Gamala, 43 Ganges,

Dyrrachium,

22

Cragus,
Crathes,

48 15

24 Cremaste, 11 Cremera, 48 Cremna, 9 Cremona, Creta, 43

Ebal, 51 38 Eboracum, 40 Ebnsus, 44 Ecbatana,

Gangfticus

Sinus,

43

Echinades, 41 Edessa, 22, 52 Edetani, 8

Edonis,
22 13

48 Gangra, 57 Garamantes, 12 Garganus, 47 Gargarus, Garumna, 6, 7

Gaugamela,
52 Gaulon, Gaulos, 41 Gaza, 44, 52 44 Gedrosia, Geloni, 5 10 Genua, Gera, 52 Gersestus, 42 51 Geranii

53

Creusa,
Crimisus,

27 41 27

Egnatia,

Chalybes,
Chalybon, Chaonia,
Charran.

47 50

Crissa,
Crissseus

24, 25
52 13 33

Sinus, 25 5, 47 Criu-Metopon,
Cronium, Crotona,
34

Eion, 21 Elataea, 27 Elaver, 7 Elea, 13, 47

Charybdis,
Chelonites,
CUersonesus ca, 5

13 11

Cimbri

Crustumerium,
46 Ctesiphon, 12 Cumse, 52 Cunaxa, Cures, 11 Curetes, 43

Elephantine, 54 Eleusis, 28 Eleutheropolis,

Elis, 34

Montes,
51

26

Gerizim,

3, 43 Aurea, 5 Taurica, Thvacias,

Clierusci, 5
20

Elymais, 44 Elymander,

Germania,
44

5, 6 Inferior, 7

Chimsera,
Chios, 42 Choaspes.

48

Curia,

7 9

Custulo,
44

Chrysoceras, 20 Chrysopolis, 47 Chrysorrhoas, 50

Cyclades, 42 Cydnus, 48 Cydonia, 43 Cyllene Mons,

22 Emathia, 50 Emesa, 51 Emmaus, 47 Ephesus, 25, 34 Ephyra, 22 Epidamnus, Epidaurus, 8,34 34

Superior,
Germanicus cus, 6

Oceani-

Getse, 8 river, 48 Glaucus, Sinus, 48 Glycys Limen, 25

Epipolae, 40

Gnossus,

43

GEOGRAPHICAL

INDEX.

321
Marcomanni,
Mardii, Mardus,
44 44 54 40 7 5

Gobaeum

Prom. 24 24 48 43

Lemanus

Gomphi,
Gonnus, Gordium, Goshen, Gracia,
Graecia

Iberia, 8, 46 Iberus, 9
Icaria, 42 Iceni, 38

Lemanis

Lacus, 6 Portus, 38
6

Gortynia,

Lemnos, 42 Leinovices, Leontes, 50

Leontium,

Mareotis, Mariana,
Maritimae 56

54

Ichnusa,
25

40

41

Alpes,
56 10

20, 21

Propria,
47 13

Granicus, Grumentum,

48 Iconium, Ida, 43, 46 \ Idumea, 52, 53 Ierne

or

Leptis Magna, Lesbos, 42

40

Marmarica, Marrubium,
Marsi,
10

Hibernia,

Gyarus, Gyrlona, Gytheum,

42 24

Ilerda, 8

36, 38
H.

Ilergetes, 8 Ilissus,28
Ilium, 46

Lessus, 21 Lethe, 25 41 Leucadia, Leucas, 25, 26, 41

Illyricum, 7, 8, 21 Mare,
or

Hadriaticum Hadrumentum

21

Ilva, 40
Imaus Iinbarus

57 Adrumetuni, Haemus, 8, 20, 21, 22 Mare, 25 Halcyoneum Halesus

Mons, 3, 43 Mons, 44

Imbrus, 42 Inachus, 34

(river),47 Haliacmon,22 Halicarnassus, 48 Halonnesus, 42 Halys,47 Hamaxobii, 5 Hebrus, 21 Hebrides, or Ebudae,

India, Indus,
Insulae

43 43 9

Insubres, banam,

Leucate,26, 41 Leucopetra, 13, 41 Leuctra, 27 Libanus, 50 Liburnia, 7, 8 Libya, 55, 57 Libyssa, 47 Liger, 6, 7 Ligures, 10 Ligusticus Sinus, Ligustides, 7
Lilaeum,
26

Marsyas, 48 Masius Mons, 46 Massaesyli, 57 Massilia, ae, 6, 7 Massyli, 57 Matinorum oppidum,

40

Mauritania,
Maxima 40

57

Osesariensis,

10

ante

Tapro4

40

Hecatompylos, 44,
Helena, 42 Helice, 34 Helicon, 26, 27 Helissus, 34 Hellas, 21, 25 Hellespontus, 21 Heliopolis, 50, 55
Helorus,
41

54

Helos, 36 Helvetii, 6 Hephaestia, 42 Heptanomis, 54 Heptapylos, 27 Heraclea, 13,21, 47

12 Herculaneum, Herculis Columnae, 57

Hesperidum, 4 Iolchos, 24 Ionia, 47 Ionium Mare, 24, 25 Ios,42 Iris,47 Isaurae, 48 Isauria, 48 Ismenus, 27 Issus, 48 Ister (Danube), 7, 8 Istria, 8, 10 Isurium, 38 Itabyrius, 51 Italia,9 Italica,9 Ithaca, 41

Lilybaeum, 40, 41 Lindus, 42 Lingones, 10 Lipara, 41 Liris, 10, 11

L\ternum,
Locri

12

Ithome,36
9,
10 10 J.

LeburniPortus, Monceci Portus,

Jabadii Insula, 3, 53 16 Janiculum,

15 Promontorium, Hercynia Sylva, 5, 8

.lapygia, Japygium
Jaxartes,

12 Prom. 46 13

Herdonia, Henniones,

12 5 5

50 Hermon, Hermundurii,

Hermus,

47

Heroopolis, 54 Heroopolites Sin. 53 Heruli, 5 Hesperia, 8, 9 Hesperides, 56 Hesperidum, Iusulae, 4,

57

Jezreel, 50 Joppa, 51 Jordan, 52 Jotapata, 50 Judaea, 50 Julia? Alpes, 7 Promont. Junonis

K.

Epicnemidii, Opuntii, Ozolae, 26,27 Locris, 26 38 Londinum, Longobardi, 5 Lotophagi, 56 Lucania, 13 Luceria, 12 Lucrinus Lacus, 12 Lugdunensis, 6 Lugdunutn, 6" Luna, 10 Lunae Montes, 4, 54 Lusitania, 8, 9 Lutetia, 6 Lycaonia, 48 Lycaeus Mons, 36 Lychnidus, 22 Lycia, 48 Lycus, 47, 48 Lydda, 51 Lydia, 47 Lydias, 22 Lyrnessus, 47 Lysimachia, 21 Lystra, 48
M.

Mazaca, 48 Meatae, 38 Media, 44 Mediolanum, 6,9 Megalopolis, 34, 47 Megara, 28 Megaris, 28 Melanis Sinus, 21 Melas, 20, 21 Melibrea, 24 Melite, 41 Melos, 42 Melpus, 13 Memphis, 54 Menapii, 7
Menuthias,
Mercurii 57 4 rium, Promonto-

Meroe,

55

Mesembria^O
Mesopotannft, 52 Messana, 41*4*, Messapia, 13
Messene, Messenia,
Messeniacus 36 36

Sinus, 36
i. q.

Mestus,

Nestus,

20,21 Metapontum,13
Metaurus, Methone,
10

22, 36

Kibora,

8 L.

Macedonia, Macoraba,
Macra,
10 15 36 Sin. 36

21
or

Mecca,

53

Hesperis, 56 Hexapolis, 26 Hibernia, 40 Hierapolis, 50 Hierosolyma,51

Himera Himera

Lacinium,
Laconia,
Laconicus

Madytos,
Maeander,
Maenalus

21 47 36

Mons,
47

Ladon,
41

34

Mseonia,
Maeotis

42 Methymna, Miletus, 47 Mimas, 47 Mincius, 10 Minturnae, 11 12 Misenum, Mitylene, 42 Moeris, 54 Maesia, 8 Molossis, 24, 25 Mona Cessans, 40 Taciti, 40 Munda", 9 33 Munychia, Muri Veteres, 8 Murina, 42

(town),

Lagaria, 13 Lamia, 24
47 Lampsacus, 48 Laodicea, Lapithss, 24 Larissa, 24 Larius, 10 11 Latium, 40 Latoimas, Laurentum, Laurius 11

41 (river), Hippo, 13 Hippo Regius, 57 Hippocrene, 26, 27 Hirpini, 12 Hispalis, 9 Hispania, 8

Palus, 3, 6 Graecia, 11 Magna Magnesia, 24, 48 rium, PromontoMagnum

43

Musaeus,

28

Sinus, Magnus Makrinoros, 26 Malea, 33, 36 12 Maleventum, Malia, 24

26 Maliacus 25

43

Mulina, 10 Mycale, 47 Mycenae, 34 Myconus, 42 54 Myoshormus, Mare, 25, 28 Myrtoum Mysia, 47

N.

Histria, 10 Horeb, 53
13 Hydruntum, Hymettus, 26, 28 Hypanis, 6 Hypata, 24 Hyperborei, 3 Hyrcania, 44 Hyrcanium Mare, 41

Mons,
13

Sinus, 21,24,
6 34

Naissus, 8
Napata,
Nar,
Narbo 10 55

Laus,
Laus

Sinus, 13 11 Lavinium, Lebedaea, 27 34 Lechaeum, Leleges, 47

46

Mandubii, Mantinea,

9 Mantua, 46 Maracanda, 28 Marathon,

Lelegia,188

Marcianopolis,

Martins, 6, 7 Narbonensis, 6,7 Narisci, 5 Naryx, 27 1 Naulochus, 41

322
Naupactus,
26

GEOGRAPHICAL

INDEX.

Palsestina, 50
Pallene,
22 48

Nauplia, 34 42 Naxos, 50 Nazareth, 15 Nesethes, Neapolis, 12, 40, 51

Palmyra, 50 Pamphylia,
Pancisus,
36

Pieria, 22 Pimpla, 27 Pincius, 16 Pindus, 21, 24, 25, 26

Pindus Pindus 21

Sais,

54

42, 53 Salapia, 12 Salernum, 12

Salamis, Salice, 3

(fl.)26
26

Nemausus,
34 Nemea, Neritus, 41

Pandosia, 13 Pangseus Mons,

7 Pannonia, 41 Panormus, Panticapseum,

(town), Piraeus, 33 Pisa, 10,34 Pisidia, 48

Pistoria, 10 Placentia, 10 Plataea, 27 Platanistas, 38

Salmydessus, 20
Salona,
8 6

Salyes,

Nervii,7 Neryx, 15 Nestus, i. q.Nessus, 20,

21

Nica;a, 10, 47 47 Nicomedia, Ni".opolis, 8, 26, 48

Paphlagonia, 47 Paphos, 53 Parisii,6 Parma, 10 26, 27 Parnassus,

Parnes, Paros, 26, 28
44 42

51 Samaria, 41 Same, 12 Samnis,

Samnites,

12

Platanius, 27 Plemmyrium, Plistus, 27

Plotse, 41

40

12 Samnium, 42 Samos, 50 Samosata, 42 Samothracia,

Niger, 57 Nigritre,57
Niltis, 54 Ninus, 52 46 Niphates, Nisaja, 27, 44

Paropamisus,

Sangarius,
Santones,
Santonum 6

48

Parrhasii, 34 Parrhasius, 36 Parthenias (river), 47

Parthenius, Parthenope, Parthia, 44
Parueti 36 12

Nisibis,52 Nisyrus, 98 Nola, 12

Nonacris Noricre

Pceni, 9 Polytimetus, 46 Pompeii, 12 Pons MVn, 40 Pontus, 8, 47 Porphyrce,41

Posidonia,
13 22 11 4

Portus,

Saphrse, 5 Sardinia, 40 Sardis, 47 Sarmatia, 5, 46

Sarnia,
Sarnus,
Saronicus

7 12

Mons, 36 Alpes, 7
4

Montes, Pasargada, 44
Passaro, 25 Patara, 48 9 Patavium, 42 Patmos, Pause, 34

43, 44

Potidsea,
Prseneste,
Prastfm

Sinus,
9, 91

21,

Prom.

25,28
Saturnia, Insula;, Satyrorum Promontorium, Sauromatoe, 5 Savus, 8 Saxones,
50 12 5 46 Scamander, Scanda, 41 Scandinavia, 5 3 3

7 Noricum, Noti Cornu, 48 Novus,

Priene, 47 Prochyta,
Proconnesus,

40 53

Nubia,

55 8 22

Numantia,

Numidia, 57 Nymphseum,
O.

Oasis, 55, 56
Ocha, 42 Ochus, 44 8 Odessus, CEa, 56 CTIbalia, 188 CEchalia, 36

Pausilypus, 12 Pelasgi, 24 Pelasgia, 34 Pelasgicus Sinus, Pelasgiotis, 24 Peligni, 10

Pelion, 24 Pella, 22 Pellene, 34

Propontis, 21, 47 Prusa, 47 Psylli, 56 Ptolemais, or Aco,

24

Ptolemais,
Puteolanus

56

Sinus,
12 22

Puteoli,

Pydna, Pylos, Pyxus,

Scheria, 41 Sciathos, 42

36 13

Scopelos,

42

Peloponnesus, 21 Pelorus,40 or Pelorum;

24, 34 Peneus, Penninae,7

Scordisci, 8 Scotussa, 24 Q.

Scylacium,
Scylla,
13

15

Quadi,

QSnolria, 9 Ctita,21, 24
Olenus, 34 Olisippo, 9

Quirinalis

Mons,
16 R.

16

Pentapolis, 56 Pentelicus, 26, 28

Persea,
52

Quirium,

Scyllseum, 13,33 Scyros, 42 Scythia, 43 Sebasle, 48, 51

Sebethus,
12 40 Segedunum, Segovia, 8 Segusiani, 6 Seir, 52 Seleucia, 48, 52

Olympia, 34 Olympus, 24, 40, 47 Olynthus, 22

Ombi,
Oncius 54

Perga, 48 Pergamus,
Perinthus,

46,
21 44

47

Ragse, 44 Ragusa, 8
Ravenna,
10 11

Persepolis,
26

Mons,
54 27

Persia,
Persicus

43

Onion,

Sinus,
44

44, 53

Opuntii, Opuntius Opus, 27

Orbelus

Persis, 25,
27

Reate, 11 Regillus Lacus, Rha, 5 Rhseteum, 47

Rhaetia, Rhamnus,
7 28

Sinus, Mons,
22

Perusia, 10 10 Pesaurum,

Seleucis, 50 Selinus, 41, 48 Sellasia, 36

Pessinus, 48, 94
Petilia, 13

40 Orcades, Orchomenus,

27, 34

Orestis,24
Oreus, 42 24 Oricum, Orontes, 44, 50 28 Oropus,

Petra, 53 Phaeacia,
Phalacrum

Rhedones, 6 13 Rhegium, Rhenus, 6,7

Rhium,
25 Prom. 7 33 41 Rhium

Selytnbria, 21 Senna Gallica, 10

10 Senones, Senus, 3, 43 Sepias, 24

41 Prom. 33

Phalerum,

Rhodanus,

Pharaj,

34

Rhodope,
Rhodus,

21,22
42

Orospeda,
Orourns,

8 50 40

Pharos, 54 Pharsalia, 24

Ortygia,

Pharsalus, Phasis, 46
Pherse,
24 24 34

24

Ossa, 24 Ostia, 11 Mons, Othrys Oxus, 44, 46

47 Rhyndacus, Rhype, 34. Riduna, 7 Roma, 15, 119

Sephoris, 50 Sequana, 6, 7 Sequani, 6 Sera, 3, 43 Serica, 43 Seriphus, 42

Serus, 43 Sestos, 21 5 Sicambri,

Phigalia,
Phileenorum

Arse, 56

Rubeas, Rubicon,

3 10 57

Phitippi, 22
54

Oxyrynchus,
P.
or Pachynum, Pacliynus, 40 Pactolus,-47 Padus, 9, 10

Philisteea, 52

Rubricatus, Rudeae, 13
25

Phlegethon, Phlegra, 22 Phlegrsei-campi,

Phocaea, 6 Phocis, 26, 27 Phoenicia, 50

Rutuli,
12

11 38

Sicilia,40 Sicyon, 34 Sicyonia, 34

Sidon,
50

RutupiEe,

Peed

urn,

11 22 13

Phrygia
Sinus,

Major,
46

48

Sabsei, 53 Sabatus, 12 Sabini, 10

Sabrata, 56 Sacee, 46

Sigseum, 47 Silarus, 11,13 Siloam, 52

Silures, 38 41 Simsethus, Simois, 46
11

Paeonia,
Pcestanus

Minor,

Psistum, Pagasse,

13 24 24

Pagasaeus Sinus,

Phylace, 24 Phyle, or Phule, Picenum, 10, 12 Pictones, 6

28

Sacer Sacrum

Mons,
Prom. 8

9, 48

Sagunlum,

Sinse,3, 43 Sinai, 53 Singeticus Sinus, 8 Singidunum,

22

GENERAL

INDEX.

Antiochus

the 177

Great,

70

Abraham,
Abraxas. Absalom's

69 124

Antipater,

Antiquaries,
Antiquities,
21

Pillar, 223
135 of

Society of, 17 classical, utility of,

77 124

Absyrithians,
Absyrtus, Academy
Acliaia,
Actions

143,
Antony Anubis,

227 and

constitution 193 suits

Inscriptions, 17 and league

at

Apis,

Cleopatra, Egyptian god, a 123; supposed

124

Atridae, 136 of Attila, leader Atys, 93 Auction, 268 Augurs, Roman, 79 Augustulus,
Augustus, Aurora,
114 233
master

the

Huns,

79

233

of

Egypt,

71

symbol
101;
oracle

of, 75,
or

of Joseph,

law,

186

Apollo,

100;

Actium, Actors,

of, 71,77 theatrical, 176

battle 101 106

temples

Belvidere, of, 18, 101 ;

Auspices, Auxiliary
277 Avatars

troops
or

of

Romans,
of

Admetus, Adonai,
Adonis,

of, 165 Apollonius, Apotheosis,

,man

incarnations 95

story of, 169

among

of,

106

; festival 288

Apparel,
Romans,
of the

150 Rhodius, of heroes, 133; Ro122, 137, 304 emperors, ry, 157; militacommon,

Vishnu,

B.

Adoption Adoration,
237

154

origin

word,

Aqueducts,
letium, Arachne, Ararat,
46

Roman,
10 104

19;

at

Spo-

Adrastia,117 punished by Greeks, Adultery, 260 220 ; by Romans, .^Jacus, 100

j^castor,
136 136 249

Mt.,
battle

ascended

by

rot, Par-

Arbela,

of, 70
at

Arbitrators,

Athens,

186

; at

jEdepol,
jEetes,

.^Ediles, Roman,
135

104 iEgis of Minerva, iE"Jos Potomos, battle

259 Rome, Arches, triumphal, 10, 19 tomb of, 223 Archimedes, of Architecture Greek houses,

of, 125 Babel, builders Babylon, founding of, 69 ; walls of, 52, 69, 114; commerce of, 212 of, 169; Bacchus, 109; festivals cave of, 33 Bachelors, tax on, 262, 286 Balbec, ruins of, 50 Ball, ornament worn by Roman youth, 299; playing with,
216

Banishment,
Bankers
at

187, 191, 260 Rome,

of, 74

158.210

Banquets,
180 mentioned

17, 263 295; evening, Greeks,

of

iElurus, JEolus,

124 116

Archon's, 151, 176, 177,

of, 166, of, 193
159 117

iEsculapius, oracles iEtolia, confederacy

Agamemnon, Age,
respect 137

rising of Arcturus, 65 by Hesiod,

Greeks, 157 Bathing, among

208

158,

Areopagus,
Argonauts,
for

32, 177,
135;

184 made

sphere

paid to,
among among

Aglaia, 107 Agriculture, 158, 212; Ajax,

Alaric,
Alban 137

the

Greeks,
the mans, Ro-

264

Alabaster,
mount, 134

221 of 283

master

Rome,

79,225

64; by Chiron, pictures of, "x., 98 covered shrine at, disArgos, oracular Clarke, 164; by constitution of, 193 Argus, 108 Ariadne, 109, 135 Armies, Grecian, 153; Roman, attendants of Roman, 271;
them,
277

Baths, Battering-ram, Battle, Greek

197;
manner

293 Romans, ; among construction of, 209 281 order of

of, 154,
ing, commenc-

197, 198 ; of, 275, 278;

Hesiod's of of the Beaks of

Roman
at

order sea,

282;
mer's Ho-

the

Titans, Gods, 125

ships,

202

Beatification

of

saints, origin

of, 137

Alceste, Alcmaeon, Alexander,

136 his 100

Armor, coffin, 221

ancient,

153, 194,

274

Aloides,
Altars,

Grecian,

148,160;
Roman,
in

man, Ro-

71 Arsaces, 71 Arsacidae, Roman, Artisans,

Bellerophon, 131, 133 Bellona, 105, 120 ; temple of, 49 of a pyraBelzoni, his entrance mid,
123 battle Beneventum, of, 76 art Besieging, of, among 198 ; Romans, Greeks, before Betrothing nuptials, Birds, divination by, 167 96 Births, goddess over, Bissextile 62 year, constitution

263
;

230;
230

land, Eng-

Arts,
Ashes

magical,
at

240

the

nic mecha-

the 280 220

Rome,
the
or

263, 264
221 106
or

Amazons, America,
the

131 whether known 57

"

of

dead,
of the

to

Ashtaroth

Astarte, 257;

ancients, 95, 165

or

Assemblies,
Comitia,
190

Romans

Ammon, Amor,

Greeks,
69

183,

Cupid, 106 temple of, 28 Amphiaraus, 133 Amphictyon, Council, 183 Amphictyonic 102, 136 Amphion, 246 Roman, Amphitheatres,
Amusements,
of of

Bceotia, empire,
117 240 Boeotian Boundaries 119

of, "x.

192

Assyrian
Astrrea, Asvlum,

intellect, 28
of

land,

Roman,

Astrologers,

privileges of, 162

Boxing,
Brachma, Brass,
arms

173,

243

Atel, 159, 242,

Hindoo material and

deity, 93,
for

95

Greeks, Romans,

207, 214;
247, 295 Andromeda,

133

Angels,
129 Annual
at

of ancient

of, a source ministry fable, 84; fallen, Register,

or

Calendar
210

Rome,
134

241

Anointing,
Ant
re us

158, 209,

106 Anteros, Antimachus,

Greek

poet,

136

104; origin of name, citizens of, 178 ; government of, 151, 177; political history, 72, 142, 151, 177; of, 28, 178; topography venues of, 180; remagistrates and expenditures, and semblies, as181, 182; senate 183, 184 of, 175 Athletics, Greek system Atlanlides, 114, 134 Atlas, 133, 134 personified,94 Atmosphere
Athens,

ancient

tools, 154
and 120
;

inventor Bread, kneading, 263

god baking

of

of,

Breast-pin
300

found

at

Pompeii, by,
76

Brennus, Briareus,

sack 125

of Rome

Bricks, Roman, Bride, Greek,

Bridges
over

263 220 the ;

Roman,
16;
200

287 of

Tiber,

Xerxes

and

Darius,

324

GENERAL

INDEX.

325
isthmus

Brizo, goddess
of

over

the

pretation inter167

dreams,

263 Brokers, Roman, Broth, Spartan black, 191 Brutus and

Charybdis, 132 Chase, 158 ; goddess of, 101 brought, Cherry-trees, whence
47

of, 34; capture

of
at

of,

74, 75, 77
Corn,
distribution

Rome.

261
treatment

Cassius,
124

77

Children,
Greeks,

of

among

Coronis,
Corpses,

117

Bubastis,

Burial-places, 149, 222, 302, 303 of Burial-rites, importance

among the

ancients,

223

Chil

159; at Sparta, 189; legitimate, "c, 220; Romans, 286, 287 among Minar, or palace of forty
columns,
44

of corpses, 149, 221, Burning 149 300, 302; of widows, C.

Cabiri, mysteries of, 136

Cabirian

temple,
134 133 of 107

22

Cacus, 107,
Cadmus,
Caduceus

Chimssra, 131 Chimneys, 210, 291 Chloris, 120 Choragic tripods, 33 tragedy, 176 Chorus, of Greek part of the Spartan Forum,
36

burning of,221, 300 Cosmetics, 210,299 of the Greeks, 146 Cosmogony Costume, Grecian, 157, 208; 297 Roman, 17 Cottage of Romulus, Cotton, use of, 209 for reclining at table, Couches, 206,291,293,297; for sleeping,
290

Mercury,

108

Caecutus, Calendar,

Roman,
62

61, 241

gorian, ; Gre-

Calends, 61,240 Calliope, 127 Cambyses, conqueror

71

of

Egypt,

Camillus, captor Grecian, Camp,

of

Veii, 76
man, Ro-

154, 197;

278; disciplineof,280 20 di Roma, Camnagna Canal of Claudius, 10, 11 Cannre, battle of, 77
Canopus,
124 136 Capaneus, Roman, 259 Capital trials, 17 Capitol, Roman, Capitolinus, the hill, 16 of, 154, Captives, treatment 155, 199 266 Carriages, Roman, Carthaginians, History, 71, 72 Caspian gate or pass, 46 Cassander, 177 Castagnas, 21 Castalia, 127 Castanets, 218 Castor and

Christ, year of his birth,64, 65 of on Christianity, influence and literature society, 287 Christians, how put to death 261 ; their by Romans, tombs, 303 Chronology, classical,"c, 59; line of, 66; brief outsystems of, 67 Churches called Basilica?,18 Cicero, his table, i!67
Circensian games, 242

Country-seats of Romans, 291 Courts, at Athens, 150, 185; at 259 Sparta, 191 ; at Rome, of confirming, Covenants, manner
164
or leagues, 164 Cow, symbol of Isis, 122 of, 267 Crassus, wealth Crete, early constitution, "c, 151, 192; Labyrinth of, 43 Creusa, 135 Crimes 259 at Rome, Crishna, Hindoo deity, 95, 101 Crcesus, king of Lydia, 70 Crowns, 150, 175, 275 at Crusaders, Constantinople,

Covenants

Cities,principal Greek, 141 258 Citizenship, Roman, Civil affairs of Greeks, 150, 176 248 of Romans,
Classes of citizens
at

79

177; Sparta, 253, 286

Classic

188;

Athens, Rome,
of the'

authors, phrase, 253

and patron, ancient

origin
254

Cunaxa, battle of,70, 74 Cupid, 106 theatre, Curtain, of the ancient 246; embroidered, 148, 218 Curtian Lake, 17 Curule, officers, 254; chairs,254
Cushites,
125

Client

Climates,
earth

division

of

Cybele
236

or

Rhea,

93 ;

priests of,

into, 4

Clio, 127 Clisthenes, 177 Clocks, 60, 240

Coan

vestments,

298

Pollux, 135

55, 221 Catiline, conspiracy of, 77 Greek, Cavalry, 24, 194, 197; Roman, 270, 276 Cecrops, 133 Celestials, or celestial gods, 87 Cemetery, origin of term, 223 Cenotaphs, 222, 302
Catacombs,
239 Census, Roman, 250 Censors, Roman, 24, 131 Centaurs,

Coelus, 113 Coffins,302, 303

Cohorts, 272, 277, 284 Coins, Greek, 213 ; Roman,
their
use

266 65

in

chronology,

Coliseum, Collatinus, 227 Colleges or orders priests, 232;

263

19

Cycles of the ancients, 62 Cyclopean architecture, 41, 107 Cyclops, 107, 124 Cymbals, 217 Cynocephalus, 124 Cyrene, remains of, 56 Cyrus, king of Persia, 70 70; expeCyrus the younger, dition of, 70, 74 ; palace of, 223 tomb 114; of,
D. Dacian 272

of of

Roman

artisans, 72, 73,

mines, 8, 262; tablets,

built

Colonies, from Greece, 258 142; of Rome,

Colossal Column games, 243 42 statues, of Duillius,284; serpent, 165 in

Dredalus, labyrinth
Daemons, Danaides,
129

by,

43

Centimani,
Centurial
or

113 259 Secular

l'OO
133
at

Centumviriite,

of the

twisted

of Romans Centuries, division into, 252 ; voting by, 257

Combats,
war,

single,
156 of

ancient

Danaus, Dancing, Daphne,

Darius,
Dates of

feasts,159, 207, 216

101 70 ancient events, how

Cephalus, 115 Cerberus, 37, 100, 132, 221

Ceremonies of ancient
ship. wor-

Commerce,
of

Greeks, 152,212; Romans, 263; of Babylon,

212 119 18 among of Roman of

147, 148; nuptial, 159,

220, 287
statue Ceres, 110 ; temple and Clarke, of, found by Dr. 112; festivals of, 169

Comus,
Concord,
220

Concubinage

Greeks,
rors, empe-

Cester whose

or

Chester,
names

towns

Consecration, 137, 304;

"c, Constantine
238 the his his

ascertained, 63; helps in 67 remembering, David, reign of, 69 Days, reckoning and division of, "c, 59, 240; origin of the names of, 62; Roman of spending manner day,
292

leniples,

end

in,
106

280

Death, Great, his ard, imp. standmilitary system,

and

Cestius, pyramid of,223 Cestus, girdle of Venus,

battle of, 74 Chaeronen, Chairs, 212; of state, 254

reign, 78;
272;
284

a ment god, 130; punishinflicted of, how by mans, 191 Greeks, 187, ; by Roas

260

Decemvirs,
situation Dedication 238 Deification 20 ; tripod in 165 me,

76, 251
of of Roman

Chance,
Chants, 153;

personified, 119
funeral, 221
race in,172; Roman, 266 or

Constantinople,

temples,

topography,
Grecian. its hi|i p Consular army,

Chariots, Charming
power

271, 277

fascinating,the

Charon,

of, 240 100, 221

66

Charts, chronological,

Roman, 248 modes of, 266 Conveyance, Copper, used before iron, 154 Corinth, constitution of, 192; 2 E
Consuls,

emperors, Deities, classes

138;
119

heroes, 137; of 137,304 of ancient, 87, peculiar to Romans,

134

Dejanira,

326

GENERAL

INDEX.

mysteries, 112, 169 Delphi, Apollo's temple at, 101 ; Eleusinian oracle trates, magisof, 165 Eleven, the Athenian 181 ditions Deluge, of Deucalion, 24 ; traof universal, 84, 106 99 Elysium, of sons, 287, 288 ; Demetrius Poliorcetes, 177 Emancipation of slaves, 289 87, 132, 149 Demi-gods, the dead, 221 Deucalion, Embalming 24, 133 Emperors deified,122, 137,304; Dial, 60, 210 their reign, 78 Roman, Diana, 101 ; temple of, at Ephe114; Bubastis, 124 of,249; Empire, Roman sus, power of, 270; military system Dice, playing with, 295 75, 251 changes in, 284; extent of, Dictator, Roman, 226 ; division ern, of, 285 ; EastDictionaries, mythological, 89 79 Dido, 72 under Employments, guardian Dighton rock, figure,"c, found deities, 120 ; of Greeks, near it,153 262 158; of Romans, Diocletian, his persecution and of Christians, 78 Empresses, on Roman massacer coins, 96 Engines, military, 198, 280 Diogenes, Laertius, sold as a Entrails of victims, as prognosslave, 180; the Cynic, his tics,
tomb, Diomedes,
223 137 169 the 135 122 of
; villa

Festivals, Greek,
241 Field of

168 ;

Roman,

Truth,

99

Fire, the

vestal, 113

Fishing among Greeks, 158 Fish-pond of Hortensius, 292 Fleece, Golden, of Colchis, 135 Fleet, Grecian, 200, 203 ; Roman,
282 293 Flesh-brushes, or strigiles, Flight of birds, ominous, 149, 233

Flood,

in time

of

Deucalion,
of, 120

24

Flora, 120 Flowers, goddess

Food,

of

mans,

Greeks, 157, 204; 293, 294

Ro

234

of determining the Foot, means Roman, 268 Fortune, goddess of, 118 Forums, at Rome, 17 ; Athens, 32 Fountain of the sun, 56

of, 296 prison

Dionysia,
Dionvsius

tyrant,

of, 40
Dioscuri,

74 Epaminondas, Ephesus, Diana's temple at, 114 Ephori, 151, 190, 191 Epidaurus, medical springs at, 117

Fowling, among Foxes, burning Franciade,

of Ceres, 112 66
men

Greeks, 158 of, in worship

Dirges, at funerals, 221 Disa, goddess of Germans, Discipline, military, 199;

Roman Diseases Dishes
at

Epirotes, Equitesor
Eras and 127

25

knights Epochs,

of 65

Rome,

254

Free

and

freedmen,
era

at

camps, Roman
art

280 294 the mans, Ro-

deified, 120
a

supper, of among

Divination, Greeks,

149, 164, 166;

240 Greek and

Erato, Erebus, 100 Erigone, 117 Erysicthon, Essarhaddon,

Eteocles and

Rome, 285 French Republic,

Fret-work,
290

of, 65

Fulling
112 69 Funeral

of cloth, 264

Divinity,
idea Divisions

Roman

Etruscans,
229

their

Polynices, 136 ges, religious usathe

ceremonies, Greek, 300 ; 149, 221, 222 ; Roman, 221 ; eulogies! 222, songs, 302 ; pile,149, 302
orations of Pericles and

of, 87
of time, 59

Funeral

287 Divorces, Roman, Dodona, oracle of, 25, 165 Dogs of Molossis, 25 affairs of Greeks, 157, Domestic 285 204; of Romans, Dominical

Eulogies Euryale, Euterpe,

Evil eye,

over

dead, 222, 302

130 127

superstition respecting,
240 197

222 Demosthenes, Furies, 99, 128 in Roman Furnaces houses, 291 of houses, 212,290 Furniture G.

Evolutions, military,
Exercises of Roman Exhalations

letter, 63
in his

Dowry
Draco,
Dramatic

marriage,

220 ten writ-

280 camp, of Pontine es, marsh-

laws, earliest 177 in Greece,

11

exhibitions, among 246 175; Romans, interpretation of, 167, 240 ; god of, 130 mans, of Greeks, Dress 157, 208 ; RoGreeks, Dreams, on
297

public, at Athens, Expenses, 1S2, 224; at Rome, 236, 262 the Romans, Expiation among
239

Exposing

of 287

children, by

mans, Ro-

Drinking
Druidical

cups,

204, 207, 297 temple, 148

Druids, 237 Drum, 217 Dryads, 126 Dryope, 116 Dwellings, Roman,
210

Fabii, race of, 11 Fables, mythological,

Gabriel, stone of, 53 Galley, the Athenian, sacred, 42 Galleys, or war-ships, 200, 282 of Pompeii, 294 Gamblers of the Greeks, 172, 173 ; Games Olympic, "c, 173 ; social, nor 242; in ho207; Romans, of the dead, 222, 304 96 Ganymedes, Gardening, god and goddess of, 292 119; of the Romans, Garlands, 175, 275
Gates of

sources

Rome,

16 burnt 72 of

of, 84
Falconer,

Gauls,

Rome

by,

225

shipwreck

described

by, 290;
cian, GreFallen

23

Dyeing,

art

of, 264
E.

spirits,129 goddess of, 118 286 Families, Roman, Family habitations, from
Fame,
113

history of, 7 Gelon, of Syracuse, Gemini, 135

Gems,
illustrative 86

gy, Mytholo-

ta, Ves-

299 Ear-rings, Roman, Earth personified, 93, 112

Fanatic,
240

origin

of

the

term,

and Genii, 128 Genseric, leader of Vandals, 79 of the knowledge Geography, Greeks in, 3; epitome of Genius

Earthenware,

263
customs

Eating, Roman Eclipses in

197

ancient

in, 293 times, 64,

Edict,

of Praetor, 249

the Greeks, among 288 159; Romans, 229 Egeria and Numa, Egypt, productiveness of, 261 ; deities of, 122 ; Geography of, 66, of, 53; Chronology Education

Fascination, 240 ancients, 171 Fasting among Fate, controlling the gods, 88 Fates, 127 Father, of mankind, according of to Greeks, 124; power dren, his chilthe over Roman,
287

classical, 3

Geryon,

131

Giants, 124, 125, 133 Gladiators, Roman, 244, 304 far bv mans, Roused Glass, how

Fauns,
Faun Feast
us,

130

and oracle grove of the gods, 234

of, 11

71;

works

on,

71
customs

Egyptian gods, 122; of burial, 100 site of temple El Wan,

56 Elections
at

social, of Greeks, 158, 294 206; of Bomans, Feet, covering for, 208, 298 Feasts,
of in Greece, state Females, 159, 218 ; obligations of, to 287 Christianity,

263, 290 60 Gnomon, and ber Roman, numGods, Greek of, 85 ; classes of, 87 87 their residence, "c, food, "c. 88 ; genealogy, 90: Egyptian admitted among
the Golden

Romans,

122
;

of

ter, Jupi-

age, Gorgons, 130

91, 93

number,

63

Rome,

257 194

Elephants

used

in war,

Feronia,

120

taken Goths, Rome by, 79, 225 Government, changes in form of Grecian, 72, 141,151, 176,

GENERAL

INDEX.

327
Isis, Egyptian goddess, 102,122 ; table of, 123; temple of, discovered 123 at Pompeii, of, 223 Isocrates, tomb Isthmian 98, 175 games,
Italo-Grecian ancient states, 15

248;

178, 191; of Roman, over by Romans

nations,
258 two, 77

75,
quered con-

Hieromancy,
Hills of Rome, Hippias and

167 16 177

Gracchi, the Graces, 127

Graici, and other Greeks,

names

of

cient an-

141

Hippocrene, Hippodamia, Hippomedon, History of

Hipparchus, 127, 131

131, 136
136

principal

tion 69; illustrated states, of, 264; distribuby coins, 65 ; sacred, as related Rome, 261 to pagan Grapes, varieties of, 295 mythology, 84 Grecian 156, 194, 276 Horsemanship, cities,141 barous, Horsemen or Greece, first inhabitants, barknights, 270, 276 Horse, Neptune 141, 150; colonies patron of, 98

Grain,

kinds

Italy, geography Ixion, 96, 100

J.

of, 9

of at

in, 142;
and

causes

of

culture

Horse-race,

172

Janus, a Roman god, 16, 93 to Japetus, Japhet, similar Jason and Medea, 135 Javelin, hurling of, 172

124

for chariots for and 141, 143; Horses, improvement, of carrying burdens, 266 periods in the progress his villas,292 refinement, 145; extent of, Hortensius, of the Horus, 20, 21, 141 ; outline 100, 122, 124 Hospitality, Grecian, 158, 179, chronology of, 72; form of 295 207; Roman, government in, 141, 142, 151, 177 Hours, goddesses of, 127 ; of the Greek antiquities, utility of, day, 60, 240 Household 143; writers gods, 129 on, 144 Greek 79 288, 289 Household, Roman, emperors, in southern man, Greeks Houses, Italy, 13 Grecian, 158, 210 ; Ro290 Gregorian calendar, 62 Griffon, 132 Hunting, fishing, "c, 158 Grinding, method of, 158, 159, Hurdles, 280 264 Hyacinthus, 101 Groves, sacred, 18, 162, 230 Hydra, 131 293 Guest-chambers, 217,247 Hydraulic organ, Hygeia, 117 Gyges, ring of, 99 107 Gymnastic art, 175 Hymenaeus, Hyperion, 114, 124 H.

69 Jeroboam, Jerusalem, of, 51, topography 52; destruction of, 70 Jewish

history
outline

and

gy, chronolo-

of, 69, 70 Jacob,

124

Jopates, 131 Joseph, son

Joshua,
Journals 17 69 and

of

Periodicals

trating illus-

classical

literature,

Judges

Judicial

Hades, 100 proceedings, Greek, 259 185; Roman, Juggernaut, festival of, "c. 110 Jugglers and rope-dancers, 244 78; Julian, the Apostate, riod, pein 63

Habits, domestic,
292

of

Romans, Iacchus, 170 Ibis, 122 Ictimuli, mines

Junia, sister of Brutus, 302 Juno, 96 95, 165; Jupiter, 94; Amnion, of in temples of, 17 ; statue or Olympia, 114; Pluvius
Pluvialis,
95 ;

Hades,

99, 221
modes
-

gates of, 99, 223

Hair,

of

dressing, 208,

of, 262

299

Idas,

135

of, 150, 184, 259 Justice, courts goddess of, 117

K. Kaaba
at

Hallirrhotius, 105 126 Hamadryads, Harmodins and Aristogiton,

Harmonia,
107 128 124

Ides, 61, 240 Idolatry, origin of, 83, 81

177

Idomeneus,

137

Mecca,

53

Ignis,
Ilium

113

Harpies, 41, Harpocrates,

Harps, Head,
217

Ilithyia, 96, 102

or Troy, 46 Illyrians, 8 Images in temples, 146, 160, 230 Roman, Imperial government,

Calends. Kalends, see Keys, ancient, 212 181 ; Roman King, Archon, priest so called, 234

god of, 120 Harrowing, coverings for, 208, 298 drinking Health, of, 207, 295 goddess of, 117, 118 Heathenism,
of among 86 96 101 147 71 moral Greeks influence and

Kings,

249

Implements
264

of

man, agriculture, Roat

cian, of the early Grethe tan, Spar150, 189; 189; the Roman, 226, 234, 248; ensigns of, 248; power kissing the

feet, 210
254

mans, Ro-

Imprisonment
Inachus,
Indian 133

Rome,
its

260

Knights, Roman,
L.

Hebe,

mythology,
to

blance resem-

Hecate,
Hecatomb,

Indiction,

Greek, 86 cycle of, 63

Labyrinth,
Cretan, Lacedaemon, to,
220

Egyptian,
43, 135

54, 55;

Hecatompylos,

Hector, 137 Heirs, at Athens, 220 137 Helen, Helicon, 126 Heliogabalus, 298 Heliotrope, 60 Helius, 114 Hell, rivers of, 99 Helmet, 153, 274; of Pluto, 99 Helots, 189

Industry, art of, 212, 263 Inferior gods, 113 Infernal regions, entrance 12,36 ; rivers, 25
Inheritances
at

see Sparta. 303 Lachrymatories, Lamps, ancient, 291 Language, early Latin, similar

Athens,

to

Latin

now

used

in Wal-

Inns, 158, 208

lachia, 8
Lantern of Demosthenes, Lapithae, 24, 131 Lares and Penates, Laticlave, 298 116 Laiona, 129 33

Inscriptions, on
tombs,

altars, 230 ; on use "c.,222; of, in

65

chronology,

Hephaestion,
222

friend

of

der, Alexan-

Institute, Royal, of France, 17 Instruments, agricultural, 264 ; sacrificial, 232 ; musical, 216, 217, 272

Lawgivers,
Laws

of

of Greece,

Heralds, Hercules, Hermae,

150, 197, 234

Intelligence
of
plained, ex-

and 104

wisdom

sonified, per-

134;
134 busts
or

story

Intelligence, means
statues
so

of conveying

and Athens, 261 Crete, 191 ; Rome, Lawsuits, Athenian, 186; Spartan, 191
;

Athens, 188 early, 151 188; Sparta

of

among

Greeks,
15

199;
267 254

Roman,
262 of

259

119 called, 109", 124 Hermanubis, Hermes, 108; Trismegistus, 108 Heroes, worship of, "x. 132, 149 Heroic 72, 132; manners age, of, 159 taken Heruli, Rome by, 78 Hesperides, 134 Hierarchy of Romish church, 233

Romans,

Interest, rate of at Rome, Intermarriages at Rome,

116 Inuus, lo, 105, 122 Ipsus, battle Iris, goddess

Lawyers, Leaping, Legion,

Roman,
243

game of Romans, the

Greeks, 172;

of, 70, 74
of the

rainbow,

96,
Isiac

115

Roman, 270, 271, 238; Thundering, number of legions, 284 288 Legitimation, Roman, his tomb, 38 Leonidas, 272; Letters, used
to

Isa, Hindoo

deity,122
123

represent

bers, num-

Table,

213,

267

328
Levying, Roman system Libations, 147, 163, 238
Licentiousness 220 of the

GENERAL

INDEX.

of,271 Greeks,

Mesmerism, Metals,
used 85

supposition
by Vulcan,

cerning, con-

Naval

166 107

Metamorphoses,fables Metempsychosis,
Methodicschool in resident 178 84

ing, respect-

affairs of Greeks, 152, 200,212; of Romans, 282 Naval battle,203, 282 Navigation of Greeks, 152 Nemean

Lictors, 248, 250 Life, private, of Greeks, 204; 285 Romans, Light troops, 194, 276 Loretto, chapel of, 10 ture, Lots, used for learning the fu167, 240 ; in choosing magistrates, 180 Lucifer, 114 Lucina, 102 Lucretia, outrage upon, 75,227 Lucullus, his villa,12 Luna, 114 Lunar cycle, 62 Lupercus, 116 Lustrations, 147, 239 227, 267 Luxury of Romans, tombs Lycia, Greek in, 223 Lycursus, lawgiver, Spartan 73,151 Lydian history, 70 Lynceus, 135 Lyncus, 112 Lyre, 216,217; invention of, 108 Ly sander, 177
M.

Nemesis,
137
at

games, 117 98 98

174

medicine,
aliens

Metics,

or

Neptune, Nereids,

Athens,

Nero,
of

Metis, wife of Jupiter,94 Meton, his cycle, 62 Midas, gift of Bacchus to, 109 16 Milestones, Roman, Military affairs, of Greeks, 152,
193;
Milk in of Romans, 270

his tyranny, Rome, 225 the centaur,

78; burning
134

Nessus,

Nestor, 137 Netha, Egyptian

Nets,
New

for

libations, 147 Mills, for grain, 264 Milo, catacombs of, 221 Miitiades, 21,73
Minerva, 104; festival of, 29, 37 temples Mines, 22, 26,38, 262 100, 131, 133 Minos,

deity, 104 fishing, 158 portance Testament, literary imof, 242 ; Apocryphal,
243

Newton's New-vear's

Chronology,
presents 64
at

64, 66 Rome,

of, 171;

241

Nicias,

Minotaur,
Mint,
at

Athens,

131, 134 213;

at

Rome,

Night, goddess of, 101, 115, 117 Nimrod, 69 Ninias, 69 Niobe, 102, 117,136
Nobilitv.

267

Roman,

254

Maccabees, 69 117 Machaon, Machines, used in war, Magical arts, 167, 240 Athens, Magistrates at Sparta, 190; Rome Magnesia, battle of, 70 Maia, 108 Makrinoros, pass of, 26 Mamertine prison, 260
Manes,
129 in Roman

Mirrors, ancient, 209 Mithras, 100, 134 Mizraim, grandson of 121, 126 Mnemosvne, Mnevis, 123 Mceris, lake of, 54
Moloch, Momus, Money,
91 119 of the

Nones,"61,240
Notation, Greek, 213; Roman,
Noah, 71 267

Nox, 100, 115 his influence Numa,

at

Rome,
ters, by letRoman,

226, 229 designated Numbers,

75,

281

Grecian, Greeks, 212,213; 266, 267, 275

and 267

213 ;

180;
251

the Months

Romans,
;

Nuptial
287

celebrations,
126

159,

220

of Greeks

60, 61
Monuments 302 Morals. and

Romans, personified, 127 the to dead, 221,

manners

Nymphs,

O. and in Greece

Rome,
34

227

Oases, Egyptian,
Oaths,
of

55

Maniples Manners,
292

general,
280

272 army, of Romans,

Morea,

Greeks,

163;
Roman

of

mans, Rodiers, sol-

Mantlets,
Manumission

130 Morpheus, Mosaic floors, 290 at Cordova, Mosque Mother of

239;
270 9

ofslaves,
Roman order

289

gods,

93

Obelisks, 19, 55 98 Ocean, 300,

266 Octavius
or

Marching,

of, 278

Marines, 202, 282 Marius, 77 Market days at Rome, Markets, 17, 32 Roman, Mars, 105;
286

241

for the dead, Mourning 302, 304 Mules, use of, by Romans, 55, 221 Mummies,

Augustus,

77

Odea, 19, 32
Odin, 105 leader Odoacer,
79 QEnomaus and of the

Heruli,

Municipal
Murra 263
or

Marriages, Greek, 159, 218

priests of, 235 Apollo, 101
and

Roman, vases Murrhinum,

towns,

258

of,

Offences,

penal,
to

Pelops, 136 259 at Rome,

Marsyas
Martial

and

150 Musseus, 126 ; Muses,

Offerings
on

the of

gods, 148, 149, magistrates,

297

the

ring

of

238 Official robe 133 of the

rewards

ments, punish-

Pyrrhus,
Music,
in Greek

127

199, 275 Masks, ancient, 176, 247 of MauMausoleum, sepulchre

education,
of of

159,
quets, ban-

Ogyges,
Ointments

accompaniment 216, aud

238 Musical Roman
; science

ancients, 158,

sacrifices,
Old

210, 299
and
new

114,223 public, 190, Spartan, 191 ; Grecian generally, 293 157, 204, 206 ; Roman, Measures cian, Greand Weights, 268 214; Roman,
solus.

of, 216

style.62 gods,

Meals,

instruments, army, 272

216;

in

Olympic
Olvmpus,
88 Omens.

173 games, of the residence

Mechanical

trades

at

Rome,

263

Medea, 135 Mediterranean,

152

navigation

of,

Myriologues, 221 Mysteries, of Cabiri, 136; Eleusinian, 112, 169 Mythic poetry, 88 connected Mythical personages with the gods, 124 man, Greek, S8 ; SoMythographers,
88

149, 168, 233

172

134 Ompha'le,

Oplitodrome,
Ops
or

Rhea, 93 149, 164, 166; Sibyline, Oracles, 240; of Apollo, 101

104, 130 Medusa, 125 Melicertes,

Organ,
a

musical

instrument,

Melpomene,
Memnon,
115

127

83; utility of Mythology. blance of, 86; resemknowledge

statue

sounding
of

of,
and differences and

between

classical

oriental, Roman,
N. 87

86, 94,

95 ;

217, 247 Orion, 114, 125 architectural, 290; Ornaments, 299 personal of Romans, Orthos, 131 Osiris, 110, 122 Ostia, salt-works at, 262 187 Ostracism, and Otus Ephialtes, 105

Memory, systems 67,68

artificial,

between

Greek

Mende.s, 116 137 Menelaus, Menes, Egyptian king, 71 festival Merchants, of, 242; 263 Roman,

Nail,

ceremony of temple of
towns

of fixing in

the of

Jupiter, 242
235
;

Names,

Romans,
in

Ovation, 284 Ox, symbol

bones

of

Mercury, Mermaid,

108 126

England

ending

found

in

Osiris, 122; the Egyptian

in cester, 280

pyramid,

123

GENERAL

INDEX.

329
Purifications, Greek, 147, 163 ; Roman, 239 297 Purple dye, its costliness, Pygmies, 125 Pyramids, 55, 123 Pyrrha, 133 Pyrrhus, in Italy, 76 Pythian games,' 101, 174 Pytho, 101
Q.

p.

Pluto. of

98

Paederasty, 220 fables, coincidence Pagan with scripture, 84 and Paganism Popery, 137 Painting, ancient, remains
56

Plutus, 118 Podalirius, 117 Poetry, mythic,

Poets, influence 146
at

88
on

religionof

of,
16

Greeks,
Polemarch Pollux and

Palace, origin
Palaemon,
125

of the

word,

Athens, 181 Castor, 18, 135

133

Palladium,

104, 113

of victory, 243 Palm, token Pan, 116 j priests of, 235 Panathenaic

Polydectes, Polydorus, Polygamy,

Greeks,

136
not

allowed

by

the

Panathenaea,

vases, 171 of the

172

Pandora, 107 Panic, origin

word,

116

17 Pantheon, Parents, respect to, 159

250 Quaestors, Roman, of gods, 96 Queen Polyhymnia, 127, Quinquatria, 104 Polynices, 136 119 Quirites, rights of, 258 Pomona, interredQuoit, or Discus, 173,243 Pompeii, implements, "c, disat, 291, 292, 294,
220 300 R.

Parga.
Parks

fate of the

of,25 Romans,
127

292

Parnassus,
Paros,

Pompey, 70, 77 Pillar, 55 Pompey's Pontine or Pomptine

11

Race,
243

Grecian,
or

172;

Roman,

marshes,

Chronicle

of, 65

Parthenon, 104 Parthenopseus, 136 Parthian history, 70 Patricians and plebeians, 243 Patroclus, funeral of, 222 Patrons and clients, 254, 295 Paulus iEmilius, and the Epirotes, 25

Pontiffs,Roman,
Poor,
at

232 how 253

Athens,
183

ed, support-

Peace,

temple

of Janus

in time

of, 18; temple of, 18, 93

Roman, Population of Rome, 225 of ancient Populousness 178, 225 Porticos, 19, 31, 36, 38 Portuninus, 125
Populace, Posthumius,
11

tions, na-

286 at Rome, personified, 96, 115 Raising a child, 287 Rama, Hindoo deity, 110 Ras Sem, the petrifiedcity,56 Religion of the Greeks, 145, 160; expenses of, 182; the Romans, 229 of Repasts, Greeks, 157, 204; Romans, 293 Rainbow Residents Revenue
at

Races

families

Athens,

178 181 ; of

of

Athens,

Pegasus,

131, 133

Pelias, 135

Pelopidae, 136 Pelopidas of Thebes, 74 Peloponnesian war, 74 Pelops, 133, 136 so Peperino, stone called, 303
Pericles, statesman, Perjury, at Rome,
Persecution 261 of "c. 239 73

roads, 15 Posts, on Roman 263 Pottery, Roman, or libra,270 Pound, Roman, goddess, 94 Pracriti, Hindoo Prasdial servitudes, 268 Praefects, 251, 285
soldiers, 284 249 Praetors, Roman, Prsetus, 131
Praetorian

Rome, 261 Armilusor Review-muster, trium, 242 Rewards of Athens, 187; Sparta, 191 ; of Roman soldiers, 274 ; Roman generals, 283 100 Rhadamanthus,
Rhea,
93 letters at, 34 Rhodes, Greek Riches, god of, 118 Riding on horseback, 156, 266 Rights of citizens and subjects of Rome, 258

Christians, 78, Proserpine, of, 44

99

Prayers,
Precession
means

of of

Greeks,
237

147;

of

Romans,
or

Persephone,

Persepolis,
Perseus,
Persian 44 Personification 133

ruins

Chronology,

70; kings, their

of

outline of, residences, jects, ob94

various

119

Pessinus,

origin of
187

the name,

Petalism,
Petrified

city, 56
101

Phaeton, Phalanx,
Phial

the equinoxes, a settling dates, 64 Priam, kingdom of,70 Priapus, 119 and Priests priestesses, Greek, 147, 162 ; imposture of, 164 ; Roman, 232, 235; classes of made them by later writers, 235 Prison of state, at Rome, 260; Sparta, 187, 191; Athens and other places, 187 of

Ring, badge of knighthood, 256 ; of Gyges, 99 Rings, 299 Rites, of marriage, 220, 287; religious, 147, 148, 237 Rivers called infernal,99 15 Roads, Roman, Roman antiquities, 227 their empire, 75, 226; Romans,
most

brilliant of.

era, 225

227 dation foun-

Grecian,

196 73

Prizes,
Procession

in

the

funeral the
;

games,

Rome,

goddess of,

119;
;

of tears, 303 Philip of Macedon,

222, 304
at

ment govern-

Circensian ;

Philippi,siteof,22; battle of,77 Philopoemen, 75 Philosophy, Christian, 210 Phlegon, eclipse named by, 64 Phlegyas, 100 Phocian, or Sacred War, 74
Phocians,
27 100

games,

243

triumphal,283

funeral, 302 Proconsuls, 252 Procris, 115 Professions, at Rome, 262 Property, among Romans,
basis 253 of division into

268;
es, class-

Phosbus,
Phoenician

history, 70
133

Phoroneus,

262 Physicians, Roman, Picus, king of Latins, 130

Pierus, 126 Pile, or Pyre, funeral, 149, 302

or Pillars, columns, 19 Pipe, of Pan, "c, 216, 217

Propraetors, 252 Proquaestors, 252 Proserpine, 99, 112 226, 258 Provinces, Roman, Provincial magistrates of
252, 258

mans, Ro-

of, 248, 249; extent empire, 226; luxury and vision decline, 227 ; classes or diof the people, 252; population, 225; phy, topogra16; chronology of, 75 Romulus and Remus, 225 Rope-dancers, 244 Rotunda or Pantheon, 17 their in the benches Rowers, ancient galley, 202 Runners the Greeks, 199 among of the games, 172 Running, one Rural deities,120
of S.

Pirithous, 135 Pisistratus, 73, 177

Prytanes, at Athens, 184 Psammeticus, 71 and Cupid, story Psyche

107 mans, Ro-

Sacer, of,
Sacred

Mt.

76 217

Sackbut,
or

Plays

of

the

Greeks, 243, 295

and

172;

Ptolemies, dynasty of, 71

Publicans of 262 the New ment, Testa247

Plebeians

Patricians

at

Phocian War, 74, 165 91 ; of the Sacrifices, human, mans, Greeks, 147, 148, 163; Ro232, 237; origin of, 148 Saddles Salamat 115 and

Rome, 75, 253 Pleiades, the constellation, 108 Pleione, 105 Plow,
264

Pulpit, origin
Punic

of the

word,

Grecian, 212; 42

Roman,

language, 40; wars, 72 Athenian, Punishments, 186, 199 ; Spartan, 191 ; Roman,

Saguntum,
or

stirrups, 266 siege of, 76 statue Memnon,

of,

260;

of Roman

275 soldiers,

330
Salaries, at Rome, 262 Sale by auction, 268 Salic priests, 235 of friendship, Salt, token

GENERAL

INDEX.

Socrates, Sofa-bed, Sol, 114;

207 Solar 114

his 212

trial,"c.

74

Tapestry, ancient,218
Tarentines, 15 Tarpeian rock, 16, 260 Tarquin, expulsion of, 75, 227 Tartarus, 99 Taxes at Rome, 261; Athens,
181
at Rome, 262 Tears, preservation of, 303 Telesphorus, 118 cian, Temples, ancient, 148; Gre146, 148, 160 ; in time of Homer, 148; Roman, 18, "x. 230; dedication of, 238; at Athens, 178; of Jupiter Ammon, 95; of Isis,123; Janus, 18; Juno Lacinia, 15 ; Solomon's, 52, 69 Tents, of Greek soldiers, 154 Terminus, 119 Terpsichore, 127

statue

of, at Rhodes,

262 Roman, Salt-works, Salus, goddess of health, 118

Samuel, 69 Sardanapalus, 69 Sardis, burning of, 73 Sardonic laugh, 40 Saturn, 91 Satyrs, 130 Scaling ladders, 280 Scepters, 248 deity, 110 Schiva, Hindoo of Carthage, Scipio, conqueror
77 Scironian

cycle, 63 of Grecian, Soldiers, classes 193; of Roman, 271, 272; carried load by Roman, 274, 280 Solomon, reign of, 69 on Athens, Solon, his influence
177 in ancient Somnambulism, times, 166 of, after death, 95 ; Soul, state weighing of, by Egyptians, 100

Teachers

rocks, 28

in Scriptures, Sacred, attested Pagan fictions, 84 Scylla and Charybdis, 132 Scythian guards at Athens, 32 Sea-fight, 203, 282 ; mock, 243 Seasons personified, 61, 127 Seatur, German deity, 91 Sertorian war, 8

Spain, mines Sparta, under

rival of

of, 262 Lycurgus,

Athens,
in of

142;
142;

changes

government,

education, 189; magistrates of, 189; tution, public meals, 190; consti188, 190; topography,
36

151 ; system

Terra

cotta, 263

Thalia, 127 Theatre, performances in, 176 ; of Romans,246; of Greeks,

175 Theban heroes war, constitution

Seleucidae, 70 Self-devotion, Semele, 109

Semiramis,
69

Spectacles
239 243

or

shows,

Roman,

184; Spartan, Athenian, 256 190; Roman, Septuagint, chronology of, 66 of 222; Greek, Sepulchers, man early Christians, 223 ; Roin England, 303 Senate,
Serapis,
123

Serfs, in Italy, 290 respecting Serpent, in fables 101; Crishna, Apollo, and
emblem of health, 268 117

Sphere of Chiron, 64 Sphinx, 132 Spirits,departed, 99 ; fallen,129 how Spoils of war, divided, 154, 199 Spoletto, aqueduct at, 10 Spurs, 266 on Stage, actors Greek, 176; of Roman, 247 parts Staircases, 291 Standards, military, Grecian, 198 ; Roman, 272 298 at Pompeii, Statues, found
Stheno,
130

Thebes,

of, 136 of, 192;

supremacy

of, 74
eminence
m

Themis, 94, 117 Themistocles, his

state, 73

Servitudes,

Sesostris, 71 Sesterce, value

Seven Sewers wonders of Rome,

of the 19

of, 267 world,114

Stirrups, 266 Stonehenge, 148 Storms, goddesses Strangers, treatment

Greeks,
207

of, 128
of

by

the

Shield, the sacred, 235 Shields, ancient, 153, 194, 274;

of 153 Hercules Grecian 282 and

Achilles,
man, Ro-

Stucco-painting, 290 Styx, 99 Suliotes, bravery of, 25

Sun,
the Fountain of at

Ships,

154, 200;

of, 56;
42 114 294

tue sta-

Rhodes,

practice of those Shipwreck, surviving, 238 Shoes, 208, 298; of horses, 266 Shows spectacles at Rome, or
243

of, 240 Sibyls, books of, 198, 280; Sieges, manner celebrated, 282 Signals of battle, 198 167 "c. Signs, in the heavens, Silence, god of, 124 Sileni, 130 curious Silenus, image of, at
Paros,
110 the ancients, to Silk, known 209, 298 Singing at feasts, 207 Sirens, 125, 126 Sistrum, 218 Sisyphus, 100 deity, 95 Siva, Hindoo Slaves, in Greece, 159, 178, 180 ; 189; Rome, 285, at Sparta, 289; patron goddess of the trade in, freed, 120, 290; 263 ; republic of,in Sicily,41 Sleep, god of, 130 149 Sneezing, ominous, Sobriquet or burlesque name, 286 Social
war

Sun-dial, 60 Sun-god, 93; worship, Superior gods, 91 of the Romans, Suppers Supplicants, 147 Surgical instruments,
263

Theogony, Greek, 87, 146 167 Theomancy, Thersander, 136 Theseus, 134 Thessaly, 24 Thrace, 20, 21, 145 Thracians, widows, 149 Thrasybulus, 177 Thrasyllus, monument of, 33 Threshing-floor, 264 Thyestes, 136 battle of, 70 Thymbra, Thyone, 109 Thyrsus, of Bacchus, 110 Time, personified. 91 Titanides, 91,124' Titans, 124 Tithonus, 114 70 Titus, conqueror, Tityus, 100 Toilet, Grecian, 209; Roman, 299, 300 man Tomb, of Cyrus, "c, 223; Roat

Pompeii,

303;

at

of

mans, Ro-

Swearing,
239

among

the the

Romans, ancients,
7

Swimming
293

among

Swords,

196,274 ; of Noricum, Sybarites, 13, 15 Syenite, 54 Sylla, and Marius, 77 ; conqueror

of Athens, 177

Cyrene, 66; of Virgil,12 Tombs of early Christians, 303 of Rome, 16; of Topography, Athens, 28; Sparta, 36 laid waste Totila, Rome by, 225 Towers, ancient, 281 names ending in Towns, with
cester, 280

Trade,
289

at

Rome,
of

263

; in

slaves,
83

Traditions Translucent

mythology,
stone, 290

of, 192; Syracuse, constitution topography of, 40 Syria, kingdom of, 70 Syrinx, 116 armed with, Svthes, chariots
194

Treasury,

Athenian,
261

182;

man, Ro-

Treaties, 157, 234

Trees,
264 cultivated of

by Romans, accused, 185,

Trial,
259

persons

Table,

of of

Isis, 123 ; genealogical,

cient mythology, 90 ; anfor eating, 206, 294

Tribes, of Athens, 177, 178; 252 Sparta, 188; Rome, Tribunes, Roman, 76, 250, 251
Trident,
98 consecrated
; street to ApolIov of, 33

Tables

and

charts, 66

entertainments, 214, 295; in Italy, 77

Tables, twelve, 261 Talent, value of, 213 Tammuz, Syrian deity, 106 Tantalus, 100, 136

Tripods,

149, 165

Triptolemus, Triremes, 202

110