LINEAR ALGEBRA

W W L CHEN
c
W W L Chen, 1982, 2008.

This chapter originates from material used by the author at Imperial College, University of London, between 1981 and 1990. It is available free to all individuals, on the understanding that it is not to be used for nancial gain, and may be downloaded and/or photocopied, with or without permission from the author. However, this document may not be kept on any information storage and retrieval system without permission from the author, unless such system is not accessible to any individuals other than its owners.

Chapter 4
VECTORS

4.1. Introduction A vector is an object which has magnitude and direction. Example 4.1.1. We may be travelling north-east at 50 kph. In this case, the direction of the velocity is north-east and the magnitude of the velocity is 50 kph. We can describe our velocity in kph as 50 50 , 2 2 ,

where the rst coordinate describes the speed with which we are moving east and the second coordinate describes the speed with which we are moving north. Example 4.1.2. An object in the sky may be 100 metres away in the south-east direction 45 degrees upwards. In this case, the direction of its position is south-eastand 45 degrees upwards and the magnitude of its distance is 100 metres. We can describe the position of the object in metres as 100 50, 50, 2 ,

where the rst coordinate describes the distance east, the second coordinate describes the distance north and the third coordinate describes the distance up. The purpose of this chapter is to study some relationship between algebra and geometry. We shall rst study some algebra which is motivated by geometric considerations. We then use the algebra later to better understand some problems in geometry.
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2 4.2. Vectors Vectors in in R R2 4.2. 2 A vector vector on on the the plane plane R R2 can be be described described as as an an ordered ordered pair pair u u= =( (u u1 ,u u2 ), where where u u1 ,u u2 R R. . 1, 2 ), 1, 2 A can 2 Definition. Two Two vectors vectors u u= =( (u u1 ,u u2 ) and and v v= =( (v v1 ,v v2 ) in in R R2 are said said to to be be equal, equal, denoted denoted by by u u= =v v, , if if 1, 2) 1, 2) Definition. are u1 =v v1 and u u2 =v v2 . 1 = 1 and 2 = 2. u 2 1 , u2 2 ) and v = (v1 1 , v2 2 ) in R2 , we dene their sum to be Definition. For any two vectors u = (u1

u + v = (u1 1 , u2 2 ) + ( v1 1 , v2 2 ) = (u1 1 + v1 1 , u2 2 + v2 2 ). Geometrically, if we represent the two vectors u and v by AB and BC respectively, then the sum u + v is represented by AC as shown in the diagram below: C

u+ +v v u

v v

u u

The next next diagram diagram demonstrates demonstrates geometrically geometrically that that u u+ +v v= =v v+ +u u: : The D
u u

v v

u+ +v v u

v v

u u

PROPOSITION 4A. 4A. (VECTOR (VECTOR ADDITION) ADDITION) PROPOSITION 2 2 2 2 (a) For every u , v R , we have u +v v R R2 . 2 (a) For every u, v R , we have u + . 2 2 , we have u + (v + w) = (u + v) + w. (b) For every u , v , w R 2 (b) For every u, v, w R , we have u + (v + w) = (u + v) + w . 2 2 2 2. (c) For For every every u u R R2 , we we have have u u+ +0 0= =u u, , where where 0 0= = (0 (0, , 0) 0) R R2 (c) , . 2 2 2 2 (d) For For every every u u R R2 , there there exists exists v v R R2 such that that u u+ +v v= =0 0. . (d) , such 2 2 (e) For For every every u u, ,v v R R2 , we we have have u u+ +v v= =v v+ +u u. . (e) , Proof. Write Write u u= =( (u u1 ,u u2 ), v v= =( (v v1 ,v v2 ) and and w w= =( (w w1 ,w w2 ), where where u u1 ,u u2 ,v v1 ,v v2 ,w w1 ,w w2 R R. . To To check check 1, 2 ), 1, 2) 1, 2 ), 1, 2, 1, 2, 1, 2 Proof. part (a), (a), simply simply note note that that u u1 +v v1 ,u u2 +v v2 R R. . To To check check part part (b), (b), note note that that 1+ 1, 2+ 2 part u+ +( (v v+ +w w) )= =( (u u1 ,u u2 )+ +( (v v1 +w w1 ,v v2 +w w2 )= =( (u u1 +( (v v1 +w w1 ), ,u u2 +( (v v2 +w w2 )) 1, 2) 1+ 1, 2+ 2) 1+ 1+ 1) 2+ 2+ 2 )) u = (( u + v ) + w , ( u + v ) + w ) = ( u + v , u + v ) + ( w , w ) 1 + v1 1) + w1 1 , (u 2 2 + v2 2) + w2 2 ) = (u 1 1 + v1 1, u2 2 + v2 2 ) + (w 1 1, w2 2) = ((u1 =( (u u+ +v v) )+ +w w. . = Part (c) (c) is is trivial. trivial. Next, Next, if if v v= =( ( u u1 , u u2 ), then then u u+ +v v= =0 0, , giving giving part part (d). (d). To To check check part part (e), (e), note note 1, 2 ), Part that u + v = ( u + v , u + v ) = ( v + u , v + u ) = v + u . 1 + v1 1 , u2 2 + v2 2 ) = ( v1 1 + u1 1 , v2 2 + u2 2 ) = v + u. that u + v = (u1
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2 Definition. For For any any vector vector u u= =( (u u1 ,u u2 ) in in R R2 and any any scalar scalar c c R R, , we we dene dene the the scalar scalar multiple multiple to to be be 1, 2) Definition. and

cu = c(u1 , u2 ) = (cu1 , cu2 ). Example 4.2.1. Suppose that u = (2, 1). Then 2u = (4, 2). Geometrically, if we represent the two vectors u and 2u by OA and OB respectively, then we have the diagram below: A
u

2u

B PROPOSITION 4B. 4B. (SCALAR (SCALAR MULTIPLICATION) MULTIPLICATION) PROPOSITION 2 2 (a) For For every every c c R R and and u u R R2 , we we have have c cu u R R2 . (a) , . 2 (b) For For every every c c R R and and u u, ,v v R R2 , , we we have have c c( (u u+ +v v) )= =c cu u+ +c cv v. . (b) 2 (c) For For every every a, a, b b R R and and u u R R2 , we we have have ( (a a+ +b b) )u u= =a au u+ +b bu u. . (c) , 2 (d) For For every every a, a, b b R R and and u u R R2 , we we have have ( (ab ab) )u u= =a a( (b bu u) ). . (d) , 2 2 , we have 1u = u. (e) For every u R (e) For every u R , we have 1u = u. Proof. Write Write u u= =( (u u1 , , u2 ) and v = (v1 , v2 ), where u1 , u2 , v1 , v2 R. To check part (a), simply note Proof. 1 u2 ) and v = (v1 , v2 ), where u1 , u2 , v1 , v2 R. To check part (a), simply note that cu , cu R . To check part (b), (b), note note that that 1 , cu 2 R. To check part that cu1 2 c( (u u+ +v v) )= =c c( (u u1 + +v v1, , u2 + v2 ) = (c(u1 + v1 ), c(u2 + v2 )) c 1 1 u2 + v2 ) = (c(u1 + v1 ), c(u2 + v2 )) =( (cu cu1 + + cv cv1, , cu cu2 + + cv cv2) )= =( (cu cu1, , cu cu2) )+ +( (cv cv1, , cv cv2) )= =c cu u+ +c cv v. . =
1 1 2 2 1 2 1 2

To check check part part (c), (c), note note that that To (a a+ +b b) )u u= = (( ((a a+ +b b) )u u1 , , (a + b)u2 ) = (au1 + bu1 , au2 + bu2 ) ( 1 (a + b)u2 ) = (au1 + bu1 , au2 + bu2 ) =( (au au1, , au au2) )+ +( (bu bu1, , bu bu2) )= =a au u+ +b bu u. . =
1 2 1 2

To check check part part (d), (d), note note that that To (ab ab) )u u= = (( ((ab ab) )u u1 , , (ab)u2 ) = (a(bu1 ), a(bu2 )) = a(bu1 , bu2 ) = a(bu). ( 1 (ab)u2 ) = (a(bu1 ), a(bu2 )) = a(bu1 , bu2 ) = a(bu). Finally, to to check check part part (e), (e), note note that that 1 1u u= = (1 (1u u1 , , 1u2 ) = (u1 , u2 ) = u. Finally, 1 1u2 ) = (u1 , u2 ) = u.
2 Definition. For For any any vector vector u u= =( (u u1 , , u2 ) in R2 , we dene the norm of u to be the non-negative real Definition. 1 u2 ) in R , we dene the norm of u to be the non-negative real number number

u = = u

2 + u2 2. u2 u 1 + u2 2. 1

Remarks. (1) (1) The The norm norm of of a a vector vector is is simply simply its its magnitude magnitude or or length. length. The The denition denition follows follows from from the the Remarks. famous theorem of Pythagoras. famous theorem of Pythagoras.
2 (2) Suppose Suppose that that P P( (u u1 ,u u2 ) and and Q Q( (v v1 ,v v2 ) are are two two points points on on the the plane plane R R2 . To To calculate calculate the the distance distance 1, 2) 1, 2) (2) . d( (P, P, Q Q) ) between between the the two two points, points, we we can can rst rst nd nd a a vector vector from from P P to to Q Q. . This This is is given given by by ( (v v1 u u1 ,v v2 u u2 ). 1 1, 2 2 ). d The distance distance d d( (P, P, Q Q) ) is is then then the the norm norm of of this this vector, vector, so so that that The

d( (P, P, Q Q) )= = d
Chapter 4 4: : Vectors Vectors Chapter

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2 (3) It It is is not not dicult dicult to to see see that that for for any any vector vector u u R R2 and any any scalar scalar c c R R, , we we have have c cu u = =| |c c| | u u . . (3) and 2 Definition. Any Any vector vector u u R R2 satisfying u u = =1 1 is is called called a a unit unit vector. vector. Definition. satisfying

Example 4.2.2. 4.2.2. The The vector vector (3 (3, , 4) 4) has has norm norm 5. 5. Example Example 4.2.3. 4.2.3. The The distance distance between between the the points points (6 (6, , 3) 3) and and (9 (9, , 7) 7) is is Example
2 Example 4.2.4. 4.2.4. The The vectors vectors (1 (1, , 0) 0) and and (0 (0, , 1) 1) are are unit unit vectors vectors in in R R2 . Example . 2 + (7 3)2 2 = 5. (9 6) 6)2 (9 + (7 3) = 5.

Example 4.2.5. 4.2.5. The The unit unit vector vector in in the the direction direction of of the the vector vector (1 (1, , 1) 1) is is (1 (1/ / 2 2, ,1 1/ / 2). 2). Example
2 Example 4.2.6. 4.2.6. In In fact, fact, all all unit unit vectors vectors in in R R2 are of of the the form form (cos (cos , , sin sin ), ), where where R R. . Example are

Quite often, often, we we may may want want to to nd nd the the angle angle between between two two vectors. vectors. The The scalar scalar product product of of the the two two vectors vectors Quite then comes in handy. We shall dene the scalar product in two ways, one in terms of the angle between then comes in handy. We shall dene the scalar product in two ways, one in terms of the angle between the two two vectors vectors and and the the other other not not in in terms terms of of this this angle, angle, and and show show that that the the two two denitions denitions are are in in fact fact the equivalent. equivalent.
2 Definition. Suppose that u = (u1 1 , u2 2 ) and v = (v1 1 , v2 2 ) are vectors in R2 , and that [0, ] represents the angle between them. We dene the scalar product u v of u and v by

(1) Alternatively, we write (2)

uv =

u v cos if u = 0 and v = 0, 0 if u = 0 or v = 0.

(1)

1v1 1 + u2 2v2 2. u v = u1

(2)

The denitions (1) and (2) are clearly equivalent if u = 0 or v = 0. On the other hand, we have the following result. PROPOSITION 4C. Suppose that u = (u 1, u 2) and v = (v 1, v 2) are non-zero vectors in R2 , and that [0, ] represents the angle between them. Then u v cos = u 1v 1 + u 2v 2. Proof. Geometrically, if we represent the two vectors u and v by OA and OB respectively, then the dierence v u is represented by AB as shown in the diagram below: dierence B
vu v

A O By the the Law Law of of cosines, cosines, we we have have By AB2 = = OA OA2 + + OB OB2 2 2OA OA OB OB cos cos ; ; AB
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in other words, we have vu so that u

1 v cos = 2 ( u 2 2

= u

+ v

2 u

v cos ,

+ v

v u 2)

2 2 2 2 2 1 (u2 =2 1 + u2 + v1 + v2 (v1 u1 ) (v2 u2 ) ) = u1 v1 + u2 v2

as required. Remarks. (1) We say that two non-zero vectors in R2 are orthogonal if the angle between them is /2. It follows immediately from the denition of the scalar product that two non-zero vectors u, v R2 are orthogonal if and only if u v = 0. (2) We can calculate the scalar product of any two non-zero vectors u, v R2 by the formula (2) and then use the formula (1) to calculate the angle between u and v. Example 4.2.7. Suppose that u = ( 3, 1) and v = ( 3, 3). Then by the formula (2), we have u v = 3 + 3 = 6. Note now that u =2 It follows from the formula (1) that cos = so that = /6. Example 4.2.8. Suppose that u = ( 3, 1) and v = ( 3, 3). Then by the formula (2), we have u v = 0. It follows that u and v are orthogonal. PROPOSITION 4D. (SCALAR PRODUCT) Suppose that u, v, w R2 and c R. Then (a) u v = v u; (b) u (v + w) = (u v) + (u w); (c) c(u v) = (cu) v = u (cv); (d) u u 0; and (e) u u = 0 if and only if u = 0. Proof. Write u = (u1 , u2 ), v = (v1 , v2 ) and w = (w1 , w2 ), where u1 , u2 , v1 , v2 , w1 , w2 R. Part (a) is trivial. To check part (b), note that u (v + w) = u1 (v1 + w1 ) + u2 (v2 + w2 ) = (u1 v1 + u2 v2 ) + (u1 w1 + u2 w2 ) = u v + u w.
2 Part (c) is rather simple. To check parts (d) and (e), note that u u = u2 1 + u2 0, and that equality holds precisely when u1 = u2 = 0. Chapter 4 : Vectors page 5 of 24

and

v = 2 3.

uv 6 3 = = , u v 2 4 3

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Consider the the diagram diagram below: below: Consider P P R R (3) (3)
v v w w u u

A A Q Q O O
a a

(3) Here we we represent represent the the two two vectors vectors a a and and u u by by OA OA and and OP OP respectively. respectively. If If we we project project the the vector vector u u on on to to Here the line OA , then the image of the projection is the vector w , represented by OQ . On the other hand, the line OA, then the image of the projection is the vector w, represented by OQ. On the other hand, if we we project project the the vector vector u u on on to to a a line perpendicular to the line OA, then the image of the projection is if line perpendicular to the line OA, then the image of the projection is the vector v , represented by OR the vector v, represented by OR.. Definition. In In the the notation notation of of the the diagram diagram (3), (3), the the vector vector w w is is called called the the orthogonal orthogonal projection projection of of the the Definition. vector u on the vector a , and denoted by w = proj u . au. vector u on the vector a, and denoted by w = proja a
2 2 PROPOSITION 4E. 4E. (ORTHOGONAL (ORTHOGONAL PROJECTION) PROJECTION) Suppose Suppose that that u u, ,a a R R2 . Then Then PROPOSITION . u a a u proja a. au = proj 2 a. au = a 2 a 2

Remark. Note Note that that the the component component of of u u orthogonal orthogonal to to a a,, represented represented by by OR in the the diagram diagram (3), (3), is is Remark. OR in ua u proj projau u= =u u ua a. u 2 a. a a 2 a Proof of of Proposition Proposition 4E. 4E. Note Note that that w w= =k ka a for for some some k k R R.. It It clearly clearly suces su ces ces to to prove prove that that su Proof ua k= = ua . k 2. a2 a It is is easy easy to to see see that that the the vectors vectors u u w w and and a a are are orthogonal. orthogonal. It It follows follows that that the the scalar scalar product product It (u u w w) ) a a= = 0. 0. In In other other words, words, ( (u u k ka a) ) a a= = 0. 0. Hence Hence ( ua ua k= = ua = = ua k 2 a a a a2 a a as required. required. as To end end this this section, section, we we shall shall apply apply our our knowledge knowledge gained gained so so far far to to nd nd a a formula formula that that gives gives the the To perpendicular distance distance of of a a point point ( (x x0 ,y y0 ) from from a a line line ax ax + + by by + +c c= = 0. 0. Consider Consider the the diagram diagram below: below: 0, 0) perpendicular

P P
D D ax+ +by by+ +c c=0 =0 ax u u

n= =( (a, a, b b) ) n Q Q O O

Chapter 4 : Vectors Chapter 4 : Vectors

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Suppose that (x1 , y1 ) is any arbitrary point O on the line ax + by + c = 0. For any other point (x, y ) on the line ax + by + c = 0, the vector (x x1 , y y1 ) is parallel to the line. On the other hand, (a, b) (x x1 , y y1 ) = (ax + by ) (ax1 + by1 ) = c + c = 0, so that the vector n = (a, b), in the direction OQ, is perpendicular to the line ax + by + c = 0. Suppose next that the point (x0 , y0 ) is represented by the point P in the diagram. Then the vector u = (x0 x1 , y0 y1 ) is represented by OP , and OQ represents the orthogonal projection projn u of u on the vector n. Clearly the perpendicular distance D of the point (x0 , y0 ) from the line ax + by + c = 0 satises D = projn u = un |(x0 x1 , y0 y1 ) (a, b)| |ax0 + by0 ax1 by1 | |ax0 + by0 + c| = = . n = n 2 a2 + b2 a2 + b2 a2 + b2

We have proved the following result. PROPOSITION 4F. The perpendicular distance D of a point (x0 , y0 ) from a line ax + by + c = 0 is given by D= |ax0 + by0 + c| . a2 + b2

Example 4.2.9. The perpendicular distance D of the point (5, 7) from the line 2x 3y + 5 = 0 is given by D= |10 21 + 5| 6 = . 4+9 13

4.3. Vectors in R3 In this section, we consider the same problems as in Section 4.2, but in 3-space R3 . Any reader who feels condent may skip this section. A vector on the plane R3 can be described as an ordered triple u = (u1 , u2 , u3 ), where u1 , u2 , u3 R. Definition. Two vectors u = (u1 , u2 , u3 ) and v = (v1 , v2 , v3 ) in R3 are said to be equal, denoted by u = v, if u1 = v1 , u2 = v2 and u3 = v3 . Definition. For any two vectors u = (u1 , u2 , u3 ) and v = (v1 , v2 , v3 ) in R3 , we dene their sum to be u + v = (u1 , u2 , u3 ) + (v1 , v2 , v3 ) = (u1 + v1 , u2 + v2 , u3 + v3 ). Definition. For any vector u = (u1 , u2 , u3 ) in R3 and any scalar c R, we dene the scalar multiple to be cu = c(u1 , u2 , u3 ) = (cu1 , cu2 , cu3 ). The following two results are the analogues of Propositions 4A and 4B. The proofs are essentially similar.
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PROPOSITION 4A. (VECTOR ADDITION) (a) For every u, v R3 , we have u + v R3 . (b) For every u, v, w R3 , we have u + (v + w) = (u + v) + w. (c) For every u R3 , we have u + 0 = u, where 0 = (0, 0, 0) R3 . (d) For every u R3 , there exists v R3 such that u + v = 0. (e) For every u, v R3 , we have u + v = v + u. PROPOSITION 4B. (SCALAR MULTIPLICATION) (a) For every c R and u R3 , we have cu R3 . (b) For every c R and u, v R3 , we have c(u + v) = cu + cv. (c) For every a, b R and u R3 , we have (a + b)u = au + bu. (d) For every a, b R and u R3 , we have (ab)u = a(bu). (e) For every u R3 , we have 1u = u. Definition. For any vector u = (u1 , u2 , u3 ) in R3 , we dene the norm of u to be the non-negative real number u =
2 2 u2 1 + u2 + u3 .

Remarks. (1) Suppose that P (u1 , u2 , u3 ) and Q(v1 , v2 , v3 ) are two points in R3 . To calculate the distance d(P, Q) between the two points, we can rst nd a vector from P to Q. This is given by (v1 u1 , v2 u2 , v3 u3 ). The distance d(P, Q) is then the norm of this vector, so that d(P, Q) = (v1 u1 )2 + (v2 u2 )2 + (v3 u3 )2 .

(2) It is not dicult to see that for any vector u R3 and any scalar c R, we have cu = |c| u . Definition. Any vector u R3 satisfying u = 1 is called a unit vector. Example 4.3.1. The vector (3, 4, 12) has norm 13. Example 4.3.2. The distance between the points (6, 3, 12) and (9, 7, 0) is 13. Example 4.3.3. The vectors (1, 0, 0) and (0, 1, 0) are unit vectors in R3 . Example 4.3.4. The unit vector in the direction of the vector (1, 0, 1) is (1/ 2, 0, 1/ 2). The theory of scalar products can be extended to R3 is the natural way. Definition. Suppose that u = (u1 , u2 , u3 ) and v = (v1 , v2 , v3 ) are vectors in R3 , and that [0, ] represents the angle between them. We dene the scalar product u v of u and v by uv = Alternatively, we write u v = u1 v1 + u2 v2 + u3 v3 . (5) 0 u v cos if u = 0 and v = 0, if u = 0 or v = 0. (4)

The denitions (4) and (5) are clearly equivalent if u = 0 or v = 0. On the other hand, we have the following analogue of Proposition 4C. The proof is similar.
Chapter 4 : Vectors page 8 of 24

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3 PROPOSITION , u2 , ) and v = (v1 , , v3 ) PROPOSITION 4C. 4C. Suppose Suppose that that u u= =( (u u1 ,u u3 ,v v2 ) are are non-zero non-zero vectors vectors in in R R3 , , 1 , u2 3 ) and v = (v1 2 , v3 and and that that [0 [0, , ] ] represents represents the the angle angle between between them. them. Then Then

u v1 + v2 + v3 . u v v cos cos = =u u1 +u u2 +u u3 . 1 v1 2 v2 3 v3
3 Remarks. /2. Remarks. (1) (1) We We say say that that two two non-zero non-zero vectors vectors in in R R3 are are orthogonal orthogonal if if the the angle angle between between them them is is / 2. 3 It It follows follows immediately immediately from from the the denition denition of of the the scalar scalar productthat productthat two two non-zero non-zero vectors vectors u u, ,v v R R3 are are orthogonal orthogonal if if and and only only if if u u v v= = 0. 0. 3 by the formula (5) and (2) We can calculate the scalar product of any two non-zero vectors u, v R3 then use the formula (4) to calculate the angle between u and v. Example 4.3.5. Suppose that u = (2, 0, 0) and v = (1, 1, 2). Then by the formula (5), we have u v = 2. Note now that u = 2 and v = 2. It follows from the formula (4) that

cos = so that = /3. /

uv 2 1 = = , u v 4 2

Example 4.3.6. Suppose that u = (2, 3, 5) and v = (1, 1, 1). Then by the formula (5), we have u v = 0. It follows that u and v are orthogonal. The following result is the analogue of Proposition 4D. The proof is similar. PROPOSITION 4D. (SCALAR PRODUCT) Suppose that u, v, w R3 and c R. Then (a) u v = v u; (b) u (v + w) = (u v) + (u w); (c) c(u v) = (cu) v = u (cv); (d) u u 0; and (e) u u = 0 if and only if u = 0. Suppose now that a and u are two vectors in R3 . Then since two vectors are always coplanar, we can draw the following diagram which represents the plane they lie on: P R (6)
v w u

A Q O
a

(6)

Note erence being Note that that this this diagram diagram is is essentially essentially the the same same as as the the diagram diagram (3), (3), the the only only di dierence being that that while while 2 2 , the diagram (6) only shows part of R3 3 . As before, we represent the diagram (3) shows the whole of R the diagram (3) shows the whole of R , the diagram (6) only shows part of R . As before, we represent the the the two two vectors vectors a a and and u u by by OA OA and and OP OP respectively. respectively. If If we we project project the vector vector u u on on to to the the line line OA OA, , then then . On the other hand, if we project the the image of the projection is the vector w , represented by OQ the image of the projection is the vector w, represented by OQ. On the other hand, if we project the vector a line vector u u on on to to a line perpendicular perpendicular to to the the line line OA OA, , then then the the image image of of the the projection projection is is the the vector vector v v, , . represented by OR represented by OR. Definition. Definition. In In the the notation notation of of the the diagram diagram (6), (6), the the vector vector w w is is called called the the orthogonal orthogonal projection projection of of the the vector u on the vector a , and denoted by w = proj u . vector u on the vector a, and denoted by w = proja u.
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The following result is the analogue of Proposition 4E. The proof is similar. PROPOSITION 4E. (ORTHOGONAL PROJECTION) Suppose that u, a R3 . Then proja u = ua a. a 2

Remark. Note that the component of u orthogonal to a, represented by OR in the diagram (6), is u proja u = u ua a. a 2

4.4. Vector Products In this section, we shall discuss a product of vectors unique to R3 . The idea of vector products has wide applications in geometry, physics and engineering, and is motivated by the wish to nd a vector that is perpendicular to two given vectors. We shall use the right hand rule. In other words, if we hold the thumb on the right hand upwards and close the remaining four ngers, then the ngers point from the x-direction towards the y -direction, while the thumb points towards the z -direction. Alternatively, if we imagine Columbus had never lived and that the earth were at, then taking the x-direction as east and the y -direction as north, then the z -direction is upwards! We shall frequently use the three vectors i = (1, 0, 0), j = (0, 1, 0) and k = (0, 0, 1) in R3 . Definition. Suppose that u = (u1 , u2 , u3 ) and v = (v1 , v2 , v3 ) are two vectors in R3 . Then the vector product u v is dened by the determinant i u v = det u1 v1 Remarks. (1) Note that i j = (j i) = k, j k = (k j) = i, k i = (i k) = j. (2) Using cofactor expansion by row 1, we have u v = det = det u2 v2 u2 v2 u3 v3 u3 v3 i det , det u1 v1 u1 v1 u3 v3 u3 v3 j + det , det u1 v1 u1 v1 u2 v2 u2 v2 k j u2 v2 k u3 . v3

= (u2 v3 u3 v2 , u3 v1 u1 v3 , u1 v2 u2 v1 ). We shall rst of all show that the vector product u v is orthogonal to both u and v.
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PROPOSITION 4G. Suppose that u = (u1 , u2 , u3 ) and v = (v1 , v2 , v3 ) are two vectors in R3 . Then (a) u (u v) = 0; and (b) v (u v) = 0. Proof. Note rst of all that u (u v) = (u1 , u2 , u3 ) det = u1 det u2 v2 u3 v3 u2 v2 u3 v3 , det u1 v1 u3 v3 u1 v1 u3 v3 , det u1 v1 u1 v1 u2 v2 u2 v2 u3 u3 , v3

u2 det

+ u3 det

u1 = det u1 v1

u2 u2 v2

in view of cofactor expansion by row 1. On the other u1 u2 det u1 u2 v1 v2 This proves part (a). The proof of part (b) is similar.

hand, clearly u3 u3 = 0. v3

Example 4.4.1. Suppose that u = (1, 1, 2) and v = (3, 0, 2). Then i j k 1 2 1 2 u v = det 1 1 2 = det , det , det 0 2 3 2 3 0 2 Note that (1, 1, 2) (2, 4, 3) = 0 and (3, 0, 2) (2, 4, 3) = 0.

1 3

1 0

= (2, 4, 3).

PROPOSITION 4H. (VECTOR PRODUCT) Suppose that u, v, w R3 and c R. Then (a) u v = (v u); (b) u (v + w) = (u v) + (u w); (c) (u + v) w = (u w) + (v w); (d) c(u v) = (cu) v = u (cv); (e) u 0 = 0; and (f ) u u = 0. Proof. Write u = (u1 , u2 , u3 ), v = (v1 , v2 , v3 ) and w = (w1 , w2 , w3 ). To check part (a), note that i j k i j k det u1 u2 u3 = det v1 v2 v3 . v1 v 2 v3 u1 u2 u3 To check part (b), note that i j det u1 u2 v1 + w1 v2 + w2 k i u3 = det u1 v3 + w 3 v1 k i u3 + det u1 v3 w1 k u3 . w3

j u2 v2

j u2 w2

Part (c) is similar. To check part (d), note that i j k i c det u1 u2 u3 = det cu1 v1 v2 v3 v1 To check parts (e) and (f), note that i j k u 0 = det u1 u2 u3 = 0 0 0 0 as required.
Chapter 4 : Vectors

j cu2 v2

k i cu3 = det u1 v3 cv1

j u2 cv2

k u3 . cv3 k u3 = 0 u3

and

i u u = det u1 u1

j u2 u2

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Next, we shall discuss an application of vector product to the evaluaton of the area of a parallelogram. Next, we shall discuss an application of vector product to the evaluaton of the area of a parallelogram. To do this, we shall rst establish the following result. To do this, we shall rst establish the following result. PROPOSITION 4J. Suppose that u = (u1 , u2 , u3 ) and v = (v1 , v2 , v3 ) are non-zero vectors in R3 , PROPOSITION 4J. Suppose that u = (u1 , u2 , u3 ) and v = (v1 , v2 , v3 ) are non-zero vectors in R3 , and that [0, ] represents the angle between them. Then and that 2[0, ] represents the angle between them. Then (a) u v 2 = u 2 v 2 (u v)2 ; and (a) u v = u 2 v 2 (u v)2 ; and (b) u v = u v sin . (b) u v = u v sin . Proof. Note that Proof. Note that (7) and and (8) u u
2 2

uv uv

2 2

2 = (u2 v3 u3 v2 )2 + (u v1 u1 v3 )2 2 + (u1 v2 u2 v1 ) 2 = (u2 v3 u3 v2 )2 + (u3 3 v1 u1 v3 ) + (u1 v2 u2 v1 )

(7)

v v

2 2

2 2 2 2 2 2 (u v)2 = (u2 2 + u2 + u3 2)(v1 2 + v2 2 + v3 2) (u1 v1 + u2 v2 + u3 v3 ) 2. (u v)2 = (u1 1 + u2 + u3 )(v1 + v2 + v3 ) (u1 v1 + u2 v2 + u3 v3 ) .

(8)

Part (a) follows on expanding the right hand sides of (7) and (8) and checking that they are equal. To Part (a) follows on expanding the right hand sides of (7) and (8) and checking that they are equal. To prove part (b), recall that prove part (b), recall that u v = u v cos . u v = u v cos . Combining with part (a), we obtain Combining with part (a), we obtain uv 2 = u uv 2 = u Part (b) follows. Part (b) follows.
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 cos2 2 2 2 2 2 sin2 . 2 2

v v

u u

v v

= u cos = u

v v

sin .

Consider now a parallelogram with vertices O, A, B, C . Suppose that u and v are represented by OA Consider now a parallelogram with vertices O, A, B, C . Suppose that u and v are represented by OA and OC respectively. If we imagine the side OA to represent the base of the parallelogram, so that and base OC has respectively. we imagine the of side represent the base of the length u If , then the height theOA the to parallelogram is given bythe v parallelogram, sin , as shownso inthat the the base has length u , then the height of the the parallelogram is given by v sin , as shown in the diagram below: diagram below: C B

v sin

It follows from Proposition 4J that the area of the parallelogram is given by u v . We have proved It follows from Proposition 4J that the area of the parallelogram is given by u v . We have proved the following result. the following result.
3 PROPOSITION 4K. Suppose that u, v R3 . Then the parallelogram with u and v as two of its sides PROPOSITION 4K. Suppose that u , v R . Then the parallelogram with u and v as two of its sides has area u v . has area u v .

We conclude this section by making a remark on the vector product u v of two vectors in R3 . We conclude this section by making a remark on the vector product u v of two vectors in R3 . Recall that the vector product is perpendicular to both u and v. Furthermore, it can be shown that the Recall that the vector product is perpendicular to both u and v. Furthermore, it can be shown that the direction of u v satises the right hand rule, in the sense that if we hold the thumb on the right hand direction of u v satises the right hand rule, in the sense that if we hold the thumb on the right hand outwards and close the remaining four ngers, then the thumb points towards the u v-direction when outwards and close the remaining four ngers, then the thumb points towards the u v-direction when the ngers point from the u-direction towards the v-direction. Also, we showed in Proposition 4J that the ngers point from the u-direction towards the v-direction. Also, we showed in Proposition 4J that the magnitude of u v depends only on the norm of u and v and the angle between the two vectors. It
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the magnitude of u v depends only on the norm of u and v and the angle between the two vectors. It follows that the vector product is unchanged as long as we keep a right hand coordinate system. This is an important consideration in physics and engineering, where we may use dierent dierent coordinate systems on the same problem.

4.5. Scalar Triple Products Suppose that u, v, w R3 do not all lie on the same plane. Consider the parallelepiped with u, v, w as three of its edges. We are interested in calculating the volume of this parallelepiped. Suppose that u, v , and respectively. Consider the diagram below: and w are represented by OA OB OC
vw

A C
w

By Proposition 4K, the base of this parallelepiped, with O, B, C as three of the vertices, has area v w . is in the direction of Next, note that if OP is perpendicular to the base of the parallelepiped, then OP v w. If P A is perpendicular to OP , then the height of the parallelepiped is equal to the norm of the orthogonal projection of u on v w. In other words, the parallelepiped has height projvw u = u (v w ) |u (v w)| (v w) = . 2 vw vw

Hence the volume of the parallelepiped is given by V V = =| |u u ( (v v w w) )| |. . We We have have proved proved the the following following result. result. PROPOSITION 4L. Suppose that u, v, w R3 . Then the parallelepiped with u, v and w as three of PROPOSITION 4L. Suppose that u, v, w R3 . Then the parallelepiped with u, v and w as three of its edges has volume |u (v w)|. its edges has volume |u (v w)|.
3 Definition. Suppose that u, v, w R . Then u (v w) is called the scalar triple product of u, v Definition. Suppose that u, v, w R3 . Then u (v w) is called the scalar triple product of u, v and and w. w.

Remarks. (1) It follows immediately from Proposition 4L that three vectors in R3 are coplanar if and Remarks. (1) It follows immediately from Proposition 4L that three vectors in R3 are coplanar if and only if their scalar triple product is zero. only if their scalar triple product is zero. (2) Note that (2) Note that v v3 u (v w) = (u1 , u2 , u3 ) det v2 v3 2 w w 2 3 u (v w) = (u1 , u2 , u3 ) det (9) w2 w3 v v3 = u1 det v2 u2 det v3 2 w w 2 3 = u1 det u det w2 w3 2 u1 u2 u3 u1 u2 u3 1 2 3 , = det v v v = det w v1 v v3 , 1 w2 2 w3 w1 w2 w3 in view of cofactor expansion by row 1. in view of cofactor expansion by row 1.
Chapter 4 : Vectors Chapter 4 : Vectors

v v3 v v2 , det v1 , det v1 v3 v2 1 1 w w w w 1 3 1 2 , det , det w1 w3 w1 w2 v1 v3 v1 v2 v 3 + u3 det w v2 v1 v1 w 1 w3 1 w2 + u3 det w1 w3 w1 w2 (9)

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(3) It follows from identity (9) that u (v w) = v (w u) = w (u v). Note that each of the determinants can be obtained from the other two by twice interchanging two rows. Example 4.5.1. Suppose that u = (1, 0, 1), v = (2, 1, 3) and w = (0, 1, 1). Then 1 u (v w) = det 2 0 so that u, v and w are coplanar. Example 4.5.2. The volume of the parallelepiped with u = (1, 0, 1), v = (2, 1, 4) and w = (0, 1, 1) as three of its edges is given by 1 |u (v w)| = det 2 0 0 1 1 1 4 = | 1| = 1. 1 0 1 1 1 3 = 0, 1

4.6. Application to Geometry in R3 In this section, we shall study lines and planes in R3 by using our results on vectors in R3 . Consider rst of all a plane in R3 . Suppose that (x1 , y1 , z1 ) R3 is a given point on this plane. Suppose further that n = (a, b, c) is a vector perpendicular to this plane. Then for any arbitrary point (x, y, z ) R3 on this plane, the vector (x, y, z ) (x1 , y1 , z1 ) = (x x1 , y y1 , z z1 ) joins one point on the plane to another point on the plane, and so must be parallel to the plane and hence perpendicular to n = (a, b, c). It follows that the scalar product (a, b, c) (x x1 , y y1 , z z1 ) = 0, and so a(x x1 ) + b(y y1 ) + c(z z1 ) = 0. If we write d = ax1 + by1 + cz1 , then (10) can be rewritten in the form ax + by + cz + d = 0. (11) (10)

Equation (10) is usually called the point-normal form of the equation of a plane, while equation (11) is usually known as the general form of the equation of a plane. Example 4.6.1. Consider the plane through the point (2, 5, 7) and perpendicular to the vector (3, 5, 4). Here (a, b, c) = (3, 5, 4) and (x1 , y1 , z1 ) = (2, 5, 7). The equation of the plane is given in point-normal form by 3(x 2) + 5(y + 5) 4(z 7) = 0, and in general form by 3x + 5y 4z + 37 = 0. Here d = 6 25 28 = 37.
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Example 4.6.2. Consider the plane through the points (1, 1, 1), (2, 2, 0) and (4, 6, 2). Then the vectors (2, 2, 0) (1, 1, 1) = (1, 1, 1) and (4, 6, 2) (1, 1, 1) = (3, 7, 1)

join the point (1, 1, 1) to the points (2, 2, 0) and (4, 6, 2) respectively and are therefore parallel to the plane. It follows that the vector product (1, 1, 1) (3, 7, 1) = (6, 4, 10) is perpendicular to the plane. The equation of the plane is then given by 6(x1)4(y 1)10(z 1) = 0, or 3x + 2y + 5z 10 = 0. Consider next a line in R3 . Suppose that (x1 , y1 , z1 ) R3 is a given point on this line. Suppose further that n = (a, b, c) is a vector parallel to this line. Then for any arbitrary point (x, y, z ) R3 on this line, the vector (x, y, z ) (x1 , y1 , z1 ) = (x x1 , y y1 , z z1 ) joins one point on the line to another point on the line, and so must be parallel to n = (a, b, c). It follows that there is some number R such that (x x1 , y y1 , z z1 ) = (a, b, c), so that x = x1 + a, y = y1 + b, z = z1 + c, where is called a parameter. Suppose further that a, b, c are all non-zero. Then, eliminating the parameter , we obtain y y1 z z1 x x1 = = . a b c (13) (12)

Equations (12) are usually called the parametric form of the equations of a line, while equations (13) are usually known as the symmetric form of the equations of a line. Example 4.6.3. Consider the line through the point (2, 5, 7) and parallel to the vector (3, 5, 4). Here (a, b, c) = (3, 5, 4) and (x1 , y1 , z1 ) = (2, 5, 7). The equations of the line are given in parametric form by x = 2 + 3, y = 5 + 5, z = 7 4, and in symmetric form by x2 y+5 z7 = = . 3 5 4
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Example 4.6.4. Consider the line through the points (3, 0, 5) and (7, 0, 8). Then a vector in the direction of the line is given by (7, 0, 8) (3, 0, 5) = (4, 0, 3). The equation of the line is then given in parametric form by x = 3 + 4, y = 0, z = 5 + 3, and in symmetric form by x3 z5 = 4 3 and y = 0.

Consider the plane through three xed points (x1 , y1 , z1 ), (x2 , y2 , z2 ) and (x3 , y3 , z3 ), not lying on the same line. Let (x, y, z ) be a point on the plane. Then the vectors (x, y, z ) (x1 , y1 , z1 ) = (x x1 , y y1 , z z1 ), (x, y, z ) (x2 , y2 , z2 ) = (x x2 , y y2 , z z2 ), (x, y, z ) (x3 , y3 , z3 ) = (x x3 , y y3 , z z3 ), each joining one point on the plane to another point on the plane, are all parallel to the plane. Using the vector product, we see that the vector (x x2 , y y2 , z z2 ) (x x3 , y y3 , z z3 ) is perpendicular to the plane, and so perpendicular to the vector (x x1 , y y1 , z z1 ). It follows that the scalar triple product (x x1 , y y1 , z z1 ) ((x x2 , y y2 , z z2 ) (x x3 , y y3 , z z3 )) = 0; in other words, z z1 z z2 = 0. z z3

x x1 det x x2 x x3

y y1 y y2 y y3

This is another technique to nd the equation of a plane through three xed points. Example 4.6.5. We return to the plane in Example and (4, 6, 2). The equation is given by x1 y1 det x 2 y 2 x4 y+6 4.6.2, through the three points (1, 1, 1), (2, 2, 0) z1 z 0 = 0. z2

The determinant on the left hand side is equal to 6x 4y 10z + 20. Hence the equation of the plane is given by 6x 4y 10z + 20 = 0, or 3x + 2y + 5z 10 = 0. We observe that the calculation for the determinant above is not very pleasant. However, the technique can be improved in the following way by making less reference to the unknown point (x, y, z ). Note that the vectors (x, y, z ) (x1 , y1 , z1 ) = (x x1 , y y1 , z z1 ), (x2 , y2 , z2 ) (x1 , y1 , z1 ) = (x2 x1 , y2 y1 , z2 z1 ), (x3 , y3 , z3 ) (x1 , y1 , z1 ) = (x3 x1 , y3 y1 , z3 z1 ),
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each each joining joining one one point point on on the the plane plane to to another another point point on on the the plane, plane, are are all all parallel parallel to to the the plane. plane. Using Using the the vector vector product, product, we we see see that that the the vector vector ( (x x2 x x1 ,y y2 y y1 ,z z2 z z1 ) ( (x x3 x x1 ,y y3 y y1 ,z z3 z z1 ) 2 1, 2 1, 2 1) 3 1, 3 1, 3 1) is is perpendicular perpendicular to to the the plane, plane, and and so so perpendicular perpendicular to to the the vector vector ( (x x x x1 ,y y y y1 ,z z z z1 ). It It follows follows that that 1, 1, 1). the the scalar scalar triple triple product product ( (x x x x1 ,y y y y1 ,z z z z1 ) (( ((x x2 x x1 ,y y2 y y1 ,z z2 z z1 ) ( (x x3 x x1 ,y y3 y y1 ,z z3 z z1 )) = = 0; 0; 1, 1, 1) 2 1, 2 1, 2 1) 3 1, 3 1, 3 1)) in in other other words, words, x y z x x x1 y y y1 z z z1 1 1 1 x = det det x2 x x1 y2 y y1 z2 z z1 =0 0.. 2 1 y 2 1 z 2 1 x x y y z z x3 x y y z z 1 3 1 3 1 3 1 3 1 3 1

Example Example 4.6.6. 4.6.6. We We return return to to the the plane plane in in Examples Examples 4.6.2 4.6.2 and and 4.6.5, 4.6.5, through through the the three three points points (1 (1,, 1 1,, 1), 1), (2 (2,, 2 2,, 0) 0) and and (4 (4,, 6 6,, 2). 2). The The equation equation is is given given by by x x 1 1 y y 1 1 z z 1 1 2 = det det 2 1 1 2 2 1 1 0 0 1 1 =0 0.. 4 4 1 1 6 6 1 1 2 2 1 1 The The determinant determinant on on the the left left hand hand side side is is equal equal to to x x 1 1 y y 1 1 z z 1 1 1 = det 1 det = 6( 6(x x 1) 1) 4( 4(y y 1) 1) 10( 10(z z 1) 1) = = 6 6x x 4 4y y 10 10z z+ + 20 20.. 1 1 1 1 3 1 3 7 7 1 Hence Hence the the equation equation of of the the plane plane is is given given by by 6 6x x 4 4y y 10 10z z+ + 20 20 = = 0, 0, or or 3 3x x+ +2 2y y+ +5 5z z 10 10 = = 0. 0. We We next next consider consider the the problem problem of of dividing dividing a a line line segment segment in in a a given given ratio. ratio. Suppose Suppose that that x x1 and x x2 are 1 and 2 are 3 two .. two given given points points in in R R3 We We wish wish to to divide divide the the line line segment segment joining joining x x1 and x x2 internally in in the the ratio ratio 1 : 2 , where where 1 and 2 1 and 2 internally 1: 2, 1 and 2 are are positive positive real real numbers. numbers. In In other other words, words, we we wish wish to to nd nd the the point point x x on on the the line line segment segment joining joining x x1 1 and and x x2 such that that 2 such x x x1 1 x 1 1 = ,, = x x x x2 2 2 2 as shown shown in in the the diagram diagram below: below: as | x1 | x | x2

x x1 x x2 Since Since x x x x1 and x x2 x x are are both both in in the the same same direction direction as as x x2 x x1 , we we must must have have 1 and 2 2 1, 2 (x x x x1 )= = 1 (x x2 x x) ),, 2( 1) 1( 2 or or x x= = 1 x2 + 2 x1 1x 2+ 2x 1 .. + 1 + 2 1 2

We We wish wish next next to to nd nd the the point point x x on on the the line line joining joining x x1 and x x2 , but but not not between between x x1 and x x2 , such such that that 1 and 2, 1 and 2, x x x x1 1 1 1 = = ,, x x x x2 2 2 2
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where 1 and and 2 are are positive positive real real numbers, numbers, as as shown shown in in the the diagrams diagrams below below for for the the cases cases 1 < < 2 and and where 1 2 1 2 > respectively: 1 2 1 > 2 respectively: | | x x | | x 1 x1 | | x 2 x2 | | x 1 x1 | | x 2 x2 | | x x

Since x x x x1 and x x x x2 are in in the the same same direction direction as as each each other, other, we we must must have have 1 and 2 are Since Since x x1 and x x2 are in the same direction as each other, we must have 1 x2 2 x1 1x 2 2x 1 2 (x x x x1 )= = 1 (x x x x2 ), , or x= = . 2( 1) 1( 2) or x 1x 2 2 x1 . 1 2 2 2 (x x1 ) = 1 (x x2 ), or x = 1 . 1 2 Example 4.6.7. 4.6.7. Let Let x x1 = (1 (1, ,2 2, , 3) 3) and and x x2 = (7 (7, , 11 11, , 6). 6). The The point point 1= 2= Example Example 4.6.7. Let x1 = (1, 2, 3) and x2 = (7, 11, 6). The point 2x x2 +x x1 2(7, , 11 11, , 6) 6) + + (1 (1, ,2 2, , 3) 3) 2+ 1 2 2(7 x= =2 = 2(7 = (5 (5, ,8 8, , 5) 5) , 11 , 6) + (1 ,2 , 3) x2 +x 1 = x = 2 + 1 3 = (5, 8, 5) x= 2+1 = 3 2+1 3 divides the the line line segment segment joining joining (1 (1, ,2 2, , 3) 3) and and (7 (7, , 11 11, , 6) 6) internally internally in in the the ratio ratio 2 2: : 1, 1, whereas whereas the the point point divides divides the line segment joining (1, 2, 3) and (7, 11, 6) internally in the ratio 2 : 1, whereas the point 4x x2 2 2x x1 4(7, , 11 11, , 6) 6) 2(1 2(1, ,2 2, , 3) 3) 2 1 4 4(7 x2 2 x1 , 11 , 6) 2(1 ,2 , 3) x= =4 = 4(7 = (13 (13, , 20 20, , 9) 9) x = = x = 4 = = (13, 20, 9) 4 2 2 2 2 4 2 2 satises satises x x x1 4 1 x = 4 .. = x x 2 2 x x2 2 Finally we we turn turn our our attention attention to to the the question question of of nding nding the the distance distance of of a a plane plane from from a a given given point. point. Finally We shall prove the following analogue of Proposition 4F. We shall prove the following analogue of Proposition 4F. PROPOSITION 4F. 4F. The The perpendicular perpendicular distance distance D D of of a a plane plane ax ax + + by by + + cz cz + +d d= =0 0 from from a a point point PROPOSITION ( x , y , z ) is given by (x0 0, y0 0, z0 0) is given by 0 0 0 |ax0 + + by0 + + cz cz0 +d d|| 0+ by0 D= = |ax0 D .. 2 2 2 a2 + +b b2 + +c c2 a Proof. Consider Consider the the following following diagram: diagram: Proof.

P P
D D

n= =( (a, a, b, b, c c) ) n
u u

Q Q
ax+ +by by+ +cz cz=0 =0 ax

O O

Chapter 4 : Vectors Chapter 4 : Vectors

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Suppose that (x1 , x2 , x3 ) is any arbitrary point O on the plane ax + by + cz + d = 0. For any other point (x, y, z ) on the plane ax + by + cz + d = 0, the vector (x x1 , y y1 , z z1 ) is parallel to the plane. On the other hand, (a, b, c) (x x1 , y y1 , z z1 ) = (ax + by + cz ) (ax1 + by1 + cz1 ) = d + d = 0, so that the vector n = (a, b, c), in the direction OQ, is perpendicular to the plane ax + by + cz + d = 0. Suppose next that the point (x0 , y0 , z0 ) is represented by the point P in the diagram. Then the vector u = (x0 x1 , y0 y1 , z0 z1 ) is represented by OP , and OQ represents the orthogonal projection projn u of u on the vector n. Clearly the perpendicular distance D of the point (x0 , y0 , z0 ) from the plane ax + by + cz + d = 0 satises D = projn u = |(x0 x1 , y0 y1 , z0 z1 ) (a, b, c)| un n = n 2 a2 + b2 + c2 |ax0 + by0 + cz0 + d| |ax0 + by0 + cz0 ax1 by1 cz1 | = = a2 + b2 + c2 a2 + b2 + c2

as required. A special case of Proposition 4F is when (x0 , y0 , z0 ) = (0, 0, 0) is the origin. This show that the perpendicular distance of the plane ax + by + cz + d = 0 from the origin is |d| . a2 + b2 + c2

Example 4.6.8. Consider the plane 3x + 5y 4z + 37 = 0. The distance of the point (1, 2, 3) from the plane is 38 19 2 |3 + 10 12 + 37| = = . 5 9 + 25 + 16 50 The distance of the origin from the plane is |37| 37 = . 9 + 25 + 16 50

Example 4.6.9. Consider also the plane 3x +5y 4z 1 = 0. Note that this plane is also perpendicular to the vector (3, 5, 4) and is therefore parallel to the plane 3x+5y 4z +37 = 0. It is therefore reasonable to nd the perpendicular distance between these two parallel planes. Note that the perpendicular distance between the two planes is equal to the perpendicular distance of any point on 3x + 5y 4z 1 = 0 from the plane 3x + 5y 4z + 37 = 0. Note now that (1, 2, 3) lies on the plane 3x + 5y 4z 1 = 0. It follows from Example 4.6.8 that the distance between the two planes is 19 2/5.

4.7. Application to Mechanics Let u = (ux , uy ) denote a vector in R2 , where the components ux and uy are functions of an independent variable t. Then the derivative of u with respect to t is given by du = dt
Chapter 4 : Vectors

dux duy , dt dt

.
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Example 4.7.1. When discussing planar particle motion, we often let r = (x, y ) denote the position of a particle at time t. Then the components x and y are functions of t. The derivative v= dr = dt dx dy , dt dt

represents the velocity of the particle, and its derivative a= dv = dt d2 x d2 y , dt2 dt2

represents the acceleration of the particle. We often write r = r , v = v and a = a . Suppose that w = (wx , wy ) is another vector in R2 . Then it is not dicult to see that d dw du (u w ) = u + w. dt dt dt (14)

Example 4.7.2. Consider a particle moving at constant speed along a circular path centred at the origin. Then r = r is constant. More precisely, the position vector r = (x, y ) satises x2 + y 2 = c1 , where c1 is a positive constant, so that r r = (x, y ) (x, y ) = c1 . On the other hand, v = v is constant. More precisely, the velocity vector v= dx dy , dt dt satises dx dt
2

(15)

dy dt

= c2 ,

where c2 is a positive constant, so that vv = dx dy , dt dt dx dy , dt dt = c2 . (16)

Dierentiating (15) and (16) with respect to t, and using the identity (14), we obtain respectively rv =0 and v a = 0. (17)

Using the properties of the scalar product, we see that the equations in (17) show that the vector v is perpendicular to both vectors r and a, and so a must be in the same direction as or the opposite direction to r. Next, dierentiating the rst equation in (17), we obtain r a + v v = 0, or r a = v 2 < 0 .

Let denote the angle between a and r. Then = 0 or = 180 . Since ra= r a cos ,

it follows that cos < 0, and so = 180 . We also obtain ra = v 2 , so that a = v 2 /r. This is a vector proof that for circular motion at constant speed, the acceleration is towards the centre of the circle and of magnitude v 2 /r. Let u = (ux .uy , uz ) denote a vector in R3 , where the components ux , uy and uz are functions of an independent variable t. Then the derivative of u with respect to t is given by du = dt
Chapter 4 : Vectors

dux duy duz , , dt dt dt

.
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Suppose that w = (wx , wy , wz ) is another vector in R3 . Then it is not dicult to see that d dw du (u w ) = u + w. dt dt dt (18)

Example 4.7.3. When discussing particle motion in 3-dimensional space, we often let r = (x, y, z ) denote the position of a particle at time t. Then the components x, y and z are functions of t. The derivative v= dr = dt dx dy dz , , dt dt dt = (x, y, z )

represents the velocity of the particle, and its derivative a= dv = dt d2 x d2 y d2 z , , dt2 dt2 dt2 = ( x, y , z )

represents the acceleration of the particle. Example 4.7.4. For a particle of mass m, the kinetic energy is given by
1 T =1 2 + y 2 + z 2) = 2 m(x, y, z ) (x, y, z ) = 1 2 m(x 2 mv v .

Using the identity (18), we have dT = ma v = F v , dt where F = ma denotes the force. On the other hand, suppose that the potential energy is given by V . Using knowledge on functions of several real variables, we can show that V dx V dy V dz dV = + + = dt x dt y dt z dt where V = V V V , , x y z V V V , , x y z v = V v ,

is called the gradient of V . The law of conservation of energy says that T + V is constant, so that dV dT + = (F + V ) v = 0 dt dt holds for all vectors v, so that F(r) = V (r) for all vectors r. Example 4.7.5. If a force acts on a moving particle, then the work done is dened as the product of the distance moved and the magnitude of the force in the direction of motion. Suppose that a force F acts on a particle with displacement r. Then the component of the force in the direction of the motion is given by F u, where u= r r

is a unit vector in the direction of the vector r. It follows that the work done is given by r
Chapter 4 : Vectors

r r

= F r.
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For instance, see that the work done moving a particle along a vector r= 2, 4) with applied For instance, wewe see that the work done in in moving a particle along a vector r= (3,(3 ,2 , 4) with applied force F= 1, 1) is F r= 1, 1) ,(3 2, 4) 12. force F= (2,(2 ,1 , 1) is F r = (2,(2 ,1 , 1) (3 ,2 , 4) == 12. Example 4.7.6. We can also resolve a force into components. Consider a weight mass hanging Example 4.7.6. We can also resolve a force into components. Consider a weight of of mass mm hanging from the ceiling a rope shown the picture below: from the ceiling onon a rope as as shown in in the picture below:

m
Here the rope makes angle 60 with the vertical. We wish nd the tension the rope. Here the rope makes anan angle of of 60 with the vertical. We wish to to nd the tension T T onon the rope. ToTo nd this, note that the tension on the rope is a force, and we have the following picture of forces: nd this, note that the tension on the rope is a force, and we have the following picture of forces:

T1 1

60

T2 2

magnitude mg

The force magnitude . Let z be a unit vector pointing vertically upwards. Using scalar 1 1 has 1 The force T1T has magnitude T1T1 == T .TLet z be a unit vector pointing vertically upwards. Using scalar products, we see that the component of the force T in the vertical direction is 1 1 products, we see that the component of the force T1 in the vertical direction is
1 1 1 z= cos 60 T. 1 1z z T1T 1 z= T1T1 cos 60 == 2 2 2 T.

Similarly, the force magnitudeT2T2 , and the component it in the vertical direction 2 2 has 2 Similarly, the force T2T has magnitude == T ,T and the component of of it in the vertical direction is is
1 1 1 z= cos 60 T. 2 2z z T2T 2 z= T2T2 cos 60 == 2 2 2 T. 1 1 1 1 1 1 Since the weight is stationary, total force upwards it is T+ T mg = 0. Hence T = mg . Since the weight is stationary, he he total force upwards onon it is 2+ 2 T2 2 mg = 0. Hence T = mg . 2 T2

Chapter : Chapter 4 : Vectors Vectors Chapter 4 :4 Vectors

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Problems for Chapter 4 1. For each of the following pairs of vectors in R2 , calculate u + 3v, u v, u v and nd the angle between u and v: a) u = (1, 1) and v = (5, 0) b) u = (1, 2) and v = (2, 1) 2. For each of the following pairs of vectors in R2 , calculate 2u 5v, u 2v , u v and the angle between u and v (to the nearest degree): a) u = (1, 3) and v = (2, 1) b) u = (2, 0) and v = (1, 2) 3. For the two vectors u = (2, 3) and v = (5, 1) in the 2-dimensional euclidean space R2 , determine each of the following: a) u v b) u c) u (u v) d) the angle between u and u v 4. For each of the following pairs of vectors in R3 , calculate u + 3v, u v, u v , nd the angle between u and v, and nd a unit vector perpendicular to both u and v: a) u = (1, 1, 1) and v = (5, 0, 5) b) u = (1, 2, 3) and v = (3, 2, 1) 5. Find vectors v and w such that v is parallel to (1, 2, 3), v + w = (7, 3, 5) and w is orthogonal to (1, 2, 3). 6. Let ABCD be a quadrilateral. Show that the quadrilateral obtained by joining the midpoints of adjacent sides of ABCD is a parallelogram. [Hint: Let a, b, c and d be vectors representing the four sides of ABCD.] 7. Suppose that u, v and w are vectors in R3 such that the scalar triple porduct u (v w) = 0. Let u = vw , u (v w ) v = wu , u (v w) w = uv . u (v w)

a) Show that u u = 1. b) Show that u v = u w = 0. c) Use the properties of the scalar triple product to nd v v and w w, as well as v u, v w, w u and w v. 8. Suppose that u, v, w, u , v and w are vectors in R3 such that u u = v v = w w = 1 and u v = u w = v u = v w = w u = w v = 0. Show that if u (v w) = 0, then u = vw , u (v w ) v = wu , u (v w) w = uv . u (v w)

9. Suppose that u, v and w are vectors in R3 . a) Show that u (v w) = (u w)v (u v)w. b) Deduce that (u v) w = (u w)v (v w)u. 10. Consider the three points P (2, 3, 1), Q(4, 2, 5) and R(1, 6, 3). a) Find the equation of the line through P and Q. b) Find the equation of the plane perpendicular to the line in part (a) and passing through R. c) Find the distance between R and the line in part (a). d) Find the area of the parallelogram with the three points as vertices. e) Find the equation of the plane through the three points. f) Find the distance of the origin (0, 0, 0) from the plane in part (e). g) Are the planes in parts (b) and (e) perpendicular? Justify your assertion.
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Consider points 2, 3), 2, 4) and 1, 3) in3 . R3 . 11.11. Consider thethe points (1, (1 2,,3), (0, (0 2,,4) and (2, (2 1,,3) in R Find area ofparallelogram a parallelogram with these points three of its vertices. a) a) Find thethe area of a with these points as as three of its vertices. b) Find the perpendicular distance between (1 , 2 , 3) and the line passing through 2, and 4) and 1, 3). b) Find the perpendicular distance between (1, 2, 3) and the line passing through (0, (0 2,,4) (2, (2 1,,3). Consider points 2, 3), 2, 4) and 1, 3) in3 . R3 . 12.12. Consider thethe points (1, (1 2,,3), (0, (0 2,,4) and (2, (2 1,,3) in R Find a vector perpendicular to the plane containing these points. a) a) Find a vector perpendicular to the plane containing these points. b) Find the equation of this plane and its perpendicular distance from origin. b) Find the equation of this plane and its perpendicular distance from thethe origin. c) Find the equation of the line perpendicular to this plane and passing through point 6, 9). c) Find the equation of the line perpendicular to this plane and passing through thethe point (3, (3 6,,9). Find equation of the plane through points 2, 3), 3, 4) and ( 3 1, 2). 13.13. Find thethe equation of the plane through thethe points (1, (1 2,, 3), (2, (2 , 3 , 4) and (3 ,1 ,,2). Find equation of the plane through points 1, 1), 2, 1) and ( 1 3, 2). 14.14. Find thethe equation of the plane through thethe points (2, (2 , 1 , 1), (3, (3 2,, 1) and (1 ,3 ,,2). Find volume ofparallelepiped a parallelepiped with points 2, 3), 2, 4), 1, and 3) and 6, as 9) four as four 15.15. Find thethe volume of a with thethe points (1, (1 2,,3), (0, (0 2,,4), (2, (2 1,,3) (3, (3 6,,9) of of its vertices. its vertices. Consider a weight mass hanging from ceiling supported two ropes shown 16.16. Consider a weight of of mass mm hanging from thethe ceiling supported by by two ropes as as shown in in thethe picture below: picture below:

m
Here rope makes angle of 45 with vertical, while rope right makes Here thethe rope on on thethe leftleft makes an an angle of 45 with thethe vertical, while thethe rope on on thethe right makes angle of 60 with vertical. Find tension two ropes. an an angle of 60 with thethe vertical. Find thethe tension on on thethe two ropes.

Chapter : Vectors Chapter 4 :4 Vectors

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