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• a syntax that, for the literary language, is the conscious fusion of three elements:
• 1 Nouns
• 2 Adjectives
• 2.1 Declension
• 3 Pronouns
• 4 Numbers
• 5 ςερβσ
• 5.3 Εξαµπλεσ
• 6 Word formation
• 7 Σψνταξ
• 7.1 Negation
• 7.2 Χοορδινατιον
[edit] Nouns
Nominal declension is subject to six cases (nominative, accusative, genitive, dative,
prepositional, and instrumental), in two numbers (singular and plural), and obeying
absolutely grammatical gender (masculine, feminine, and neuter). Up to ten additional
cases are identified in linguistics textbooks,[1]HYPERLINK
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_grammar" \l "cite_note-1"[2]HYPERLINK
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_grammar" \l "cite_note-2"[3] although all of them
are either incomplete (do not apply to all nouns) or degenerate (appear identical to one of
the six simple cases). The most well-recognized additional cases are locative (в лесу, в
крови, в слезах), partitive (сапог, чулок, вольт), and several forms of vocative
(господи, деда, батянь). The adjectives, pronouns, and the first two cardinal numbers
further vary by gender. Old Russian also had a third number, the dual, but except for its
use in the nominative and accusative cases with the numbers two, three and four, eg. (два
стула [dvɐ ˈstulə], "two chairs", recategorized today as a genitive singular), it has been
lost.
There are no definite or indefinite articles in the Russian language. The sense of a noun is
determined from the context in which it appears. That said, there are some means of
expressing whether a noun is definite or indefinite. They are:
The use of a direct object in the genitive instead of the accusative in negation
signifies that the noun is indefinite, compare: "Я не вижу книги" ("I don't see a
book" or "I don't see any book") and "Я не вижу книгу" ("I don't see the book").
The use of the numeral one sometimes signifies that the noun is indefinite, e.g.:
"Почему ты так долго?" - "Да так, встретил одного друга, пришлось
поговорить" ("Why did it take you so long?" - "You see, I met a friend and had
to talk").
Word order may also be used for this purpose, compare "В комнату вбежал
мальчик" ("A boy rushed into the room") and "Мальчик вбежал в комнату"
("The boy rushed into the room").
The category of animacy is relevant in Russian nominal and adjectival declension.
Specifically, the accusative form in many paradigms has two possible forms depending
on the animacy of the referent. For animate referents (people and animals), the accusative
form is identical to the genitive form. For inanimate referents, the accusative form is
identical to the nominative form. This principle is relevant for masculine singular nouns
of the first declension (see below) and adjectives, and for all plural paradigms (with no
gender distinction). In the tables below, this behavior is indicated by the abbreviation "N
or G" in the row corresponding to the accusative case.
In Russian there are three declension types, named simply first, second, and third
declensions. The first declension (the second in Russian school grammars) is used for
masculine and most neuter nouns. The second declension (the first in school grammars) is
used for most feminine nouns. The third declension is used for feminine nouns ending in
ь and for neuter nouns ending in мя.
[edit] Declension
Singular Plural
Masculine Feminine Neuter
Nominative -ый -ая -ое -ые
Accusative N or G -ую -ое N or G
Genitive -ого -ой -ого -ых
Dative -ому -ой -ому -ым
Prepositional -ом -ой -ом -ых
Instrumental -ым -ой -ым -ыми
After a sibilant or velar consonant, и, instead of ы, is written.
When a masculine adjectives ends in -ой, the -ой is stressed
Russian differentiates between hard-stem (as above) and soft-stem adjectives. Note the
following:
[edit] Pronouns
• Russian is subject to T-V distinction. The respectful form of the singular you is
the same as the plural form, but beginning with a capital letter: Вы, Вас, Вам etc.
Compare the distinction between du, sie and Sie in German.
• The third person possessive pronouns его (masc./neut. sing.), её (fem. sing.) and
их (plural) are invariant genitive forms.
[edit] Numbers
Cardinal Numbers
• 0 ноль or нуль
• 3 три
• 4 четыре
• 5 пять
• 6 шесть
• 7 семь
• 8 восемь
• 9 девять
• 10 десять
• 1st первый
• 2nd второй
• 3rd третий
• 4th четвëртый
• 5th пятый
• 6th шестой
• 7th седьмой
• 8th восьмой
• 9th девятый
• 10th десятый
[edit] Verbs
Grammatical conjugation is subject to three persons in two numbers and two simple
tenses (present/future and past), with periphrastic forms for the future and subjunctive, as
well as imperative forms and present/past participles, distinguished by adjectival and
adverbial usage (see adjectival participle and adverbial participle). There are two voices,
active and middle/passive, which is constructed by the addition of a reflexive suffix -ся
/сь/- to the active form. An interesting feature is that the past tense is actually made to
agree in gender with the subject, for it is the participle in an originally periphrastic perfect
tense formed with the present of быть [bɨtʲ] (like the perfect passive tense in Latin), "to
be", which is now omitted except for rare archaic effect, usually in set phrases (откуда
есть пошла русская земля [ɐˈtkudə jesʲtʲ pɐˈʂla ˈruskəjə zʲɪˈmlʲa], "whence is come the
Russian land", the opening of the Primary Chronicle in modern spelling). Verbal
inflection today is considerably simpler than in Old Russian. The ancient aorist,
imperfect, and (periphrastic) pluperfect tenses have been lost, though the aorist
sporadically occurs in secular literature as late as the second half of the eighteenth
century, and survives as an odd form in direct narration (а он пойди да скажи [ɐ on pɐj
ˈdʲi də skɐˈʐɨ], etc., exactly equivalent to the English colloquial "so he goes and says"),
recategorized as a usage of the imperative. The loss of three of the former six tenses has
been offset by the development, as in other Slavic languages, of verbal aspect. Most
verbs come in pairs, one with imperfective or continuous connotation, the other with
perfective or completed, usually formed with a (prepositional) prefix, but occasionally
using a different root. E.g., спать [spatʲ] (to sleep) is imperfective; поспать [pɐˈspatʲ](to
take a nap) is perfective.
The present tense of the verb быть is today normally used only in the third-person
singular form, which is often used for all the persons and numbers. As late as the
nineteenth century, the full conjugation, which today is never used, was somewhat more
natural: forms occur in the Synodal Bible, in Dostoevsky and in the bylinas (былины [bɨ
ˈlʲinɨ]) or oral folk-epics, which were transcribed at that time. The paradigm shows as
well as anything else the Indo-European affinity of Russian:
English Russian IPA Latin Classical Greek
"I am" (есмь) [jesʲmʲ] sum eimi
"you are" (sing.) (еси) [ˈjesʲɪ] es ei
"he, she, it is" есть [jesʲtʲ] est esti
"we are" (есмы) [ˈjɛsmɨ] sumus esmen
"you are" (plur.) (есте) [jesʲtʲe] estis este
"they are" суть [sutʲ] sunt eisi
The second conjugation (II) is used in verb stems ending in -и or -е, or in -а when
preceded by a sibilant:
[edit] Examples
[edit] Syntax
The basic word order, both in conversation and the written language, is Subject Verb
Object in transitive clauses, and free word order in intransitive clauses. However,
because the relations are marked by inflection, considerable latitude in word order is
allowed even in transitive clauses, and all the permutations can be used. For example, the
words in the phrase "я пошёл в магазин" (I went to the shop) can be arranged
• Я пошёл в магазин.
• Я в магазин пошёл.
• Пошёл я в магазин.
• Пошёл в магазин я.
• В магазин я пошёл.
• В магазин пошёл я.
[edit] Negation
Like most other languages but unlike English, multiple negatives are compulsory in
Russian, as in никто никогда никому ничего не прощает [nʲɪˈkto nʲɪkɐˈgda nʲɪkɐˈmu
nʲɪʨɪˈvo nʲɪ prɐˈɕːajɪt] "No-one ever forgives anyone for anything" (literally, "no-one
never to no-one nothing does not forgive").
[edit] Coordination
The most common types of coordination expressed by compound sentences in Russian
are conjoining (Соединительные отношения), oppositional (Противительные
отношения), and separative (Разделительные отношения). Additionally, the Russian
grammar considers comparative (сопоставительные), complemental
(присоединительные), and clarifying (пояснительные). Other flavors of the meanings
may also be distinguished.
Conjoining coordinations are formed with the help of the conjunctions "и", "да",
"ни...ни" (simultaneous negation), также, тоже (the latter two have complemental
flavor). Most commonly the conjoining coordination expresses enumeration, simultaneity
or immediate sequence. They may also have a cause-effect flavor.
Oppositional coordinations are formed with the help of the oppositional conjunctions а,
но, да, однако, зато, же, etc. They express the semantic relations of opposition,
comparison, incompatibility, restriction, or compensation.
Separative coordinations are formed with the help of the separative conjunctions или,
либо, ли...ли, то...то, etc., and are used to express alternation or incompatibility of things
expressed in the coordinated sentences.
Complemental and clarifying coordination expresses additional, but not subordinated,
information related to the first sentence.
Comparative coordination is a semantical flavor of the oppositional one.
Common coordinating conjunctions include:
[edit] Subordination
Complementizers (subordinating conjunctions, adverbs, or adverbial phrases) include:
In general, there are fewer subordinate clauses than in English, because the participles
(причастие [prʲɪˈʨasʲtʲɪjɪ]) and adverbial participles (деепричастие [dʲɪjɪprʲɪˈʨasʲtʲɪjɪ])
often take the place of a relative pronoun/verb combination. For example:
Here (is) a man
Вот человек, [vot ʨɪlɐˈvʲɛk]
who has lost (all) hope.
потерявший надежду. [pətʲɪˈrʲavʂɨj nɐˈdʲɛʐdu]
[lit. having lost hope]
Гуляя по городу, всегда [guˈlʲajɪ pɐ ˈgorədu vsʲɪgˈda] When I go for a walk in the city,
останавливаюсь у [əstɐˈnavlʲɪvəjusʲ u rɐˈstralʲnɨx I always
Ростральных колонн. [kɐˈlon] pause by the Rostral Columns.
[lit. Walking in the city, I...]
• Едущу мне из Едрова, Анюта из мысли моей не выходила. [ˈjeduɕːu mnʲe ɪzʲ
jɪˈdrovə, ɐˈnʲutə ɪz ˈmɨsʲlʲɪ mɐˈjej nʲɪ vɨxɐˈdʲilə] "As I was leaving Yedrovo
village, I could not stop thinking about Aniuta."