Anintroductiontothermodynamicsappliedto

OrganicRankineCycles
By:
SylvainQuoilin
PhDStudentattheUniversityofLige
November2008
1 Definitionofafewthermodynamicvariables
1.1 Mainthermodynamicsvariables,accessiblebymeasurements:
1. Mass: m | kg andmassflowrate m | kg/ s
2. Volume: V m
3
andvolumeflowrate:
V | m
3
/ s
3. Temperature: T | C or T | K ]
4. Pressure: p | Pa or p | psi
1.2 Othervariables:
1. Internalenergy: U | j andinternalenergyflowrate:

U | W
2. Enthalpy: H | j =U+PV andenthalpyflowrate:

H | W
3. Entropy: S | j / K
4. Helmholtzfreeenergy: A| j =U TS
5. Gibbsfreeenergy: G | j =H TS
1.3 Intensivevariables:
Theabovevariablescanbeexpressedperunitofmass.Inthisdocument,intensivevariablewillbe
writteninlowercase:
v | m
3
/ kg , u | j / kg , h | j / kg , s | j / kgK , a | j / kg , g | j / kg
NB=thespecificvolumecorrespondstotheinverseofthedensity:
v | m
3
/ kg=
1
j | kg/ m
3

1.4 Totalenergy:
Theenergystateofafluidcanbeexpressedbyitsinternalenergy,butalsobyitkineticanditspotential
energy.Theconceptoftotalenergyisused:
u
tot
=u+
1
2
C
2
+gz
whereCisthefluidvelocityandzitsrelativealtitude
Thesamedefinitioncanbeappliedtotheenthalpy:
h
tot
=h+
1
2
C
2
+gz
2
1.5 Thermodynamicprocess:
Severalparticularthermodynamicprocessescanbeidentified:
isothermalprocess:atconstanttemperature,maintainedwithheataddedorremovedfroma
heatsourceorsink
isobaricprocess:atconstantpressure
isometric/isochoricprocess:atconstantvolume
adiabaticprocess:noheatisaddedorremovedfromtheworkingfluid
isentropicprocess(=reversibleadiabaticprocess):noheatisaddedorremovedfromthe
workingfluidandtheentropyisconstant
isenthalpicprocess:theenthalpyisconstant
2 Firstlawofthermodynamics
Thefirstlawofthermodynamicsexpressestheconservationofenergy:theincreaseofenergyofa
systemequalsthetotalamountofworkprovidedtothesystemplusthetotalamountofheatprovidedto
thesystem,plusthenetenthalpyflowentering/leavingthesystem.

U
tot
=

Q
j
+

W
j
+

H
tot , j
Where

W and

H aretheheat
fluxes,thepowerandtheenthalpyflows
providedtothesystem.
Theegoistconventionisusedhere:anyflow
directedtowardthesystemisconsideredas
positive,whileanyflowleavingthesystemis
negative.
Theuseoftheenthalpyandnottheinternalenergyfortheflowsinandoutisjustifiedbythesuction
anddischargeworks.Inanadiabaticsystem,withoutworktransferredtothesystem,theconservation
ofenergywouldbewritten:

U=

U
su

U
ex
+

W
suct , disch
=

U
su

U
ex
+p
su

V
su
p
ex

V
ex
=

H
su

H
ex
Whichjustifiestheuseoftheenthalpy.
3 Secondlawofthermodynamics&definitionoftheentropy
Thesecondlawofthermodynamicsexplicatesthephenomenonofirreversibilityinthermodynamic
processes.Itstatesforexamplethat:
Heatgenerallycannotspontaneouslyflowfromamaterialatlowertemperaturetoamaterialat
highertemperature.
Itisimpossibletoconvertheatcompletelyintowork.
Twogases,whenplacedinanisolatedchamber,willbemixeduniformlythroughoutthe
3
chamberbutwillnotseparatespontaneouslyoncemixed.
AttherootsofthesecondlawistheClausius'theorem.Thistheoremstatesthat,foranyreversible
cycle(i.e.withoutirreversibilities),

6Q
rev
T
=0
3.1 TheCarnotcycle
TheClausiustheoremcanbeillustratedwiththeCarnotcycle:
Inthiscycle,allprocessesarereversible:
1. IsothermalexpansionAB:heatq
h
istransferredto
thesystem,ataconstanttemperature
2. AdiabaticexpansionBC:noheattransfer,but
productionofwork
3. IsothermalcompressionCD:heatisrejectedbythe
systemataconstanttemperature
4. AdiabaticcompressionDA:noheattransfer,but
workisprovidedtothesystem
Applyingthefirstlaw,theamountofworkrecoveredfromthecycleisgivenby:
w=q
h
q
c
Theefficiencyisthengivenby:
j
carnot
=
w
q
h
=1
q
c
q
h
Thisisthemaximumefficiencythatcanbeachievedwithagivenhotsourceandsinktemperatures(see
Kelvin&Clausiusstatementsforthedemonstration).Acorollaryofthisstatementisthat
q
c
q
h
is
purelyafunctionof t
c
and t
h
.
Kelvinproposedanewtemperaturescaleinordertoachievethefollowingrelation:
q
c
q
h
=
t
c
| K
t
h
| K
,whereheattransfersarereversible
Giventhisnewtemperaturescale(theThermodynamicTemperatureScale,expressedKelvins),the
Carnotefficiencycanbeexpressedby:
4
Figure1:PVdiagramoftheCarnotcycle
j
carnot
=1
t
c
t
h
TheClausiustheoremcanberewrittenforthespecificcaseoftheCarnotengine,usingthe
thermodynamictemperaturescale:

6Q
rev
T
=
q
h
T
h

q
c
T
c
=0
WhichdemonstratestheClausiusrelationintheparticularcaseoftheCarnotcycle
3.2 Nonreversibleengines
Inthecaseofanonreversibleengine,irreversibilitieslowertheworkoutputandthusincreasetheheat
rejectedattheheatsink:
ww
rev
q
c
>q
c ,rev
=> eta=1
q
h
q
c
eta
carnot
=1
q
h
q
c ,rev
and
6Q
T
=
q
h
T
h

q
c
T
c

6Q
rev
T
WhichleadstotheClausiusinequality:

6Q
T
0
Therelationaccountsforanyfluidevolutioninanisolatedsystem.
Itisusefultodefineastatevariableaccountingforthatrelation.Theentropyisthereforedefinedby:
AS=

1
2
6Q
rev
T
=S
2
S
1
3.3 Theincreaseofentropyprinciple
Inanonreversibleprocessgoingfrompoints1to2,theClausiusinequalitycanbewrittenforthecycle
121:

cycle
6Q
T
=

1
2
6Q
T
+

2
1
6Q
rev
T
=

1
2
6Q
T
+S
1
S
2
0
5
=>

1
2
6Q
T
S
2
S
1
=AS
Theequalityholdsforaninternallyreversibleprocessandtheinequalityholdsforanirreversible
process.
Intheparticularcaseofanisolatedsystem,theinequalitybecomes:
AS0
4 Thermodynamicstateoffluids
Thissectionrefersonlytogasesandliquids.Solidsarenotdiscussedhere.
4.1 Idealgases
Mostofthefluidsinvaporphasecanbestudiedasidealgases,aslongastheirpressureand
temperaturestateremainsfarenoughfromthetwophasestate.
Thethermodynamicspropertiesofthosegasescanbeexpressedbytheidealgaslaw:
pv=rT
where
r=
R
MM
gas
istheidealgasconstant
with
R=8314 | j / kmolK (idealgasconstant)
MM
gas
| kg/ kmol (molarmassofthegas)
4.1.1 Specificheat:
Theheatcapacityataconstantvolumeisdefinedby:
c
v
=
(
u
T
)
v
| j / kgK
Sincethevolumeisconstant,noexpansionorcompressionworkcanbeappliedtothesystem.The
internalenergychangeisthusequaltotheheatflow:
c
v
=
(
u
T
)
v
=
(
q
T
)
v
=> Aq=Au=

c
v
dT
Inthecasewhere c
v
isconstant,thegasisaperfectgas,andtheequationcanberewritten:
6
Aq=c
v
AT
Theheatcapacityataconstantpressureisdefinedby:
c
p
=
(
h
T
)
p
| j / kgK
Sincethepressureisconstant,thefirstlawofthermodynamicscanberewrittenas:
Aq=AuAW=A(u+pv)=Ah
=> c
p
=
(
h
T
)
p
=
(
q
T
)
p
and Aq=Ah=

c
p
dT
Inthecasewhere c
p
isconstant,thegasisaperfectgas,andtheequationcanberewritten:
Aq=c
p
AT
Therelationbetween c
p
and c
v
canbeobtainedveryeasilyusingtheidealgaslawandwriting:
c
p
=
Ah
AT
=
A(u+pv)
AT
=
A(u+rT )
AT
=c
v
+r
4.1.2 Entropy:
Considertwopoints1and2.Areversiblepathbetweenthosetwopointscanalwaysbedefined,witha
reversibleheattransfer,andareversiblework.Forexample,anirreversible,adiabaticexpansionfrom
point1topoint2canbesimulatedbyareversibleheatingup,andbyareversibleworkproduction
(lowerthantheonethatwouldhavebeenproducedinthereversibleexpansion).
Thefirstlawstatesthat:
U
2
U
1
=Q
rev
+W
rev
Theinfinitesimalpathinthisevolutioncorrespondsto:
du=6Q
rev
pdV
Andsince S
2
S
1
=

1
2
6Q
rev
T
=> dS=
6Q
rev
T
Itfollowsthat:
dU=TdSpdV
Whatcanbeexpressedintermsofenthalpyas:
dH=TdS+V dp
7
4.1.3 Isentropicprocess
Theequation dU=TdSpdV canberewritten:
ds=
du
T
+
p
T
dv=c
v
dT
T
+r
dv
v
=0
Whichcanbeintegrated:
c
v
ln
T
T
0
=rln
v
v
0
Anewvariablegammaisdefined:
=
c
p
c
v
=1+
r
c
v
PermittingustowritethewellknownrelationbetweenTandvinanisentropicprocess:
=> Tv
1
=T
0
v
0
1
=Cst
Applyingtheidealgaslaw,thisequationcanalsobewritten:
Tp
1

=Cst
or:
pv

=cst
4.1.4 Polytropicprocess
Thepolytropicapproachgeneralizestherelationbetweenpandvintheisentropicprocess.Itis
definedasareversibleevolutionwithheattransfers(nonadiabaticprocess)andcanbewritten:
pv
k
=cst
Severalparticularcasescanbedistinguished:
k=0 Isobaricprocess: p=cst
k=1 Isothermalprocess: pv=rT =cst
k= Isentropicprocess: pv

=cst
Inanexpansion, 1k correspondstothecasewherethefluidisheatedupduringtheexpansion
process. k correspondstothecasewherethefluidiscooleddown
Thecase k canbeusedtosimulateanirreversible,adiabaticexpansion:theheattransfer
correspondstotheheatgeneratedbytheirreversibilities.
4.1.5 Freeenergy:
Itwasstatedpreviouslythat,inanyprocess,
8

1
2
6Q
T
AS
Theadditionalincreaseofentropyisduetoaninternalirreversibleheatgenerationduringtheprocess
(forexample:frictionlossesinaturbine,pressuredrops,etc.)

1
2
6Q
T
=AS

1
2
6Q
irrev
T
=> 6Q=TdS6Q
irrev
where 6Q
irrev
0
=> dU+pdV=TdS6Q
irrev
=> 6Q
irrev
=dUpdV+TdS 0
Whichcanalsobewritten:
6Q
irrev
=dH+Vdp+TdS 0
Thislawisfundamentalandexplainsthespontaneityofathermodynamicprocess:theprocesswill
alwaysgointhedirectionofcreatingirreversibilities.
Someparticularcasescanbedistinguished:
1. Isothermal,isochoricprocess:
dU TdS=dA+SdT =dA0
ThesystemwilltendtowardsareductionoftheHelmoltzfreeenergy.
2. Isobaric,isothermalprocess:
dH+TdS=dG+SdT =dG0
ThesystemwilltendtowardsareductionoftheGibbsfreeenergy.
4.2 Liquids
Aliquidisconsideredasidealifitisnotcompressible:
dv0
Inthiscase,theinternalenergydependsonlyonthetemperatureand c
v
=c
p
=c
u
T
=
du
dT
=c
Ontheotherhand,theenthalpynowdependsonthepressure:
dh=cdT+vdp
and
ds=
dT
T
Inanisentropicliquidcompression/expansion(ds=dT=0),theenthalpydifferencebecomes:
Ah=vA p
9
5 Thermodynamicdiagram
Thethermodynamicstateofarealfluidcanbedeterminedbyprovidingtwothermodynamicvariables.
Theothervariablescanthenbedeterminedwiththeequationsdevelopedabove.
Athermodynamicstatecanthereforebepresentedinatwoaxisdiagram,calledthermodynamic
diagram.Variouscombinationsofthermodynamicvariablescanbeused.Themostcommononesare
Ts,ph,pv,andhs.Examplesofthermodynamicdiagramsforr245faareprovidedinFigures2to4.
Severalzonescanbedistinguished:
Thezoneattheleftoftheliquidline,correspondingtoaliquidstate
Thezonebetweentheliquidlineandthevaporline:Inthiszone,Thefluidisevaporatingor
condensing,sotwophases,liquidandvaporarepresent.Themasspercentageofvaporpresentis
knownasthequality,denotedbyx(seebelow).
Thezoneattheleftofthevaporline,correspondingtoavaporstate
Thezoneabovethecriticalpoint,correspondingtoacriticalstate,whereliquidandvaporcannotbe
distinguished.Thiszonecorrespondstoveryhighpressureandtemperature.
Figure3:pvdiagramfor245fa
Figure4:phdiagramfor245fa

10
Figure2:TsThermodynamicdiagramforR245fa
Inthetwophasestate,purefluids(nonazeotropes)evaporate/condenseataconstanttemperature.On
thecontrary,mixtures(azeotropes)willevaporateataslidingtemperature,withtheircompositionbeing
modifiedduringtheevaporation.
Intwophasestate,thequality(x)correspondstothemassproportionofthefluidinvaporstate
comparedtothetotalmass.Aqualityof0correspondstotheliquidline(thefluidstartstoevaporate)
andaqualityof1correspondstothevaporline(thefluidstartstocondense).
Thethermodynamicpropertiesoffluidsinthetwophasestatecanbeobtainedasalinearcombination
ofthesaturatedliquid(l)andvapor(v)states:
u=(1 X)u
l
+Xu
v
h=(1 X)h
l
+Xh
v
v=(1 X)v
l
+Xv
v
s=(1 X)s
l
+Xs
v
Theenthalpyneededtoevaporatethefluid(i.e.theamountofheatneededfortheevaporationofonekg
offluidinanisobaricprocess)isgivenby:
h
vap
=h
v
h
l
Theinternalenergyneededtoevaporatethefluid(i.e.theamountofheatneededfortheevaporationof
onekgoffluidinaconstantvolume)isgivenby:
u
vap
=u
v
u
l
6 Anexampleofideal/realthermodynamiccycle:Theorganic
Rankinecycle.
UnlikethetraditionalsteamRankinecycle,theorganicRankinecycle(ORC)usesahighmolecular
massorganicfluid.Itallowsheatrecoveryfromlowtemperaturesourcessuchasindustrialwasteheat,
geothermalheat,solarponds,etc.Thelowtemperatureheatisconvertedintousefulwork,thatcan
itselfbeconvertedintoelectricity.
TheworkingprincipleoftheorganicRankinecycleisthesameasthatoftheRankinecycle:the
workingfluidispumpedtoaboilerwhereitisevaporated,passesthroughaturbineandisfinallyre
condensed.
Intheidealcycle,fourprocessescanbeidentified:
1. Isobaricevaporation(14).Isobaricmeansthatthereisnopressuredropintheheat
exchanger.Theboilercanbedividedintothreezones:preheating(12),evaporation(23)and
superheating(34).
11
2. Isentropicexpansion(45).Anisentropicexpansionisadiabatic(theexpanderdoesnot
exchangeheatwiththeenvironment)andreversible(nofrictionlosses,nopressuredrops,no
leakage,...).
3. Isobariccondensation(58).Theheatexchangercanbesubdividedintothedesuperheating
(56),thecondensation(67)andthesubcooling(78)zones.
4. Isentropicpump(81).ThepumpingcannotbeseenontheTsdiagram,sinceinan
isentropiccompressiononaliquid,dS=dT=0.
Intherealcycle,thepresenceofirreversibilitieslowersthecycleefficiency.Theseirreversibilities
mainlyoccur:
Duringtheexpansion:Onlyapartoftheenergyrecoverablefromthepressuredifferenceis
transformedintousefulwork.Theotherpartisconvertedintoheatandislost.Theefficiencyofthe
expanderisdefinedbycomparisonwithanisentropicexpansion.
Intheheatexchangers:Thetortuouspathtakenbytheworkingfluidinordertoensureagoodheat
exchangecausespressuredrops,andlowerstheamountofpowerrecoverablefromthecycle.
Inthepump:electromechanicallossesandinternalleakageleadtoirreversibilitiesthattransforma
partoftheusefulworkintoheat.
Figure5:Tsdiagramfortheideal/realORCcycle
Figure6:phdiagramfortheideal/realORCcycle
Theamountofworkthatcanberecoveredfromthecycleiftheexpanderisadiabaticcanbereadonthe
diagrams:
IntheTsdiagram,ifthevaporisaperfectgas: w
exp
=c
p
(T
4
T
5
)
Inthephdiagram, w
exp
=h
4
h
5
Thediagramsshowthatirreversibilitiesindeedreducetheamountofworkthatcanberecovered.
12
6.1 Cycleefficiency
Theefficiencyofthecycleisthenetamountofusefulwork(theworkoftheexpanderminusthework
ofthepump)dividedbytheamountofheatprovidedbythecycle.
Theworkofthepumpbykgoffluidisdefinedby: w
pump
=h
1
h
8
Andtheheatprovidedintheboilerisgivenby: q
boil
=h
4
h
1
Inordertoobtainthepowers,theintensivevariablesmustbemultipliedbythemassflowrate:

W
exp
|W=

Mw
exp

W
pump
| W=

Mw
pump

Q
boil
|W=

Mq
boil
Theefficiencyisthendefinedby:
j=

W
exp


W
pump

Q
boil
=
w
exp
w
pump
q
boil
=
( h
4
h
5
) ( h
1
h
8
)
h
4
h
1
Itshouldbenotedthatthisrelationisonlyvalidforadiabaticexpansionandcompression.Inthecase
ofaheattransferbetweentheexpander(orthepump)andthesurroundings,aheatbalancegives:

W
exp
=

M( h
4
h
5
)

Q
amb , exp

W
pump
=

M(h
1
h
8
)

Q
amb , pump
Where

Q
amb
istheheatpowerexchangedbetweentheexpander(orthepump)andtheenvironmentor
ambiance.
Theefficiencybecomes:
=

W
exp

W
pump

M
(
h
4
h
1 )
=
(

M
(
h
4
h
5 )

Q
amb, exp )

(

M
(
h
1
h
8 )

Q
amb,pump)

M
(
h
4
h
1)
6.2 Effectiveness
Inanadiabaticexpansion,theentropyincreaseprinciplestatesthat dS0 . dS=0 correspondstoa
reversibleprocess,andhencetothemaximumworkoutput.
Let'sconsidertheexpansionoftheR245fainvaporstate,at110Cfromthepressureof14bardownto
0.78bar.Thestartingpointoftheexpansionwillbelocatedattheintersectionofthe
T
1
=110C
line
withthe14barisobaricline.Thefinalpointoftheexpansionmustbelocatedonthe0.78barisobaric
line.
Intheidealcaseofanisentropicexpansion(12s)thelinejoiningthetwopointsisvertical(no
entropyincrease).Atemperaturejumpof
T
1
T
2s
isstated.
13
Inthecaseofanirreversibleexpansion(12),theentropyisincreasedfrom1to2,andatemperature
jumpof
T
1
T
2
isstated.
Ifthevaporisconsideredasaperfectgas,theworkproducedbytheexpansionisgivenby:
w
s
=h
1
h
2s
=c
p

(
T
1
T
2s
) inthecaseoftheisentropicexpansion
w=h
1
h
2
=c
p

(
T
1
T
2
) inthecaseoftheirreversibleexpansion
Theeffectivenessoftheexpansionisdefinedastheworkthatisactuallyobtaineddividedbythework
thatwouldbeobtainedinanidealisentropicexpansion:

exp
=
h
1
h
2
h
1
h
2s
and
exp
=
T
1
T
2
T
1
T
2s
ifthefluidisconsideredasperfect.
Inacompression,thesamereasoningcanbeapplied,leadingtothedefinitionoftheisentropic
effectivenessofacompression:

comp
=
h
2s
h
1
h
2
h
1
14
Figure7:Isentropic/realexpansion
Inthecaseofaliquid,itwasstatedpreviouslythatanisentropiccompressionisgivenby vp
Theeffectivenessofapumpisthusdefinedby:

pump
=
vp
(
h
2
h
1)
Thosedefinitionsoftheeffectivenessarevalidonlyforadiabaticprocesses.Ifheatisexchangedwith
theenvironmentduringtheexpansion/compression,theeffectivenessbecomes:

exp
=

W
exp

M
(
h
1
h
2s )

comp
=

M
(
h
2s
h
1
)

W
comp

pump
=

Mvp

W
pump
Itisinterestingtonotethat,forgivensupplyandexhaustpressure,theisentropicworkofanexpansion
isfunctionofthesupplytemperature.Thismeansthat,forgivenpressuresandforagivenexpander
effectiveness,theshaftpowerincreaseswithanincreaseinsuperheating.
Asaconsequence,coolingthefluiddownisanadvantageinacompression,butadrawbackinan
expansion.Theexpanderwillthereforepreferablybeinsulated.
15
Figure8:Isentropicexpansionworkasunfunctionoftheturbine
inlettemperature
6.3 ImprovementoftheorganicRankinecycle
Inthecaseofa"dryfluid",thecyclecanbeimprovedbyusingaregenerator:Sincethefluidhasnot
reachedthetwophasestateattheendoftheexpansion,itstemperatureatthispointishigherthanthe
condensingtemperature.Thishighertemperaturefluidcanbeusedtopreheattheliquidbeforeitenters
theevaporator.
Acounterflowheatexchangeristhusinstalledbetweentheexpanderoutletandtheevaporatorinlet.
Thepowerrequiredfromtheheatsourceisthereforereducedandtheefficiencyisincreased.
6.4 Heatexchangers&Pinchpoint
Asstatedpreviously,theheatpowerexchangedbetweentwofluidsisafunctionofthetemperature
16
Figure9:OrganicRankinecyclewith
recuperator
Figure10:PinchpointsinanORC
differencebetweenthetwofluids.InanORC,eachheatexchangercanbesubdividedinto3zones:
liquid,twophase,andvapor.Thetemperatureprofilesintheheatexchangers(Figure10)illustratea
pointwherethetemperaturedifferenceisminimal.Thispointisafundamentalparameterfordesigning
apracticalORCandiscalledthepinchpoint.
Thevalueofthepinchmustalwaysbepositive,inordertomaketheheatexchangepossible.Asmall
pinchcorrespondstoaverydifficultheattransferandthereforerequiresmoreheatexchangearea.A
nullpinchcorrespondstoaninfiniteexchangearea.
Whensizinganinstallation,thechoiceofthepinchresultsofaneconomicaloptimization:
Asmallpinchincreasestheperformanceoftheheatexchangers,leadingtoahigherheatpower
intheevaporatorandtoalowersaturationtemperatureinthecondenser
Ahighpinchcorrespondstosmallerandthuslessexpensiveheatexchangers.
Inrefrigeration,aruleofgoodpracticestatesthatthevalueofthepinchshouldbearound5to10Kto
reachaneconomicaloptimum.InORCapplications,thevaluedependsstronglyontheconfiguration
ofthesystemandontheheatsink/sourcetemperatures.
ThepinchpointleadstoanimportantlimitationinORC'sbynotallowingtheheatsourcetemperature
tobeloweredfarbelowtheevaporatingtemperature.
Forexample,inFigure10,onemaybelievethat,sincetherefrigerantenterstheevaporatorata
temperatureofabout25C,thehotfluidcanbecooleddowntoatemperatureclosetothatvalue.The
pinchpointlimitationshowsthatthisisnotpossible:thehotfluidiscooleddowntoatemperatureof
about90C.Inordertocoolthehotfluiddowntoalowervalue,theevaporatingtemperatureofthe
cycleshouldbedecreased,leadingtoadecreasedcycleefficiency.
Thesamelimitationisstatedinthecondenser:thecoldstreamcannotbeheateduptothetemperature
ofthefluidleavingtheexpander.
6.5 UnderstandingthebehavioroftheORC
ThissectionanalysestheparticularcaseofanORCusingvolumetric(positivedisplacement)pumpand
expander(forexampleapistonpumpandscrollexpander).Theaimistounderstandhowspecific
parametersofthecycle(overheating,pressures,etc.)canbeadjustedbyvaryingtheworkingconditions.
1. Themassflowrate.
Sincethepumpisapositivedisplacementmachine,isimposesthevolumeflowrate.Sincethe
fluidisinliquidstateatthepumpsupply,thefluidisincompressibleandthemassflowrateis
alsodeterminedbythepump.Itcanbeadjustedbymodifyingthesweptvolumeofthepumpor
varyingitsrotationalspeed.
2. Theevaporatingpressure
Theexpanderbeingapositivedisplacementmachine,thevolumeoffluiditabsorbsateach
revolutionisfixed.Thisvolumeiscalledthesweptvolume.Foragivenrotatingspeed,the
volumeflowrateisalsofixedandisgivenby:
17

V=V
swept

rpm
60
Themassflowrateisrelatedtothevolumeflowratebythedensityofthefluid:

M=j
su , exp

V
Sincethevolumeflowrateisimposedbytheexpanderrotatingspeed,andsincethemassflow
rateisimposedbythepump,thevapordensityismodulatedtomaintaincontinuityatsteady
state.Theidealgaslawstatesthat:
j
su ,exp
=
p
su , exp
r(273+T
su , exp
)
Therelativevariationof(273+T)issmallcomparedtotherelativevariationofpencountered
inusualworkingconditions.Therefore,inorderforthedensitytobemodulated,thepressure
hastobemodified.Theexpandersupplypressureisthusimposedbytheexpanderrotating
speedforagivenpumpflowrate:reducingtheexpanderrotatingspeedleadstoahigher
evaporatingpressure.
3. Evaporatorexhaustoverheating
Theflowrateandtheevaporatingpressurebeingsetbythepumpandtheexpander,thetotal
heattransferacrosstheevaporatorisdeterminedbytheevaporatorconfigurationandbythe
temperatureandflowrateofthehotstream.
Thisheatfluxalsoimposestheoverheatingattheevaporatorexhaust.
4. Condensersupplytemperature
Thecondensersupplytemperatureisthetemperatureofthefluidleavingtheexpander.This
temperatureisimposedbytheexpanderefficiencyandbytheambientheatlossesofthe
expander.
5. Condenserexhaustsubcooling
InanORCcycle,themassofthefluidinvaporstateis
negligiblecomparedtothatoftheliquid.Addingmore
fluidtothecircuitincreasestheamountofliquid,and
increasesthelevelofliquidintheheatexchangers.Ifthe
evaporatingconditions(pressure,overheating)arefixed,
theliquidlevelintheevaporatorremainsmoreorlessthe
samebecausethefluidneedsafixedheatexchangerarea
inordertobecomeevaporatedandoverheating.
Inthiscase,increasingtherefrigerantchargewill
increasetheliquidlevelinthecondenseronlyandincreasethesubcoolingzoneintheheat
exchanger.Thefluidwillthereforehavemoreexchangeareatobecomesubcooled.
Itcanthenbeconcludedthatthecondenserexhaustsubcoolingisimposedbytherefrigerant
charge.
6. Condensingpressure.
Thecondensersupplytemperatureisimposedbytheexpanderandtheexhaustsubcooling(=>
temperature)isimposedbytherefrigerantcharge.Thecondenserheatflowrateisthus
imposed.
Thecondensingtemperatureisfixedbythepinchandthecoolingfluidtemperatureatthepinch
18
point:decreasingthepinchwillleadtoalowercondensingtemperatureandtoalower
condensingpressure.Thesameeffectisstatedifthecoolingfluidtemperatureisdecreased.
Thecondensingpressureisthusimposedbythecondensereffectiveness(=>pinch)andbythe
coldstreamtemperatureandflowrate.
7. Pressuredrops
Pressuredropsaremainlyafunctionoftheheatexchangergeometricalcharacteristicsandofthe
flowrate.
Figure11summarizesthecausalitieshighlightedabove.
Figure11:BlockdiagramofthecausalitiesinanORCwithvolumetricexpanderand
pump
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