MEASUREMENT

MEASUREMENT , MEASURE WHY? By M.S.NARAIN

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THE MEASUREMENT PROCESS A measurement process is a repeated application of a test method using a measuring system. A test method includes requirements for a test apparatus and a well-defined procedure for using it to measure a physical property.

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General Characteristics There are three general characteristics of a measurement process (Rashed and Hamouda 1974): 1. Realization of a test method. If a test method specifies use of a certain kind of test apparatus, a measurement process following the test method will utilize a particular version of such test apparatus. It will also involve a specific operator who is needed to carry out preparation of specimens and measurements. 2. Realization of a system of causes. A system of causes is a collection of factors that may cause variability of measurements due to test apparatus, operator, test specimen, and other factors. Some causes may be explicitly involved in the test method. This realization of a system of causes defines the statistical universe of individual measurements. 3. Capability of statistical control. In a measurement, it is necessary to require the capability of statistical control. Capability of control means that either the measurements are obtained from an identifiable statistical universe or an orderly array of such universes, or if not, the physical causes preventing such identification may themselves be identified and, if desired, isolated and suppressed.

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Measurement is the process of evaluating a property or characteristic of an object and describing it with a numerical or nominal value. If the value is numerical, reflecting the extent of the characteristic, then the measurement is said to be on a quantitative scale and the actual property is referred to as a variable

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If the value assigned to each unit is other than numerical, then the measurement is on a qualitative or classification scale and is referred to as an attribute. In most inspection situations involving nominal or attribute data, there are two possible nominal values: conforming (good) and nonconforming (defective).

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Examples of variables inspection are measurements related to weight, length, temperature, ETC. It is also possible to derive a numerical measure from a qualitative scale. This is achieved by calculating the fraction nonconforming (fraction defective) as the ratio between the number of units labeled as nonconforming and the total number of units inspected.

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Quality depends on engineering and manufacturing excellence, and inspection simply determines whether or not it exists. Better inspection is not the solution to large numbers of rejects. The solution must take the form of improvements in design or in the manufacturing process.

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The Measuring System A measuring system should be able to provide accuracy capabilities that will assure the attainment of a reliable measurement. In general, the elements of a measuring system include

instrumentation, calibration standards, environmental influences, human operator limitations, features of the workpiece or object being measured.

The design of measuring systems also involves proper analysis of cost-to-accuracy considerations

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The functional design of measuring systems can include consideration of many approaches and employment of a variety of physical phenomena useful in establishing parametric variables from the measured quantity. In linear measuring systems, the basic function may be mechanical, optical, pneumatic, electronic, radiological, or combinations of these

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Controlling Product Quality In contrast to the rather imprecise measurements made and measurement standards used in everyday life, measurements and standards applied to manufactured parts must necessarily be extremely precise, since they must conform to definite geometric and aesthetic design specifications.

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The production of quality products in any manufacturing operation requires an efficient and continuous testing program, and such programs have become increasingly important in recent years. Inspection to ensure and control product quality, as performed in industry, is of two kinds: 1. Visual inspection 2. Dimensional inspection

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Visual Inspection : Visual inspection takes place, even if inadvertently, each time a part is handled during its manufacture Dimensional Inspection : Dimensional inspection refers to the measurement of lengths and angles and, in combination, of geometric shapes and may be accomplished automatically by a machine or manually by an operator.

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Measurements that are taken while the product is still undergoing manufacture have a greater value than those applied to the finished product, since the former constitute process control whereas the latter are merely process verification. It is more costly to correct or to scrap a bad product than it is to manufacture it properly in the first place

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Selection of the Measuring Instrument : Selection of a measuring tool or measuring instrument is based on several factors. In general, the Rule of Ten serves as a baseline for the selection process. The Rule of Ten states that inspection measurements should be better than the tolerance of a dimension by a factor of 10 and calibration standards should be better than the inspection instrument by a factor of 10. Once this rule is implemented, candidate instruments need to be evaluated based on the following criteria: Accuracy and precision Repeatability Sensitivity Resolution Stability and consistency Part or work piece material Shape and dimensions of the part being measured Capabilities of the metrology laboratory

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Instrumentation for Dimensional Measurements Dimensional (or linear) measuring instruments are used to measure length. They are of two types: 1. Absolute instruments 2. Comparative instruments, or comparators Absolute instruments have their working standards built in and thus require no mastering; they are generally used for long-range measurements. Comparators are short-range devices that measure deviations between a working master and a given part. The yardstick is a crude example of the first type, and the dial indicator is an example of the second.

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Measuring instruments range from very basic tools to more sophisticated measuring machines, such as coordinate measuring machines and laser scanners. These basic measuring equipment and tools include: Surface plates Micrometers Verniers Comparators Dial indicators Gage blocks Ring, plug, and snap gages

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DESTRUCTIVE AND NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTS

Testing involves evaluation of product conformance to certain design or production requirements. In addition, the output of testing can be used to evaluate new designs during product development, to define a products potential failure causes, in product reliability evaluation

Testing versus Inspection Inspection is the evaluation of product quality by comparing the results of measuring one or several product characteristics against applicable standards.

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1. Measurement, which could be on a qualitative or quantitative scale. The objective is to make a judgment about the products conformance to specifications. 2. Comparison of the measurement results to specific standards that reflect the intended use of the product by the customer and the various production costs. If the product is found to be nonconforming, a decision as to whether nonconforming products are fit for use may be reached. 3. Decision making regarding the disposition of the unit inspected and, under sampling inspection, regarding the lot from which the sample was drawn. 4. Corrective action(s) in order to improve the quality of the product and/or process based on the aggregate results of inspection over a number of units.

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Testing is also carried out to determine the conformity of a product by comparing the results of measuring one or several product characteristics against applicable standards. It involves similar tasks as inspection. The difference is that testing can be performed on a part, a product, a subassembly, or an assembly, while inspection is typically performed on a component or a part of a product.

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Destructive and Nondestructive Testing Testing might be destructive or nondestructive. In testing, the product is subjected to measuring procedures that render its usefulness to the customer. Gauging, is the more common form of inspection and is less costly; this operation has no effect on the products service capability. Of course, certain product characteristics, mainly those related to failure modes, may only be observed and measured by exposing the product to conditions beyond its designed limits, such as determining the maximum current that an electronic component can carry or the maximum tensile force that a mechanical part can withstand. Most of these procedures normally are destructive testing procedures and may be performed in cases where mandatory requirements are to be met. Nondestructive testing (NDT) of products usually is performed by subjecting the product to tests such as eddy current, ultrasonic resonance, or x-ray testing.

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Nondestructive Testing Techniques. Screening or 100 percent inspection can not be used when the product is subjected to a destructive testing procedure or the time involved in performing inspection is too long. Another constraint is that the cost of inspection may be too high to justify the economics of inspection. NDT techniques are more common for automated inspection or 100 percent inspection.

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Eddy current testing involves the application of an AC current passing through a coil that is placed near the surface of the part to be inspected. Thus, its application is limited to conducting materials and the test results are made by comparison. Ultrasonic testing normally is used to check for surface defects that cause deflection of an ultrasonicwave directed on the part surface, thus giving an indication of the presence of a surface defect. For ultrasonic testing, reference standards are required. X-ray techniques cause the internal characteristics of the part to be displayed and thus provide information about the presence of defects, cracks, or other impurities. Liquid penetration is more common for detecting defects on the part surface. It is used for different part configurations and, unlike magnetic particle testing, it can be used for nonmagnetic materials. However, liquid penetration can not be used to locate subsurface discontinuities. Magnetic particle testing is used when the part material can be magnetized. Discovery of part defects, like cracks or discontinuities, can then be detected by the presence of paring magnetic fields. Magnetic particle testing is limited to parts made of iron, steel, or allied materials.

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The science of precision measurement, usually referred to as metrology, encompasses all scientific disciplines. The word metrology is derived from two Greek words: metro, meaning measurement, and logy, meaning science. The term is used in a more restricted sense to mean that portion of measurement science that is often used to provide, maintain, and disseminate a consistent set of units, to provide support for the enforcement of equity in trade by weights and measurement laws, or to provide data for quality control in manufacturing

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1. Technical. This class includes those measurements made to assure dimensional compatibility, conformation to design specifications necessary for proper function, or, in general, all measurements made to ensure fitness for intended use of some object. 2. Legal :This class includes those measurements made to ensure compliance with a law or regulation. This class is the concern of weights and measures bodies, regulators, and those who must comply with regulations. The measurements are identical in kind with those of technical metrology but usually are embedded in a much more formal structure. Legal metrology is more prevalent in Europe than in the United States, although this is changing. 3.Scientific. This class includes those measurements made to validate theories of the nature of the universe or to suggest new theories. These measurements, which can be called scientific metrology (properly the domain of experimental physics), present special problems

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National standards. Include prototype and natural phenomena of SI (Systems International, the worldwide system of weight and measures standards) base units and reference and working standards for derived and other units. Metrology standards. Reference standards of industrial or governmental laboratories. Calibration standards. Working standards of industrial or governmental laboratories. Frequently, there are various levels within these echelons

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Concern with Standards The term standard includes three distinct areas, all of which are of importance in metrology (NIST 1981): 1. Definitions of base units 2. Physical artifacts 3. Paper standards

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CONCEPTS IN METROLOGY A fundamental role of the metrology and calibration process is to assign accuracy or uncertainty statements to a measurement. This can be achieved by defining characteristics of measuring system elements as well as equipment limitations. Error in Measurement Error in measurement is the difference between the indicated value and the true value of a measured quantity. The true value of a quantity to be measured is seldom known. Errors are classified as: 1. Random errors 2. Systematic errors

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Random errors are accidental in nature. They fluctuate in a way that cannot be predicted from the detailed employment of the measuring system or from knowledge of its functioning. Sources of error such as hysteresis, ambient influences, or variations in the work piece are typical but not allinclusive in the random category.

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Systematic errors are those not usually detected by repetition of the measurement operations. An error resulting from either faulty calibration of a local standard or a defect in contact configuration of an internal measuring system is typical but not completely inclusive in the systematic class of errors

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Analysis of the causes of errors is helpful in attaining the necessary knowledge of achieved accuracy. There are many different sources of error that influence the precision of a measuring process in a variety of ways according to the individual situation in which such errors arise. The permutation of error sources and their effects, therefore, is quite considerable. In general, these errors can be classified under three main headings: 1. Process environment 2. Equipment limitation 3. Operator fallibility These factors constitute an interrelated three-element system for the measuring process

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The areas in which operator fallibility arise can be grouped as follows : 1. Identification of the measuring situation 2. Analysis of alternative methods 3. Selection of equipment 4. Application (or measurement)

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Accuracy Accuracy is the degree of agreement of individual or average measurements with an accepted reference value or level (American Society for Testing and Materials 1977). Measurement science encompasses two basic approaches for determining conformity to measurement accuracy objectives: 1.an engineering analysis to determine all causes of error,and 2.a statistical evaluation of data after stripping or Eliminating the errors revealed by the engineering analysis

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Precision Precision is the degree of mutual agreement among individual measurements made under prescribed like conditions, or simply, how well identically performed measurements agree with each other (American Society for Testing and Materials 1977). This concept applies to a process or a set of measurements, not to a single measurement, because in any set of measurements, the individual results will scatter about the mean.

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Sensitivity and Readability The terms sensitivity and readability often are used in discussing measurement, and sometimes the concepts they involve are confused with accuracy and precision Sensitivity and readability are primarily associated with equipment, while accuracy and precision are associated with the measuring process. Sensitivity can be defined as the least perceptible change in dimension detected by the measuring tip and shown by the indicator. Readability is the ease of reading the instrument scale when a dimension is being measured. It is a factor that should remain constant over the full scale range.

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Consistency Consistency is another characteristic of the measuring instrument. Consistency of the reading on the instrument scale when the same dimension is being measured is necessary. This property affects the performance of the measuring Instrument and, therefore, complete confidence in the accuracy of the process cannot be established in the absence of consistency.

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TRACEABILITY : Traceability is a process intended to quantify a laboratorys measurement uncertainty in relationship to the national standards. It is based on analyses of error contributions present in each of the measurement transfers: the calibration of the laboratorys reference standards by NIST, the measurements made in the Calibration transfers within the laboratory, and the measurements made on a product. Evidence of traceability is normally required; it may be as simple as retention of certificates and reports on calibration or as complex as reproduction of the analyses demonstrating the uncertainties claimed for the measurements

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Measurement Assurance Measurement assurance, thought by some to relate only to methods used in the metrology or calibration laboratory to secure calibrations by NIST, is one of the more important concepts in the measurement field. Traditionally, calibrations by NIST determine the accuracy and precision of the measuring instrument. Measurement assurance protocols (MAPs), on the other hand, are able to include not only the accuracy of the item, but also the contribution to error by the metrologist/technician, laboratory environment, And practices/procedures of the laboratory because the experiment involves Measurements by participants in their own laboratories The application of Measurement assurance can serve to reduce errors

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CALIBRATION Calibration refers to measurements where the individual values are reported, rather than to measurements indicating only that an instrument is Functioning within prescribed limits. It also refers to the disciplines necessary to control measuring systems to assure their functioning within prescribed accuracy objectives. The general calibration provisions for a measuring system include: 1. Acceptance calibration of a new system 2. Periodic calibration of the system in use or when placed in use after storage 3. Availability of standards traceable to the national standard for the unit of measure under consideration

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A calibration chain or pyramid of echelons is involved in the discipline of metrology control and surveillance. The levels include: Level 1. The product tolerance or measured quantity. Level 2. The calibration of the product measuring system. Level 3. The calibration of the measuring system used to calibrate the product measurement system. Level 4. Local standards, such as gage blocks or standard cells (volts), used for calibration of level 3. Level 5. Referencing local standards of level 4 to the national standard.
The aim of all calibration activities is ascertaining that a measuring system will function to assure attainment of its accuracy objectives.

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Calibration Control System A typical calibration program may involve all or most of the following tasks 1. Evaluation of equipment to determine its capability 2. Identification of calibration requirements 3. Selection of standards to perform calibration 4. Selection of methods/procedures to carry out the measurements necessary for the calibration 5. Establishment of the initial interval and the rules for adjusting the interval thereafter 6. Establishment of a recall system to assure that instruments due for calibration are returned 7. Implementation of a labeling system to visually identify the instruments due date 8. Use of a quality assurance program to evaluate the calibration system (process, control, audit, corrective action, and so on) Labeling instruments to visually display their calibration due dates is a companion feature to the recall system

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Measurement System Analysis (MSA) Calculate, analyze, and interpret repeatability and reproducibility (Gage R&R) studies, measurement correlation, capability, bias, linearity, etc., including both conventional and control chart methods. Measurement system analysis consists of qualifying the measurement process, determining the adequacy of the measurement system for use, and identifying and estimating the process error. A measurement system is the entire process for obtaining measurements on some quality characteristic of interest; this process includes standards, personnel, methods of measurement, and so on.

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Systematic and Random Errors Two important and common types of error in measurement system analysis are systematic error and random error. Systematic errors can be caused by human interference, poor manufacturing methods, and measuring device imperfections, for example. This error remains fairly constant over repeated measurements collected under identical conditions. The error is systematic, which results in values that are Consistently above or consistently below the true or reference value of the quality characteristic. Random errors vary arbitrarily over all measurements taken under identical conditions. Even when systematic errors have been identified and accounted for, normal random fluctuations will occur. If only random errors are present in the system, then increasing the number of measurements taken will provide a better estimate of the quality characteristics true value.

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Repeatability : represents the variability due to the gage or test instrument when used to measure the same part under identical conditions (that is, same operator Measuring the same part). Reproducibility, on the other hand, represents the variability Due to different operators or setups measuring the same parts using the same measuring device. Reproducibility represents the variability due to the measurement system.

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GAGE REPEATABILITY AND REPRODUCIBILITY Gage repeatability and reproducibility (R&R) studies are used to determine if a measurement system is capable for its intended purpose. If the measurement system variation is small Compared to the process variation, then the Measurement system is considered capable.

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Determine the amount of variability in the collected data that can be attributed to the measurement system in place Isolate the sources of variability in the measurement system Determine whether the measurement system is suitable for use in a broader project Variance Components : When conducting a gage R&R study, it is often assumed that the parts and the operators are selected at random from larger populations.

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The Tabular Method (Range Method) Gage R&R studies were often conducted using a tabular method. This method is based on information that can be obtained from control charts and using the sample ranges to estimate Variability Estimating Reproducibility. The steps for estimating reproducibility using the tabular method are as follows: 1. Estimate the average measurement for each operator. 2. Find the range of these averages (largest average smallest average); this is called RO (for operator range). 3. Estimate the standard deviation for reproducibility using the Relationship 4. Estimate the variance component for reproducibility:

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Tabular Method or ANOVA Method There are advantages and disadvantages to using either the tabular method or the ANOVA method. The tabular method is easy to carry out using ranges to estimate variance components. In addition, interpretation of the results is often intuitive for the practitioner. However, the tabular method is restricted to investigating a measurement system that involves only parts (with one operator) or parts and several operators. It does not lend itself to more complex measurement systems that may involve more than two factors (parts and operators). it does not adequately lend itself to dealing with systems where randomization is restricted or true replication is not possible. the analysis of variance method for estimating repeatability and reproducibility is more flexible than the tabular or range method. It also uses more efficient estimates than sample ranges to obtain the necessary variance Components estimates. With modern computational capabilities, the ANOVA method is no more difficult to carry out than the range method.

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Attribute Gage R&R Studies Methods for assessing the capability of a quantitative measurement system as discussed in this chapter are well documented in the literature. When the measurement system involves attribute data, the standard quantitative methods are no longer appropriate. An attribute gage measurement system is appropriate when the parts or objects of interest are placed into one of two or more possible categories. The measurement of interest is the classification of the part.

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1. Appraiser agreement statistics such as kappa statistics and intra-class correlation 2. The analytic method 3. Latent-class models These three approaches can provide some measure of reproducibility or repeatability, and in some cases bias.

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Non-manufacturing Applications of Measurement System Analysis measurement system analysis has been presented for typical manufacturing situations. There are of course numerous applications of agreement analysis in nonmanufacturing settings. Many of the kappa statistics described here originated in the medical statistics and psychometrics fields. As more quality engineers become involved in the service sector, for example, it is imperative that they understand the use of appropriate statistical methods for assessing the capability of the measurement system.