Building Serv. Eng. Res. Technol. 33,4 (2012) pp.

407422

An analysis of heat insulation efficiency of building outer skins used for green building
W-S Houa PhD, T-F Chuangb PhD, E-C Hsieha MArch and Y-H Changc PhD a Department of Bioenvironmental Systems Engineering, National Taiwan University, Taipei 10617, Taiwan b Department of Design for Sustainable Environment, Mingdao University, Changhua, Taiwan c Department of Landscape and Architecture, Mingdao University, Changhua, Taiwan

In general, the poor thermal insulation of building materials usually causes elevated room temperature, which not only reduces the comfort of the environment but also adds extra loading to the air conditioner. The objective of this study is to investigate the heat insulation efficiencies of building outer skins used for green building. A total of 25 types of multi-layer cladding materials and 9 types of single-layer skin materials made in Taiwan along with 4 types of overseas multi-layer skin materials were tested using the hot box method (HBM). The above data were then adopted to calculate the heat-insulation ability, vapor transmission volume and heat gain cooling load. Besides, the costs of the above materials were also collected to provide useful information for green building industry to select the most proper skin materials in considering both the material performance and costs. The analysis results suggest that the k group (paint-baked metal plate 2 100 k rock wool paint-baked metal plate) exhibits the best heat-insulating capacity, which is 67.0%. However, Item 15 (colour corrugated steel plate conventional steel bearing plate calcium silicate board) presents the smallest moisture-permeable amount at 0.001 g/h. Besides, Item 13 exhibits the smallest cooling load, which is 1.8 W. From the above, it is shown that superior heat-insulating performance does not necessarily mean better moisture permeability resistance. The skin material which presents superior moisture permeability resistance does not always present a higher cooling load. For this reason, the appropriate skin materials should be selected by matching with the climatic environment where the building is located. Moreover, the decrement of CO2 emissions caused by transportation is also another key point which the green building industry should consider. Practical application: The objectives of this research are to investigate the heat insulation efficiencies of building outer skins used in the green buildings. The heat capacity, moisturepermeable resistance, solar heat gain cooling load and costs of the building outer skins frequently used in Taiwan have been calculated and collected in this study. Therefore, the engineers and building industry can choose the most suitable materials with the help of the above information.

Introduction

Address for correspondence: Yuan-Hsiou Chang, Department of Landscape and Architecture, Mingdao University. No. 369, Wen-Hua Rd., Peetow ChanHua 52345, Taiwan. E-mail: f89622050@ntu.edu.tw Figure 1 appears in color online: http://bse.sagepub.com
The Chartered Institution of Building Services Engineers 2011

The energy consumption per capita has been considerably increased in the whole world. The primary energy sources, such as crude oil, natural gas and other conventional are limited resources formed by geological processes
10.1177/0143624411418153

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An analysis of heat insulation efficiency of building outer skins used for green building On the other hand, to mitigate global warming, every government in the world has tried very hard to reduce the CO2 emissions. The Taiwanese government hopes to achieve the targets of 16% and 28% decrement of CO2 emissions in 2010 and 2020, respectively (taking 1997 as the baseline). Reinforced concrete structures are widely used by the building industry in Taiwan. However, the construction materials used in above structures are one of the important reasons that caused the CO2 emissions. Besides, improper exploitation of river sands will change the river morphology in certain riverbed sections and lead to the depletion and destruction of the embankment foundation.9 This will usually cause significant threat to the human life and losses of property. However, the design of green building, such as steel frame building, can reduce not only the use of architectural materials such as sand, cement and aggregate but also shorten the working hours and reduce the emission volume of CO2. A group of new apparatuses known as contact transient methods has recently become very attractive and popular for all types of materials because they can be used to measure several thermal properties simultaneously or separately.1013 A so-called hot box method (HBM) was adopted in this study to investigate the heat-insulating performance of the building skin material. Nowadays, the hot box method has been widely used to obtain necessary data to measure the thermal conductivity (k) and thermal transmission rate (U) of the material. By inferring the type of heat-transfer coefficient, the test method will be classified according to the following: (1) the heating type of the subject, (2) the heat-conducting process, (3) the direction of conductive thermal current through the subject, (4) the shape of the subject, (5) the thermal current volume measuring method, and (6) the functional relationship between thermal current and time.

through solar energy acumulation into the earth over millions of years.1 The building sector is the largest energy consumer following the industrial sector. In many countries, the energy required for space heating and cooling in buildings has the highest share of all. In Taiwan, the energy used to construct and operate buildings constitutes 45% of the total energy use. Energy saving and the effective usage of energy are very important in Taiwan since it imports most of its energy. For the above reasons, it is clear that effective thermal protection in building sector plays an important role towards the reduction of energy consumption for space heating and cooling.2 Thermal insulation materials like any other natural or man-made materials exhibit temperature-dependent properties that vary with the nature of the material and the influencing temperature range. The impact of operating temperature on the thermal performance of insulation materials has been investigated by many studies. The results indicate that insulation materials subject to high temperature have higher thermal conductivity and therefore higher envelope cooling load with varying degrees depending on the type of insulation material.3 Building insulation will reduce the operational cost of space heating at the expense of an increase in the initial investment by the added insulation material.4 Many researches have been carried out on this subject to investigate the effectiveness of better thermal insulation for existing buildings to reduce energy consumption.58 Yoon et al.5 determined the impact of various insulation systems on the total cooling load of the cool storage structures with particular consideration given to the product thermal mass to find optimal insulation thicknesses for each envelope component for various climatic locations in Korea. Al-Sallal6 compared two types of roof insulation (polystyrene and fiberglass) in warm and cold climates and found that the payback period in cold climates is shorter than that in warm climates.

W-S Hou et al. There are several studies dealing with the energy efficiency of the different components of buildings such as the cladding, electrical, structural and mechanical systems.1416 In buildings, most of the energy is used for heating and cooling; therefore, many studies are targeting on the improvement of heat insulation systems. The use of multi-layer skin wall is suggested to be an effective way to reduce the buildings solar heat gain.17 Typically, the multi-layer skin wall comprises the inner layer, support layer and outer layer elements. Besides, it can be classified into three types: the air permeable type, the ventilation type and the airtight air layer type according to the type of support layer. Furthermore, the space of the support layer also provides the thermal buoyancy effect similar to a thermal chimney; therefore, it plays a key role in the indoor natural ventilation effect.18 Researchers have successively demonstrated that these structural variables can have significant impact on the thermal performance. Measurements of real samples of anisotropic building structures are thus necessary to support thermal design. As a consequence of the wide ranges of thermal properties, a measurement method has to be selected depending on the following criteria: possible sample size and shape, temperature range, and thermal conductivity range.1921 Multi-layer facades are assuming an evergreater importance in modern building practices. They are already a common feature of architectural competition in Europe; however, relatively few buildings have actually been realized, and there has been too little experience with how they actually behave in operation.2224 A green building, also known as a sustainable building, is a structure that is designed, built, renovated, operated or reused in an ecological and resource-efficient manner. Green buildings are designed to meet certain objectives such as protecting occupant health; improving employee productivity;

409

using energy, water and other resources more efficiently and reducing the overall impact to the environment. A green building is an opportunity to use our resources efficiently while creating healthier buildings. It provides cost savings to all over the world through improved human health and productivity, lower cost building operations and resource efficiency and it moves us closer to a sustainable future. The objectives of this research are to investigate the heat insulation efficiencies of building outer skins used in the green buildings. The results will support us with useful information to understand the heat insulation properties of building skin and to help the building industry to choose the most suitable materials. 2 Materials and methods

2.1 Materials In this study, a total of 39 groups of building skin material were tested: 10 groups of Taiwan-made single-layer materials, 25 groups of multi-layer materials made in this study and 4 groups of overseas multi-layer materials. The names and the specifications of materials used in the experiment are shown in Table 1. The sizes used in the study together with the physical properties, mechanical characteristics and unit price used by the outer wall materials, middle supporting/bearing materials, inner wall materials and overseas materials are shown in Tables 25. 2.2 Methods The experimental devices adopted in the study were Hot Box Method.25 The entire experimental box is divided into three sections to emulate the ambient conditions, indoor conditions and experimental composite layer configurations; see Figure 1. The outdoor side is provided with one unit of heater and fan, whereas the indoor side is also provided with a cooler and fan so that the air temperature

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An analysis of heat insulation efficiency of building outer skins used for green building

Table 1 Experimental materials and specifications No. a b c d e f g h i j Material Air-permeable colourcorrugated steel plate Weather board Colour corrugated steel plate Hollow cement board Conventional steel bearing plate FRP hollow board Gypsum board Calcium silicate board Magnesium oxide board Paint-baking metal plate 4 100 k Rock wool Paint-baking metal plate Paint-baking metal plate 2 100 k Rock wool Paint-baking metal plate Paint-baking metal plate PU Paint-baking metal plate Paint-baking metal plate Air-layer ABS generated by construction plastics Paint-baking metal plate Size (cm2) 80 80 80 80 80 80 80 80 80 80 80 80 80 80 80 80 80 80 80 80 Thickness (mm) 5 6.5 3 20 T 1.5/W 5 70 10 6 6 12 Cost (USD/m2) 6.1 31.7 5.5 84.8 15.8 48.5 2.4 4.1 2.4 5.8 Producing countries and the scope of application Taiwan, outer wall material Taiwan, outer wall material Taiwan, outer wall material Taiwan, outer or inner Wall material Taiwan, supporting material Taiwan, supporting material Taiwan, inner wall material Taiwan, inner wall material Taiwan, inner wall material Germany, multi-layer Skin materials Germany, multi-layer skin materials Germany, multi-layer skin materials Germany, multi-layer skin materials

80 80

52

18.2-24.2

l m

80 80 80 80

52 52

48.5-63.6 48.5-63.6

Note: Cost: materials wage, USD: United States dollar, NTD: New Taiwan Dollar 1:33.

and the air-current speed of the respective sections can be controlled independently. The subject was placed at the center of support frame where the heat can be insulated all around. During the experiment, the space between the subject and the support frame was configured into airtight status to completely isolate the air current of the indoor section and the outdoor section so the set conditions of both sides would not affect each other. The controllable temperature range of the indoor side was 58C408C, and the stationary wind speed was 00.5 m/s. As for the outdoor side, the controllable temperature range of the indoor side was 08C608C; the stationary wind speed was 03 m/s; and the maximum wind speed could reach as high as 10 m/s. The air temperature of the outdoor side was controlled by using the heater and the cooler alternatively to achieve accurate temperature adjustment and control. A halogen lamp was used to simulate heat radiation, and the power provider was used to adjust

current levels to control the heating capacity. The refrigerating chamber provided the low temperature to the cooler, and the temperature of air inside the chamber was adjusted by a control panel. As for the air-current control, the inverter was used to control the fan speed directly to achieve the required air speed. The experiment was performed in the constant temperature room and heating box to simulate the high temperature of summer in Taiwan. The temperature was controlled between 25 18C40 18C and that at the lower temperature side was over 10 18C. Furthermore, the temperature of the air in the heating box, constant temperature room and low temperature room were tested first, and then the surface temperature and humidity of the skin material subject were also measured to understand the impact on the heat insulation under varied temperature levels. During the experiment, the CR-10X Data Logger from Campbell Scientific, Inc. was used; it was designed with several kinds of input/

Table 2 External wall material properties, made in Taiwan a. b. c. d.

Material Item

Photo

Material Properties

Thickness (cm) Quality (kg/m2) Material composition Material characteristics

0.65 20 PU foam board Good aesthetics

0.3 200 Electroplating plate Large span, Fast construction

2 75 Cement, asbestos With air layer (Thickness 1.5 cm)

Constructability Weather ability Fire resistance

Waterproof Absorbent Soundproofing Insulation Shock Hanging Fixation method

Environmental protection 6.1 31.7 *

0.5 150 Electroplating plate Steel corrugated sheet with ventilation holes ^ * ^ * Fireproof level 1 (CNS6532) * * ^ * ^ * 4 4 Bolt/self-tapping screw *
^ * ^ * Fireproof level 1 (CNS6532) ^ * * * * * * Bolt/self-tapping screw *

^ * ^ * Fireproof level 1 (CNS6532) * * 4 4 4 4 Bolt / self-tapping screw *

* ^ * Fireproof level 1 (CNS6532) * 4 * 4 * * Bolt / self-tapping screw 4 5.5 4 48.8 4 4

Material price (USD/m2) Universal

^: Excellent, *: Good, 4: Fair. Note: *

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An analysis of heat insulation efficiency of building outer skins used for green building

Table 3 Supporting material properties, made in Taiwan Material Item e. f.

Photo Material Properties Thickness (cm) Quality (kg/m ) Material composition Material characteristics Constructability Weather ability Fire resistance Waterproof Absorbent Soundproofing Insulation Shock Hanging Fixation method Environmental protection Material price (USD/m2) Universal
^: Excellent, *: Good, 4: Fair. Note: *

Thickness 15 mm, Pitch 50 mm 19.9 Galvanized steel plate Prefabricated / quality and stability ^ * ^ * Fireproof level 1 (CNS6532) ^ * * * ^ * ^ * ^ * Bolt / self-tapping screw
^ *

Thickness 8 mm, Pitch 70 mm 15.6 PVC (non-flammable high polymer components) Prefabricated / quality and stability ^ * ^ * Fireproof level 1 (CNS6532) * * ^ * ^ * ^ * ^ * Bolt / self-tapping screw ^ * 48.5 ^ *

15.8 ^ *

output patterns in addition to its automatic testing and record storing capability, which was used to log the voltage sensed by the instrument. The measuring instrument used for the experiment was a T-type thermocouple for measuring dry bulb/wet bulb temperature; in addition, the TES-1360 Digital Temperature/Humidity Gauge was also used to measure the ambient humidity. The measurement steps are explained as follows: Firstly, perform the cooling and heating calibration of the T-type thermocouple and then implement the experimental box in the constant temperature room. To ensure that the mock-up house can be affected by the

external environment, the comparative testing and experiment can be conducted for the mock-up house. The temperature and humidity measured from the thermocouple wire and temperature/humidity gauge measuring points can be registered in the CR-10X Data Logger for future comparison. When the experiment begins, seal the heat contact of the thermocouple with waterproofing tape on the surface center of the heating box and the cooling box. Place one piece of the subject in between the heating box and the cooling box and then fix the entire experiment box securely. After fixing, seal with waterproofing tape to prevent air convection at the lateral

W-S Hou et al.

Table 4 Supporting material properties, made in Taiwan Material Item g. h. i.

413

Photo Material Properties Thickness (cm) Quality (kg/m2) Material composition 1 1.1 Natural gypsum, fiber materials 0.6 1.16 Calcium oxide, Quartz 0.6 1.04 Magnesium oxide (MgO), Magnesium chloride (MgCl2),

Material characteristics Constructability Weather ability Fire resistance Waterproof Absorbent Soundproofing Insulation Shock Hanging Fixation method Environmental protection Material Price(USD/m ) Universal
^: Excellent, *: Good, 4: Fair. Note: *

Natural gypsum, No pollution ^ * * Fireproof level 1 (CNS6532) 0.6% (CNS4459) ^ * * 0.057 * ^ * Self-tapping screw ^ * 2.4 ^ *

Fireproof, On toxic, Smokeless ^ * level 3$4(CNS3839) Fireproof level 1 (CNS6532) 8.64% (CNS3903) 46.34% (CNS13778) 55db 0.0916(CNS7333) ^(CNS13788) * * Self-tapping screw
^ *

Fiber materials Sheet flexibility, flexible

^ * * Fireproof level 1 (CNS6532)

8.8% (CNS3903) 36.7% (CNS13778) * 0.094(CNS7333) * ^ * Self-tapping screw

^ *

4.1 ^ *

2.4 ^ *

side of the subject. When the stabilized status, over 258C, of the simulated outdoor temperature is reached, test the temperature and the electric power of the main heater. The stabilized status means that under the conditions of not changing the set power of the main heater, the temperature difference of the subject per hour is less than 1%. The data logger receives one count of experimental figures at 1-min intervals. When the obtained experimental temperature of the outdoor side is over 408C and that of the indoor side is below 108C, the test ends and the figure

analysis proceeds to calculate the heat insulating performance of the subject. After the internal temperature of the constant temperature room resumes to normal, the next group of the experiment continues to minimize the accumulation of thermal energy to cause the deviation of the experimental figures. Each material was coded from a to m, totaling 13 groups, whereas the composite materials composed of individual material were coded from 1 to 25, totaling 25 groups. Described below is the arrangement of the

Table 5 Multi-layer skin materials properties, made overseas j. k. l. m.

Material Item

Photo

Material Properties

Thickness (mm) Quality (kg/m2) Material composition

Material characteristics

52 16.65 Plate Insulation material Multi-layer sandwich plate

52 16.65 Plate Insulation material Multi-layer sandwich plate

52 16.65 Plate Insulation material Multi-layer sandwich plate

Constructability Weather ability Fire resistance

Waterproof Absorbent Soundproofing Insulation Shock Hanging Fixation method

Environmental protection

^ * ^ * Fireproof level 1 (CNS6532) ^ * ^ * * ^ * ^ * * Bolt / Self-tapping screw ^ *

52 16.65 Plate Insulation material Multi-layer sandwich plate ^ * ^ * Fireproof level 1 (CNS6532) ^ * ^ * * ^ * ^ * * Bolt / Selftapping screw ^ * 63.6
^ *

^ * ^ * Fireproof level 1 (CNS6532) ^ * ^ * * ^ * ^ * * Bolt / Self-tapping screw ^ *

^ * ^ * Fireproof level 1 (CNS6532) ^ * ^ * * ^ * ^ * * Bolt / Self-tapping screw ^ *

Material price (USD/m2) Universal

63.6
^ *

63.6
^ *

^: Excellent, *: Good, 4: Fair. Note: *

W-S Hou et al. 2.3

Simulate outside temperature Skin material subject

415

Data analysis

Simulate inside temperature Data Logger

The material subject on both sides of the layout of 9 points to the amount of testing the surface of dry bulb and wet bulb temperature

2.3.1 Heat-insulating capacity In this study, the temperature and humidity of measuring points can be registered in the CR-10X Data Logger for further calculation. With the values of temperature, humidity and Psychrometric Chart, the enthalpy can then be obtained. The heat-insulation ability can then be calculated using the following equation: outer enthalpy indoor enthalpy= outer enthalpy 100 % 1 2 2-1

Figure 1 Schematic diagram of experimental box.The material subject on both sides of the layout of 9 points to the amount of testing the surface of dry bulb and wet bulb temperature

measuring point for the experimental modules; for the arrangement of thermocouple wires, please refer to CNS10523. For structural mechanic analysis, to study the mechanic behavior of each material and module under different combinations for the selected multilayer skin (outer wall material plus supporting material plus inner wall material), this study used the single-layer material stress figures indicated in Table 2 to Table 5 as provided by the vendor. Furthermore, the Profile Transformation Method26 was used for analysis and calculation to understand the actual stress behavior of different modules in the multi-layer skin. Because the characteristics of mechanic behavior of multi-layer skin are similar to that of the curtain wall, the wind force is normally taken as the main investigation target for the surface of the vertical wall panel; as for the seismic force, consideration is given to the inter-layer displacement at the wall body connecting area. As such, the stress behavior was calculated for the 25 groups of multi-layer skin modules in this research, and the results can be used as a reference for structural technicians to calculate the skins resistance against the wind load and interlayer displacement during the practical calculation.

2.3.2 Vapor transmission volume The theory for calculating the stabilized vapor transmission rate is similar to the heat transfer behavior in which the moisture in the material flows from the higher pressure steam to the lower one and the ways of flow are determined by means of water, steam and steam and water.9 Shown below is the calculation rule: W f1 f2 0 A U f1 f2 A g=h 0 R 2-2

1 X 0 X 0 1 r ra 0 m2 hmmHg=g 0 h1 h2 2-3

1 g=m2 hmmHg R0

2-4

where W wet current, also called the vapor transmission volume (g/h); f1 high-pressure side steam pressure (mmHg); f2 low-pressure side steam pressure (mmHg); R total wet resistance, also called the vapor transmission resistance (m2h mmHg/g); U wet transmission coefficient, also called the vapor transmission coefficient (g/m2h mmHg);

416

An analysis of heat insulation efficiency of building outer skins used for green building materials. In the single-layer skin material category, the codes of j, k, l and m represent overseas multi-layer materials. The results of the heat-insulating capacity indicated that: (1) In these modules, the k group (paintbaked metal plate 2 100 k rock wool paint-baked metal plate) exhibits the best heat-insulating capacity, which is 67.0%, followed by the j group (paintbaked metal plate 2 100 k rock wool paint-baked metal plate), which is 62.5%. The about results showing the poorest heat-insulating capacity is the g group (gypsum board), which is only 3.2%, but this result is inconsistent with the image of ordinary users considering that the gypsum board would present better heat-insulating capacity than steel plate. It is inferred that the gypsum board is poorer in moist-permeability resistance because it more readily absorbs the moisture from the air than other materials, which increases the heat transmission rate and reduces the heatinsulating performance. (2) Among the single-layer materials made in Taiwan, the h group (calcium silicate board) presents the best heat-insulating capacity, which is 64.1%; next is the e group (conventional steel bearing plate), which is 63.5%; and the g group (gypsum board) exhibits the poorest heat insulation. (3) Among the multi-layer materials made in Taiwan, Item 22 (hollow cement board conventional steel bearing plate magnesium oxide board) presents the best heat-insulating capacity, which is 65.6%; next is Item 15 (colour corrugated steel plate conventional steel bearing plate calcium silicate board), which is 63.9% and the one exhibiting the poorest heat insulation is Item 4 (air-permeable colour the corrugated steel plates conventional steel bearing plate magnesium oxide board), which is 23.5%.

A wall surface area (m2); h1 outdoor vapor transmission coefficient (g/m2h mmHg); h2 indoor vapor transmission coefficient (g/m2h mmHg); r d/k wet resistance (m2h mmHg/g); ra air layer wet resistance (m2h mmHg/g); k material wet transfer coefficient (g/mh mmHg); d material thickness (m). 2.3.3 Heat gain cooling load

(1) Thermal transmission rate (U): In this study, the calculation of thermal transmission rate was according to that proposed by The Architecture and Building Research,2 as follows: X dx =kx 1=hi 2-5 U 1=1=ho Where U thermal transmission rate from outdoor air to indoor air (W/m2.K), ho heat transfer rate of outer surface, hi heat transfer rate of inner surface, dx the thickness of the nth layer materiel, Kx the thermal transmission coefficient of the nth layer material. (2) Heat gain cooling load (Q): The calculation of heat gain cooling load (Q) was shown as follows: Q U A Tsa Ti 2-6

Where Q heat gain cooling load (W), U thermal transmission rate (W/m2/k), Tsa equivalent outdoor temperature, Ti indoor temperature. 3 Results and discussion

3.1 Heat-insulating capacity The greater the value of the heat-insulating capacity, the better the heat-insulating performance. In Table 6, the codes from a to m indicate the single-layer skin materials and modules 1-25 refer to the multi-layer skin

Table 6 Comparison of heat capacity of skins materials Relative humidity (RH) (%) Indoor initial moisture 98.2 46.5 61.6 98.7 98.5 71.7 99 91.4 76.8 83.6 97 93.4 58.7 99 95.5 96 93 94 38 96 99 94 98 94 97 95 93 95 97 92 94 93 97 91 99 94 92 95 55.1 34.7 26.3 97.1 33 54.3 94 39 58.7 36.9 73 75.1 84.7 92 79 78.5 90 89 25 76 69 76 82 72 94 70 75 53 65 74 72 75 85 74 62 75 84 70 80.2 61.1 68.7 85.8 90.3 97.9 75.9 79.5 87.7 94.8 84.4 86.4 65.5 88.6 77.1 77.3 85.0 95.5 57.6 108.1 111.7 88.8 115.6 90.2 134.8 108.0 94.7 104.0 115.8 96.5 85.7 76.4 100.2 111.3 110.0 83.0 127.1 100.1 39.4 31.7 28.5 83.9 33.0 43.5 73.5 28.6 56.4 35.5 27.4 30.1 31.4 65.0 43.4 44.0 65.0 69.2 33.9 62.5 51.7 42.5 52.8 35.1 76.2 47.1 43.2 37.5 46.2 48.7 45.5 28.4 56.0 50.7 37.8 38.9 63.6 46.3 50.9 48.2 58.5 2.3 63.5 55.6 3.2 64.1 35.7 62.5 67.6 65.2 52.1 26.7 43.7 43.1 23.5 27.6 41.1 42.2 53.7 52.2 54.3 61.1 43.4 56.4 54.4 63.9 60.1 49.5 46.9 62.8 44.1 54.5 65.6 53.2 50.0 53.8 0.015 0.007 0.015 0.034 0.020 0.012 1.622 0.283 0.238 0.025 0.018 0.010 0.051 0.003 0.008 0.006 0.011 0.003 0.012 0.005 0.005 0.010 0.010 0.005 0.012 0.006 0.017 0.001 0.010 0.012 0.008 0.003 0.023 0.016 0.008 0.006 0.012 0.009 247.7 0.2 313.9 1.1 374.4 0.4 0.3 1.6 0.7 518.6 801.0 1020.0 1018.3 505.6 513.6 490.5 449.9 263.3 422.4 254.3 312.4 387.6 447.9 2.4 2.0 1.8 819.5 894.5 940.1 355.9 353.0 508.7 332.5 423.7 499.6 9.0 10.5 8.4 Indoor last moisture Outdoor Indoor 6.1 31.7 5.5 84.8 15.8 48.5 2.4 4.1 2.4 5.8 18.2-24.2 48.5-63.6 48.5-63.6 106.7 24.2 25.9 24.2 57.0 58.6 57.0 49.8 51.5 49.8 82.6 84.2 82.6 23.7 25.4 23.7 56.4 58.1 56.4 103.0 104.7 103.0 135.8 137.4 135.8 Indoor and outer enthalpy (kj/kg) Insulation ability (%) Moisture permeability (g/h) Cooling load Q (W) Cost (USD/m2)

Material type

Average temperature (8C) Indoor air 19.8 19.3 19.2 27.1 20.4 21.4 24.5 16.8 25.6 21.0 11.7 12.7 12.3 23.1 17.8 18.1 23.4 24.0 20.4 24.7 22.2 17.9 20.8 15.3 25.8 20.4 18.2 19.0 20.8 20.4 19.5 12.0 21.4 21.1 17.8 16.5 23.8 20.1

Outdoor air

a. b. c. d. e. f. g. h. i. j. k. l. m. 1. (a e d) 2. (a e g) 3. (a e h) 4. (a e i) 5. (a f g) 6. (a f h) 7. (a f i) 8. (b e g) 9. (b e h) 10. (b e i) 11. (b f g) 12. (b f h) 13. (b f i) 14. (c e g) 15. (c e h) 16. (c e i) 17. (c f g) 18. (c f h) 19. (c f i) 20. (d e g) 21. (d e h) 22. (d e i) 23. (d f g) 24. (d f h) 25. (d f i)

26.1 29.8 29.0 27.4 28.3 34.3 25.7 26.9 31.1 31.5 27.3 28.2 28.6 27.9 25.8 25.8 28.0 30.8 34.4 32.2 32.3 28.6 33.2 29.0 36.3 32.3 30.0 31.6 33.3 30.5 28.0 25.9 30.5 33.5 32.0 27.4 36.0 30.8

Table 7 Comparison of moisture-permeable resistance of skins materials The vapor pressing at high-pressure side f1 mmhg The vapor pressing at low-pressure side f2 mmhg 12.94 9.98 6.41 23.75 10.79 16.93 21.44 11.27 17.28 15.19 18.40 21.15 12.75 21.47 20.64 19.57 23.17 21.55 5.50 19.87 28.23 16.89 25.76 15.68 28.65 20.14 17.02 20.52 21.07 15.93 16.08 18.91 19.60 22.15 19.88 16.68 28.94 17.83 1/208.33 1/500 1/208.33 1/108.7 1/208.33 1/500 1/2.32 1/20.83 1/20.83 1/208.71 1/208.68 1/208.45 1/208.45 1/525.36 1/418.98 1/437.49 1/437.49 1/710.65 1/729.16 1/729.16 1/418.98 1/437.49 1/437.49 1/1002.32 1/1020.83 1/1020.83 1/418.98 1/437.49 1/437.49 1/710.65 1/729.16 1/729.16 1/319.35 1/337.86 1/337.86 1/611.02 1/629.53 1/629.53 0.015 0.007 0.015 0.034 0.020 0.012 1.622 0.283 0.238 0.025 0.018 0.010 0.051 0.003 0.008 0.006 0.011 0.003 0.012 0.005 0.005 0.010 0.010 0.005 0.012 0.006 0.017 0.001 0.010 0.012 0.008 0.003 0.023 0.016 0.008 0.006 0.012 0.009 moisture-permeable Coefficient U g/m2h mmHg 17.93 15.67 11.26 29.45 17.32 26.40 27.32 20.48 25.02 23.37 24.30 24.52 29.44 24.09 25.99 23.91 30.69 24.83 18.99 25.47 31.45 24.05 32.91 23.71 48.54 30.19 27.98 21.27 28.20 29.52 25.55 22.36 31.18 30.38 24.05 22.40 40.42 26.71 vapor transmission volume g/h Cost(USD/m2)

Material type

Moisture-permeable resistance R0 m2h mmhg/g

a. b. c. d. e. f. g. h. i. j. k. l. m. 1. (a e d) 2. (a e g) 3. (a e h) 4. (a e i) 5. (a f g) 6. (a f h) 7. (a f i) 8. (b e g) 9. (b e h) 10. (b e i) 11. (b f g) 12. (b f h) 13. (b f i) 14. (c e g) 15. (c e h) 16. (c e i) 17. (c f g) 18. (c f h) 19. (c f i) 20. (d e g) 21. (d e h) 22. (d e i) 23. (d f g) 24. (d f h) 25. (d f i)

208.33 500 208.33 108.7 208.33 500 2.32 20.83 20.83 208.71 208.68 208.45 208.45 525.36 418.98 437.49 437.49 710.65 729.16 729.16 418.98 437.49 437.49 1002.32 1020.83 1020.83 418.98 437.49 437.49 710.65 729.16 729.16 319.35 337.86 337.86 611.02 629.53 629.53

6.1 31.7 5.5 84.8 15.8 48.5 2.4 4.1 2.4 5.8 18.2-24.2 48.5-63.6 48.5-63.6 106.7 24.2 25.9 24.2 57.0 58.6 57.0 49.8 51.5 49.8 82.6 84.2 82.6 23.7 25.4 23.7 56.4 58.1 56.4 103.0 104.7 103.0 135.8 137.4 135.8

W-S Hou et al. 3.2 Moisture-permeable resistance The results of the moisture-permeable resistance for the skin material are shown in Table 7 and indicated that: (1) Among them, Item 15 (colour corrugated steel plate conventional steel bearing plate calcium silicate board) present the best moisture permeability resistance, which is 0.001 g/h, and followed by the l group (paint-baking metal plate PU paint-baking metal plate), which is 0.01 g/h. (2) Among the single-layer materials made in Taiwan, the b group (weather board) presents the smallest moisture-permeable amount at 0.007 g/h; next is the f group (FRP hollow board), at 0.012 g/h. The g group of gypsum board exhibits the biggest moisture-permeable amount, which is 1.62 g/h. (3) Among the multi-layer materials made in Taiwan, Item 15 (colour corrugated steel plate conventional steel bearing plate calcium silicate board) present the smallest moisture-permeable amount, which is 0.001 g/h; however, Item 20 (hollow cement board conventional steel bearing plate gypsum board) exhibits the poorest moisture permeability resistance, which is 0.023 g/h. 3.3 Solar heat gain The results of the solar heat gain cooling load are shown in Table 8. The higher the total heat transmission rate, the bigger the cooling load of the external skin solar heat gain. According to the results of the cooling load for the external skin solar heat gain, the bigger the Q value the heavier the cooling load of the skin material. (1) Among them, the l group presents the greatest cooling load, represented by 1020 W; next is the m group, which is 1018.3 W; and the b group exhibits the smallest cooling load, which is 0.23 W.

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(2) Among the single-layer materials made in Taiwan, the b group exhibits the smallest cooling load; next is the g group, which is 0.3 W; and the e group presents the greatest cooling load. (3) In the multi-layer material sector, Item 16 presents the greatest cooling load, represented by 940.1 W; next is Item 15, by 894.5 W and Item 13 exhibits the smallest cooling load, which is 1.8 W. 3.4 Discussion From the above, it is shown that superior heat-insulating performance does not necessarily mean better moisture permeability resistance. Moreover, the skin material that presents superior moisture permeability resistance does not always present a higher cooling load. For this reason, the appropriate skin materials should be selected by matching with the climatic environment where the building is located. If the design of the building should focus on heat insulation, then the skin material with the superior heat-insulating capacity shall be selected. However, if the dampness resistance is the main concern, then the skin material with the higher moisture permeability resistance shall be selected. Summing up, modules #22 can be recommended for the multi-layer material used in heat insulation. As for a material focusing on moisture resistance, module #15 can be recommended. For a material focusing on solar heat gain, module #13 can be suggested. Table 9 presented an overall priority sequence of the shin materials. Taking the heat-insulating capacity, for example, the overseas material with the best heat-insulating capacity is k group; that having the best heat-insulating capacity among the Taiwanmade single-layer materials is the h group and that having the best heat-insulating capacity among the Taiwan-made multilayer materials is Item 22. The above results have provided useful information for green building industry to choose the proper local

420

An analysis of heat insulation efficiency of building outer skins used for green building

Table 8 Comparison of solar heat gain cooling load of skins materials Material Type Heat resistance Coefficient 1/kx (mK/W) 1/45 1/0.03 1/45 1/0.8 1/45 1/0.04 1/0.17 1/0.17 1/0.12 1/90.04 1/90.042 1/90.038 1/90.4 1/90.8 1/90.17 1/90.17 1/90.12 1/45.21 1/45.21 1/45.16 1/45.20 1/45.20 1/45.15 1/0.23 1/0.23 1/0.18 1/90.17 1/90.17 1/90.12 1/45.21 1/45.21 1/45.16 1/45.97 1/45.97 1/45.92 1/1.01 1/1.01 1/0.96 L (m) Tsa (8C) Ti (8C) U (W/m2/k) Q (W) Cost(USD/m2)

a. b. c. d. e. f. g. h. i. j. k. l. m. 1. (a e d) 2. (a e g) 3. (a e h) 4. (a e i) 5. (a f g) 6. (a f h) 7. (a f i) 8. (b e g) 9. (b e h) 10. (b e i) 11. (b f g) 12. (b f h) 13. (b f i) 14. (c e g) 15. (c e h) 16. (c e i) 17. (c f g) 18. (c f h) 19. (c f i) 20. (d e g) 21. (d e h) 22. (d e i) 23. (d f g) 24. (d f h) 25. (d f i)

0.002 0.002 0.002 0.050 0.003 0.005 0.050 0.030 0.030 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.055 0.055 0.035 0.035 0.057 0.037 0.037 0.055 0.035 0.035 0.057 0.037 0.037 0.055 0.035 0.035 0.055 0.035 0.035 0.103 0.083 0.083 0.105 0.085 0.085

26.1 29.8 29.0 27.4 30.2 34.3 21.9 26.9 31.1 31.5 27.3 28.2 28.6 27.9 25.9 25.8 28.0 24.1 34.4 32.2 32.3 28.6 33.2 29.0 36.3 32.3 30.0 31.5 33.3 30.5 28.0 25.9 30.5 33.5 32.0 27.4 36.0 30.8

17.5 17.7 18.1 25.3 17.2 19.9 19.0 12.3 22.3 22.5 13.4 10.5 11.0 19.2 17.0 17.3 20.2 15.0 19.8 23.4 21.5 15.2 17.7 12.6 22.5 16.8 15.8 16.0 17.0 18.2 15.8 8.3 19.2 19.1 15.0 13.5 19.8 17.2

45 0.03 45 0.8 45 0.04 0.17 0.17 0.12 90.04 90.042 90.038 90.4 90.8 90.17 90.17 90.12 45.21 45.21 45.16 45.2 45.2 45.15 0.23 0.23 0.18 90.17 90.17 90.12 45.21 45.21 45.16 45.97 45.97 45.92 1.01 1.01 0.96

247.68 0.232 313.92 1.075 374.4 0.369 0.316 1.588 0.676 518.63 801.01 1019.95 1018.27 505.574 513.608 490.525 449.879 263.303 422.442 254.341 312.422 387.635 447.888 2.414 2.031 1.786 819.465 894.486 940.132 355.893 353 508.682 332.455 423.660 499.610 8.985 10.472 8.356

6.1 31.7 5.5 84.8 15.8 48.5 2.4 4.1 2.4 5.8 18.2-24.2 48.5-63.6 48.5-63.6 106.7 24.2 25.9 24.2 57.0 58.6 57.0 49.8 51.5 49.8 82.6 84.2 82.6 23.7 25.4 23.7 56.4 58.1 56.4 103.0 104.7 103.0 135.8 137.4 135.8

Table 9 Building comprehensive assessment of housing skin materials Level Best materials Material type Multi-layer materials Germany Single-layer materials Taiwan Multi-layer materials Taiwan Multi-layer materials Germany Single-layer materials Taiwan Multi-layer materials Taiwan Multi-layer materials Germany Single-layer materials Taiwan Multi-layer materials Taiwan Insulation ability NO. NO. NO. NO. NO. NO. NO. NO. NO. k h 22 j e 15 m g 4 Skin material solar heat gain NO. NO. NO. NO. NO. NO. NO. NO. NO. j b 13 m g 15 l e 16 Moisture permeability NO. NO. NO. NO. NO. NO. NO. NO. NO. l b 15 k f 1, 5, 19 m g 20

Good materials

Poor materials

W-S Hou et al. skin materials in order to reduce the CO2 emissions caused by transportation. 4 Conclusions

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In this study, several types of skin materials were adopted to carry out the heat-insulation experiment. When evaluating the heat-insulating performance of the buildings outer skin, the moisture permeability resistance of the material must also be considered in addition to the materials solar heat gain and heat resistance. For this reason, the outer skin material should be selected to match with the climate where the building is located. If the building design is focused on heat insulation, then the skin material with the best heat-insulating capacity shall be selected; if the design is focused on moisture resistance, then the skin material exhibiting higher moisture permeability resistance should be selected. For a multi-layer material used to isolate the heat, modules 22 should be selected. If the moisture resistance is the main concern, then module 15 should be selected. However, by comparing both the efficiency and cost of all the above building skin materials, where the heat-insulating performance is taken as the key design point, modules #15 (heat-insulating capacity is 63.9%, prices is 25.4 United States dollar [USD]/m2) could become the most proper selection. In particular, by considering the decrement of CO2 emissions caused by transportation, again, the local material modules #15 will be the best selection for green building industry. References
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