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Experiment No. 1 Date : Aim:

VERIFICATION OF KIRCHHOFFS LAWS

To verify Kirchhoffs current law and Kirchhoffs voltage law for the given circuit. Apparatus Required: Sl.No. Apparatus 1 RPS (Regulated Power Supply) 2 Resistors 3 Ammeter 4 Voltmeter 5 Bread Board & Wires Statement: Kirchhoffs Current Law (KCL) 1st Law Kirchhoffs first law is applied to any junction in a network. At the junction, there is no build-up of charge. The amount of charge per second entering the junction must equal the amount of charge per second leaving the junction. This is a Conservation of charge principle. The total current entering a junction = The total current leaving the junction Range (0-30V) 1k, 1k, 330, 220 (0-30mA)MC (0-30V)MC -Quantity 2 Each 1 3 3 Required

I1 + I2 + I4 + = I3 + I5 + I6

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Circuit - KCL

Circuit - KVL

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Alternate Form: The algebraic sum of current at any junction is equal to zero When applying this alternate form, current flowing away from the junction must be given the opposite sign to current flowing towards the junction I1 + I2 - I3 + I4 - I5 - I6 = 0 Kirchhoffs Voltage Law (KVL) 2nd Law Kirchhoffs Voltage Law is a result of the electrostatic field being conservative. It states that the total voltage around a closed loop must be zero. If this were not the case, then when we travel around a closed loop, the voltage would be indefinite. For any closed loop in a network, the algebraic sum of the Potential is equal to zero In the figure below the total voltage around loop 1 (ABCF) should sum to zero, as does the total voltage in loop 2 (CDEF). Furthermore, the loop which consists of the outer part of the circuit (ABDE) should also sum to zero.

We can adopt the convention that Potential gains (i.e. going form lower to higher potential, such as with an emf source) is taken to be positive. Potential drop (such as across a resistor) will then be negative. However, as long as you are consistent in doing your problems, you should be able to choose whichever convention you like. It is a good idea to adopt the convention used in your class.

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KCL - Theoretical Values: Sl. No. 1 2 3 4 5 RPS E Volts I1 mA Current I2 mA I3 mA I2 + I 3 mA

KCL - Practical Values: Sl. No. 1 2 3 4 5 RPS E Volts I1 mA Current I2 mA I3 mA I2 + I 3 mA

Precautions: 1. Voltage control knob should be kept at minimum position. 2. Current control knob of RPS should be kept at maximum position.

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Procedure for KCL: 1. Connections are given as per the circuit diagram. 2. Set a particular value in RPS. 3. Note down the corresponding ammeter reading 4. Repeat the same for different voltages Procedure for KVL: 1. Connections are given as per the circuit diagram. 2. Set a particular value in RPS. 3. Note all the voltage readings. 4. Repeat the same for different voltages. Model Calculations:

KVL Theoretical Values

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Sl.No. E1 Volts 1 2 3 4 5

RPS E2 Volts V1 Volts

Voltage V2 Volts

V3 Volts

V1 + V2 Volts

KVL - Practical Values Sl.No. E1 Volts 1 2 3 4 5 RPS E2 Volts V1 Volts Voltage V2 Volts V3 Volts V1 + V2 Volts

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Result:

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Experiment No. 2 Date : Aim:

VERIFICATION OF SUPERPOSITION THEOREM

To verify the superposition theorem for the given circuit. Apparatus Required: Sl.No. Apparatus 1 RPS (Regulated power supply) Range (0-30V) Quantity 2

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2 3 4 5

Ammeter Resistors Bread Board Wires

(0-10mA) 1k, 330, 220 ---

1 Each 1 -Required

Statement: Superposition theorem states that in a linear bilateral network containing more than one source, the current flowing through the branch is the algebraic sum of the current flowing through that branch when sources are considered one at a time and replacing other sources by their respective internal resistances. Precautions: 1. 2. Voltage control knob should be kept at minimum position. Current control knob of RPS should be kept at maximum position.

Procedure: 1. Connections are given as per the circuit diagram. 2. Set a particular voltage value using RPS1 and RPS2 & note down the ammeter reading.(Circuit 1) 3. Set the same voltage in circuit 2 as in RPS 1 alone and short circuit the terminals of RPS2 and note the ammeter reading. 4. Set the same voltage in circuit 3 as in RPS 2 alone and short circuit the terminals of RPS1 and note the ammeter reading. 5. Verify superposition theorem.

CIRCUIT - 1

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CIRCUIT - 2

CIRCUIT - 3

Theoretical Calculations:

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TABULAR COLUMN Theoretical Values RPS 1 Circuit 1 Circuit 2 Circuit 3 0 0 2 Ammeter Reading (I) mA I= I= I= I + I= Practical Values RPS 1 Circuit 1 Circuit 2 Circuit 3 0 0 2 Ammeter Reading (I) mA I= I= I=

I + I=

Practical Calculations:

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Result

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Experiment No. 3

VERIFICATION OF THEVENINS THEOREM

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Date : Aim: To verify Thevenins theorem and to find the full load current for the given circuit. Apparatus Required: Sl.No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Apparatus RPS (regulated power supply) Ammeter Resistors Bread Board DRB Wires Range (0-30V) (0-10mA) 1K, 330 ---Quantity 2 1 3,1 1 1 Required

Statement: Any linear bilateral, active two terminal network can be replaced by a equivalent voltage source (VTH). Thevenins voltage or VTH in series with looking pack resistance RTH. Precautions: 1. Voltage control knob of RPS should be kept at minimum position. 2. Current control knob of RPS should be kept at maximum position. Procedure: Ciruit 1: 1. Connections are given as per the circuit diagram. 2. Set a particular value of voltage using RPS and note down the corresponding ammeter readings. To Find RTH: 3. Remove RPS, Short circuit the terminal, remove the load and note down the resistance across the two terminals A &B Equivalent Circuit: 4. Set VTH and RTH and note down the ammeter readings. 5. Verify Thevenins theorem.

Circuit - 1 : To find load current IL

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To find VTH

To find RTH

Theoretical Calculations:

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Thevenins Equivalent circuit:

Theoretical and Practical Values E (V) Theoretical Practical VTH (V) RTH() IL (mA) Circuit - I Equivalent Circuit

Practical Calculations:

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Result

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Experiment No. 4

VERIFICATION OF NORTONS THEOREM

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Date : Aim: To verify Nortons theorem for the given circuit. Apparatus Required: Sl.No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Apparatus Ammeter Resistors RPS POT Bread Board BRB Wires Range (0-30mA) MC 330, 1K (0-30V) 10 K -0-10 K -Quantity 1 3,1 2 1 1 1 Required

Statement: Any linear, bilateral, active two terminal network can be replaced by an equivalent current source (IN) in parallel with Nortons resistance (RN) or (RTH) Precautions: 1. Voltage control knob of RPS should be kept at minimum position. 2. Current control knob of RPS should be kept at maximum position. Procedure: 1. Connections are given as per circuit diagram. 2. Set a particular value in RPS and note down the ammeter readings in the original circuit. To Find IN: 3. Remove the load resistance and short circuit the terminals via ammeter. 4. For the same RPS voltage note down the ammeter readings. To Find RTH: 5. Remove RPS, Short circuit the terminal and remove the load and note down the resistance across the two terminals A &B Equivalent Circuit: 6. Set IN and RTH and note down the ammeter readings. 7. Verify Nortons theorem.

To find load current in circuit 1:

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To find IN

To find RTH

Theoretical Calculations:

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Nortons equivalent circuit

Constant current source

Theoretical and Practical Values E IN (volts) (mA) Theoretical Values Practical Values

RTH ()

IL (mA) Circuit - I Equivalent Circuit

Practical Calculations:

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Result:

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Experiment No. 5

VERIFICATION OF MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER

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Date : Aim:

THEOREM

To verify maximum power transfer theorem for the given circuit Apparatus Required: Sl.No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Apparatus RPS Voltmeter Ammeter Resistors DRB Bread Board & wires Range (0-30V) (0-10V) MC (0-30mA) MC 1K --Quantity 1 1 1 4 2 Required

Statement: In a linear, bilateral circuit the maximum power will be transferred to the load when load resistance is equal to source resistance. Precautions: 1. Voltage control knob of RPS should be kept at minimum position. 2. Current control knob of RPS should be kept at maximum position. Procedure: Circuit I 1. Connections are given as per the diagram and set a particular voltage in RPS. 2. Vary RL and note down the corresponding ammeter and voltmeter reading. 3. Repeat the procedure for different values of RL & tabulate it. 4. Calculate the power for each value of RL. To find VTH: 5. Remove the load, and determine the open circuit voltage using multimeter between A & B (VTH) To find RTH: 6. Remove the load and short circuit the voltage source (RPS). 7. Find the looking back resistance (RTH) between A & B using multimeter. Equivalent Circuit: 8. Set VTH using RPS, RTH and RL using DRB and note down the ammeter reading. 9. Calculate the power delivered to the load when RL = RTH 10. Verify maximum transfer theorem. Circuit - 1

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To find VTH

To find RTH

Theoretical Calculations:

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Thevenins Equation Circuit

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Circuit I Source Voltage = Sl.No.

Volts R L ( )

I (mA)

V(volts)

P=VI (milli watts)

Power VS RL

To find Thevenins equivalent circuit Source Voltage = Volts VTH (V) RTH ( ) Theoretical Value Practical Value Practical Calculations:

IL (mA)

P (milli watts)

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Result:

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Experiment No. 6 Date :

THREE PHASE POWER MEASUREMENT BY TWO WATTMETER METHOD

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Aim: To measure the 3-phase active and reactive power by 2 wattmeter method for (i) Resistive load (ii) Inductive load. Apparatus Required: Sl.No. 1 2 3 4 Apparatus Voltmeter Ammeter Wattmeter Wattmeter Range (0-600V) MI (0-20A) MI 600V, 10A, UPF 600V, 10A, LPF Quantity 1 1 2 2

Precautions: 1. THE TPST switch must be kept open initially. 2. Load must not be applied while starting. Procedure: (i) Resistive load 1. 2. 3. 4. Connections are given as per the diagram. Supply is given by closing TPST switch. Vary the resistive load and note down the corresponding readings. The above procedure is repeated for five different readings.

(ii) Inductive load 1. Connections are given as per the diagram. 2. Supply is given by closing TPST switch. 3. Vary the inductive load and note down the corresponding readings. 4. The above procedure is repeated for five different readings. Formulae Used: 1. Real power = w1 + w2 2. Reactive power = 3. tan = Watts VAR

3 ( w1 w2 )

3 ( w1 w2 ) w1 + w2

4. Power factor = cos 5. MF= (Vin wattmeter x Iin wattmeter x PF)/Full scale deflection in the wattmeter. CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

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(i)

Resistive load

Tabular Column MF = Wattmeter Reading (W1) OBS ACT = (watt) OBS x MF (watts) MF = Wattmeter Reading (W2) OBS ACT= (watts) OBS x MF (watts) Power Real Reactive Power power (watts) (var) Cos

S. No

V (volts)

I (A)

Model Calculations: Resistive Load

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(ii) Inductive Load

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Tabular Column MF = Wattmeter Reading (W1) OBS ACT = (watts) OBS x MF (watts) MF = Wattmeter Reading (W2) OBS ACT= (watt) OBS x MF (watts) Power Real Reactive Power power (watts) (var) Cos

S. No

V (volts)

I (A)

Model Calculations: Inductive Load

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Result:

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Experiment No. 7 Date :

1 POWER MEASUREMENT BY 3 VOLTMETER METHOD

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Aim: To measure the power in an inductive circuit, Eg: transformer, by 3- voltmeter method. Apparatus Required: Sl.No. 1 Ammeter 2 Voltmeter 3 4 6 Transformer Auto Transformer Rheostat Apparatus Range (0-5A) MI (0-150V) MI (0-300V) MI 230V/115V, 1KVA 0-250V 100/4A Quantity 1 2 1 1 1 1

Precaution: 1. The DPST switch must be kept open initially. 2. The auto transformer must be kept at minimum potential position at time of starting 3. The rheostat must be kept at maximum resistance position. Procedure: 1. Connections are given as per the circuit diagram. 2. Adjust the auto transformer, to bring the rated voltage of the transformer 3. Note down the voltmeter readings VS, VR and VL and ammeter reading I 4. Vary the rheostat for different values and note down the corresponding meter readings. 5. The above procedure is repeated for five different readings.

Formulae Used: 1. Power (P) = R = VR / I 2. Cos =

V S2 V R2 V L2 2R

watts

VS2 VR2 VL2 2 VR VL

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

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TABULAR COLUMN Sl. No. I (amps) Vs (volts) VR (volts) VL (volts) R () P (watts) Cos

Model Calculations:

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Result:

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Experiment No. 8 Date :

1 POWER MEASUREMENT BY 3 AMMETER METHOD

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Aim: To measure the power in an inductive circuit, Eg: transformer, by 3- ammeter method. Apparatus Required: Sl.No. 1 Ammeter 2 3 4 5 Apparatus Range (0-2A) MI (0-5A) MI (0-150V) MI 230V/115V 1KVA, 1 100 / 4A Quantity 2 1 1 1 1 1

Voltmeter Auto transformer Transformer Rheostat

Precaution 1. The DPST switch must be kept open initially. 2. The autotransformer should be kept at minimum potential position. 3. The rheostat should be kept at maximum resistance position. Procedure: 1. Connections are given as per the circuit diagram. 2. Adjust the auto transformer, to bring the rated voltage of the transformer. 3. Note down the ammeter and voltmeter readings. 4. Vary the rheostat for different values and note down the corresponding ammeter and voltmeter readings. 5. The above procedure is repeated for five different readings. Formulae Used: Power (P) = R R = V / IR

[I

2 S

2 2 IR IL

watts

2 2 2 IS IR IL Power factor cos = 2 IR IL

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CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

Tabular Column Sl. V No. (volts)

Is (amps)

IR (amps)

IL (amps)

R ()

P (watts)

Cos

Model Calculations:

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Result:

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Experiment No. 9

CIRCUIT TRANSIENT BY DIGITAL SIMULATION

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Date : Aim: To Simulate the RL series transient circuit using PSPICE software Problem A RL series circuit, with R=30 and L=15H is connected to60V supply at time t=0 [ie switch is moved from 1 to 2 at t=0].Draw the wave form for Circuit current.

Theoretical Calculation

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Circuit Diagram :

Simulation output

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Result :

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Experiment No. 10 Date : Aim

STUDY OF RESONANCE

To study about resonance in RLC series circuit Resonance An a.c. circuit is said to be in resonance, if the current in the circuit is in phase with applied voltage. At resonance, the circuit behaves like a pure resistive circuit. Hence the power factor of the circuit is unity. Voltage and current amplification in circuit will occur under resonance. At resonance, inductive reactance of the circuit is equal to capacitive reactance. Series RLC circuit Consider the RLC circuit

RLC series circuit Impedance of the RLC circuit, Z = R+j (XL - XC) At resonance, XL = XC and Z = R If r is angular resonance frequency,
1 1 r2 = r = r C LC 1 Resonance frequency f r = 2 LC

r =

1 LC

2f r =

1 LC

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Frequency response of RLC circuit Impedance of the RLC circuit Z = R +j (XL XC) Resistance remains at one particular value with all variation of . Inductive reactance XL = L. Inductive reactance is varying linearly with frequency When, = 0, XL = 0 XL =
1 . C

= ,
Capacitive reactance X C = angular frequency. When, = 0,

Capacitive reactance is inversely proportional to

XC = XC = 0
V Z

=,

based on the values or R, XL and XC, impedance Z is varying Current in RLC circuit, I =

Where V = Source voltage independent of Z = Impedance of the circuit dependent of When angular frequency is increased from zero, the difference between XL and XC getting decreased. It decreases the value of impedance Z and hence increases the value of current I. When XL and XC are become equal, the circuit will become pure resistive circuit. The current reaches peak value
V R

When angular frequency is increased above resonance frequency r, the difference between XC and XL is getting increased. It increases the value of impedance Z and hence decreases the value of current I. Quality Factor (Q) When RLC circuit is excited by sinusoidal source, resistor dissipates the energy in the form of heat; the inductor stores the energy in the form of magnetic field and capacitor stores energy in the form of electric field.

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frequency response of RLC series Circuit

Variation of Z, XL and XC with angular frequency

Quality factor of a circuit is defined as

Q = 2 Maximum energy stored Energy dissipated per cycle

Half power frequencies and bandwidth At half power frequencies, power is half of the power at resonance. At resonance frequency, XL = XC. But at half power frequency XL XC = R. Impedance of the RLC circuit at half power frequencies,
Z = R + j( X L X C ) = R2 + ( X L X C )2 = R2 + R2

2R 2 = 2R

Current in RLC circuit at half power frequencies,

i= V V V = = Z 2 R 0.707 R

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V2 1 V 2 V R = R= Power P = I R = 2 2 2R 2R R
2

In fig 5.21, f1 = Lower half power frequency. f2 = Upper half power frequency The range of frequency between f2 and f1 is called bandwidth of RLC circuit. Current response is appreciable over the bandwidth. The current value varies from 0.707 V/R to V/R. Sharpness of the tuning of RLC circuit is decided by the bandwidth (f2 f1). At lower cut off frequency, XL XC =

R (At lower frequencies X > X )

C L

1 L

2 LC 1 1 = R 1 1C 1C

12 LC 1 = 1 RC 12 LC 1 RC 1 = 0

f1

fr

f2

Figure 5.21 Frequency response of RLC series

1 =

RC ( RC ) 2 + 4 LC 2 LC

= =

RC R 2C 2 4 LC + 2 2 2 2 2 LC 4L C 4L C R R2 1 + 2 2L LC 4L

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2f1 =

R 1 R + 2L LC 2L = R 1 4L 2 1 R + 2 L LC
2

f1

Similarly at upper half power frequency, XL XC = R (At upper frequencies XL > XC)
R 1 4L 2 1 R + 2 L LC 1 R 1 R + + LC 4L 2 2L
2 2

f2 =

Bandwidth ( f 2 f 1 ) =

R 1 4L 2

1 R + LC 2L

The ratio of resonance frequency fr to bandwidth ( f 2 f1 ) is called the quality factor of coil Q.
fr f 2 f1 fr = R 2L 2f r L = R 1 L r L 1 L LC Q= = = C R R R Q=

2R 4 L R ( f 2 f1 ) = 2L =

Result:

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Experiment No. 11 Date :

CATHODE RAY OSCILLOSCOPE

(MEASUREMENT OF PEAK, RMS VOLTAGES AND FREQUENCY OF AC)

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Aim: - To study the different waveforms, to measure peak and rms voltages and the
frequency of A.C.

Apparatus:- A C.R.O and a signal generator. Theory: - Cathode ray oscilloscope is one of the most useful electronic equipment, which
gives a visual representation of electrical quantities, such as voltage and current waveforms in an electrical circuit. It utilizes the properties of cathode rays of being deflected by an electric and magnetic fields and of producing scintillations on a fluorescent screen. Since the inertia of cathode rays is very small, they are able to follow the alterations of very high frequency fields and thus electron beam serves as a practically inertia less pointer. When a varying potential difference is established across two plates between which the beam is passing, it is deflected and moves in accordance with the variation of potential difference. When this electron beam impinges upon a fluorescent screen, a bright luminous spot is produced there which shows and follows faithfully the variation of potential difference. When an AC voltage is applied to Y-plates, the spot of light moves on the screen vertically up and down in straight line. This line does not reveal the nature of applied voltage waveform. Thus to obtain the actual waveform, a time-base circuit is necessary. A time-base circuit is a circuit which generates a saw-tooth waveform. It causes the spot to move in the horizontal and vertical direction linearly with time. When the vertical motion of the spot produced by the Y-plates due to alternating voltage, is superimposed over the horizontal sweep produced by X-plates, the actual waveform is traced on the screen.

Precautions :1) The continuity of the connecting wires should be tested first. 2) The frequency of the signal generator should be varied such that steady wave form is formed.

Procedure:- Study of waveforms: To study the waveforms of an A.C voltage, it is led to

the y plates and the time base voltage is given to the X-plates. The size of the figure is played on the screen, can be adjusted suitably by adjusting the gain controls. The time base frequency can be changed, so as to accommodate one, two or more cycles of the signal. There is a provision in C.R.O to obtain a sine wave or a square wave or a triangular wave. Measurement of D.C.Voltage: - Deflection on a CRO screen is directly proportional to the voltage applied to the deflecting plates. Therefore, if the screen is first calibrated in terms of known voltage. i.e. the deflection sensitivity is determined, the direct voltage can be measured by applying it between a pair of deflecting plates. The amount of deflection so produced multiplied by the deflection sensitivity, gives the value of direct voltage.

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Voltage measurement : Sl. No

Peak to peak (Vertical) length. (Divisions) (l) Voltage Sensitivity. (Volt/Div) (n) Peak to peak Voltage 2 Vo=n x l (volts) Peak voltage Vo=(2Vo/2) (volts) Rms Voltage Vrms= (Vo/ 2 ) (volts) Measured voltage with Multi-meter (volts)

1 2 3 4 5

Frequency measurement :
Sl. No Peak to peak (Horizontal) Length (Divisions) (l) Time-base Sec/Div (m) (ms) Time-period T=mxl (ms) Measured frequency f = 1/T (Hz) Applied Frequency (Hz)

1 2 3 4 5

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Measurement of A.C voltage: - To measure the alternating voltage of sinusoidal waveform, The A.C. signal, from the signal generator, is applied across the y plates. The voltage(deflection) sensitivity band switch (Y-plates) and time base band switch (X plates) are adjusted such that a steady picture of the waveform is obtained on the screen. The vertical height (l) i.e. peak-to-peak height is measured. When this peak-to-peak height (l) is multiplied by the voltage(deflection) sensitivity (n) i.e. volt/div, we get the peak-to-peak voltage (2Vo). From this we get the peak voltage (V o).The rms voltage Vrms is equal to Vo/2. This rms voltage Vrms is verified with rms voltage value, measured by the multi-meter. Measurement of frequency : - An unknown frequency source (signal generator) is connected to y- plates of C.R.O . Time base signal is connected to x plates (internally connected) . We get a sinusoidal wave on the screen, after the adjustment of voltage sensitivity band switch (Y-plates) and time base band switch (X-plates). The horizontal length(l) between two successive peaks is noted. When this horizontal length (l) is multiplied by the time base(m) i.e. sec/div , we get the time-period(T).The reciprocal of the timeperiod(1/T) gives the frequency(f). This can be verified with the frequency, measured by the multi-meter.

Result :