MAKING VARIOUS WELDED JOINTS Types of Weld Joints There are two major classes of weld - fillet and

butt. 1. Fillet welds. These welds are roughly triangular in cross section and between two surfaces not in the same plane and the weld metal is substantially placed alongside the components being joined. 2. Butt welds. A butt weld is made between two pieces of metal usually in the same plane, the weld metal maintaining continuity between the sections. In addition there are lap welds, corner welds and edge welds, which are to some extent special variations of the fillet and butt welds. The various weld joints and some associated terms are illustrated on page 7.

A larger electrode could be employed (4mm or 5mm) and/or it may be found necessary to restrict the width of weaving to where there are two or three passes (weld beads) in each layer of weld material as indicated in Fig. 17.

The same technique and procedure would apply for single Vee butt welds, although of course the included angle is usually restricted to 70 max. Where a single vee butt weld is employed, the first run should achieve full penetration, with a cover weld placed on the reverse side. Alternatively, the gap between the two plates is widened and a backing bar that become part of the structure is employed. It should of course be remembered that it is not essential to use other than a square butt joint for material less than 6mm thick. Light sheet (2.Omm and under) should be tightly butted together while heavier sheet should be gapped up to half the material thickness to assist in full penetration by a weld from each side. Horizontal Fillet and Butt Welds It is not always possible to tip your weld into the flat position. The use of weaving is therefore restricted and single beads placed in suitable sequence are required. The electrode angles and sequence of welds are shown in Fig. 18. Try Austarc 13S as well for this application. Pay attention to your electrode angles in producing multi-pass welds.

Making a Welded Joint in the Flat Position Take two pieces of 250 x 75 x 10mm plate and tack (a small or temporary holding weld) them together at each end to form a right angle section and set it in the V position between two bricks, as shown in Fig 15. Using your 3.2mm o electrode at 130 amps, run your first pass into the joint, bisecting the angle with your electrode and making sure that you obtain complete penetration to the corner with no lateral movement of the electrode. Remove the slag and your weld should be flat with a good flow into each side and probably have a 8mm wide surface. Deposit you next layer using a weaving motion, remembering to pause slightly at each edge.

This fillet weld could probably have a face width of 12mm (and a leg length of 10mm) and of maximum desirable size for this thickness material. However, in using the specimen for practice it could be assumed that the material was thicker and a larger weld required.

Fig 18. The Horizontal Fillet Weld. The first run is made as for a single fillet weld. The electrode angle is straightened up to approx. 60 -70 and the run laps the first pass as in a pad, thus providing a two pass ledge to carry the third pass.

To assist in practicing control for producing butt welds in this position, a horizontal pad on the vertical plate can be tried. The electrode should be pointed some 5 upwards and back on to the crater at some 20. Make a horizontal bead at moderate amperage. A slight back and forward weaving motion can assist with some electrodes. Make your next pass along the top edge of the first run and so on, producing a pad as shown in Fig. 19.

weave is sometimes used on multi run welds with cellulose electrodes (such as Austarc 11).

Vertical Welding Two basic techniques are available for welding vertically; - up and down. The up technique is favoured in heavy sections and large fillets or where root penetration is of prime importance. The down technique is usually restricted to lighter sections and joints where penetration is not a problem (light sheet) or where excellent finish and minimum distortion is essential. Certain types of electrodes such as Austarc 12P-are suitable for many applications using this technique.

In welding vertically up, somewhat less current than normal is employed, the electrode tip being directed upwards into the joint at an angle of 5 - 10. The first pass of a large weld is usually made with little or no weave, subsequent layers being multi-pass layers using the same technique with stringer beads each side or more commonly with a full weave across the face. A triangular weave for reasonable sized single pass welds is sometimes employed. These are all illustrated in Figs. 21 and 22. Electrodes with a fluid slag such as Austarc 13TC are best suited to this class of welding but it may be carried out with any general purpose electrode.

In welding vertically down, the current is raised somewhat higher than may be used on the flat (set at maximum for the gauge) and the electrode is contact welded or with a very short arc down the joint, tip pointing upwards approx. 30. The operator must proceed at a speed which keeps him ahead of the slag freezing above the arc. Only stringer (no weaving) beads are usually satisfactory with GP electrodes but a slight arc length and

It is important in the full weave technique to develop a proper controlled weave. The fact that the electrode travels twice across the centre of the weld for every visit to the toe necessitates a fast across the centre pause on the sides approach. Over a convex first pass this aspect is even more critical if the side grooves are to be filled and a flat weld face achieved. With the triangular weave technique the first and second passes are virtually combined with an upwards into the toe (pause) slightly down to the left (pause) across the centre to the right (pause) back up into the root cycle.

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Overhead Welding These welds should be made as for welds in the flat position - with due allowance for gravity! Obviously large pools of molten metal are not manageable in this position and wide weaves are rarely acceptable. Fast narrow beads are the easiest with 4.Omm being a maximum size usually employed. Use slightly lower than normal currents but travel faster. Again an overhead pad is the best way of practicing control. Use a 3.2mm Austarc 12P or 13S at 120 amps, maintaining a short arc length. Two hands may assist steadiness. The electrode should be kept at right angles to the plate width, pointing back some 5 - 10 on to the molten pool In subsequent pad runs the electrode can be slanted at an angle on to the toe of the preceding bead. To achieve a comfortable welding position it may be desirable to bend the electrode at the holder with some types of holders. When proficient, try a fillet weld with the sequence and angles indicated in Fig. 24. A slight weave can be attempted to help smooth out the bead shape and if this is used a drop in amperage may assist in controlling the molten pool.

extent of at least five times the thickness of the thinner plate. Lap and corner welds should be watched to ensure full throat thickness being achieved without melting of the edges of the plates, which would result in reduced effective plate thickness. Two pass fillet welds can be considered as acceptable providing care is taken to ensure penetration to the root of the joint. The bottom leg is made longer than the vertical leg and the second pass brings the vertical leg to size. A fillet size is nominated by the leg length. Thus a six millimeters fillet has leg lengths of 6mm. Usually fillet size is equal to plate thickness of the smaller plate, e.g.. for welding 12mm plate to 6mm plate, a 6mm fillet is selected. Some reinforcement of fillet and butt welds is acceptable, but excessive reinforcement is undesirable from both a strength and economy point of view. Concave welds are more prone to cracking problems than convex welds. A flat weld is the ideal from most points of view. Undercut-sections of the parent metal where the material has been scarfed away by arc action and not replaced with weld metal is particularly undesirable in items subjected to reversal stress or flexing, such as shafts, beams, etc. Excessive currents tend to overheat electrodes and add little to their penetration. Care in joint preparation is more than amply repaid in reduced welding time, quality of workmanship and joint soundness. Moisture in electrodes increases spatter, fiery running, impairs general appearance, properties, and slag removal. Take care to ensure your electrodes are stored correctly and dry. Summarising In the preceding sections we have suggested practical welding in almost only one size and type of electrode for purposes of easy tuition. The welder has been gradually led into trying other types, sizes and currents and we should perhaps summarise these important aspects at this point. Electrode Size Electrode size is nominated by diameter of core wire. Electrodes are available from 2.Omm to 6mm diameter, and this permits economic industrial welding of a wide range thickness of material. The small user rarely has the need or the equipment to warrant stocking of this full range. Within limits, larger electrodes permit more economical welding on heavy jobs, but with correct techniques the maintenance welder need rarely exceed 4mm a to achieve sound welds. Similarly, a suitable 2.5mm electrode with appropriate technique can weld down to 1.5mm material, although on the flat a 2.Omm size may be desirable. Size of course determines the amperage used and so

General Notes on Fillet and Butt Welds Larger electrodes using higher amperages put down more metal faster. While this is important in industry, the use of one or two electrodes of smaller gauge in a small shop may reduce outlay, make for greater skill and better welds. Consider 4mm as the maximum size out of position - a 3.2mm gauge in the vertical may often prove easier to handle for the beginner and occasional welder. Always place a cover pass on the reverse side of a simple vee butt weld (if no backing plate) and generally have both sides of a T fillet welded for full strength in all directions. Lap joints should be secured wherever practicable with welds on both sides of the joint. Certainly welds in tanks should never be carried out with only one weld externally where corrosion can take plate in the open inner seam. Always lap the plates to the

the heat input into the job. Generally, the bigger the joint the bigger the electrode desirable. It will be found how, by use of special techniques the effective heat input and penetration can be reduced in light material by coming down and increased in heavy material by going up, with the flat giving average rates of heat input and penetration. Thus a 3.2mm electrode can be used to weld 1.5mm sheet vertically down and 15mm thick section vertically up but would be considered as inappropriate for either on the flat. Welding Current Each packet of electrodes indicates a suitable range of usable welding currents. Generally normal currents are above the average of the upper and lower limits and welders will experience less trouble when keeping to this more efficient upper range. The upper limit is usually determined by the ability of the electrode to run out its full length without deterioration of its running characteristics or weld metal properties. On lighter material, currents may be reduced to reduce penetration or overheating of the base material. Electrode Selection A wide and to some extent confusing range is available to the user. From the point of view of economical stocking, perfection of technique with one GP type makes sense. Because the many little peculiarities which may warrant a different special electrode in a particular type of high production application are not present in the all round jobbing shop, the user will do well to restrict his range to several lines with wide applications. The Table on page 16 shows the major lines recommended for this class of rural jobbing application. Some more specialised Austarc electrodes are available and may be used where the volume of work or its nature is such that their use is warranted.

AVOIDING DEFECTIVE WELDS Some quite harmful weld defects are due purely to incorrect technique and early recognition of their cause and effect can assist in establishing good practices. Undercut Cracks aside, undercut is usually considered as the worst defect. Undercut is the term given to a sharp narrow groove along the toe of the weld due to the scouring action of the arc removing the metal and not replacing it with weld metal. It reduces cross sectional area (and strength) but more importantly it provides a notch into the heat affected area of the joint which will act as a stress raiser and possible point of crack initiation. This defect is particularly detrimental in shafts and beams in rotating or flexing service, giving rise to fatigue failure. The causes are usually associated with incorrect electrode angles, incorrect weaving technique, excessive current and too fast travel speed. Lack of Fusion In this defect, weld metal lies adjacent to unfused base material or previous runs without admixture i.e. the two sections are not welded together. This is usually associated with the opposite situation which causes undercut in that too much molten metal is flowing within the joint area without sufficient direct arc action on the base metal beneath. Usual causes are too slow a rate of travel, incorrect electrode manipulation or current too low. Slag Inclusions Slag may be associated with undercut, incomplete penetration and lack of fusion in addition to its presence within a bead. Insufficient cleaning out of slag along an undercut toe of a multipass weld and incorrect electrode manipulation can leave pockets of slag and unfused sections along the weld joint. Excessive weaving and the use of too large an electrode in a narrow groove or too low amperage can also cause slag pockets. Slag inclusions not only reduce cross sectional area strength of the joint but may serve as an initiation point for serious cracking, particularly in the harder steels. Incorrect Profile This defect is one not only relating to appearance but also to overall strength of the joint. Excessive concavity results in insufficient throat thickness in relation to the nominated weld size. Excessive convexity results in poor weld contour which in multilayer welds can give rise to slag inclusions while in the finished weld it provides a poor stress pattern and a local notch effect at the toe of the weld. Selection of correct size and type of electrode with correct current and electrode manipulation will not give these defects. Incomplete Penetration The general purpose manual arc welding electrodes in common use are not noted for their penetration. Joints must therefore be prepared to permit full and proper access to the electrode and weld metal so as to achieve the full throat

HEAT AND DISTORTION When metal is heated it expands in all directions and as it cools down it contracts. As it becomes hotter most common steels become softer and more easily worked, a factor we use when hot forging components to a required shape, bending etc. These two factors, working together can result in warping or distortion away from the original or expected shape where the areas being heated are restrained from movement in one or more directions either by their own shape with uneven localised heating or by some externally applied force.

A simple workshop example is to take a section of metal, say, 75mm of 25mm x 3mm and clamp it lightly in the vice. Now apply the torch to the centre of the bar and heat until the centre section is a bright red to orange colour and allow to cool. The steel tries to expand but, restrained lengthwise by the jaws of the vice, it gives in the soft hot area and, on cooling, the natural contraction will result in the final length being shorter and the bar will fall from the jaws. Repeat the same experiment with several successive runs of arc welding across the centre of the bar. Imagine the case where the ends of the steel bar were welded to each jaw of the vice first. The bar would then not be free to contract and on cooling it would be carrying an internal tensile pull, acting in the form of a stretched spring between the two jaws. Such locked up or residual stresses may in some structures gain such magnitude that they can seriously impair the load carrying capacity of a member. On the other hand, we use the same effect to advantage when we camber the longitudinal members of a tray body against the bending effect of the load and thus increase its load capacity. It is important in welding and cutting operations to be aware of these factors and plan the placement of welds, preheats, the use of holding jigs etc., so that both distortion and locked up stresses are kept to a minimum. It will be realised that each successive bead of weld metal not only has a heating effect on the metal beneath but that in cooling from the molten state high contraction forces are present within the bead. The following are useful hints to minimise unwanted distortion or stresses: 1. Wherever possible, particularly in low ductility materials like cast iron, have the components free to move and set up out of position so that the

thickness of the weld. A butt weld or fillet weld where the weld metal does not penetrate to the root resulting in insufficient throat thickness suffers from incomplete penetration and reduced joint strength. Insufficient root gap, too great a land, too large an electrode, current too low or incorrect angle of electrode can all contribute to this complaint. Cracks Cracks can occur in both the base metal and the weld metal as a result of welding. Aspects of base metal and weld metal composition are very important as is also the need for low hydrogen electrodes to be dry. However incorrect technique can also be a cause either directly or indirectly. For instance too high a current producing excessive concavity will reduce throat thickness as will slag entrapment on the root of the weld due to too large an electrode, too slow a rate of travel or current too low. Insufficient throat thickness can lead to weld cracking in a shrinking weld and a restrained joint. Cracked tack welds - too small for the job -can lead to cracked final welds if not removed. Porosity Porous welds may arise as a result of coating breakdown due to excessive current, excessive moisture pickup by the electrode (particularly low hydrogen types), and impurities absorbed from the base metal. Using wet electrodes is bad practice. A bake in the kitchen oven for an hour at 110C (230F) for general purpose types and 250C (480F) for low hydrogen types will improve the situation.

contraction pulls them into position. (see also page 10). 2. Peening or hammering of the weld metal is a compressive action that will help balance out the tensile pull of a contracting weld. Again this is useful in cast iron or heavy butt welds that must be welded from one side only. 3. Do not use any greater heat (amperage or electrode size) or volume of welding than is necessary. Over welding is expensive and adds to distortional problems. Often intermittent welds rather than a continuously welded seam are all that is required. 4. Balance welding on both sides of the joint in a sequence that will have weld bead being deposited offsetting the distortional effect of the previous bead. 5. In many instances it is desirable to clamp materials to substantial strong backs so as the overall dimensions are held during welding and cooling. 6. Avoid excessive local heat buildup. Short runs and the use of back step techniques are two methods of reducing cumulative effects. 7. Use the right joint preparation and avoid excessive gaps involving large widths of molten pools under cooling contraction. 8. For lighter sheet tack more frequently to hold the plates in alignment.

WELDABILITY OF METALS AND ALLOYS Steels Steel is the general name given to a wide range of alloys of iron and carbon with or without the purposeful addition of other alloying metals. The carbon imparts higher strength to the iron and the ability, over a certain percentage to permit hardening and a wide range of structural properties by heat treatment. Increasing carbon content of steel gives increased ease of hardening with higher strength but lower ductility. Tougher steels with superior properties can be achieved by replacing some of the added carbon with other alloying elements such as chromium, nickel, molybdenum etc. modifying the structure of the metal in different forms. Welding is of course a form of heat treatment on a joint and as a general rule the more easily hardened and higher tensile the steel, the more difficult they are to weld. For our purposes they can be considered in the following general groups: 1. Mild Steel (Low carbon steel) The term mild refers to its relative inability to be hardened to any practical extent by normal heat treatments. It is a low carbon steel with a general range of 0.05% up to 0.3% carbon and forms the vast bulk of the steels employed for general structural fabrication, sheet metal etc. Tensile strength is of the order of 400-450MPa and it is ductile and easily worked. It is readily able to be welded by all common processes and offers no special problems to the general arc welder other than those normally pertaining to distortion control etc. 2. Medium Carbon Steels Steels with a range of 0.35% - 0.6% carbon are heat treatable to higher strengths than mild steel but require special precautions in welding for this reason. These steels, usually also having a slightly higher manganese content (0.6-1 %) are used for higher strength bar stock in machine frames, shafts, sprockets and cast steel tractor components, rail lines etc. Use low hydrogen electrodes with a preheat up to 250C in the heavier sections. 3. Low Alloy High Tensile Steels This group generally fall into the same welding characteristics as the medium carbon steels, although many can achieve higher strengths and ductility but with better weldability than the equivalent plain carbon alternative. When carbon is partially replaced by alternative alloying elements such as chromium, nickel, molybdenum, vanadium etc., the toughness, impact resistance and general mechanical properties are improved. Special low alloy electrodes are available for special critical applications using these steels where the weld properties must fully match the parent metal but satisfactory general welding can often be conducted with the standard low hydrogen electrodes. 4. High Carbon Steels Steel containing 0.65 -1.5% carbon are referred to as high carbons steels and again, various alloy

Because of the detrimental effect of excess heat on the toughness of the material, it should be welded cold, the area being no more than hand hot before the next run is deposited. This may be accomplished by skip welding, welding on several components in turn or even welding in a water bath with only the area to be welded exposed. It is extensively employed in quarry and dredging equipment where its work hardening properties and tough structural properties are used to advantage. Austenitic Stainless Steel is also non-magnetic and contains sufficient chromium and nickel to ensure a tough corrosion resistant alloy. Being non-heat-treatable it has good welding characteristics with electrodes of similar composition and is used extensively because of its many excellent properties in the dairying equipment, beverage and food processing fields as well as for architectural and domestic hardware. Its cost usually prohibits its use in general fabrication applications where cheaper steels of similar strengths are available unless of course highly corrosive conditions are encountered such as in chemical plant. When welding stainless to mild steel use a high alloyed stainless steel to offset dilution of the weld metal. Cast Irons A range of iron/carbon alloys containing 2.5 - 3.5% carbon are produced for casting purposes and the general manner in which the high carbon content is present determines their major properties and characteristics. Grey Cast Iron, in which a large proportion of the carbon is present as graphite flakes is the most widely used for a whole range of sand cast goods requiring a good compressive strength but with little need for ductility. Machine bases, automotive engine blocks, pipes, sprocket gears etc. It derives its name from the characteristic grey colour of the fractured iron. The presence of the carbon as graphite reduces the strength of the iron in tension although machining is excellent for this reason. White Cast Iron, is cast in steel moulds and the faster cooling and modified composition ensures the presence of the carbon mainly as white iron carbide. The white iron shows good wear resistance but is very brittle. In heavy sections the components are often designated as chilled cast irons due to the wear resistant white iron layer close to the surface with a modified grey iron of tougher characteristics in the core of the component. Malleable, Ductile and SG Irons and Meehanite are all special irons in which additional elements are added to improve certain properties, notably strength and toughness. The most common of the higher strength types rely on obtaining the graphite in round balls rather than flakes and strengthening of the matrix to a level where its tensile strength is comparable with mild steel and bend strength is quite good. These irons are being increasingly employed in the agricultural component field in small gears etc. Welding of cast irons is made difficult by the fact that no matter what form it is in, the carbon present is re-dissolved in the fusion zone and due to the quenching effect, a brittle white iron is formed. Similarly its absorption by normal steel weld metals produces a very hard brittle high carbon weld

modifications of the plain carbon steel are available giving enhanced specific properties of one type or another. Their high hardness makes them difficult to weld and for some applications satisfactory results can not be guaranteed. In other instances, special high alloy electrodes and high preheats, followed often by heat treatment, achieve a satisfactory result. These classes of steels are used where a sharp edge must be maintained or where high hardness is essential to their service conditions. Often referred to as tool steels, their applications vary from chisels, axes, files, etc., to hot or cold forging dies, guillotines blades etc. 5. Austenitic Steels The exception to the rule of obtaining higher hardness by quenching of steels from elevated temperatures are two steels in specialised fields of uses which come under the name of Austenitic Steels. These steels are non-magnetic. Austenitic Manganese Steel is supplied in a toughened quenched condition. It is only partially stable and under heat or impact can harden to a brittle wear resistance structure. It can be welded with an alloy of similar composition or preferably for strength welds with an Austenitic stainless steel class of alloy but ordinary mild steel electrode should never be employed due to hard brittle fusion zone alloys being formed.

metal. Weldability is best in SG or malleable group irons while white irons are rarely considered as weldable for most practical applications. Most people use a nickel / iron or monel type of electrode as all these alloys can absorb carbon without hardening thus ensuring a relatively soft ductile weld. Bronze electrodes can also be employed. Braze welding with the oxyacetylene process is a good method for grey cast iron but is unsuitable for SG irons where the high heat destroys the structure of the iron, reducing its strength to a grey iron level. Cast irons are generally arc welded with only a small amount of heat, care being taken to use short peened runs and to restrict any tendency to heat buildup above hand hot, thus restricting the width of the hardened zone and welding stresses on the low ductility material. Grind or chip cracked section to open groove (not narrow vee) leaving a small section for mating parts