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Q.1:- Define a contract. Discuss the essential elements of a valid contract and
classification of contract in brief.
All contracts are agreements:- “Agreement consists in two persons being of the
same intention concerning the matter agreed upon”. Under agreement remember
some essential point are:- written proof legal obligation registration, etc.
All agreements are not contract:- Some agreements legal obligation is not
necessary like religious, social, moral, culture.
Mr. Balfour and Mrs Balfour. Mr. Balfour was employed in Srilanka. Mrs. Balfour
owing to ill health had to stay in enland & could not accompany him to Srilanka. On
the occasion of leaving her in England of medical for treatment Mr. Balfour promised
to send her 30 pound per month while he was abroad. But Mr. Balfour failed to pay
that amount. So Mrs. Balfour filed to suit against her husband for receiving two said
amount. According to Lord At Kin “ No legal obligation between Mr. & Mrs.Balfour”
so, MRs. Balfour case was dismissed in court..
4) Free consent of the Parties:- An agreement must have been made by free
consent of the parties. If any fraud, mistake, misrepresentation, coercion the contract
would be void other wise free consent of the parties void contract.
Ex.:- A power of attorney
During free consent of the parties about a power of attorney is a void.
6.) Lawful object:- The object of an agreement must be lawful. Main aim lawful
object proper design and procedure.
According to section 23. the object is said to be unlawful if:
a) It is fraudulent.
b) It involves an injury to the person or property of any other.
c) It is forbidden by law.
Ex:- ABC enter into an agreement for a decision among them of gains acquired or to
be acquired, by them by fraud. The agreement is void, as its object is unlawful.
(illustration (e) to sec (23) )
7) Agreement not expressly declared void. The agreement must not have
been declared to be expressly void. Agreements mentioned in section 24 to 30 have
been expressly declared to be void. Under these provisions agreement in restraint of
marriage, agreement in restraint of legal proceedings have been expressly declared
void.
Classification/type/kind of contract:
i) Valid contract:- A valid contract is one which satisfies all the requirements
prescribed by law for the validity of a contract.
ii) Implied contract:- When the offer or acceptance is made not by words,
written or spoken but by acts and conduct of parties is implied contract.
It is only the promise or his agent who can demand performance of the
promise under a contract. It is immaterial whether the promisee is for the benefit of
the promise or for the benefit of same other person. In the case death of the
promisee, his representatives can demand performance. In certain cases a third
person who is not a party to the contract can also demand performance.
For ex:- A premisee tB to sell his house to C for Rs. 50000. A does not perform
the contract. C cannot sue A. it is only B who can force the promise against A.
2. By the agent:- Where personal skill is not necessary and the work could be
done by any one. The promisor or his representative may employ a competent
person to perform it. Thus a contract to sell goods can be assigned by the seller to
his agent.
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two person. One the seller and other the buyer. The seller and the buyer must be
two different persons, for a man cannest purchase his own goods the parties must
be competent to contract.
4. Goods:- The subject matter of the contract of sale must be the goods, the
property in which is to be transferred from the seller to the buyer. Goods of any kind
except immovable goods may be transferred. It does not include money and the
other actionable claims. The seller must be the owner of the goods the ownership of
which is subject to be transfer. A debt is not goods because it can only be assigned
as per transfer of property act but cannot be sold.
Sale :- In a sale, the property in the goods is transferred from two seller to the buyer
and the buyer can therefore deal with the goods in any way be liker. In a sale the
consideration is the price in terms of money.
Bailment:- In a Bailment, there is only transfer of possession of goods from the bailer
to the bailee from any of the reasons like safe custody, carriage etc and the bailee
can only deal with the goods according to the directions of the bailer.
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Essential ingredients.
4. Rights:- The transferee of the negotiable instrument can sue in his own
name in case of dishonour. A negotiable instruments can be transferred any number
of times till it is at maturity.
i) Promissory notes
ii) Bills of exchange
iii) Cheques
i) Hundi
ii) Share warrants.
iii) Dividend warrants.
iv) Bankers draft.
v) Circular note
vi) Bearer debenture
vii) Railway receipt
viii) Delivery orders
ix) Debenture of Bombay port trust.
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Q.5:- Discuss the Bill of exchange. How does it differ from a promissory note?
Explain essential conditions and classification of Bills.
DIFFERENCE:-
Bill of exchange Promissory note
1. Number Bill of exchange there are 3 In this there are only 2 parties
of parties parties- drawer, drawee, payee. maker (Debtor) and the payee
(creditor)
2. Payment Bill of exchange to the drawer and It cannot be made payable the
of the payee or drawee and payee maker himself.
maker maybe same person.
3. Prior A bill of exchange is payable after A note is presented of rpayment
acceptance sight must be accepted by the without any prior acceptance by
drawee or someone else on his maker.
behalf, before it can be presented
for payment
3.Primary or It is secondary and conditional It is primary and absolute.
absolute
liability.
5. Relation The maker or drawer of an The maker of the Promissory
accepted bill stands in immediate note stands in immediate
relations with the accepter and not relation with the payee.
the payee.
6. Protest Foreign bill of exchange must be No protest is needed in the case
for protested of dishonour when such of a promissory note.
dishonour protest is required to be made by
the low of the country where there
are drawn
7. Notice of Give notice of dishonour No need of notice of dishonour
dishonour.
1) It must be in writing
2) It must be signed by the drawer
3) The drawer, drawee and payee must be certain.
4) It should be properly stamped.
5) The sum payable must also be certain.
6) It must certain an express order to pay money and money alone.
Classification of Bills:-
Foreign Bill:- A bill which is not an inland bill is a foreign bill. The following are the
foreign bills:-
- A bill drawn outside India and made payable in India.
- A bill drawn outside India on any person residing outside India.
- A bill drawn outside India on a person residing in India
- A bill drawn outside India and made payable outside India.
Time bill:- A bill payable after a fixed time is termed as a time bill. In other words,
bills payable ‘after date’ is a time bill.
Trade Bill:- A bill drawn and accepted for a genuine trade transaction termed as a
‘trade bill’
Accommodation bill:- A bill drawn and accepted not for a genuine trade
transaction but only to provide financial help to some party is termed as an
‘accommodation bill’
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Ans:- Negotiable instrument is dishonored the holder must give a notice of dishonour
to all the previous parties in order to make them stable. A negotiable instrument can
be dishonoured either by non-acceptance or by non-payment.
A cheque and promissory note can only be dishonours by non-payment but a
bill of exchange can be dishonoured eiher by non-acceptance or by non-payment.
several drawee even if one of them makes a default is acceptance. The bill is
deemed to be dishonoured unless there several drawers are partners.
2) When the drawee is in competent to contract the bill is treated as
dishonoured.
3) When a bill is accepted with a qualified acceptance, the holder may treat the
bill of exchange having been dishonoured.
4) When the drawee has either become insolvent or is dead.
A bill after being accepted has got to be presented payment on the date of its
maturity. If the acceptor fails to make payment when it is due, the bill is dishonoured
by non-payment.
In the case of promissory note if the maker fails to make payment on the due
date the note is dishonoured by non-payment.
A cheque is dishonoured by non-payment as soon as a banker refuses to pay.
An instrument is also dishonour by non-payment when presentation for payment is
excused and the instrument, when overdue remains unpaid (Section 76)
Notice of dishonour.
Notice of dishonour means the actual notification of the dishonour of the instrument
by non-acceptance or by payment. When a negotiable instrument refused
acceptance or payment notice of such refusal must immediately be given to parties
to whom the holder wishes to make liable. Failure to give notice of the dishonour by
the holder would discharge al parties other than the maker or the accept. (sec.93)
Notice to whom:- Notice of dishonour must be given to all parties to whom the
holder seeks to make liable. No notice need to be given to make, acceptor or
drawee, who are the principle debtors (Sec 93)
How? The notice of dishonour may be oral or written. It may be sent by post. It
may be in any form but it must inform the party to whom it is given either in express
terms or by reasonable intendent. That the instrument has been dishonoured an din
what way it has been dishonoured and that the person seemed with the notice will
be held liable there on.
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a) Wagering agreements
b) Cheques
c) Hundi
d) Noting & protest e) Prospectus
d) Noting and protest :- Noting is merely a record of the fact of dishonour when
the notary public issues a certificate stating the particulars regarding the dishonour.
It is called a protest.
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Q.8:- What is compulsory winding-up? What are the grounds for compulsory
winding-up?
Ans:- Introduction:-
Winding up is the process for realization of the assets, the payment of
creditors and the distribution of the surplus. If any, among the shareholders, so that
the company may be finally dissolved. Winding up is the last stage in the life of a
company. It means a proceeding by which a company is dissolved.
equitable” are of wide connotation on the part of the court to order winding up or not
on this ground.
Case:- Shah J. in seth Mohan Lal Vs. Grain Chambers Ltd., The substration of
the company is said to have disappeared when the object for which it was
incorporated has substantially failed, or when it is impossible to carry on the
business of the co. expect at a loss or possible assets are insufficient to meet the
existing liabilities.
The underlying basis of a company will be judge in following ways.:-
1) When the business of company become illegal.
2) The object of company is failed
3) When there is a deadlock in the management of the company
4) If shareholders on a minority
5) When the company is a ‘pubic’ i.e. it never has any real business.
Section 439 of the companies act enumerates the persons those can file a
petition to eh court for the winding up of a company. Petition by company, creditors,
contributory petition, registrar’s petition. Petition be any person authorized by the
central government.
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Q.9:- Who is an unpaid seller of goods and what are his rights against the
goods? Has he any remedy against the buyer personally?
Ans:- A seller of goods is deemed to be an unpaid seller with in the meaning of the
sale of goods act when:-
• The whole of price has not been paid or tendered.
• The bill of exchange or other negotiable instrument has been received as
conditional payment, and the condition on which it was received has not been
fulfilled by reason of dishonour after instruments.
Under two sales of goods act:- Two kinds of rights to an unpaid seller of goods:
Conditions:-
• The ownership must have passed to the buyer.
• The goods must be in possession of the seller or under his control as bailee etc.
• The possession of the goods by the seller must be expressly include the right to
lien.
• The whole or part of the price must remain unpaid. It may noted that the lien can
be exercised only for price.
Ex:- A sells to B a certain quantity A sells to B a certain quantity of wheat. It is agred
that three months credit shall be given. B allows the wheat to remain in A’s
warehouse till the expiry of the three months, and then does not pay for them. A may
retian the goods for price.
The rights to stoppage means the right to stop further transit of the goods, to
resume possession there of and to retain the some till the price is paid.
Conditions:-
• The seller must be unpaid.
• The buyer must be insolvent.
• The property must have passed from the seller to the buyer.
• When the buyer reject the goods wholly or partly.
Case:- When the goods reach their destination and after taking delivery the buyer
puts them on his cart, though the cart has not left the station. The railway company
cannot stop the goods at this stage if the seller asks. The transit has already ended.
(GIP Railway co,. Vs. Hanuman das)
The Right to resale is conferred by the section 54 which also environment the
circumstances under which the right of re-sale may be exercised.
Conditions:- Where the goods are of a perishable nature. In this case the unpaid
seller need not give a notice to the buyer of his intention to resell the goods.
Above Discuss:- These rights to an unpaid seller do not depend upon any
agreement, express or implied between the parties. They arise by the implication of
law.
Under section 73 of the Indian contract act. The loss arising directly and naturally
from the breach i.e. the difference between the value of the goods as delivered, and
suit for recovery of the price together with interest.
Above discuss:-
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CPA 1986 was introduced. It’s aim at protection of the interests of consumers.
It provides for the establishment of consumer councils and other authorities for the
settlements of consumers disputes.
CPA main objectives :- the right to be protected against marketing of goods which
are hazardous to life an property. The right to be informed about the quality, quantity,
purity, and price of goods etc. the right to consumer education. To protect the
consumer from the unfair trade practices, the union government of India has enacted
various legislations.
• Comprises shall now be able to carry out electronic commerce using the legal
infrastructure provide by the act.
• Digital signature has been given validity and sanction in the act.
The present status of cyber law in India is increasing.
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Ans:- The main objectives of auditing is to verify the books of the accounts prepared
by the client and his employees.
Types of auditing
AUDITING
a) Statutory audit:- Under the various acts concerning the various business
organizations it is mandatory for the organisation audit their account such as in the
case of the company. This type of the auditing which is mandatory by law is called
statutory audit.
b) Private Audit:- Private audit is not mandatory by the law that is dependent on
the wish of the owner. It is also called the voluntary audit.
d: Internal Audit :- Internal audit done by the employer is called internal and
under internal audit check day to day transactions.
a) Complete audit:- That audit which examines the all transactions, entry
books, totals, balances, vouchers, deeds and documents in detail &
mandatory by law is called complete audit.
b) Partial audit:- When all books are examined but some of books are examine
is called partial audit such as checking of the purchase book, checking of the
sale book, cash book etc.
c) Continuous Audit:- is one where the auditor and his staff is constantly
engaged in the checking of the accounts during the whole period or where the
auditor or his staff attends at regular intervals.
d) Periodical audit;- A periodical audit is one where the auditor visit of the
auditing at the end of the period of the accounting and does whole checking
at a time.
e) Interim audit:- When the books of the accounts are audited with some
special purpose at any time during the financial year of an enterprise is known
as interim audit.
g) Cost audit:- The verification and checking of the cost accounts and check an
adherence to the cost accounting plan is called cost audit.
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Principles of accounting
The word principles mean a general law or rule adopted to guide an action. In
accounting certain principles are also on which the accounting system is based,
these principles are called in two categories.
1) Accounting Concepts:-
Concepts are necessary assumptions and condition on which accounting is
based.
2) Accounting conventions:-
Conventions are the tradition, usages, and customs which are in use since
long.
Part of Principles:
I) Accounting concepts
j) Convention of disclosure
ii) Convention of consistency
iii) Convention of conservatism
iv) Convention of materiality
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Q.12:- Define share. What are the different kind of shares which a company
may issue.
Kinds of preferences
Convertible preference shares are those shares which can be converted into equity
shares within a certain period. Those shares which do not carry the right of
conversion into equity shares are called non-convertible preference share.
2) Equity shares:- Equity shareholders have the residual right of the company.
They may get higher dividend then preference shareholders if the company is
prosperous or get nothing if the business of the company globs.
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13:- Can one man meeting is possible if yes, how? Explain Quorum.
Ans:- Yes, one man meeting is possible for a meeting to be there, the presence of
two or more than two persons is required. Accordingly to the general law, there
cannot be a one-man meeting. But their are some exceptions stated in the
Companies Act where a meeting is deemed to have been held by the presence of
only one person. These exception are as under:-
would be deemed to have been held even if there is only one member is presented
of such meeting.
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Ans:- The word ‘Company’ is the most widely used word in the whole of commence
dom there days. This word ‘com’ means together and ‘pains’ means bread.
Companies referred to an association of persons who took their meals together.
Characteristics of company:-
1) Artificial person:-
A company is an artificial person existing in the eyes of law only. It is invisible,
intangible immortal and lacks the physical attribute possessed by nature persons,
which means that a company does not eat food, cannot marry and cannot be sent to
prison. The law treats it as a legal person as it can conduct lawful business and
enter into contracts with other persons in its own names. It can sell or purchase
property.
3) Perpetual Succession
A company is created by law and it can be brought ot an end by the life of the
company does not depend upon the life of its members.
4) Common seal:-
A Company is an artificial person and is competent to enter into contracts. Every
company must have a seal with its engraved it. The seal of the company is affixed
on the documents which require the approval of the company.
5) Limited Liability
The liability of the member of the company is limited up to unpaid value of their
shares.
6. Transferability of shares
The shares of a public company are fully transferable. Section 82 of the companies
act declares that the shares or other interests of any member in a company shall be
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7. Separate Property:
A company can own, manage, control and dispose of property in its own name. The
company becomes the owner of its capital and assets.
8. Right to sue:
A company being a legal person can enforce its rights through suits and by the same
token, it can be sued for breach of its legal duties eg. A company was engaged in
the manufacturing of radio sets. It purchases certain electronin components from
another company named Gupta Company and paid the price for the same. But
Gupta co. supplied the components of poor quality.
9. Professional Management”
Management is divorced from ownership in the case of the company from of
organisation. Due to these factors, the corporate sector is capable of attracting the
growing cadre of professional managers. The managers are experts in the field of
management because of their specialized knowledge of the subject and they
function independently and without any interference.
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According to Palmer
A promoter is one who undertakes to forma company with reference to a
given project and to set it going and who takes the necessary steps to accomplish
that purpose.
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(1) Planning
Promoters decide what business should be done, when it should be done,
where it should be done and how it should be done.
(2) Nomenclature
A promoter is to decide the name of the proposed company. They also decide
the location of the registered office of the company and the objective of the
company.
(3) Infrastructure:
The promoters arrangements of necessary infrastructure facilities like land,
building, machinery and other equipments.
(5) Capital
Promoters help in arrangements of capital
(7) Appointments
Promoters appoint the bankers the auditor, the legal adviser and the broker of
the company.
(8) Miscellaneous:
The promoters submit the necessity documents along with the required fees
of the registrar of companies after completing the necessary legal formalities and get
the certificate of incorporation. They also arrange license of any required for any
purpose of the company.
1. A promoter is not allowed to make any secret profits. If it is found that in any
particular transactions of the company. The promoter has obtained a secret profit for
himself, he will be bound to refund the same to the company.
2. He is not allowed to derive a profit form the sale of his own property unless all
the material facts are disclosed. If a promoters contract to sell the companies a
property without making a full disclose and the property was acquired by him at a
time when he stood in a fiduciary position towards the company. The company either
reside the sale or affirm the contract. He recovers the profit made from it by the
promoters.
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