Classes of Magnetic Materials

The origin of magnetism lies in the orbital and spin motions of electrons and how the electrons interact with one another. The best way to introduce the different types of magnetism is to describe how materials respond to magnetic fields. This may be surprising to some, but all matter is magnetic. It's just that some materials are much more magnetic than others. The main distinction is that in some materials there is no collective interaction of atomic magnetic moments, whereas in other materials there is a very strong interaction between atomic moments. The magnetic behavior of materials can be classified into the following five major groups: 1. Diamagnetism 2. Paramagnetism 3. Ferromagnetism 4. Ferrimagnetism 5. Antiferromagnetism Magnetic Properties of some common minerals Materials in the first two groups are those that exhibit no collective magnetic interactions and are not magnetically ordered. Materials in the last three groups exhibit long-range magnetic order below a certain critical temperature. Ferromagnetic and ferrimagnetic materials are usually what we consider as being magnetic (ie., behaving like iron). The remaining three are so weakly magnetic that they are usually thought of as "nonmagnetic". 1. Diamagnetism Diamagnetism is a fundamental property of all matter, although it is usually very weak. It is due to the non-cooperative behavior of orbiting electrons when exposed to an applied magnetic field. Diamagnetic substances are composed of atoms which have no net magnetic moments (ie., all the orbital shells are filled and there are no unpaired electrons). However, when exposed to a field, a negative magnetization is produced and thus the susceptibility is negative. If we plot M vs H, we see: Note that when the field is zero the magnetization is zero. The other characteristic behavior of diamagnetic materials is that the susceptibility is temperature independent. Some well known diamagnetic substances, in units of 10 m /kg, include: quartz (SiO2) -8 3

0.62 Calcite(CaCO3) 0.48 water 0.90

TOP 2. Paramagnetism This class of materials, some of the atoms or ions in the material have a net magnetic moment due to unpaired electrons in partially filled orbitals. One of the most important atoms with unpaired electrons is iron. However, the individual magnetic moments do not interact magnetically, and like diamagnetism, the magnetization is zero when the field is removed. In the presence of a field, there is now a partial alignment of the atomic magnetic moments in the direction of the field, resulting in a net positive magnetization and positive susceptibility.

In addition, the efficiency of the field in aligning the moments is opposed by the randomizing effects of temperature. This results in a temperature dependent susceptibility, known as the Curie Law. At normal temperatures and in moderate fields, the paramagnetic susceptibility is small (but larger than the diamagnetic contribution). Unless the temperature is very low (<<100 K) or the field is very high paramagnetic susceptibility is independent of the applied field. Under these conditions, paramagnetic susceptibility is proportional to the total iron content. Many iron bearing minerals are paramagnetic at room temperature. Some examples, in units of 10 m /kg, include:
8 3

Montmorillonite (clay) 13 Nontronite (Fe-rich clay) 65 Biotite (silicate) 79

Siderite(carbonate) 100 Pyrite (sulfide) 30 The paramagnetism of the matrix minerals in natural samples can be significant if the concentration of magnetite is very small. In this case, a paramagnetic correction may be needed.

TOP 3. Ferromagnetism When you think of magnetic materials, you probably think of iron, nickel or magnetite. Unlike paramagnetic materials, the atomic moments in these materials exhibit very strong interactions. These interactions are produced by electronic exchange forces and result in a parallel or antiparallel alignment of atomic moments. Exchange forces are very large, equivalent to a field on the order of 1000 Tesla, or approximately a 100 million times the strength of the earth's field. The exchange force is a quantum mechanical phenomenon due to the relative orientation of the spins of two electron. Ferromagnetic materials exhibit parallel alignment of moments resulting in large net magnetization even in the absence of a magnetic field. The elements Fe, Ni, and Co and many of their alloys are typical ferromagnetic materials. Two distinct characteristics of ferromagnetic materials are their (1) spontaneous magnetization and the existence of (2) magnetic ordering temperature Spontaneous Magnetization The spontaneous magnetization is the net magnetization that exists inside a uniformly magnetized microscopic volume in the absence of a field. The magnitude of this magnetization, at 0 K, is dependent on the spin magnetic moments of electrons.A related term is the saturation magnetization which we can measure in the laboratory. The saturation magnetization is the maximum induced magnetic moment that can be obtained in a magnetic field (Hsat); beyond this field no further increase in magnetization occurs.

The difference between spontaneous magnetization and the saturation magnetization has to do with magnetic domains (more about domains later). Saturation magnetization is an intrinsic property, independent of particle size but dependent on temperature. There is a big difference between paramagnetic and ferromagnetic susceptibility. As compared to paramagnetic materials, the magnetization in ferromagnetic materials is saturated in moderate magnetic fields and at high (room-temperature) temperatures:
Hsat Tesla T range (K) 10-8m3/kg paramagnets >10 ferromagnets ~1 <<100 ~300 ~50 1000-10000

Curie Temperature Even though electronic exchange forces in ferromagnets are very large, thermal energy eventually overcomes the exchange and produces a randomizing effect. This occurs at a particular temperature called the Curie temperature (T ). Below the Curie temperature, the ferromagnet is ordered and above it, disordered. The saturation magnetization goes to zero at the Curie temperature. A typical plot of magnetization vs temperature for magnetite is shown below.
C

The Curie temperature is also an intrinsic property and is a diagnostic parameter that can be used for mineral identification. However, it is not foolproof because different magnetic minerals, in principle, can have the same Curie temperature.

Hysteresis In addition to the Curie temperature and saturation magnetization, ferromagnets can retain a memory of an applied field once it is removed. This behavior is called hysteresis and a plot of the variation of magnetization with magnetic field is called a hysteresis loop.

Another hysteresis property is the coercivity of remanence (Hr). This is the reverse field which, when applied and then removed, reduces the saturation remanence to zero. It is always larger than the coercive force.

The initial susceptibility ( ) is the magnetization observed in low fields, on the order of the earth's field (50-100 T).
0

The various hysteresis parameters are not solely intrinsic properties but are dependent on grain size, domain state, stresses, and temperature. Because hysteresis parameters are dependent on grain size, they are useful for magnetic grain sizing of natural samples.

TOP 4. Ferrimagnetism In ionic compounds, such as oxides, more complex forms of magnetic ordering can occur as a result of the crystal structure. One type of magnetic ordering is call ferrimagnetism. A simple representation of the magnetic spins in a ferrimagnetic oxide is shown here. The magnetic structure is composed of two magnetic sublattices (called A and B) separated by oxygens. The exchange interactions are mediated by the oxygen anions. When this happens, the interactions are called indirect or superexchange interactions. The strongest superexchange interactions result in an antiparallel alignment of spins between the A and B sublattice. In ferrimagnets, the magnetic moments of the A and B sublattices are not equal and result in a net magnetic moment. Ferrimagnetism is therefore similar to ferromagnetism. It exhibits all the hallmarks of ferromagnetic behaviorspontaneous magnetization, Curie temperatures, hysteresis, and remanence. However, ferro- and ferrimagnets have very

different magnetic ordering. Magnetite is a well known ferrimagnetic material. Indeed, magnetite was considered a ferromagnet until Nel in the 1940's, provided the theoretical framework for understanding ferrimagnetism.

Crystal Structure of Magnetite Magnetite, Fe3O4 crystallizes with the spinel structure. The large oxygen ions are close packed in a cubic arrangement and the smaller Fe ions fill in the gaps. The gaps come in two flavors: tetrahedral site: Fe ion is surrounded by four oxygens octahedral site: Fe ion is surrounded by six oxygens The tetrahedral and octahedral sites form the two magnetic sublattices, A and B respectively. The spins on the A sublattice are antiparallel to those on the B sublattice. The two crystal sites are very different and result in complex forms of exchange interactions of the iron ions between and within the two types of sites.

The structural formula for magnetite is [Fe ]A [Fe ,Fe ]B O

3+ 3+ 2+ 4

This particular arrangement of cations on the A and B sublattice is called an inverse spinel structure. With negative AB exchange interactions, the net magnetic moment of magnetite is due to the B-site Fe .
2+

TOP

5. Antiferromagnetism

If the A and B sublattice moments are exactly equal but opposite, the net moment is zero. This type of magnetic ordering is called antiferromagnetism.

The clue to antiferromagnetism is the behavior of susceptibility above a critical temperature, called the Nel temperature (T ). Above T , the susceptibility obeys the Curie-Weiss law for paramagnets but with a negative intercept indicating negative exchange interactions.
N N

Crystal Structure of Hematite

Hematite crystallizes in the corundum structure with oxygen ions in an hexagonal close packed framework. The magnetic moments of the Fe ions are ferromagnetically coupled within specific c3+

planes, but antiferromagnetically coupled between the planes.

Above -10C, the spin moments lie in the c-plan but are slightly canted. This produces a weak spontaneous magnetization within the c-plan ( = 0.4 Am /kg).
s 2

Below -10C, the direction of the antiferromagnetism changes and becomes parallel to the c-axis; there is no spin canting and hematite becomes a perfect antiferromagnet. This spin-flop transition is called the Morin transition.

Oxy-Acetylene Gas Welding Technique

There are different welding techniques for welding mild steel. They are as follows:

Leftward or forward welding. Rightward or backward welding. Vertical welding, single or double. Overhead welding. Linde welding.

Leftward or Forward Welding

The leftward method of welding is also known as forward welding. It is the oldest and most widely established method for the buttwelding of steel plates. Recent developments have shown that above certain thickness, the leftward method cannot be used successfully, but within its sphere of application, which is limited of thickness, it gives excellent results and is the most satisfactory method, both from the point of view of the economy of the joint and the resultant mechanical properties of the weld. Welding is commenced at the right hand edge of the plate and proceeds across the plane in a leftward direction, the blowpipe following the welding rod. (Ref Fig 1)

Fig 1 Leftward or Forward Welding It is necessary to bevel the plates upto 1/8 thickness, but there should be an included angle of bevel of at least 80 for t hickness between 1/8and 3/16, above 3/16 thickness under normal condition, it is not economical to use the leftward method and i t should be replaced by rightward method.

Table 1 Data for Leftward or Forward Welding

Sheet thickness (inch) Welding speed ft./Hr. 1/32 20-25 1/16 25-30 2-3 3/32 20-25 3-5 1/8 18-20 5-7 5/32 15-18 7-10 3/16 12-15 10-13

Power of blowpipe 1-2 Cu.ft. of C2H2/Hr. Dia of welding Rod 1/32 (Inch) Consumption of 1.0 welding wire per foot of

1/16

3/32

3/32

1/8

1/8

1.75

2.75

1.65

2.1

4.8

weld (ft.)

Rightward or Backward Welding

During the past few years much publicity has been attached to the rightward method of welding and the results obtained by this method. Investigations show that the all these claims have been adequately sustained. The rightward method of welding consists of commencing at the left-hand side of the plate and proceeding towards the right, the filler rod following the blowpipe (Refer Fig 2). It will be observed that the blowpipe point in the direction of the completed weld and that it moves regularly along the seam. There is no lateral movement of the blowpipe, rather the end of the filler rod describes a series of loops and doesnt progress steadily as in case of the leftward welding. It is not necessary to bevel the edges of the plate between 3/16 to 5/16 and even when a bevel is necessary the included angle should be only 60 and 8 0 as in the previous case. Further differences, all of which must be learnt and remembered if the method is to be applied successfully, are that the welding rod is held at an angle of 40-50 to the job and not 30-40, which is the case in leftward welding. On other hand, the blowpipe is held much flatter i.e. the angle of the blowpipe to the plate is only 40-50 as compared with the 60-70 required in the case of leftward method. These differences in the angle of the bevel, movement of the rod, angle of the filler rod and angle of blowpipe are of real importance and significance.

Fig 2 Rightward Welding With regard the mechanical properties of the weld, the enhance ductility, elongation etc., are due to the annealing effects. The flame playing on the finished weld prevents the weld zone from cooling down suddenly and so prevents brittle deposit. There is less risk of excessive oxidation. A further advantage is that the heat is more localized and consequently, the effects of distortion are greatly reduced. Table 2 Data for Rightward or Backward Welding

Sheet (inch)

thickness 3/16

1/4

5/16

1/2

5/8

Welding speed ft./Hr.

12-15

10-12

7-8

4.5-5

3.754.25 55-60

33.25 60-70

Power of blowpipe 13-18 Cu.ft. of C2H2/Hr. Dia of welding Rod 3/32

18-25

25-30

45-50

1/8

5/32

(Inch)

Consumption of 3.4 welding wire per foot of weld (ft.)

Advantage of Rightward Welding Over Leftward Welding

3.4

3.4

5.75

6.75

9.75

The following are some of the advantages of rightward welding over leftward welding process:

Consumption of filler rod is less. Welds are made faster. Less chance for expansion or contraction. Flame anneals the weld portion; therefore the mechanical properties are superior. Better control of weld as the molten pool can be viewed clearly. Less risk of excessive oxidation as the reducing flame covers the weld.

Vertical Welding When the welding plane is in a vertical position, the welding method applied is vertical welding. This method of welding has many advantages. Bevelling is not required upto 5/8 thickness, welds can be made rapidly and distortion is reduced to m inimum.

Fig 3 Single and Double Vertical Welding Annealing effect is also obtained as far rightward welding. Vertical welding is divided into two different methods (Refer Fig 3).

Welding from one side only (Single Operator Method). Welding from both sides (Double Operator Method)

Overhead Welding
In this position the welding is done from the underside of the joint and where the axis of the joint and base metal are both horizontal (Refer Fig 4). This is the most difficult position for welding. In this welding the welder should wear all protective clothing and helmet. The position of the welding rod and welding torch is almost same as the welding in horizontal position. Here, the force from the gas velocity and the surface tension of the metal prevent the molten metal falling from the weld zone. Care should be taken not to over heat the metal.

Fig 4 Overhead Welding One method of keeping the molten metal from becoming too hot is to use a flip motion of the torch tip (Refer Fig 5). This is a quick movement of the tip from the puddle (molten pool) and back again. The momentary removal of the flame allows the puddle and bead to cool slightly.

Fig 5 Flip Motion in Overhead Welding

Pipe Welding
The method of making butt welds in steel pipes is similar to that of making welds in equivalent thickness of M.S. plates. In straight line or angle joint, tacking in jigs is advisable. For smaller diameter pipes, tacking in two places is enough. For 2 and above, tacking at three or more equidistant places is better. Edge preparation is as in the case of plate welding. Pipes are welded mainly by two methods.

Roll welding Fixed position welding.

Roll Welding. In roll welding the weld is started at the three oclock position and welded to the top of the pipe. The pipe is then rotated 90 degrees. Welding continues at the three oclock position and ends at the top.This continue until the joint is finished (Refer Fig 6). When using this technique, no overhead and only small amount of vertical welding is required. Most of the welding is carried in flat position. The size of the torch tip is same as for the same thickness of flat sheet or plate. The welding can be done by either fore hand or back hand position. The weld is usually reinforced 1/16above the pipe wall upto a thickness of 3/8 and 1/8 for 3/8 an above. The width of the bead should be approximately 1 to 2 times the wall thickness.

Fig 6 Rolling Method of Welding Pipe Fixed position welding. When it is difficult or impossible to roll the pipe, then welding is done, keeping it in a fixed position. Sometimes this must be done in cramped quarters and other adverse condition, but the weld must be as secure as any other weld. In this type the weld must be started at the bottom and welded up both sides of the pipe up to the top (Refer Fig 7). The blowpipe must be held vertically while welding the bottom as this will assist holding the metal ion place.

Fig 7 Fixed Position Pipe Welding Elbow Joint To weld at angles, pipes are cut with a hacksaw or ground to the required angles and set so as to give wall contact. Edges are prepared as required for the thickness, and tacking is done after setting in jig available and welded either by the leftward or rightward method according to thickness. The rest of the technique employed is as used for butt joints. (Refer Fig 8)

Fig 8 Elbow Joint Pipe to Plate Welding A blowpipe tip, one size larger will normally be chosen for a particular thickness in butt-welding, is selected for this type of welding. The blowpipe is held at a 50 angle and the welding rod at 70-75. The tip of the blowpipe should be directed slightly more towards the plate than to the pipe. Holding the pipe too high will result in undercut the vertical leg. The main features of a sound weld are:

Good fusion of there whole surface of the pieces and then slightly reinforcement at the joint as in the case of fillet weld. If any bevel is made, the chamfering is filled to a level slightly higher than its surface. Absence of any porous metal in the joint. Strong section and no undercut of the parent metal.

Linde Welding This is a special technique used for the welding of pipes with a carburising flame. The excess of carbon in the carburising flame cause an addition to the carbon content of the outer layer of the steel and thereby, reduces its melting point and also causes it to sweat at a lower temperature lower than its melting point. With specially graded linde rod, it is then possible to carry out welds on mi ld steel at temperature below its melting point and at greater speeds.