ETHtechMin Portland Cement 2012

Prof. Grobty B., Inst. de Minralogie et Ptrographie, Univ.
de Fribourg

Technical Mineralogy Department of Geosciences
Technische Mineralogie ETHZ IMP 2008
Introduction
Cementitous materials
Definition: Material, which binds together with solid bodies (aggregates)
by hardening from a plastic state. Examples: organic polymers inorganic cements
Inorganic cements
- mixed with water plastic state - hydration of the components development of rigidity (setting) - steady increase of strength (hardening) - Examples: Portland cement, gypsum plasters, phosphate cements - when hardening occurs also under water: hydraulic cement - Example: Portland cement
Introduction
Historical background I

12M BC: 3000 BC: 300 BC:
(www.auburn.edu/academic/architecture/bsc/classes/bsc314/timeline/timeline.htm)
Natural production of clinker through the spontaneous combustion of oil shales (Israel) Egyptians used sulfate and lime based plasters Use of cementitous materials in China (Great Wall) Concrete and mortars based on lime and pozzolanic material (volcanic ashes). Pliny reported a mortar mix of 1 part of lime and 4 part of sand. Examples: 193 BC: Porticu House, Amaelia, 200 AD: Pantheon, Rome
(www.romanconcrete.com)
http://www.greatbuildings.com/buildings/Pantheon.html
Introduction
Historical background II
Middle ages: 1756: 1824: Decline of cement and concrete technology John Smeaton, British Engineer, rediscovered hydraulic cement through repeated testing of mortar in both fresh and salt water Joseph Aspdin, bricklayer and mason in Leeds, England, patented what he called portland cement, since it resembled the stone quarried on the Isle of Portland off the British coast. Portland cement. This was the name given by Joseph Aspdin to the product consisting of limestone and clay, on which he took out a patent in 1824: "Portland", owing to the similarity to the building stone from Portland in England, and "cement" from the Latin caementum, which means chipped stone.
Introduction
Cement: definitions
Portland cement: Hydraulic cementitous material based on clinker, a material composed of calcium silicates and aluminates, and a small amount of added gypsum/anhydrite. The clinker is made by burning mixtures of limestone and argilaceous rocks (slates). Mortar: Neat paste: Concrete: Mixture of Portland cement, fine sand and water (used f.ex. for the construction of brick walls) Mixture of Portland cement and water alone (used for filling cracks and sealing small spaces) Mixture of Portland cement, coarse and fine aggregates (rock pebbles, sand), water and chemical additives. The mechanical strength can be reinforced by the insertion of steel bars.
Introduction
Cement: chemical notations

Chemical notation C = CaO M = MgO T = TiO2 S = SiO2 K = K2O P = P2O5 A = Al2O3 N = Na2O H = H2O F = Fe2O3 S = SO3 C = CO2
LOI = loss of ignition ( H2O+CO2) C-S-H = poorly crystallized calcium silicate hydrates HCP = hydrated cement paste PFA = pulverized fuel ash PC = Portland cement OPC = Ordinary Portland cement
Introduction
Portland Cement I
Chemical composition The composition of Portland Cements and puzzolanic additives cover a certain range.
Introduction
Portland cement II
Main mineralogical components Name + Chem. Comp Belite Alite C2S C3S Approx. % in OPC Properties 20 55 12 8 Slow strength gain, responsible for long term strength Rapid strength gain, responsible for early strength gain Quick setting (contr. by gypsum), liable to sulfate attack Little contribution to setting or strength, responsible for gray color of OPC
Aluminate C3A Ferrite C4AF
Introduction
Portland Cement III

Main production steps
(http://www.ppc.co.za/Cement/c_cement_manprocess.asp)
Quarrying chalk in northern Jutland (Aalborg Cement)
Introduction
Portland Cement IV
Main production steps (cont.)
Chalk slurry tank (Aalborg cement)
Introduction
Portland Cement V
Preheater, rotary kilns and storage silos
Introduction
Portland Cement VI
Cement silo Shipping by ship
Introduction
Introduction
World cement productions (minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/cement

World cement production 2000 (thousand of tons): United States (includes Puerto Rico) 92,300 Brazil 41,500 China 576,000 China 576,000 Egypt 23,000 France 24,000 Germany 38,099 India 95,000 Indonesia 27,000 Italy 36,000 Japan 77,500 Korea, Republic of 50,000 Mexico 30,000 Russia 30,000 Spain 30,000 Taiwan 19,000 Thailand 38,000 Turkey 33,000 Other countries (rounded) 450,000 World total (rounded) 1,700,000 World total (rounded)
China produces one third of the world cement output!
1,700,000 Technische Mineralogie ETHZ IMP 2008
Introduction
Swiss cement industry

Cement plants in Switzerland
(www.cemsuisse.ch)

1 Eclpens 2 Cornaux 3 Reuchenette 4 Wildegg 5 Siggenthal 6 Thayngen 7 Brunnen 8 Untervaz
cement plant klinker mills
Total production 1987: 4 478 000 t 1989: 5 461 000 t 2000: 3 715 908 t
Raw materials
Raw materials
Main raw materials
Calcareous lime stones: Shales: - calcite-rich - low in dolomite - clay rich, usually dominated by illite, smectite and kaolinite. Ideal bulk composition ranges: 55-60wt% SiO2, 15-25wt% Al2O3, 5-10wt% Fe2O3
Corrective constituents
Sand, flyash: Ironores, bauxite: - adjust SiO2-content in quartz-poor shales - adjust Fe resp. Al content
Additional reactive constituents, which have to be considered, may be introduced through impurities in the fuel. Up of 30% of ash is produced by the firing of brown coal.
Raw materials
Composition of ordinary Portland cements

Major components
SiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 CaO MgO K2O Na2O SO3 LOI (H2O+CO2) 19.0 - 23.0 3.0 - 7.0 1.5 - 4.5 63.0 - 67.0 0.5 - 2.5 0.1 - 1.2 0.1 - 0.4 2.5 - 3.5 1.0 - 3.0
Minor components and traces (deleterious) few %: MgO, SrO2 few tenth of a %: P2O5, CaF2 , alkalis traces: heavy metals
The composition of different cements, their minimum mechanical properties and their application is regulated by Norm SIA Norm 215.001/002 (http://www.vicem.ch/produits/normes/2_7d.htm) which corresponds to the European Norm ENV 197 (http://www.readymix-beton.de/service/betontechnische_daten/kap_1_1.pdf)
Raw materials
Proportioning of raw materials

Targets for an ordinary Portland cement (OPC) - Lime saturation factor (LSF) close to 100% - Free lime content under 1.5wt% - Silica ratio (SR module) between 2.0 and 3.0 - Alumina ratio (AR module) between 1.0 and 2.0 - Hydraulic index (IH) 2.0 - Low concentration of deleterious components Lime saturation factor The calcium present in the raw materials should be completely bound in the silicate and aluminate phases of the cement clinker. The amount of different oxide components necessary to saturate the amount of lime is given by(in wt%): CaO = 2.8 SiO2 + 1.2Al2O3 + 0.65Fe2O3
Raw materials
Proportioning of raw materials VII

Example (cont.) The proportion p of mix A and 1-p of mix B to get an SR of 3.0 can be obtained through following consideration: S - SR = A +F = 3.0 S A+F Mix A 13.1 7.5 MixB 16.1 2.1
The value a can be obtained from S = 3.0 = 13.1p + 16.1(1-p) A+F 7.5p + 2.1(1-p)
p = 0.51
Klinker production
Klinker phases I
1. Alite Ca3SiO5 = C3S
orthosilicate
SiO4 Ca O R- C3S projected along the c-axis 0.71nm

Polymorphic transformations:
1060C 1070C T1 620C T2920C T3980C M1990C M2 M3 R
T: triclinic
M: monoclinic
R: rhombohedral
Max. concentration of impurities: 1.0 wt% Al2O3, 1.2% Fe2O3, 1.5 % MgO impurities stabilize the M1 and or M3 in klinkers, rarely T2 is found
10

Klinker production
Klinker phases II
2. Belite Ca2SiO4 = C2S
orthosilicate
0.55nm

- C2S
proj. down c-axis
Polymorphic transformations:
O1()
<500C
M1()
630C
M2(L )
1160C
O2(H )
1425
H1()
O: orthorhombic
Max. concentration of impurities: 4.0-6.0wt% Al2O3+ Fe2O3 impurities stabilize the -phase
M: monoclinic
H: hexagonal
Klinker production
Klinker phases III

3. Aluminates and ferrites Ca3Al2O6 = C3A (cubic) impurities: up to 4wt% NaO up to 16% Fe2O3+ SiO2 imputirities stabilize an orthorhombic polymorph Ca2AlxFe1-xO10 = C4AF xclinker: around 1.0 impurities: up to 10 wt% MgO +TiO2
+ SiO2
11

Klinker production
Klinker phases IV
Polymorphs and composition of phases present in clinker
C3S early crystallized small crystals rich in substitutes: M3 late crystallized large crystals: M2 (single twins), rarely T1 (polysynthetic twins) 3-4% of substituting elements, mainly Mg, Al and Fe
usually only in the M1() polymorph with parallel twin lamellae M2(L ) has typical crossed twin lamellae. The transformation M2() M() sho<uld be avoided, because the accompanying drastic volume increase leads to excessive dusting. 4-6% of substituing elements, mainly Al and Fe polymorphs is coupled with substitution. Clinker aluminate phases are cubic (fine grained) or orthorhombic (lath shapedand twinned) 13% to 20% of substituting elements: Mg, Al, Fe, Si Main exchange vector Fe-2 SiMg
C2S
C3A
C3AF

Klinker production
Klinker phases V
Etched microstructures of the different klinker polymorphs
Alite crystals with both single and polysynthetic twins

Belite crystals with complex twin lamellae (M2(L ) polymorph)
Belite crystals with Belite crystals with paralllel twin lamellae crack formation along (M() polymorph) lamellae boundaries (M() (M() transf.)
12

Klinker production
Rotary kiln
Without preheater/precalciner the kiln aspect ratio is about 30
Klinker production
Klinker reactions below 1300C

Temp. range products Drying 100C 100 - 300C 500 - 900C 300 - 900C > 800C free water evaporates release of adsorbed and crystal water free lime (CaO) dehydroxilated, amorphous material belite, aluminate (different phases), ferrite
Decomposition of calcite (calcining): Decomposition of phyllosilicates: Formation of first clinker phases:
Formation of first melt phases:

> 1000C
13

Klinker production
Decomposition of carbonate phases I

Decomposition reaction: CaCO3 = CaO + CO2 Equilibrium constant
1.0 P(CO2)
K=
[CaO ][ CO2 ]
[ CaCO3]
= pCO2
0.75 0.5 0.25 0.0 750 800 850 890C 900 T(C)
Rate of decarbonation is influenced by: - material temperature (=> K)

- gas temperature (heat transfer) - external partial pressure of CO2 - size and purity of the calcite particles
Calcite decomposition temperature As function of CO2 partial pressure

Klinker production
Decomposition of carbonate phases II

Reaction mecanism: formation of a lime layer around calcite
reaction progress a
Possible rate determining steps 1. heat and mass transport (CO2) through the product layer 2. reaction at the calcite surface
(1 ! a )
= kt
t

Activation energy: 196kJ/mol (Khraisha et al, 1992) reaction controlled ?
14

Klinker production
Belite formation
1. Formation of belite through solid state reaction 2. Transformation of the belite shells to belite crystal clusters
lime quartz amorphous material belite

Klinker production
Appearance of first melts

1. Alkali and sulfate melts 2. C-S-A melts: lowest eutecticum 1170
15

Klinker production
Phase diagram
P: typical bulk composition of Portland cement klinkers First melt appearance: 1455C
Klinker production
Klinker reactions between 1300C and 1450C

1. Melting reactions - Melting of ferrite and aluminate phases - Melting of part of the early formed belite 2. Formation of new phases Reaction of melt, free lime, unreacted silica and remaining belite to alite 3. Polymorphic transformation of belite 4. Recrystallization of alite and belite 5. Nodulization (clinkering)
16

Klinker production
Amount and composition melts II

35 30 25 20 15 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 SM
At 1450C and above the liquid content depends on the silica modulus
Liquid phase (wt%)
Klinker production
Formation and recrystallization of alite
1. Formation of melt around lime crystals 2. Crystallization of alite walls at the contacts between belite cluster and lime 3. Recrystallized and new formed alite replaces lime crystals
lime belite amorphous material alite
17

Klinker production
Microtextures I
(all pictures FL Smidth review 25)
0.1mm

0.05mm

Belite clusters replacing previous quartz grains.

belite
Alite wall separating CaO and a belite cluster

lime
alite
melt phase (aluminates,ferrites)
Klinker production
Microtextures II
0.3mm
0.2mm

alite
lime
belite
pores
Alite crystallizing at the expense of lime and belite
Well crystallized, homogeneous clinker. The raw mix contained few quartz grains and a well controlled carbonate grain size.
18

Klinker production
Klinker reactions during cooling

1. Crystallization of the restitic melt. Products: aluminates (C3A) and ferrites (C4AF) 2. Polymorphic transformations of alite and belite If cooling is too slow 3. Backreaction of alite to belite + lime 4. Recrystallization aluminates and ferrites
Klinker production
Microtextures III
belite rims
0.04mm
Backreaction of alite rims to belite plus lime in a belite poor clinker (fast cooling).
0.02mm
Etched thin section showing the transformation twins in belite.
19

Klinker production
Microtextures IV
0.05mm
Slowly cooled clinker with corroded alite phase and recrystallized belite grains.
0.05mm
Fast cooled clinker with euhedral alite and rounded belite crystals.
Klinker production
Normative mineralogy of clinker I
20

Klinker production
Normative mineralogy of clinker II

Minor elements in the main klinker phases in cements of different cement factories. Most cements contain 5wt% and more minor elements which introduces considerable errors when using Bogues original formula,

Klinker production
Normative mineralogy of clinker III
Corrected Bogue equation

C3 Scorr = C3 Sbogue + 4.0 MgOclinker + 5.5 K2 Oclinker C2 Scorr = C2 Sbogue - 1.5 MgOclinker - 2.2 K2 Oclinker C3 Acorr = C3 Abogue + 7.8 Na2O + 1.5 AR - 2.1 S3O - 5.0 C4 AFcorr = C4 AFbogue - 6.5 Na2O - 1.7 AR + 5.0 Mn2O3 + 3.0
0.05mm

21

Klinker production
Normative mineralogy of clinker IV
0.05mm

Difference in calculated alite and belite content using the original(top) and the corrected (bottom) Bogue formula
Klinker production
Energy balance in clinker production

Temp range 20-450C wet 100C ca. 450C 450-900C ca. 900C ca. 900C 900-1400C 900-1400C ca. 1300C 1400-20C 900-20C 450-20C Process Heating of the material Evaporation of free H2O Removal of H2O from clay heating of the material Dissociation of calcite Crystallisation of dehydrated clay Heating of the decarbonated material Heat of formation of clinker minerals Melting of liquid phases Cooling of clinker Cooling of CO2 Cooling of H2O Total Heat exchange kJ/kg clinker 710 (1800) 170 820 2000 -40 525 -420 100 -1510 -500 -85 4325 -2555

Institut de Minralogie et Ptrographie Universit de Fribourg Technische Mineralogie ETHZ IMP 2008
22

Klinker production
Energy costs of cement production

Dry process cement plant 5000t/day
Process Quarry Crushers Prehomoginizing and transport Raw mill Raw meal silo Kiln feeder Kiln and cooler Coal mill Cement mill Packing plant Other total
Fuel Electricity kcal/kg cement kwh/ton cement 0 2.5 1.5 27.0 1.5 1.5 23.0 2.5 30.0 1.0 4.5 95.0
Cost($/day) 0 600 360 9813 360 360 28853 600 7200 240 1080 49467
0-100 700
700-800

Institut de Minralogie et Ptrographie Universit de Fribourg Technische Mineralogie ETHZ IMP 2008
Mineralized cement
Improvements in klinker manufacturing

1. Energy savings through: - lowering the melting point of the system. - increasing the burning rate - better insulation, improved heat exchanger etc.
- use of alternative raw materials
2. Reduction of CO2 ,SO

3 NOx etc output through: - use of alternative raw materials
Institut de Minralogie et Ptrographie Universit de Fribourg
23

Mineralized cement
Improvements in klinker manufacturing

1. Energy savings through: - lowering the melting point of the system. - increasing the burning rate - better insulation, improved heat exchanger etc.
- use of alternative raw materials
2. Reduction of CO2 ,SO

3 NOx etc output through: - use of alternative raw materials
Cours bloc 2006
Mineralized cement
Bulk composition and mineralogy of mineralized clinkers

SiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 CaO MgO SO3 F K2O Na 2 O
normal PC
mineralized

M(wt%) in silicates

22.4 4.4 3.4 65.8 0.7 0.8 0.1 0.8 0.4
21.5 4.6 3.6 65.6 0.7 2.0 0.2 0.8 0.4
2.0

1.5

F
SO3
1.0

C2S 33.3 34.8 C3S 49.5 46.9 0.0

C3A 0.0
4.9 4.0 C4AF 7.7 8.5 produced in 3500tpd precalciner kiln. (Herfort et al., 1997, Shen et al., 1995)
0.5

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

3.0

M (wt%) in clinker
Partitioning of SO3 and F between silicates and other phases
Cours bloc 2006
24

Mineralized cement
Mineralizer
Mineralizer used in klinker manufacturing: Gypsum Fluorite CaF2 = CF CaSO4.2H2O = CS - Lowering of the eutectic temperature of the CaO-SiO2-Al2O3-FeO system - Enhancing the crystallization of reactant phases
Effects of mineralizers:
Energy savings:
105 - 630kJ/kg = 3 - 20%
Cours bloc 2006
Mineralized cement
Effect of mineralizer concentration on clinker mineralogy
clinker mineral (wt%)

clinker mineral (wt%)

80

80

alite

60

60

belite
40

40

20

20

0.0

0.0

2.0

4.0

6.0

0.0
8.0

0.0

0.25

0.5

0.75

1.0

SO3 (wt%)

Herford et al. 1997 (contained < 0.2wt%F)

F (wt%)

Shen et al., 1995 (contained 2wt% SO3 )
Cours bloc 2006
25

Mineralized cement
The system Ca2SiO5 - CaO - CaF2
first melt appearance: 1113C

Institut de Minralogie et Ptrographie Universit de Fribourg Cours bloc 2006
Mineralized cement
Microstructures I
0.05mm

Mineralized klinker with langbeinite filling interstitial space
Mineralized klinker rich in alite which remained in the hexagonal modification
Cours bloc 2006
26

Mineralized cement
Mechanisms enhancing clinker formation I

With the addition of gypsum and fluorite intermediate fluor-ellestadite (Ca10 Si3 O32 (SO4 )3 F2 is formed, which decomposes to belite and liquid at 1113C.
Cours bloc 2006
Mineralized cement
Mechanisms enhancing clinker formation II

The reactions producing belite and too a smaller extent alite in an ordinary PC klinker composition occur in the solid state. Matter is tranported by slow, solid state diffusion Mineralizer lower the melting point. Even early belite formation happens in the present of a liquid phase. Transport of matter is by fast diffusion through the liquid phase. Consequences: - increased number of belite nuclei - faster growth kinetic of belite - in presence of fluorine, faster reaction rates for the transformation belite -> alite
Cours bloc 2006
27

Mineralized cement
Problems with mineralized cement I
0. 2mm

High gaseous alkali- and sulfate species can condensate in towards the outlet. Klinker particle coalesce on the wet kiln surface and lead to ring formation.
Fine grained belite and alite lead to excessive dusting in the kiln
Cours bloc 2006
Mineralized cement
Problems with mineralized cement II
Activation of sulfur dissolved in silicates or present as sulfate inclusions: Late ettringite formation causing deterioration of mechanical properties.
Anhydrite inclusions in belite crystals. (6.4 wt% total SO3 )
Cours bloc 2006
28

Mineralized cement
Pro and cons of mineralized klinker Pro:

- lowering of burning temperature - increase of alite content - formation of the rhombohedral, hydraulic more active polymorph of alite - stabilization of the hydraulic more active phase of belite

Cons:
- Ring formation and excessive dusting in the kiln - with too low fluorine content: increase in belite content - Presence of phases deletrious to mechanical properties
Cours bloc 2006
Rapid burning
Rapid burning
Consequences of steep temperature ramps: - Decomposition and new phase formation occur simultaneously - New phases are formed through metastable reactions having larger reaction free energies - Decomposition products are much smaller and have a higher surface activity
Cours bloc 2006
29

Rapid burning
Grain size of decomposition products
2000

CaO

diameter ()

1500

1000

500

800 C/min
5 C/min
T(max): 1300C

0.0

0.0

10

15

t (min)

20

25

Cours bloc 2006
Rapid burning
Free energy of formation for C2S and C3S

200

G (KJ/mol)

100

3CaCO3 +SiO2 = Ca3SiO5 + 3CO2 2CaCO3 +SiO2 = Ca2SiO4 + 2CO2 3CaO +SiO2 = Ca3SiO5 2CaO +SiO2 = Ca2SiO4
-100

-200
800
900
1000
1100
1200
1300

t (min)

Above 1100 the direct reactions of calcite with silica to form CS-phases have more negative Gf and are favoured over the reaction involving lime.
Cours bloc 2006
30

Rapid burning
Batch production of PC klinker

Rotary kiln - continous process - steady speed Batch production - heating and cooling speeds can be enhanced and adapted Burning technique: - Batches of raw meal is fed into a furnace with circulating air at reaction temperature such as to form a gaseous suspension. - Reaction occurs at contact points between suspended particles Collector
Feeder

Cours bloc 2006
Raw materials
Proportioning of raw materials II

Lime saturation factor (cont.) The actual lime saturation of a raw material mix is given by the ratio LSF = CaO 2.8 SiO2 + 1.2Al2O3 + 0.65Fe2O3
The LSF is in the ideal case 1.0, but often the reaction time in the kiln is not sufficient to bind all the CaO. Free lime The free lime is the leftover CaO which did not react to form silicates. An acceptable free lime content is more important than an LSF of 1.0.
31

Raw materials
Proportioning of raw materials III

Silica and alumina ratios The silica and alumina ratios are defined as SR = Hydraulic index SiO2 Al2O3 + Fe2O3 Al2O3 AR = Fe2O3
IH =
CaO + MgO SiO2 + Al2O3 + Fe2O3
Raw materials
Proportioning of raw materials IV

Example Raw materials Chalk wt% S 2.5 A 0.5 F 0.2 C 54.0 Res. 42.8 Clay wt% 50.0 22.0 9.0 2.5 16.5 Loam wt% 84.0 6.0 3.0 1.0 6.0 Ash wt% 48.0 29.0 10.0 8.0 5.0
From trials we know that to keep the free lime at an acceptable value the LSF must not be higher than 0.96. The lime required to saturate the oxides to this level is:
CaO = 0.96 (2.8 SiO2 + 1.2Al2O3 + 0.65Fe2O3 )

32

Raw materials
Proportioning of raw materials V

Example (cont.) 1. lime required to saturate acidic oxide in chalk: 2.lime required to saturate acidic oxides in clay: 3. lime available in chalk 3. lime available in clay 4. net lime required for clay 5. net lime available from chalk 7.4 164.9 54.0 2.5 164.9 - 2.5 = 162.4 54.0 - 7.4 = 46.6
To get the right mix A, clay and chalk have to be mixed at the ratio chalk 46.6 = clay 162.4 = 3.49
Raw materials
Proportioning of raw materials VI

Example (cont.) The SR of this mix is however too low and has to be adjusted using a mix B between chalk and loam with an LSF of 0.96. The final mix C, with an LSF of 0.96 and a SR of 3.0 can be obtained by blending mix A and B together. Mixes S A F C Res. Mix A wt% 13.9 5.3 2.2 42.5 36.9 Mix B wt% 16.1 1.4 0.7 45.0 36.8 Mix C wt% 14.5 3.4 1.4 43.7 36.8
33

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Prof. Grobty B., Inst. de Minralogie et Ptrographie, Univ.

Technical Mineralogy Department of Geosciences

Technische Mineralogie ETHZ IMP 2008

Technical Mineralogy Department of Geosciences

Technische Mineralogie ETHZ IMP 2008

Technical Mineralogy Department of Geosciences

Technische Mineralogie ETHZ IMP 2008

Technische Mineralogie ETHZ IMP 2008

Technical Mineralogy Department of Geosciences

Technische Mineralogie ETHZ IMP 2008

Cement: chemical notations

Technical Mineralogy Department of Geosciences

Technische Mineralogie ETHZ IMP 2008

Technical Mineralogy Department of Geosciences

Technische Mineralogie ETHZ IMP 2008

Aluminate C3A Ferrite C4AF

Technical Mineralogy Department of Geosciences

Technische Mineralogie ETHZ IMP 2008

Portland Cement III

Quarrying chalk in northern Jutland (Aalborg Cement)

Technical Mineralogy Department of Geosciences

Technische Mineralogie ETHZ IMP 2008

Chalk slurry tank (Aalborg cement)

Technical Mineralogy Department of Geosciences

Technische Mineralogie ETHZ IMP 2008

Preheater, rotary kilns and storage silos

Technical Mineralogy Department of Geosciences

Technische Mineralogie ETHZ IMP 2008

Cement silo Shipping by ship

Technical Mineralogy Department of Geosciences

Technische Mineralogie ETHZ IMP 2008

Technical Mineralogy Department of Geosciences

Technische Mineralogie ETHZ IMP 2008

World cement productions (minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/cement

China produces one third of the world cement output!

1,700,000 Technische Mineralogie ETHZ IMP 2008

Swiss cement industry

1 Eclpens 2 Cornaux 3 Reuchenette 4 Wildegg 5 Siggenthal 6 Thayngen 7 Brunnen 8 Untervaz

cement plant klinker mills

Technical Mineralogy Department of Geosciences

Technische Mineralogie ETHZ IMP 2008

Technische Mineralogie ETHZ IMP 2008

Composition of ordinary Portland cements

Technische Mineralogie ETHZ IMP 2008

Proportioning of raw materials

Technical Mineralogy Department of Geosciences

Technische Mineralogie ETHZ IMP 2008

Proportioning of raw materials VII

Technical Mineralogy Department of Geosciences

Technische Mineralogie ETHZ IMP 2008

Technische Mineralogie ETHZ IMP 2008

proj. down c-axis

Technische Mineralogie ETHZ IMP 2008

Klinker phases III

Technical Mineralogy Department of Geosciences

Technische Mineralogie ETHZ IMP 2008

Technical Mineralogy Department of Geosciences

Alite crystals with both single and polysynthetic twins

Belite crystals with complex twin lamellae (M2(L ) polymorph)

Technical Mineralogy Department of Geosciences

Without preheater/precalciner the kiln aspect ratio is about 30

Technical Mineralogy Department of Geosciences

Technische Mineralogie ETHZ IMP 2008