5.

4 Evolution
Wednesday, 25 January 2012 10:19 AM

5.4.1 Define evolution.

Evolution = the cumulative change in the heritable characteristics of a population.

If we accept not only that species can evolve, but also that new species arise by evolution from preexisting ones, then the whole of life can be seen as unified by its common origins.

Variation within our species is the result of different selection pressures operating in different parts of the world, yet this variation is not so vast to justify a construct such as race having a biological or scientific basis. Two processes have to take place for evolution: A source of variation between individuals of one species A change in the frequency of the genes in the gene pool of a population

5.4.2 Outline the evidence for evolution provided by the fossil record, selective breeding of domesticated animals and homologous structures.

Evidence: study of fossils, artificial selection in production of domesticated breeds, comparative anatomy Fossil record: all fossils discovered and undiscovered that exist, preserved remains/any evidence of an organisms (often mineralised remains) Normally dead organisms decay quickly without leaving a trace Fossil forms

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Fossil forms Petrification: organic matter replaced by mineral ions 1. Dead remains fall into water and become buried in low temperature (anaerobic) 2. Hard parts impregnated by Si/carbonate ions and hardened 3. Compressed in layers of sedimentary rock 4. Upthrust bring rocks to surface --> erosion 5. Land movements exposed, few discovered Mould: organic matter decays, space becomes mould filled by mineral matter Trace: impression of a form (leaf, footprint) Preservation: intact whole organism

When organisms are trapped in sediments, they record that moment in time The fossils in each stratum of sedimentary rock are a local sample of the organisms that existed at the time the sediment was deposited Because younger sediments overly older ones, it is possible to determine the relative ages of fossils

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Study of fossil skeletons shows the evolution of the horse. Evidence allows inferences about form and function and suggests a process of gradual change over time.

Artificial selection Process by which plants & animals used by humans have derived from the wild

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 Process by which plants & animals used by humans have derived from the wild Using the largest/best/most useful of progeny for intended purpose as next generation of parents Culling out of progeny deficient in desired features --> deliberate genetic change Comparative anatomy Shows underlying organisation is similar in related species despite different adaptions Homologous structures: similar in structure, position and development because of common ancestry. e.g. pentadactyl limb Analogous structures: similar in function, different in structure. e.g. bird/insect wings
5.4.3 State that populations tend to produce more offspring than the environment can support.

Overproduction: Populations tend to produce more offspring than are needed to replace the parents. Natural populations normally maintain constant numbers. There must therefore be a certain number dying.

Neo-Darwinism: Overproduction of offspring leads to competition for resources. In stable population, a breeding pair give rise to single breeding pair of offspring, others die before they can reproduce. Population size limited by environmental factors (space, light, food)
5.4.4 Explain that the consequence of the potential overproduction of offspring is a struggle for survival.

Populations tend to grow exponentially, but sizes tend to remain constant More offspring than carrying capacity-->struggle to survive, some live and some die There is variation in a population some have traits that adapt better Too many individuals-->competition for resources Successful individuals grow better and reproduce offspring which will better survive Offspring will carry some of the genes which made their parents better adapted to the environment so they may be more successful and pass their genes more successfully This struggle for survival between individuals of the same species (or between species sharing the same habitat) is called NATURAL SELECTION 5.4.5 State that members of a species show variation.
Variation: Individuals in a population vary in their phenotype and therefore, their genotype. Some variants are better suited to the current conditions than others and find it easier to survive and reproduce.

5.4.6 Explain how sexual reproduction promotes variation in a species.

Genetic variations can arise in gamete formation during meiosis/at fertilisation Random assortment or paternal and maternal chromosomes in meiosis Crossing over of segments of individual maternal/paternal homologous chromosomes-->new combinations of genes on chromosomes of haploid gametes Random fusion of male and female gametes in sexual reproduction Mutations of chromosomes or genes
Sexual Reproduction Union of two haploid gametes (one from each parent) during fertilisation Mixing of genes leads to greater variety in the gene pool of a population Greater variation = greater adaptability to selection pressures Mutation Some may lead to advantageous trait that allows for a fitter organism
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 Some may lead to advantageous trait that allows for a fitter organism Most have no effect, are lethal or disadvantage an organism 5.4.7 Explain how natural selection leads to evolution.
Proposed by Darwin: 1. Organisms produce greater number of progeny --> mature individuals rise 2. Number of individuals in species remain constant 3. Therefore mortality rate must be high 4. Individuals in a species show variations in characteristics 5. Some variants succeed better than others in competition for survival -->parents for next generation selected from those better adapted to environment 6. Fact: hereditary resemblance between parents and offspring 7. Subsequent generations maintain and improve in degree of adaptation of parents

Favourable characteristics expressed in phenotypes of some of the offspring Offspring survive better, reproduce in particular environment Operates to determine survivors and genes that are perpetuated in future progeny Selection process lead to new varieties/species Survival of the fittest

Overproduction and variation --> natural selection --> inherited

5.4.8 Explain two examples of evolution in response to environmental change; one must be antibiotic resistance in bacteria.
Antibiotic resistance Antibiotics: drugs that inhibit bacterial growth, used to treat bacterial infections Resistance to antibiotics arise spontaneously Mutagenic agent Transfer of genetic material between microbial sources More bacteria developed resistance to once-effective drugs Resistance results from adaptive response (tolerate antibiotic that normally inhibits growth)
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 Resistance results from adaptive response (tolerate antibiotic that normally inhibits growth) Responses: Production of enzymes (inactivate drugs) Prevent antibiotic attaching/penetrating microbial surface Increased antibiotic use-->develop resistance Many microbial strains now multi-drug resistant Hard to treat Increase mortality

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