Stellar Reading Medieval Times

Primary Source Chapter 3

WHEN HOME IS A CASTLE

he medieval town grew up around a central castle, or

T manor. The castle was not just one building but,

rather, was much like a small city, its main purpose
defense. Often, a castle was built at the top of a hill or had a
moat around it, making it difficult to attack.
At the heart of the castle settlement was the keep. It was
an impressive tower that was the home to the knight, count, or
king who owned the town. Although the layout varied from
castle to castle, the entrance to the keep was usually on the first
floor, out of reach of the enemy’s battering ram; it contained
the kitchens and a workshop where craftsmen would make
weapons of war for the castle’s defense. On the second floor
was the great hall, where the lords and ladies gathered in the evening to eat, and see the entertainment
afterward. It was also where people were received on official business. The chapel was also located
on the second floor. The Catholic Church was a vital part of medieval life, and the knight and his court
would often attend mass in the castle chapel once or twice a day. The lords and ladies’ personal rooms
were at the top of the keep, whereas the basement was reserved for dungeons or storerooms.
Castle walls could be up to three feet thick and were built to withstand blows from battering rams
and flaming missiles launched by catapults and other siege engines. Medieval castles were dark and
gloomy places by modern standards. Because the castle was primarily a defensive structure, any win-
dows were small slits, just large enough for an expert archer to shoot his arrows.
Castle life was far from comfortable; its vassal knights might be obliged to sleep all together in
the main hall, with the servants and hunting dogs. The floor was covered with straw into which the
diners would throw bones and other refuse while they ate. Sweet smelling herbs were mixed with the
straw to keep down the smell of rotting garbage. On winter mornings, if a knight wanted to wash, he
was forced to break through a thick film of ice formed on the top of a bucket and plunge his hands into
freezing water; baths were very uncommon.
King Ferdinand’s castle at Burgos is more luxurious that many medieval castles. It is hung with
rich tapestries, and the furnishings are fairly ornate and comfortable. They are certainly more elaborate
than those possessed by Rodrigo’s family.
The castle and its surrounding lands were built on a feudal hierarchy. At the top was God, and
beneath were the three estates of men, represented by the nobility, the clergy, and the commoner. The
duty of the nobility was to fight for all men, the clergy to pray for them, and the commoner to work
that all might eat.
All people of noble birth belonged to the First Estate. The king was at the top, and his vassals
were beneath him. Among the vassals, however, there were divisions in class. Count Gormaz, as the
king’s champion, is just below the royal family on the hierarchy. Counts of smaller estates and their
families were at the bottom of the First Estate. The Princess Uracca cannot hope to marry Rodrigo, the
man she loves, because she is at the top of the First Estate and Rodrigo is at the bottom.
A knight who lived in the castle might be the younger son of a lord’s vassal, who had not inherit-
ed any property. The lord provided the knight with food, lodging, armor, and a horse in exchange for
his services, especially during war. Rodrigo, as a vassal to Prince Sancho, will have to endure this fate.
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For example, the siege of Alcocer is long and difficult, and Rodrigo and his companion knights
and squires would not have had an easy time of it.
A knight’s valorous fighting during battle may sound romantic, but in truth it was a brutal busi-
ness. As a medieval biographer of the knight Don Pero Niño describes in his Unconquered Knight, a
tale of the 14th century,

Knights who are at the wars are forever swallowing their fears. They expose themselves to
every peril; they give up their bodies to the adventure of life in death. Moldy bread or bis-
cuit, meat cooked or uncooked; today enough to eat and tomorrow nothing, little or no wine,
water from a pond or butt (bar-
rel), bad quarters, the shelter of
a tent or branches, a bad bed,
poor sleep with their armor still
on their backs, burdened with
iron, the enemy an arrow-shot
off. ‘Ware! Who goes there?
To arms! To arms!’ With the
first drowsiness, an alarm; at
dawn, the trumpet. ‘To horse!
To horse! Muster! Muster!’ As
lookouts, as sentinels, keeping
watch by day and by night,
fighting without cover, as for-
agers, as scouts, guard after
guard, duty after duty. Such is
their calling.

As difficult as the siege was, the actual fighting was more horrible. Don Pero’s biographer con-
tinues his description of Don Pero’s ordeal during combat to defend a bridge against enemy attackers:

Don Pero was struck by an arrow that knit together his gorget and his neck. Several lance
stumps were still in his shield and it was that which hindered him most. A bolt from a
crossbow pierced his nostrils most painfully whereat he was dazed, but his daze lasted but a
little time. He pressed forward receiving many blows on the head and shoulders which
sometimes hit the bolt embedded in his nose making him suffer great pain.” When the bat-
tle finally came to an end, Don Pero’s shield was tattered and all in pieces; his sword blade
was toothed like a saw and dyed with blood…his armor was broken in several places by
lance-heads of which some had entered the flesh and drawn blood, although the coat was of
great strength.

Rodrigo and his comrades would have faced many of these privations during the 15 weeks they
besieged the city of Alcocer, and in the ensuing battle, Rodrigo received an injury across his face much
like that of Don Pero’s; the resulting scar he bore the rest of his life.

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The Second Estate was composed of the clergy. The clergy had their own well-established hierar-
chy, at the top of which was the pope, God’s representative on earth. Beneath the pope, in descending
order, were cardinals, archbishops, bishops, priests, monks, and nuns. Father Jeronimo, the priest who
joins Rodrigo to fight at Alcocer, was the priest of a small parish until he decided to become a warrior,
so he is fairly low in the hierarchy. When he is made the bishop of Valencia at the end of the story, he
is given a generous promotion.
Most castles or manners included a small church and usually a private chapel for its lord or lady
within the keep. From baptism to marriage to last rites, the ceremonies of the church reached every
part of medieval life.
According to medieval Christian beliefs, the church had the power to condemn or forgive sinners,
thus governing whether an individual would go to heaven or hell. Life in the Middle Ages was viewed
as a mere preparation for the eternal world to come, and considering humanity’s vulnerability to war-
fare, plague, diseases, and starvation, it is not surprising that medieval people looked on this world as
transitory. It was the purpose of the clergy to prepare people for the world to come. Many people
sought careers in the church to find a refuge from the evil world around them. Others, particularly sec-
ond sons of the nobility, looked to the church as a path to power and authority.
Although some clergy lived within the castle grounds, the majority lived in large structures called
“monasteries.” The monastery was like a small town. It was a complex community with a series of
different buildings utilized for different purposes. The average monastery had its own granary, brew-
ery, bakery, winery, church, and library.
Inside the library, monks worked at tall desks and copied manuscripts in beautiful handwriting
called “calligraphy.” Around the border of the manuscript they would draw beautiful pictures and care-
fully paint them with colors and gold; this process was called “illumination.” It was by just such a
monk, working stooped over for hour after patient hour, that the story of El Cid was first written down.
Other duties the monastic monks performed were to teach children, care for
the sick, feed the poor, and provide shelter to travelers. A monk’s day was
filled with hard work and devotion, and just as a vassal owed
fealty to his lord, so the monk owed his duty to the
church.
The Third Estate, the most diverse of all, was
made up of all commoners. This included a range
from the wealthiest merchant to the poorest peas-
ant. All professional men such as doctors or
lawyers and all skilled craftsmen were also mem-
bers of the Third Estate. The peasants who worked
the land lived outside the city walls, whereas the
merchants and professional men lived in town.
Within the castle walls lay the town, in which
craftsmen practiced their trades. Because the
space for growth was confined within the walls,
the towns that grew up there were a confusing
labyrinth of narrow streets and noise. It was in the
streets of these narrow, confined towns, however,
that thriving centers of commerce and art were
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After the fall of the Roman Empire, town life had almost disappeared in Christian Europe, but in
Rodrigo’s time, it had already begun to revive. Trade became an important part of daily business life,
as did the craft guilds. A guild was a union of skilled workers such as shoemakers, blacksmiths, tai-
lors, or weavers. Each guild limited the number of members who could practice their trade and super-
vised the training of its apprentices.
Moorish towns were richer and better designed than their Christian counterparts. Many had
paved streets, and the palaces and mosques were places of elaborate beauty. Education was enjoyed by
a much larger segment of the Moorish population than it was by that of the Christian population.
Although Moorish towns also had walls erected around them for defense, beauty was just as important
as utility. The caliph at Alcocer lived in an opulent palace built around a garden courtyard. The palace
walls were hung with richly colored silks, and the furnishings were luxurious and elegant. But as
beautiful as the Moorish cities were, they still depended on large outer walls for defense against attack-
ing armies.
When an enemy army attacked, the peasants who cultivated the land around the castle were dealt
the first blows. Invading armies would burn their homes and fields, destroying months of backbreak-
ing work as well as their food supply for the coming year. If the peasants were forewarned, they would
retreat behind the castle walls, which were the first line of defense, but their crops would be lost, and
starvation was often the consequence. Ironically, destruction of the crops often led to the starvation of
the besieging army as well, for when their supplies ran out, there was no food left growing in the coun-
tryside for them to eat. The phrase “an army fights on its stomach” fits medieval times as well as mod-
ern. A besieging army was just as likely to be forced to retreat because of low supplies as it was to be
defeated in battle.
A description of a countryside after it was laid waste by a besieging army is recorded by the
famous medieval writer Petrarch, as he rode through the “heap of ruins” that was France after the
English had attacked. “Everywhere was solitude, desolation and misery; fields are deserted, houses
ruined and empty except in the walled towns; everywhere you see the fatal footprints of the English
and the hateful scars still bleeding from their swords.”
The peasants’ lives were the bleakest in the feudal hierarchy. The general term for “peasant” was
villein, which derives from the Latin villa, or country house. A villein was neither a slave nor entirely
free. He belonged to the estate of his lord and was under obligation to pay rent or work services for
use of the land; he, in turn, enjoyed the right of protection and justice. A serf was the lowest kind of
villein and was in personal bondage to his lord. He belonged by birth to the estate and was forbidden,
under a rule called “formarriage,” from marrying outside his lord’s domain. If he died childless, his
house, tools, and any possessions were returned to the lord under a right called “morte-main.” Under
morte-main, a serf’s tools had only been lent to him for his labor in life. He owned no personal prop-
erty; everything that he had belonged to his lord.
Although a villein’s main duty in life was agricultural, he was also obligated to perform other
duties required on the estate, including repairing roads, bridges, and moats; supplying firewood; taking
care of stables and kennels; and performing blacksmithing, laundering, spinning, weaving, and other
crafts for the castle.
In the French tale Merlin Merlot, a peasant father laments his fate, “Alas, what will become of
me who never has a single day’s rest? I do not think I shall ever know repose or ease…. Hard is the
hour when a villein is born, suffering is born with him.” He further describes how his children go hun-
gry, holding out their hands to him for food; his wife assails him as a poor provider, and then he says,
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“And I, unhappy one, I am like a rooster soaked in the rain, head hanging and bedraggled, or like a
beaten dog.”
Not all peasants were poor, however, and the lot that the poor husband above endured was not
always the peasants’ fate. Gradually some peasants grew in wealth and status. Some might own up to
sixty acres of land, plow horses, and sheep, pigs, cattle, stores of wool, hides, wheat, oats, and corn.
An affluent peasant might also own a boat in which to fish, a vineyard, a woodpile, and have his home
supplied with vessels of copper, glass, and silver. A case is recorded of one peasant who employed a
dozen field hands and gave his daughter a dowry of 50 gold florins (coins) and a fur-trimmed cape and
fur bedcover.
Such wealth was the exception, however, rather than the rule among the Third Estate, but as more
peasants became wealthier, they moved into the towns and began careers in trade.
Ironically, just as the rise of towns had caused feudal life to thrive, it became its downfall as well.
Powered by the rise of the middle class and the development of trade, the new commercial way of life
looked beyond the simple, closed world of the castle and its surrounding village.

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Activity Medieval Times
Life Is Feudal Chapter 3

LIFE IS FEUDAL
Fill in the diagram below. Tell what groups made up each estate and describe their duties.

First Estate:

Second Estate:

Third Estate:

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El Cid: Chapter 3

CHAPTER 3: THE SIEGE OF ALCOCER

hen the Cid told me the story of his lost steed, I could tell by the sorrow in his voice that he

W still felt her loss, but this first taste of grief was small compared to what came later. We were
soon to meet, in the battle over Alcocer. Who could have then believed that such bitter ene-
mies would grow to become great friends?

Rodrigo was happy that Prince Sancho had made him his squire and was honored by the prince’s
trust, but a melancholy had settled on his heart after Hermana’s death that lasted for months. Prince
Sancho suspected his brother was somehow responsible for the accident, but he had no proof. During
the confusion after the horse was downed, Prince Alfonso had removed the Moorish pin from the post,
and he had decided that he had best treat Rodrigo with circumspection until his brother’s suspicions
abated.
One day, as Rodrigo was training with the mandoble, the heavy two-handed sword used in hand-
to-hand combat, a messenger rode up in great haste, a cloud of dust following in his wake. He had just
come from Prince Sancho. The prince had often been away of late, attending to matters of state at the
palace.
The messenger dismounted, strode quickly to Rodrigo and bowed. “The prince bade me summon
you to the palace at once. The city of Alcocer has refused to pay the tribute owed to us, and you are to
accompany the prince and a small army to demand said tribute.”
Rodrigo set aside his weapon and followed the messenger eagerly to the palace. This trip would
be a welcome diversion, and it was an excellent opportunity for him to see his
first combat.
When he entered the prince’s quarters at the palace, the room was already
in the disarray of packing. “Ah, Rodrigo,” said the prince, “I have been waiting
for you. You are to go at once and get my armor ready for battle. Even though
we are only going to claim the tribute that is owed to us, I think that we may see
battle at last, and you will finally be able to perform the real duties of a squire.”
Rodrigo smiled and bowed to the prince; then he went quickly to the
armory to prepare Prince Sancho’s armor. It was a difficult task, as the armor
quickly accumulated rust in the dampness of the castle. Rodrigo took down
Prince Sancho’s chain mail from the hook where it hung and put it in a barrel
full of sand, which he had to roll over and over until the rust had been removed. Next, he polished the
prince’s swords, two each of the mandoble, and the smaller espada. An alabarda, or battleaxe, lance,
and bola were also necessary weapons for a knight of Prince Sancho’s status. Rodrigo was exhausted
when he bedded down for the night at the foot of Prince Sancho’s bed, but he was too excited to sleep.
When dawn finally came, Rodrigo had just fallen into an uneasy doze, but he rose quickly to pre-
pare the prince for the long day’s journey. After he helped the prince dress in his traveling clothes, he
went to the stable to prepare the horses. As he approached, he saw Gimena pacing outside.
“Rodrigo,” she called. “Where have you been? I’ve been waiting ages.”
“Then you must have been waiting all night,” he laughed. “The sun has not yet risen over the
mountains.”
“I know, but I have something very serious to discuss with you. Will you walk with me for just a
moment?”
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“I cannot refuse a lady’s request, especially one so serious,” he said with a tender smile. Gimena
took Rodrigo’s arm and walked with him some way from the stables. “Now, Doña Gimena, what is it?”
Gimena bowed her head and blushed a furious crimson. “I don’t know how to ask this, except to
just ask. I know that you are not yet a knight, but during the journey on which you are bound, you
may have to fight like one. It would not be right for you to go into battle without carrying a lady’s col-
ors for luck.” Gimena then put into Rodrigo’s hands a brilliant red handkerchief embroidered with a
lion and castle. “My color is red, just like that of Castile, and I have embroidered upon it the emblems
of our land.”
Then it was Rodrigo’s turn to blush. “Thank you, Gimena. This is indeed beautiful, as is the
hand that made it, and I know, should we see battle, it will bring me luck.”
“Rodrigo, where the devil are you?” came Prince Sancho’s angry voice. “This is no time to
waste with girls; you are on a commission from your king. Now get moving.”
“Yes, my lord,” replied Rodrigo, as he gave Gimena a parting smile.
When Rodrigo followed Sancho into the stable, he was surprised to see that the Princess Uracca
and Prince Alfonso were also there, as well as a young squire dressed in the green colors of Leon
whom he did not know. Rodrigo helped Prince Sancho to mount, and then a groom brought forth a
beautiful Andalusian mare. For a moment, Rodrigo’s heart stood still, as the horse was a twin for his
beautiful Hermana.
“Well, mount up,” smiled Prince Sancho. “I cannot have my squire ride just any horse. Babieca
is yours, Rodrigo, and well earned too.”
Rodrigo was stunned. “But how did you find one so like her?” The prince knew what Rodrigo
meant without further explanation. “Babieca is her sister and the superior horse in speed and agility.
That is why your horse was named Hermana, the sister of this one. I sold her to this gentleman,
Vellido Dolphus of Leon,” he said, indicating the green-clad visitor, “but he agreed to sell her back
and, as a reward, we have made him a squire to Prince Alfonso.”
Prince Alfonso smiled weakly from the shadows. He was not sure he liked the looks of his
swarthy new squire, but he knew better than to complain. After the death of
Hermana, word had reached King Ferdinand about the trouble, and he called
both princes to him to explain what had happened. Although Alfonso’s guilt
was never revealed, the king decided that Prince Sancho had been too hard on
his brother, and he decided that it was beneath Alfonso’s dignity to go
through the training of a squire. And so, Alfonso was knighted and granted
permission to have his own squire, but it was Sancho who made the choice,
and he was careful that the new squire would not be to his brother’s liking.
What he did not know was what evil consequences his choice would lead to
for himself.
“And that is not all, Rodrigo,” said the Princess Uracca. “As my broth-
er’s squire, you must wear his colors.” Then she extended a tunic made of fine red wool.
“It is so beautiful your highness that I dare not wear it in the dust of the road. I will save it until
we are presented at the court of Alcocer. No Moorish prince could have a tunic finer than this, and it
will be a perfect match with Gimena’s token.” He then tucked Gimena’s red handkerchief beneath his
jerkin next to his heart and mounted the horse. No one saw Uracca’s cold eyes fall upon Gimena at that
moment; all eyes were trained on Rodrigo, as he stroked the neck of his new horse.

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“Babieca. I like the sound of that name, and whenever I

say it, I will always remember my beautiful Hermana. I cannot
say all that is in my heart, my liege,” he said softly to Prince
Sancho. “She is all that I have longed for these many months.”
“I know, Rodrigo. I know,” said the prince gently, and then
he raised his voice in a shout. “Now let us ride to Alcocer.”
Prince Sancho led the procession, followed closely by
Rodrigo. Prince Alfonso and his new squire were next, and a
company of two hundred men made up the rear. Gimena and
Uracca waved at the company as they departed and wished them
well, but Uracca felt the bitter pangs of jealousy as Rodrigo
turned to wave with the red handkerchief Gimena had given him,
then touched it to his lips as he bade her good-bye.
The trip to Alcocer was long and dusty but uneventful.
Rodrigo, who had never been far from Burgos before,
enjoyed the beauty of the Spanish countryside. As he
entered the Moorish domains, he felt that he had entered
another world. There were lush gardens everywhere, and
the design of the buildings was far more elegant than any-
thing he had ever seen before, even at the palace of King
Ferdinand.
The city of Alcocer was splendid to behold, but noth-
ing compared to the palace of the caliph. The walls were
hung with jewel-colored silks, and there were vast halls of
colored marble. The floors were patterned in mosaic tiles,
and the arched passageways were crowned with intricate carving.
All of Prince Sancho’s men were dressed in their best attire. Rodrigo had donned the scarlet tunic
the princess had made for him, and, as always, carried Gimena’s token next to his heart. The prince’s
party entered the caliph’s throne room and bowed before him. The caliph was a most impressive man,
with a golden turban and elegantly patterned robe.
“You are welcome to our kingdom,” smiled the caliph, as he signaled Prince Sancho to rise. The
caliph’s words were kind, but their meaning was not, and it was clear that he was far from pleased to
see the prince. “Will you take some refreshment in the garden?”
“No, thank you, my lord,” said Prince Sancho. “I have come on a commission from my father.
Apparently, whatever plans you made to pay this year’s tribute have gone awry, for the 600 zair that is
owed to King Ferdinand never reached him in Castile. For this reason, my lord, I have come in person
to rectify the situation.”
“There is nothing to rectify,” answered the caliph angrily. “As you know, we send you the tribute
each year to solicit your protection in case our enemies attack. This year we have made other arrange-
ments.”
Prince Sancho was stung by the caliph’s answer, but he was determined to know where the tribute
had been sent. “What other arrangements have you made, my Lord, and why did you not take the trou-
ble to inform my father of your new plans?”
“I do not answer to you or your father, boy,” said the caliph, “but if you must know, I have
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formed a new alliance with al-Muqtadir, the caliph of

Zaragoza. Now, if you will excuse me, I have other mat-
ters to attend to.”
“You had no right to cancel the tribute payment with-
out informing my father, and I assure you he will not be
pleased with this new alliance nor with the rudeness with
which you have treated his emissary. You will be called to
answer for this.”
With that, Prince Sancho turned and strode swiftly
down the throne room. At the caliph’s signal, the guards at
the door crossed their spears, barring the prince’s exit.
“You will do well to remember that you are in my
kingdom now and not your father’s. A Christian king has
told us what to do long enough; our alliance is over. If
your father thinks that he can take on both the powers of
Alcocer and Zaragoza, then he is welcome to try. We
Moors have never shrunk from battle.”
The caliph then signaled that the palace doors should be opened, and the prince stepped forward,
followed closely by Rodrigo, who kept his hand on his sword and a careful watch on the guards.
Just as the prince passed through the doors, he whirled suddenly and replied. “Zaragoza is also
under tribute to Castile, and if neither of you will honor the agreements you have made, then we will
be happy to remind you on the field of battle.” The prince’s scarlet cape swept like a tornado behind
him as he left the palace.
Later that night, as the prince and his men rested in their camp, Prince Sancho called Rodrigo to
his tent. “Rodrigo, you must ride as fast as you can back to Burgos and summon an army. If we let
Alcocer and Zaragoza default on their tributes, then the rest of the taifa states will follow suit. That
would mean all the Moors in Spain would feel free to rebel. My father fought many battles to reach
this state of peace; we must not fail him now. You have the swiftest horse; you must ride to Burgos
and request that my father send an army. We must find a way to force the caliph to pay the tribute he
owes.”
As Rodrigo saddled Babieca, Prince Alfonso came up beside him. “Let me go with you, Rodrigo.
If my brother’s duty is to stay here, then surely, as a prince of Castile, I should be the one who takes
the news of this betrayal to my father.”
Prince Sancho, who had overheard Alfonso’s request, asked, “Are you really willing to make this
journey, Alfonso, or are you simply trying to escape back to Burgos now that you know a battle is
coming?”
“It is my right as prince to be the bearer of this news.”
“You have no rights as prince until you earn them, and there is no better place for you to learn the
duties of a prince than in battle. Besides, I know your oily tongue. You would persuade our father that
you are too young to fight, and somehow he would believe you, even though you are now seventeen,
and should be ready to prove yourself at arms. I am in command of this mission, and I say that it is
Rodrigo who will go.”
What Sancho did not see was Vellido Dolphus step silently from the shadows and whisper words
of comfort in Prince Alfonso’s ear.
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Rodrigo set off at once on the hundred-mile

journey back to Burgos. He knew that every moment
of delay meant that Prince Sancho and his men were
in great jeopardy, but Babieca was the fastest horse he
had ever ridden. She flew like the desert wind across
the empty miles. And when she rested, she recovered
her strength quickly.
In three days’ time, Rodrigo was back at the
Castilian court. King Ferdinand quickly raised an
army of two thousand men and sent Count Garcia
Ordonez to lead them. The count had seen many bat-
tles and was a veteran campaigner against the Moors. Rodrigo’s only regret was that he did not have
time to see Gimena or the princess, he was in such haste to leave.
When Rodrigo and the king’s army reached Alcocer, they found Prince Sancho and his men
encamped upon a great rounded hilltop, a strategic position from which the movements of the enemy
could be readily observed. During the week Rodrigo had been gone, a Moorish contingent from
Zaragoza had arrived to reinforce the army of Alcocer. I was the leader of this group. My father had
sent me to honor the new alliance between our two countries.
When Count Ordonez ordered his men to make camp, they took firm possession of the slopes,
placing part of their camp toward the mountainside and part by the river. The count ordered his men to
make a trench around the hill quite close to the riverbank to prevent attack by day or night and to let
the Moors know that he meant to settle down there.
The news spread through the countryside that King Ferdinand’s army had established camp
among the Moors, and they did not dare to cultivate their fields with the soldiers so near at hand. The
count sent new emissaries to the caliph to demand the tribute he owed, but he would not yield.
Each day, I would climb the tower steps to watch
Rodrigo and the soldiers of the camp as they spent their
days training. They practiced riding and jousting and
ran drills to sharpen their reflexes and hone their skills.
Rodrigo became good friends with Fernando Ordonez’s
squire, Alberto, and a friendly competition grew up
between them, each trying to best the other in drills of
skill. Prince Sancho and Fernando would often practice
with the other soldiers, and Sancho would force Prince
Alfonso to practice whenever he could. Rodrigo under-
stood Alfonso’s physical weakness, and it did not lessen
the loyalty he felt for the prince, but the new squire,
Vellido, Rodrigo did not like at all. Vellido’s nose was
long and his slanted eyes ferretlike though he could appear handsome when it pleased him to do so. It
was not his appearance that troubled Rodrigo, however, but the fact that he was two-faced; the humble
pleasing face he chose to wear in company was not the secret face that he showed to Prince Alfonso
when he thought no other eyes could observe them; then his green eyes glittered with malice. Rodrigo
resolved to keep a close eye on him to protect the prince.

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As the days passed, the Moors of Calatayud region felt their hearts sink. The count and his men
lay encamped there for fifteen weeks, and when it became clear that the caliph would not yield, he
decided something must be done, so he called the leaders to him for a council of war.
Prince Sancho was accompanied by Rodrigo, and beside Prince Alfonso came his squire, Vellido.
Count Ordonez’s son, Fernando, and his young squire, Alberto, both dressed in blue tunics that dis-
played the arms of Leon, were also in attendance, as was the count’s most loyal supporter, Alvar Fanez.
As the men sat in the count’s tent, it began to rain, and drops of water trickled down the tent pole and
sputtered in the fire.
“We have to find a way to command the Moorish tribute
before winter sets in,” said the count. “For fifteen long weeks
we have camped here waiting upon their leisure; it is time we
took some action!”
Prince Sancho responded. “We can attack the city, but
hundreds of men would be lost before we could even get
inside, and we need all the men we have to fight the strength
of their numbers.”
“True, young prince, their soldiers outnumber ours by at
least two to one.”
“Father,” said Fernando, “if we cannot attack the city,
then it seems the only reasonable course would be to draw
them out of the city.”
The count and Alvar Fanez laughed together. “That
sounds simple, my son, but what would make the Moors leave
their stronghold, where they have all the advantage, and fight
us on the plain, where they have none.”
“My Lord, if I might have permission to speak,” said
Alberto, Fernando’s young squire. “To lure a horse out of the
barn, you must have in your pocket something he wants.”
Rodrigo’s face suddenly lit up with understanding, and
he smiled at Alberto. “Alberto is right, my lord. The way to lure the Moors out of their city is to
entice them with the thing they want most, and certainly, after fifteen weeks, the Moors want nothing
more than to see our army head back to Castile.”
“Prince Sancho, why would you allow these boys to speak in a council of this importance? I will
not listen to these whelps; curs that do not know their place in the house must remain outside. Now
get out,” the count shouted angrily.
Rodrigo and Alberto rose to go, but Price Sancho motioned them to sit. “They may be young,
Count Ordonez, but their plan has merit. Suppose we were to strike camp and ride down the river.
What do you imagine the Moors would do?”
The count was angry that the prince had dared to contradict his order, but he saw the wisdom of
the strategy. “They would follow us and try to conquer us as we retreated.”
“Exactly,” said Prince Alfonso. “They would conquer us when our backs were turned. That is
not the way I would care to die.”
“Is there any way you would choose to die that would not be the way of a coward?” asked Prince
Sancho in a low, dangerous hiss.
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Stellar Reading Medieval Times
El Cid: Chapter 3

Vellido stepped between the brothers and bowed low to Count Ordonez. “My Lord, I do not wish
to anger you, but there is a way to ensure our success. May I have your permission to speak?”
“Now this squire has some manners,” said the count. “You may speak.”
Vellido’s green eyes glittered slyly in the firelight, reflecting the color of his tunic. “Suppose we
were to leave behind this large tent on the top of the hill, as though it were too much work to take it
with us. Then we packed all the rest of our supplies and sounded the retreat.”
“Well, what advantage would that be?”
“My lord, inside the tent, we could hide perhaps a hundred men, all well-armed and mounted on
horseback. When the Moors came out of the city in pursuit of our army, the hundred men could go
back to the city gates and bar them. Then, when our army turned to face the Moors, and they tried to
return to the city, they would discover our trap, but too late. Their retreat would be cut off.”
“We would fight them on the plain, and we would win!” exclaimed Prince Sancho.
Alvar Fanez clapped the prince on the back. “You have your father’s instincts to recognize a
good plan, young prince. You will no doubt prove yourself to be a great warrior as well.”
And so it was decided by the council that the plan would be set in motion the following day.
Before the sun rose over the mountains, the camp had been packed and all the soldiers were pre-
pared to leave at dawn’s first light. All, that is, except the one hundred men stationed in the tent left on
the hill.
The Moorish guards stationed in the watchtowers of the city gates sounded the news that the
Christians had packed up their camp and were preparing to depart. When the caliph heard this news,
he summoned his army and prepared to follow in pursuit. My men and I were the first to answer his
call.
Count Ordonez led the retreat at the head of the Castilian army, but Prince Sancho and Rodrigo,
Prince Alfonso and Vellido, and Fernando and Alberto were
all granted the privilege of staying behind in the tent.
As the Castilian army rode down the Jalon River with
their banner flying and the men in their coats of mail with
swords at their belt, their trick worked. The men of Alcocer
watched them go and were delighted. They thought the
army had grown short of bread and fodder and been forced
to take up their tents and depart. They celebrated as they
saw them flee in defeat.
The caliph and all his advisors shouted their joy. “Let
us sally out to the attack and take great booty from them,”
said one. “We shall make the Castilian dogs pay back dou-
ble the tribute they have collected from us over the years.”
Then we all came flooding out of the city gates in great
haste.
When Count Ordonez saw us come out, he made off
quickly as if in flight. Down the river Jalon he went, with
all his men around him.
The Moors of Alcocer shouted, “Our prey is escap-
ing!” Great and small, out our army came, thinking of noth-
ing but the booty we would get, leaving the gates of the city open and unguarded.
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El Cid: Chapter 3

When the count saw the open gates and saw that there was a good
distance between the Moors and their fortress, he ordered his standard
bearer to turn back, and his knights spurred their horses to full speed.
“Strike them, my good knights,” he cried. “All of you, fearlessly! With
the help of God, the victory is ours.”
The count ordered the signal to be sounded. When the knights hid-
den in the tent heard it, they rode forth from their hiding place with the
sound of thunder, straight for the city gates. Then they turned to face the
Moors who were attempting to flee back to the city.
What great joy the soldiers of Castile felt that morning, for they had good swift horses that car-
ried them as swiftly as they could wish. They cut right into our Moorish troops, trapping us on the
plain before our fortress. The count’s vassals dealt pitiless blows, and in a short time they had killed
three hundred Moors. While the Moors in the trap uttered loud cries, those who had disengaged had
reached the fortress and were trying to fight their way back inside; I was among them. But Prince
Sancho and his men waited at the gate with drawn swords. The battle before the gates was fierce, and
as Rodrigo felt his heart pump and the sweat dry on his hands, a sudden calmness descended on him,
and he was able to face his foe with a clear mind and determined heart.
That is where I first met El Cid. For fifteen long weeks I had been trapped in the city, longing to
do battle. When I saw the trap sprung, I led my army back to the gates and attacked the Castilian
knights there. Rodrigo was young, I could tell, probably not more that fourteen years, but he fought
like a man. As our swords clashed, sparks flew from the blades. For what seemed like an eternity, we
battled, neither one of us giving ground. Then a knight clad in a tunic of green shouted Rodrigo’s
name. As he did, my sword blade struck Rodrigo, slashing diagonally across the bridge of his nose,
and he lost consciousness, collapsing over his saddle, but somehow he remained seated. His horse, a
remarkable Andalusian beauty, seemed to sense that her rider was in trouble and gently carried him off
the field. I should have pursued them, killing the rider and taking his horse, which I longed to possess
with all my heart, but something stayed my hand. And fortune smiled on me in that moment. The stars
had determined a different end for both Rodrigo and me.
When my battle with Rodrigo was finished, I turned back
to the fortress, but by then the battle on the field was nearly
done, and those Castilians, victorious in the fight, came to rein-
force those at the gate. I saw Prince Sancho plant the standard
of Castile, signaling that he had captured the stronghold. Then
I saw a strange sight. Prince Sancho was hit with a spear, but it
was not one of Moorish design; it was Castilian. I could not
dwell on this puzzle, however. There was only one prudent
course for me to take—I rallied my men, and we retreated back
to Zaragoza for reinforcements.
The battle of Alcocer was over, but Rodrigo and I would
live to fight another day.

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Stellar Reading Medieval Times
Reading Comprehension El Cid: Chapter 3

Read the following questions and circle the letter of the answer that best completes it.

1. Rodrigo feels melancholy for months

a. when he learns that Prince Alfonso sabotaged the quintain practice.
b. when he finds out Gimena does not love him.
c. when he realizes Uracca loves him.
d. as he grieves for his lost horse, Hermana.

2. The news that the messenger brings to Rodrigo is that

a. Prince Sancho has decided to make Rodrigo his page.
b. Rodrigo must accompany Prince Sancho to Alcocer and may see his first battle there.
c. Prince Sancho is angry with Rodrigo because he found his armor rusty.
d. all the knights of Castile are going to war with Alcocer because the caliph refused to pay
King Ferdinand tribute.

3. When Rodrigo arrives at the stable, Gimena is waiting for him because
a. she wants to come with him to Alcocer.
b. she wants to persuade Rodrigo not to go to Alcocer, where he will face great danger.
c. she wants to give him her personal token to carry into battle to bring him luck.
d. she wants to tell Rodrigo how much she loves him.

4. Rodrigo is surprised by the horse that Prince Sancho gives him because
a. Rodrigo would have preferred a stallion.
b. the new horse looks just like his dead horse, Hermana.
c. the new horse looks old and tired.
d. Rodrigo is amazed that Prince Alfonso could be so generous.

5. Even though Prince Alfonso’s guilt in Hermana’s death is never proven, Prince Sancho manages
to punish him by
a. finding a squire for Prince Alfonso that Prince Sancho is sure he will not like.
b. sending Alfonso to the king for punishment.
c. requiring Prince Alfonso to become a squire.
d. refusing to allow Alfonso to accompany him to Alcocer.

6. Princess Uracca
a. is pleased when Rodrigo expresses his thanks for the tunic she has made for him.
b. is very jealous of Rodrigo’s feelings for Gimena.
c. is angry that Rodrigo keeps Gimena’s token next to his heart.
d. all of the above

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Stellar Reading Medieval Times
Reading Comprehension El Cid: Chapter 3

7. When Rodrigo visits the caliph at Alcocer, he is impressed by all of the following except
a. the vast halls with beautiful furnishings.
b. the elegant attire of the caliph.
c. the caliph’s courtesy to Prince Sancho.
d. the caliph’s sumptuous palace.

8. The caliph has not paid the yearly tribute to King Ferdinand because
a. he has formed a new alliance with the caliph of Zaragoza.
b. his kingdom is poor, and he does not have the money.
c. he refuses to ever pay tribute to a Christian country.
d. he has formed a new alliance with Aragon.

9. The main reason Prince Sancho refuses to allow Prince Alfonso to take the message back to
Burgos is because
a. Rodrigo has the fastest horse.
b. Sancho thinks Alfonso wants to return to Burgos to escape battle.
c. Sancho hopes Alfonso will be killed in battle if he stays.
d. Sancho does not want to be left with Alfonso’s squire, Vellido.

10. The reason the tribute from Alcocer is so important to King Ferdinand is
a. if Alcocer doesn’t pay, the other taifa states will follow suit, and Castile will be at war with
them again.
b. Castile is a poor country and needs the money.
c. he does not like to be bullied, especially by Moors.
d. if Alcocer doesn’t pay, then Aragon will follow suit, and Castile will be at war with them
again.

11. When Count Ordonez arrives at Alcocer with his army, he probably camps on a hill for all of the
following reasons except
a. a hill gives them a strategic advantage in case they are attacked.
b. they can observe the city of Alcocer better from a height.
c. they can dig a trench around the hill to keep it safe from attack.
d. there is a better source of food on a hilltop than down below.

12. Al-Mutamin climbs the watchtower each day to watch the Castilian army
a. march toward the town.
b. dig trenches.
c. drill and practice their skills.
d. plan for battle.

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Stellar Reading Medieval Times
Reading Comprehension El Cid: Chapter 3

13. During the war council, the plan to trick the Moors is presented by
a. Prince Alfonso.
b. Prince Sancho.
c. Vellido Dolphus.
d. Rodrigo.

14. The Castilians are victorious during the battle because

a. they are better fighters than the Moors.
b. they are braver than the Moors.
c. they have better weapons than the Moors.
d. they trick the Moors into riding out after their retreating army.

15. Al-Mutamin first meets Rodrigo

a. as they fight each other before the gates of Alcocer.
b. in the war council the night before the battle.
c. in training exercises.
d. in the palace of the caliph.

16. The spear that strikes Prince Sancho is most probably thrown by
a. Rodrigo.
b. al-Mutamin.
c. Vellido Dolphus.
d. Prince Alfonso.

3.3
Vocabulary Medieval Times
El Cid: Chapter 3

Read the following sentences and see if you can figure out the meaning of the underlined vocabulary
words from the context. The sentences are listed in the order they appear in the story, so if you want
more context clues, you can look them up. Also, name the part of speech of each vocabulary word as it
is used in the sentence. When you finish, check your answers in the dictionary, and then write your
own sentence using the vocabulary word.

1. Rodrigo was happy that Prince Sancho had made him his squire and was honored by the prince’s
trust, but a melancholy had settled on his heart after Hermana’s death that lasted for months.
a. contentment b. sadness c. hopefulness d. suspicion
part of speech:
sentence:

2. During the confusion after the horse was downed, Prince Alfonso had removed the Moorish pin
from the post, and he had decided that he had best treat Rodrigo with circumspection until his
brother’s suspicions abated.
a. trust b. kindness c. caution d. cruelty
part of speech:
sentence:

3. One day, as Rodrigo was training with the mandoble, the heavy two-handed sword used in hand-
to-hand combat, a messenger rode up in great haste, a cloud of dust following in his wake.
a. track b. vigil c. rousing d. pursuit
part of speech:
sentence:

4. Rodrigo set aside his weapon and followed the messenger eagerly to the palace. This trip would
be a welcome diversion, and it was an excellent opportunity for him to see his first combat.
a. motivation b. change c. routine d. disaster
part of speech:
sentence:

5. When he entered the prince’s quarters at the palace, the room was already in the disarray of packing.
a. order b. alarm c. mess d. dazzling display
part of speech:
sentence:

6. Gimena then put into Rodrigo’s hands a brilliant red handkerchief embroidered with a lion and
castle. “My color is red, just like that of Castile, and I have embroidered upon it the emblems of
our land.”
a. trinkets b. primary exports c. colors d. symbols
part of speech:
sentence:

3.4
Vocabulary Medieval Times
El Cid: Chapter 3

7. Prince Alfonso smiled weakly from the shadows. He was not sure he liked the looks of his
swarthy new squire, but he knew better than to complain.
a. pasty b. dark-complected c. chivalrous d. handsome
part of speech:
sentence:

8. Although Alfonso’s guilt was never revealed, the king decided that Prince Sancho had been too
hard on his brother, and he decided that it was beneath Alfonso’s dignity to go through the train-
ing of a squire. And so, Alfonso was knighted and granted permission to have his own squire…
a. humility b. formality c. noble rank d. elegance
part of speech:
sentence:

9. “No Moorish prince could have a tunic finer than this, and it will be a perfect match with
Gimena’s token.” He then tucked Gimena’s red handkerchief beneath his jerkin next to his heart
and mounted the horse.
a. accessory b. scarf c. mark of shame d. keepsake
part of speech:
sentence:

10. Prince Sancho led the procession, followed closely by Rodrigo. Prince Alfonso and his new
squire were next, and a company of two hundred men made up the rear.
a. parade b. mob c. melee d. show
part of speech:
sentence:

11. Gimena and Uracca waved at the company as they departed and wished them well, but Uracca
felt the bitter pangs of jealousy as Rodrigo turned to wave with the red handkerchief Gimena had
given him, then touched it to his lips as he bade her good-bye.
a. dark thoughts b. sharp pains c. visions d. elusiveness
part of speech:
sentence:

12. “Apparently, whatever plans you made to pay this year’s tribute have gone awry, for the six hun-
dred zair that is owed to King Ferdinand never reached him in Castile.”
a. wrong b. right c. missing d. away
part of speech:
sentence:

13. “As you know, we send you the tribute each year to solicit your protection in case our enemies
attack. This year we have made other arrangements.”
a. sell b. solidify c. confiscate d. seek
part of speech:
sentence:
3.5
Vocabulary Medieval Times
El Cid: Chapter 3

14. “I do not answer to you or your father, boy,” said the caliph, “but if you must know, I have
formed a new alliance with al-Muqtadir, the caliph of Zaragoza.”
a. army b. empire c. association d. kingdom
part of speech:
sentence:

15. “You had no right to cancel the tribute payment without informing my father, and I assure you he
will not be pleased with this new alliance nor with the rudeness with which you have treated his
emissary.”
a. son b. representative c. congressman d. lackey
part of speech:
sentence:

16. “If we let Alcocer and Zaragoza default on their tributes, then the rest of the taifa states will
follow suit.”
a. fail to pay b. reduce payment c. increase payment d. argue
part of speech:
sentence:

17. When Rodrigo and the king’s army reached Alcocer, they found Prince Sancho and his men
encamped upon a great rounded hilltop, a strategic position from which the movements of the
enemy could be readily observed.
a. lethal b. obscure c. indefensible d. tactical
part of speech:
sentence:

18. The caliph and all his advisors shouted their joy. “Let us sally out to the attack and take great
booty from them,” said one.
a. armor b. plunder c. refuse d. weapons
part of speech:
sentence:

19. I could not dwell on this puzzle, however. There was only one prudent course for me to take—I
rallied my men, and we retreated back to Zaragoza for reinforcements.
a. wisely cautious b. overly cautious c. straight d. quick
part of speech:
sentence:

20. I could not dwell on this puzzle, however. There was only one prudent course for me to take—I
rallied my men, and we retreated back to Zaragoza for reinforcements.
a. deserted b. committed c. gathered d. omitted
part of speech:
sentence:

3.6
Stellar Reading Medieval Times
Discussion Questions El Cid: Chapter 3

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS FOR CHAPTER 3

1. Why do you think Rodrigo tells al-Mutamin about Hermana’s death? Why do you think Rodrigo
never forgets her? Why isn’t Alfonso publicly punished for causing the horse’s death? How does
Prince Sancho find a private way to punish him? Why does Prince Sancho suspect Alfonso of
sabotage, whereas Rodrigo does not?

2. How is Prince Sancho partly to blame for Hermana’s death? Who do you think is more responsi-
ble, Sancho or Alfonso?

3. Why are Rodrigo and Prince Sancho looking forward to going to Alcocer? Why doesn’t Prince
Alfonso want to go? Of the three, who do you think will become the best leader of other men?

4. Why does Gimena make the red handkerchief for Rodrigo? Why does he keep it next to his
heart? What is symbolic about the gift?

5. Why does Uracca make Rodrigo a tunic? Which do you think he treasures more, Uracca’s tunic
or Gimena’s handkerchief? Which one does Uracca think he should treasure more? Why? How
does Uracca feel about Gimena? Why? What problems might this cause for Gimena in the
future?

6. How does Rodrigo feel when he is given Babieca? Why do you think Prince Sancho goes to so
much trouble to replace Hermana? How do you think the gift makes Prince Alfonso feel?

7. Why did the caliph of Alcocer agree to pay tribute to King Ferdinand? Why does he suddenly
refuse to pay it? What trouble could this cause for the king if he does not take steps to punish the
caliph?

8. Why does Prince Alfonso want to go back to Burgos for reinforcements? Why won’t Prince
Sancho let him? Who do you think is a better choice to send, Rodrigo or Alfonso?

9. What is difficult for the Castilians during the siege? How do they pass the time? How do you
think the siege is difficult for the people of Alcocer? Why do they refuse to fight the Castilians?

10. What trick do the Castilians think of to end the siege? Whose idea is it? What does this reveal
about his character? Why do the people of Alcocer fall for it?

11. When do al-Mutamin and Rodrigo first encounter each other? What is al-Mutamin’s opinion of
Rodrigo? How does this foreshadow their friendship? What mysterious event does al-Mutamin
observe at the gates? What do you think is the answer to it?

3.7
Writing Medieval Times
Personal Narrative El Cid: Chapter 3

STORY MOUNTAIN

An interesting story follows the climb up Story Mountain.

As with all good expeditions, careful
AX
planning is needed for success. 7C LIM

8. Falling Action or Resolution: The loose ends are tied up here,

and often this is where the theme, or message, of the story
becomes clear.
7. Climax: This is the highest point of action. This is the most 8 THEME
difficult part of the climb yet. The climax is where someone
will win or lose, and the problem will be solved one way or
the other.
6. Rising Action Continues: The problem gets worse.
5. Rising Action: As the climb continues, the problem
becomes more difficult, and the character has to try
harder to solve it.
4. Beginning Incident: This is where the problem 6
begins, and your character starts his or her climb at
the base of the mountain.

3. A Conflict or Problem that will build the action

2. Character Description
1. Setting Description
This is where you prepare for the climb.

START HERE
5

BASE CAMP 4

3.8
Writing Medieval Times
Personal Narrative El Cid: Chapter 3

WRITING A NARRATIVE
A personal story is just like a fictional one except the events you write about really happened, and you
are the main character. To plan your narrative, you need all the same elements that make a good fic-
tional story: Base Camp supplies—setting and character description and a problem or conflict that will
help you build the action to a climax. The resolution should tell why this experience was important to
you and what you learned from it.

Writing Situation: When Rodrigo loses Hermana, he is brokenhearted. Al-Mutamin tells of how
Rodrigo talked of his horse’s death years afterward and still felt the sorrow of her loss.

Directions for Writing: Think of a time in your life when you lost someone or something very impor-
tant to you. Write a personal narrative recounting your experience and explaining what it taught you.

Plan your ideas here before you write.

Paragraph IV
7. Describe how you
lost the person or
item. Paragraph V
8. Analyze how the loss
made you feel, and
explain what the experi-
ence taught you.

Paragraph III
6. Explain whether you had any warning that you might
experience the loss or if it came as a complete sur-
prise.
5. Explain how the person or item became more impor-
tant to you as time went on.

Paragraph II
4. Describe when you first met the person or received the item
Paragraph I that was important to you.
3. conflict
2. character descriptions
1. setting description

START HERE
3.9
Activity Medieval Times
How Illuminating! El Cid: Chapter 3

HOW ILLUMINATING!
oday if you want to read a good book, it’s easy!

T All you have to do is go to a bookstore or a

library or borrow one from a friend. Everyone
has books. But this was not so in medieval times. Until
the printing press was invented in 1452, all books had to
be made by hand. In fact, the word manuscript comes
from the Latin words manus meaning hand and scriptus
meaning to write.
Books of medieval times looked very different from
the books we read today. No knight would have dreamed
of reading a book while eating breakfast, as modern read-
ers often do. That is because books were works of art
called “illuminated manuscripts,” and they were as rare as
jewels and as precious as gold. In fact, some of the books
actually were made with jewels and gold. Gold leaf was
used to illuminate, or light up, its pages, and some colors
were made from jewels ground up to give the paint a bril-
liant pigment. Illuminated manuscripts were books that
were made by monks working long hours in the
monastery’s scriptorium, or writing room.
Some manuscripts took over a year to make because
the process required painstaking attention to detail.
• First the vellum or parchment had to be prepared to write on; parchment is made from the
skins of sheep or cows and vellum, from baby cows.
• After the parchment was prepared, the stationer would trim it into rectangles of equal size.
• The apothecary prepared pigments for paint by grinding the ingredients necessary.
• Once the illuminator had purchased the supplies he needed from the apothecary, he
crushed them into powdered form and then mixed the pigments with egg white to make a
liquid paint that would dry permanently on the page.
• You might think that the illuminator could now begin his work, but he could not. He had
to wait until the scribe did his job. Scribes were copyists who had trained for many years
to develop graceful and precise handwriting. They had to copy the works of the text onto
the vellum or parchment, leaving room for the illuminator to do his work. They did not
actually write the text of a book although some monks are given credit for writing. The
legend of El Cid, for example, is believed by some scholars to have first been written by a
monk. Most medieval manuscripts were written in Latin.
• An illuminator was called so because his job involved lighting the pages with gold. Gold
leaf was made by hammering gold coins into thin sheets, painting the areas to be illumi-
nated with a sticky paste called “gesso,” and then placing the gold leaf on top, where it
would adhere. When the gesso dried, the remaining gold was carefully removed with a
brush or feather. It was then gently rubbed to a shine.

3.10
Activity Medieval Times
How Illuminating! El Cid: Chapter 3

• After the pages were illuminated, the artist painted small pictures, or miniatures, in the
margins and elaborate, intricate designs on the capital letters that began a new section or
paragraph. The miniature paintings gave the book illustrations that helped their barely lit-
erate owners follow the text.

Imagine you are working in the scriptorium in the local monastery. The king of Castile has com-
missioned you to write a history of the city of Burgos. You have been given the job of illuminating the
manuscript letter below. Cut out your letter before you start so it will be easier to work on. You can
actually buy gold leaf and gesso at a craft store if you are so inclined, or you could use paint and gel
pens. It’s your page—go for it.

3.11