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Stress
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Time (seconds)
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Amplitude
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High-frequency loading is seen in a rotating machine tool. Wave loading on an offshore oil platform is low frequency. Fatigue life could be measured in terms of hours or years, respectively with both having a similar cycle count at failure. Early test data showed a distinct relationship among the stress amplitude (S), the cycle count (N) and the expected fatigue life. This led to the early adoption of the SN curve to predict fatigue (see Fig. 2). For a stress amplitude (Si), the number of cycles to failure (Ni) can be calculated. There is a cutoff in the slope at 106 or 107 cycles, described as the endurance limit. This indicates very low stress amplitudes could achieve an infinite fatigue life. Steels exhibit this behavior. In practice, loading, geometrical and environmental modifiers discussed later may prevent this.
environment and loading t)q3e. A "raw" SN curve is a baseline on which to apply further factors to obtain a realistic life assessment. Test specimens are often defined as smooth polished. This standard of finish is unlikely in any manufacturing process, so degradation factors are applied to the SN curve. Cast or forged components will have more degradation than highqualit)r machined parts. Other factors have to be assessed and applied. This is probably one of the biggest uncertainties in fatigue calculation: I t is easy to enter inappropriate data into a friendly graphical user interface (GUI) and overestimate the fatigue life. My recommendation is to seek training or advice, and obtain a good textbook such as "Fundamentals of Metal Fatigue Analysis" (Bannantine, et al. Prentice Hall 1990. ISBN 0-0I3-340191-X). Many manufacturers and certification organizations go further than material specimen tests, which are difficult to match to actual conditions. Component tests allow more specific understanding of factors affecting fatigue life. A full-scale fatigue test may be used on the complete assembly. Finite element analysis plays an important role in helping to correlate stresses (and hence, fatigue) at each level.
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Notch Effects
LogS Peak stress levels can be concentrated at very local features, such as a notch or hole. High cy?cle fatigue can be too conservative using these stresses. The local fatigue mechanism is influenced by? factors ignored at the macro level, including notch size, stress level, stress gradient, etc. The stress concentration factor (Kt) is the ratio of elastic peak local stress to average or nominal stress. Instead of using this, though, a term called the notch factor (Kf) is used. I t tends to blunt the clastic stress result and give a longer life. Calculating Kf is complicated, and relies heavily on empirical methods with extra
>1000
N1000
Ni
LogN
24
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data on notch size, stress gradient and other factors required for estimation. Low cycle fatigue with more extensive local plasticity tends to blunt the effect of a notch even further. A typical correction methodology uses the Neuber relationship to establish an energy balance between the nonlinear stress strain curve of the material and the local plasticit)' in the notch.
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For block loading, each block is dealt with separately. The mean stress correction is made and the number of cycles (N) that can be endured at the stress level (S) is found. The ratio of actual cycles seen in this block, n, compared to the total that can be endured, is n/N. This fraction is called the damage ratio. I f n/N equals 0.5, then half the fatigue life is used up in that single block. The damage ratio from each of the blocks is summed. I f total damage is less than 1.0, there is adequate fatigue life. This accumulation process is called Miner's Law. Miner's Law ignores sequencing effects, so a single large load cycle can occur at the beginning or the end of the loading history. I n practice, early large levels of load often bring beneficial compressive residual stresses, i n creasing the fatigue life. W i t h a more random loading history, a process is required to synthesize equivalent pairs of peaks. One method is rainflow counting. \V& imagine the load history turned on its side and water dripping down the positive and negative faces. The peak that juts out more will capture a rain drop. That peak is tagged and removed from the load histont A second drip identifies the next highest peak, which is tagged and removed. This process continues until all peaks are removed and is done on both faces. Corresponding peaks from each face are paired to give equivalent cycles. A similar process is used for low cycle fatigue, but is
Going Further
This is a just a brief overview of some of the essential points of fatigue analysis using FEA. Fatigue analysis gets more complicated if the loading history is not a simple linear scaling of one applied load. This leads us onto multi-axial fatigue analysis, which is verj' much at the cutting edge of technology?. Other specializations not described here include fatigue of seam welds, spot welds and bolted joints. Special-purpose, FEA-based tools have been developed to deal with these. Finally, to investigate a specific crack and evaluate how it will propagate further or stabilize we turn to a complementary? analy?sis methodology?: fracture mechanics. ^OU. Tony Abbey is a consultant analyst with his own company, FETraining. He also ivorks as training manager for NAFEMS, responsible for developing and hnplementing training classes, including a tvide range of e-learning classes. Send email about this article to DE-Editors@deske7tg.com.
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INFO ^ FETraining: FETralnlng.com NAFEMS: NAFEMS.org/e-learnInq For more information on this topic, visit deskeng.com.
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