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KEITH ARMSTRONG
Cherry Clough Consultants Stafford, United Kingdom
globular shape to m i n i m i z e the energy i n its surface tension. Because currents naturally take the paths that result i n the lowest E M field energies, they a u t o m a t i c a l l y give us the best emissions and i m m u n i t y o f w h i c h o u r design is capable. Rather t h a n f i g h t i n g the laws of physics, what we are f i g h t i n g is o u r o w n lack o f u n d e r s t a n d i n g of h o w the laws o f physics work. Once we understand this we can w o r k w i t h these laws f r o m the s t a r t of our design, to easily and q u i c k l y create cost-effective products that meet their E M C specifications. U n f o r t u n a t e l y , the way that M a x w e l l ' s Equations are taught doesn't show h o w easy it is to derive (without any mathematics!) the easiest, simplest, most profitable way to design products using good E M C engineering techniques [1]. Signal I n t e g r i t y (SI) and Power I n t e g r i t y (PI) are subsets of E M C engineering, so e m p l o y i n g good E M C design techniques f r o m the start o f a new project ensures excellent SI and PI (see [2]). This has the effect o f considerably reduci n g the n u m b e r o f design iterations, generally reducing overall cost o f manufacture, and r e d u c i n g t i m e - t o - m a r k e t . T i m e - t o - m a r k e t has, since 2000, become the most i m p o r t a n t issue for a financially successful electronic product. This is shown by the i n d u s t r y responses to Q u e s t i o n 6 in [3], see Figure 1, and I have seen other reports from s i m i l a r prestigious organizations that show the same for most electronic applications.
1. IIMTRODUCTION
e often design e l e c t r o n i c p r o d ucts o n l y to f i n d t h a t w h e n we test t h e m for e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c c o m p a t i b i l i t y ( E M C ) , their emissions and/ or i m m u n i t y are n o t as good as we need t h e m to be. Usually, at t h i s t i m e , we feel as i f we are f i g h t i n g against the laws o f physics to cont a i n the conducted and radiated emissions, or to reduce susceptibility. But i n fact the laws o f physics - M a x well's Equations - are causing o u r design to have the best emissions and i m m u n i t y that the physical structure allows. We m i g h t say that our p r o d u c t is d o i n g the very best it can to reduce its emissions and i m p r o v e its i m m u n i t y ! (I a m using the w o r d "product" to mean every t y p e o f e l e c t r o n i c assembly, f r o m modules, subsystems, e q u i p m e n t and systems, to installations.) H i e key issue - is that a l l currents ( i n c l u d i n g strays) always flow i n closed loops, and always take the path of least impedance, w h e t h e r this path is along conductors or t h r o u g h the air (or other dielectrics) between t h e m . C u r r e n t flows i n the path o f least i m p e d ance to m i n i m i z e the energy i n its associated electric and magnetic fields, rather like the way a d r o p o f water i n air assumes a
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F U N D A M E N T A L S OF E M C D E S I G N :
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iTrarket on time
Taken from: "TheConsunierElecIronicsBoom How Semiconductor and C o n s u m e r ElectronicsCompanfes Can improve C o s t . Timedo-fdarttet. anrt Product Quality" hyKPMG LLP's Information, Communlcedon and Entanainment (ICE) Ptactica. 2008. www,kpmo.dB/doc*/20030701_The_Conaumar_ Elacnonica_Boom,pdf
Getting the product cost within Ititdgst Incorporating changing feature retiuirenients in product design Ijefore product release Reducing the number of design I revisions Itefore protiuct is released f lie snpplrers not asked! i Rapidly changing consiimer interests, wants, or needs Competition from new atidror unex|>ected sources
CE anti IC respondents say prod act tinie-to-market is the tiiost iinportatit business issue, followed by prodiictcost.
Figure 1. Time-to-market
and cost.
It is often f o u n d i n practice that e m p l o y i n g good E M C design techniques frona the start o f a project improves funct i o n a l perforrnance, sometimes even g i v i n g signal q u a l i t y and f u n c t i o n a l specifications better t h a n a n y t h i n g that had ever been achieved before. Unfortunately, some project/engineering managers insist on the lowest B i l l O f M a t e r i a l s ( B O M ) cost, believing that t h i s w i l l somehow lead t o the m o s t profitable product. W h e r e i t prevents us f r o m w o r k i n g with t h e laws o f physics, we often find ourselves fighting this ill-advised and p l a i n l y i n c o r r e c t approach (see [4]). The result is a n u m b e r of a d d i t i o n a l delays and cost-increases (e.g. a d d i n g filtering and s h i e l d i n g t o pass E M C tests) that increase the overall cost-of-manufacture, delay m a r k e t i n t r o d u c t i o n , reduce p r o f i t a b i l i t y and increase financial risks. For example, the ideal p r i n t e d c i r c u i t board (PCB) layer stack for good E M C design o f a given p r o d u c t m i g h t have eight layers, but the m i n i m u m SI and f u n c t i o n a l specifications can be met w i t h j u s t six. Tiae cost-saving achieved by using the six-layer b o a r d is considerably o u t w e i g h e d by the extra delay and cost o f a d d i n g filtering and s h i e l d i n g at the end o f the project t o meet its E M C specifications. Tiae overall cost of manufacture ends u p b e i n g nauch higher t h a n w o u l d have been achieved w i t h an eight-layer PCB, a n d the (more i m p o r t a n t ) t i m e - t o - m a r k e t is delayed by several weeks - w h i c h i n some situations can naake the difference between a product's success and its failure. Hals a r t i c l e briefly i n t r o d u c e s t h e laws o f physics as they apply t o o u r products' SI, PI and E M C design issues, developing an " E M Design Toolkit". I t then briefly describes a p p l y i n g that t o o l k i t t o a PCB assenably example. I w r o t e a s i m i l a r type o f article o n a p p l y i n g these sanae laws o f physics t o ease t h e E M C design o f systems a n d installations o r any size, [5], w h i c h m i g h t be o f interest t o some readers.
E M C " - the p r o d u c t i n t e r f e r i n g w i t h itself. For more d e t a i l on this, see Chapter 8 o f [6] or 2.10 o f [7].
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Magnetic field
T h e H f ieid i s o r t h o g o n a l to
This only s h o w s one line vector (z) in a 3D space, at one instant in time Figure 4. Cross section of fields associated return conductors. with a pair of send/
EM wave in free
space.
E M C problems. I n insulators and dielectrics (e.g. air, PVC, fiberglass) \xyp^ and e^e,; cause analogous effects to inductance and capacitance - so whenever there is a fluctuating electric field (E) there is always an associated magnetic field ( H ) . A n d vice-versa: whenever there is a f l u c t u a t i n g magnetic field ( H ) there is always an associated e l e c t r i c field (E). C h a p t e r 2 o f [6] a n d 2.3 o f [7] have m o r e details o n the above. a g e o g r a p h i c a l map - they are n o t real, b u t t h e i r d e n s i t y ( n u m b e r o f lines per i n c h ) indicates the s t r e n g t h o f the field (like the slope o f a h i l l ) . So we can see t h a t the E a n d H field s t r e n g t h s are h i g h e s t i n b e t w e e n the send a n d return conductors. T h e e l e c t r i c a l p o w e r associated w i t h the c u r r e n t i n the wires propagates a l o n g the l e n g t h o f the w i r e s . Because Figure 4 shows the w i r e s i n cross section, the e l e c t r i c a l power (i.e. p r o p a g a t i n g E M energy) is f l o w i n g p e r p e n d i c u lar to the surface o f the page or screen w i t h w h i c h y o u are r e a d i n g these w o r d s , and the E and H fields it sketches are f l u c t u a t i n g i n the plane o f the paper or screen. M a x w e l l ' s famous four equations include A m p e r e s Law, w h i c h says t h a t c u r r e n t s always f l o w i n closed loops, and Faraday's L a w o f e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c i n d u c t i o n , w h i c h says t h a t c u r r e n t s always f l o w i n such a way as to m i n i m i z e t h e i r l o o p areas. M a x w e l l h i m s e l f i n v e n t e d the concept o f displacement current, showing how a fluctuating current could flow t h r o u g h capacitance even t h o u g h there was no conductive p a t h for i t .
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s o m e t i m e s c a i i e d the L a w o f C o n s e r v a t i o n o f Charge) means we c o u i d r e w r i t e K i r c h o f f ' s c u r r e n t iaw as: "the s u m o f the EiM power at any p o i n t equals zero". T h i s means that at any c i r c u i t node t h a t sends a c u r r e n t ( w h e t h e r power, signals, noise, etc.) also s i m u l t a n e o u s l y e m i t s an antiphase c u r r e n t t h a t we call the r e t u r n c u r r e n t . These send a n d r e t u r n c u r r e n t s propagate t h r o u g h the i m p e d a n c e s o f the v a r i o u s m e d i a (air, c o n d u c t o r s , etc.), e v e n t u a l l y m e e t i n g up to create w h a t we t h i n k o f as s e n d / r e t u r n c u r r e n t loops. A t any i n s t a n t i n t i m e , the c u r r e n t s i n the send a n d r e t u r n c u r r e n t paths balance each other o u t . N o t i c e t h a t because a i l power, signal and (stray) noise c u r r e n t s , o f any k i n d , f l o w i n closed loops, t h i s means that the c o n n e c t i o n to the safety e a r t h / g r o u n d electrodes generally has no relevance at a i l for g o o d SI, PI or E M C design. (In p o o r E M C designs, stray c u r r e n t loops can t r a v e l t h r o u g h the safety e a r t h / g r o u n d , u s i n g i t as a c o n v e n i e n t c o n d u c t i v e s t r u c t u r e , and causing h i g h levels o f emissions and poor i m m u n i t y . )
in
5 above.
M a x w e l l ' s E q u a t i o n s and related laws o f physics describe a common-sense, cause-and-effect w o r l d i n w h i c h u n d e r s t a n d i n g basic concepts makes i t q u i t e easy and q u i c k to design i o w - o v e r a i i - c o s t g o o d SI, PI and E M C but the Q E D concepts t h a t u n d e r p i n t h i s are v e r y w e i r d and w o n d e r f u l . Despite its weirdness, Q E D is the m o s t w e i i - p r o v e n t h e o r y ever k n o w n , and has been p r o v e n t o be accurate to about 11 orders o f m a g n i t u d e m o r e t h a n has (so far) been possible for gravity. H a p p i l y , for a i l SI, PI and E M C w o r k , engineers need go no deeper t h a n M a x w e l l ' s Equations and C o n s e r v a t i o n of Energy (or Charge).
THE
SI,
BECAUSE OF (OED)
QUANTUM
How d i d the r e t u r n c u r r e n t s " k n o w " w h a t paths to f o l l o w to exactly m a t c h up w i t h t h e i r respective send currents? P r o f Feynman's s l i m book, [9], says t h a t p r o p a g a t i n g E M energy ( l i g h t is also E M energy) takes the p a t h o f least t i m e - w h i c h is also the p a t h o f least energy - w h i c h is also the p a t h t h a t gives the best SI, PI and E M C possible for a given g e o m e t r y and m e d i a / m a t e r i a l s ( a l t h o u g h t h i s last c o n c l u s i o n is n o t f o u n d i n [9]). To f i n d o u t h o w p r o p a g a t i n g E M energy " k n o w s " to do t h i s , we have to i n t e g r a t e over the w h o l e o f space a n d t i m e , i n c l u d i n g negative t i m e . T h i s was P r o f Feynman's great i n s i g h t , w h i c h made the w o r l d o f q u a n t u m elect r o d y n a m i c s amenable to c a l c u l a t i o n , and is responsible for m u c h o f m o d e r n e l e c t r o n i c technologies. But w h e n P r o f Feynman's students asked h i m w h a t u n d e r p i n n e d t h i s n a t u r a l behavior, he said no one k n e w a n d there was s i m p l y no p o i n t i n even a s k i n g the quest i o n . I t was j u s t the w a y n a t u r e w o r k e d . However, some progress is n o w b e i n g made i n a n s w e r i n g t h i s q u e s t i o n , w i t h the favored s o l u t i o n s b e i n g the "many w o r l d s " or "parallel universes" t h e o r y , w h i c h is k n o w n to be t r u e because o t h e r w i s e q u a n t u m c o m p u t e r s w o u l d n ' t w o r k . A characteristic o f Q E D is that i t defies c o m m o n sense and destroys the t i m e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n cause a n d effect, w i t h some o u t c o m e s t h a t can seem v e r y w e i r d . A p p a r e n t l y , w i t h sensitive e n o u g h i n s t r u m e n t s listeners c o u i d hear w h a t the o u t c o m e o f a b a i l game w o u l d be by l i s t e n i n g to r a d i o broadcasts f r o m the f u t u r e ! U n f o r t u nately i t o n l y reaches a few femtoseconds i n t o the f u t u r e - n o t e n o u g h t i m e to place a w i n n i n g bet. A l s o , Q E D p e r m i t s the power budget for a p o i n t to deviate f r o m zero for a few femtoseconds, b u t after t h a t the Law o f C o n s e r v a t i o n o f Energy insists t h a t the power books have to balance to zero once again, as d e s c r i b e d
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These simple wave impedance formulae are only true in the "far field", typical for radio transmission and reception, whereas in the "near field" the impedance situation is more complex, and the dominant effects on the impedance of a path through the air or other dielectric are inductive and capacitive coupling - often caiied "stray" or "parasitic" inductance and capacitance. See Chapter 2.4 of [6] or 2.3.3 of [7], for more on this, including how to calculate whether we are in the near or far field. For E M waves propagating along conductive structures (what we call power, signals or stray currents flowing in cables and P C B traces), the medium surrounding them has an important effect on impedance, but so does the shape of the structures carrying the current and the shape and proximity of nearby conductors - most especially the return conductor(s), but any other conductors in the near field will also have an effect. So E M waves propagating along conductors can experience impedances that are lower, or higher, than the impedance of the medium surrounding them. T h i s means that for a fluctuating current travelling along a conductor there are always alternative paths in the air and other dielectrics, so its send/return current loop is never a simple one. In fact, ail currents always split and flow in multiple alternative paths, in proportions according to the admittances of each of the paths (a path's admittance is the reciprocal of its impedance). T h i s is conceptually no different from the way that a D C current flowing through a bunch of parallel resistors will divide up according to their various conductances (reciprocal of their resistances) - with the highest current flowing in the resistance with the lowest value (i.e. the highest conductance). T h e big difference for fluctuating currents is what is sometimes caiied "the invisible schematic" - the impedances of the stray capacitances and inductances, which are alternative paths for E M energy to flow in, w h i c h successful practical E M C engineers learn to visualize whenever they look at conductive structures. E a c h part of a c u r r e n t loop has several alternative paths. T h e paths c a n be along conductors or through components and devices, or through the stray paths in the insulation, P C B substrate, air, etc. It simply doesn't matter to a propagating E M wave. T h e conductors, components and devices that we designed, and the stray capacitive/inductive coupling and "accidental antenna" emissions (see 7.2) that we didn't design and not wanted (but can't be prevented entirely) ail just look like different admittances (reciprocals of their impedances). For example, a significant portion of the E M wave power might leave a conductor and continue on its path by travelling through the air - for example as a (capacitive, E-field) displacement current - if it sees that air path as having impedance comparable with that of the conductor. W h e n a conductor resonates (i.e. is not a weii-matchedimpedance transmission line, see 7.6) in a way that creates
a high impedance, a "stray capacitance" path through the air c a n easily create a lower loop impedance, causing most of the current to travel as displacement currents. A n d where an air path resonates in a way that creates a low impedance, it couid easily create a path with much less loop impedance than that of the intended conductors, so once again most of the current can travel as E-fieid displacement currents in the air. We couid say that our main task of SI, PI and/or E M C designers is to reduce the proportion of the E M waves (wanted currents) that "leak out" of our conductors - "escaping" into nearby conductors via stray capacitance and inductance (what we call crosstalk), and also "escaping" into the air as far-field E M waves (what we call E M emissions and measured with antennas in test labs). It is important to understand that every current loop, however formed, with however many branching current paths going wherever, always has to return exactly 100% of the E M energy back to its source, to comply with the iaw of conservation of energy. Actually, the reality of power and signal propagation is not that a current starts off from a voltage source and eventually returns back to it - having flowed around a loop or loops - but that the send and return currents are actually generated simultaneously by the source, and balance each other out at every instant thereafter. Anyway, this perspective that current flows in multiple paths according to their admittances, shows that - to achieve good SI, PI and/or E M C - all we need to do is control the impedances in the various paths that are available to our wanted signals or power currents, so that they travel predominantly in the loops we want them to. For example, if it was possible to design so that no signal or power current was "lost" to alternative paths, then we must have no crosstalk, no emissions, and - as a direct result - our product's SI and PI must be perfect and its E M emissions zero (see [2]). Also, by the Principle of Reciprocity (see 7.2 below), its R F i m m u n i t y would be perfect. O f course, perfection is never achieved but we can get close enough to reduce emissions to sufficiently small amounts, and improve immunity by as much as is needed, without adding significantly to the overall cost of m a n u facture, simply by working with the laws of physics. For more detail on this topic, see Chapter 2 of [6], 2.3 of [7] or 10.1.4 in [10].
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Source B
Return
Source A couples to the Victim circuit more strongly than Source B, because Source 8 has more capacitance between its send/return conductors, so its E field is more compact and causes less stray field coupling (less stray capacitance) to the victim circuit
Source A couples to the Victim circuit more strongly than Source 8, because Source 8 has more DM mutual inductance between its send/return, so its H field is more compact and causes less stray field coupling (less stray mutual inductance) to the victim circuit
coupling.
coupling.
antenna behavior". W h e n a c o n d u c t o r is exposed to E, H or E M waves propagating in its i n s u l a t i n g m e d i u m (e.g. the air), its elect r i c a l / e l e c t r o n i c c i r c u i t experiences the same voltage and c u r r e n t noise t h a t we w o u l d need to create i f we w a n t e d to generate the exact same field p a t t e r n at the c o n d u c t o r s . T h i s is c a i i e d the Principle of Reciprocity. T h e P r i n c i p l e o f R e c i p r o c i t y also applies to accidental antennas, so w h e n a c o n d u c t o r c a r r y i n g a c u r r e n t has i m p e r f e c t c o n t r o l o f the w a n t e d c u r r e n t loop t h a t results i n noise emissions, it w i l l suffer noise p i c k - u p f r o m its E M e n v i r o n m e n t i n exactly the same way. W h e n e l e c t r o n i c e n g i n e e r s are d i s c u s s i n g SI or P I , they usually call accidental a n t e n n a behavior crosstalk, a n d they n o t i c e t h a t the same t e c h n i q u e s t h a t reduce the noise c o u p l e d f r o m the crosstalk's "aggressor" or source also help reduce the noise picked up by the crosstalk's " v i c t i m " - another example o f the P r i n c i p l e o f Reciprocity.
7.4 All c u r r e n t s (including strays) naturally take the path of least impedance
Tl-ie fact that currents naturally "prefer" to flow i n the path w i t h the smallest loop area and lowest impedance (described i n 6 above) is the only way that I k n o w of where the laws o f physics work with SI, PI and E M C designers, instead o f against us. Computer field solvers show this phenonaenon very clearly. Figures 7 and 8 are copied from [ I I ] , and show that when a bent wire c a r r y i n g a current is routed close to a sheet metal chassis that it is using as a r e t u r n path, the r e t u r n current flows almost exclusively i n the metal that lies underneath the wire, following its bent path, at frequencies above about I k H z . This is because the r e t u r n path in the metal sheet below the bent wire creates the current loop area w i t h the lowest possible overall impedance for that structure, even t h o u g h the r e t u r n current has to go around a bend to achieve it. Tiae red dotted lines i n Figure 8 were d r a w n by the authors of [11] to help readers understand where the mean or average current r e t u r n paths lie, because the E M field solver simply provides color gradients. Notice that above I k H z , although the r e t u r n current is flowing i n part o f the metal sheet, the rest o f the sheet is "quiet" - i.e. i t has no currents flowing i n i t and so no voltage drops across it. Circuits using those quiet parts of the sheet for their current r e t u r n paths (e.g. as their OV plane) do not suffer any voltage noises from the bent wire's r e t u r n currents. (At lOOHz and below the impedance of the sheet is so low that the voltage noise caused i n the other circuits by the now-wideiy-spreading r e t u r n current are generally negligible). This is a very i m p o r t a n t result that shows that we can have many different segregated areas of circuits (e.g. digital, analogue, switch-mode, etc.) sharing the same OV plane (which I w i l l start to call the RF Reference i n 8 below) w i t h o u t their "ground noise" currents causing crosstalk or interference between the areas. See Chapter 7 of [7] and ail o f ]I2] for more detail on using this fact to help achieve low-cost SI, PI
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A bent wire, 20mm above a sheet metal chassis used as its current return path
Plan view of the bent wire above the sheet metal chassis
10 Hz
100 Hz
W= 1.4 m 1 kHz
From:-Modeling and SlmulatlonofPowerlrainstor Electric and Hybrid Vehicles". Marco Klinger. Workshop F R - A M - < - 1 . I E E E 2009Int I E M C S y m p o s i u m , Auslln. TX. Aug 17-21.2009.CP-ROMISBN:978-1-t244-l285-0
10 kHz
100 kHz
As frequency increases, return current flows ever closer to path ot bent wire |
Figure 7. Example of a bent wire with a sheet metal chassis return current.
for its
and E M C . I have seen this sort of simuiation done many times, w i t h wire-over-sheet structures iike Figure 7 or w i t h PCB traces over pianes (e.g. slides 46-50 i n [13]), and I have also seen it done as practical demonstrations using ciose-fieid probes. Tire results are the same, up to however many G H z one cares to go.
Some of it travels as stray C M currents, w h i c h - iike ail currents - must flow i n closed loops. Because C M loops are generally very much larger than the D M loops that caused them, their E and H field patterns are much more widely spread. Tiie result that C M is generally the major cause o f "accidental antenna" effects causing E M problems for emissions and i m m u n i t y over the frequency range from I M H z to I G H z . Figure 10 shows that C M currents also couple w i t h "victim" circuits through H-fieid coupling, similar to how D M currents couple (in Figure 6). Reducing the size of the C M loop reduces its H-fieid coupling into the v i c t i m , i n the same way that reducing the size of the D M loop does in Figure 6. A n d reducing the size of the C M current loop also reduces the a m o u n t of E-fieid coupling into the v i c t i m , i n the same way as for the D M E-fieid in Figure 5. So, just as it is i m p o r t a n t for good 51, PI and E M C to m i n i mize the area enclosed by ail wanted ( D M ) current loops, i t is also i m p o r t a n t for a i l u n w a n t e d , accidental, C M c u r r e n t loops. For m o r e d e t a i l on t h i s topic, see C h a p t e r 5.5 o f [6], 2.7.5 o f [7] or 10.1.5 o f [10].
7.5 Power and signals in conductors have two modes of wave propagation
Differential M o d e , D M (also caiied transverse or metallic mode) is what we call our "wanted" power and signals. C o m m o n Mode, C M (also k n o w n as "longitudinal mode" or "antenna mode") is caused by the stray, leaked, "unwanted" E M energy w h e n a D M loop's near-field E or H fields meet another conductor, as shown in Figures 5 and 6. I t also occurs when far-field E M waves couple power from the wanted signal in its intended circuit, to another circuit - accidental radio transmission and reception. Figure 9 shows the relative paths of the D M and C M currents i n a simplified system. Paraphrasing 7.1 above - the electricity does not ail stay in the wire!
rx#V'ctim circuit
CM return path (e.g. local metalvyork)
1
\
CM H fields
CM H field flux lines that pass through the victimcircuit's current loop = mutual Inductance with the CM circuit
signals causing
CM
noises,
coupling.
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ThiL IS not an eartti" or "ground" for E M r , taut : it rs part ot thp slip's condiicliup stniotiirp that helps to return stray C M cuttents
h u m a n safety, w h e r e i t an issue o f p r e v e n t i n g e l e c t r i c shock by l i m i t i n g the m a x i m u m p o t e n t i a l differences t h a t someone c o u l d come i n t o c o n tact w i t h , w h e t h e r they are caused by m a i n s e l e c t r i c i t y leakage c u r r e n t s or faults, or l i g h t n i n g strokes. Even w h e n e a r t h / g r o u n d electrodes are d o i n g t h e i r t h i n g for safety reasons, t h e r e l e v a n t c u r r e n t s s t i l l f l o w i n closed loops. Figures 11 t h r o u g h 14 show some e x a m p l e s o f w h a t are c o m m o n l y c a i i e d e a r t h s or g r o u n d s , b u t are really just elements of a product's, e q u i p m e n t ' s , b u i l d i n g ' s or site's c o n d u c t i v e s t r u c t u r e s t h a t help r e t u r n C M c u r r e n t s back to t h e i r sources. loop W h e t h e r these s t r u c t u r e s are c o n nected to safety e a r t h / g r o u n d electrodes, or not, is o f no consequence for Si, PI or E M C . O f course, 1 a m not the first person to c o m m e n t o n the meaningiessness o f the t e r m e a r t h or g r o u n d for SI, PI and E M C . D r Bruce A r c h a m b e a u l t is an I B M D i s t i n g u i s h e d Engineer and a m a i n s t a y o f the IEEE E M C Society, and m a n y years ago he p r o d u c e d the g r a p h i c c o p i e d i n Figure 15, as a way of m a k i n g the same p o i n t , b u t i n a m o r e a m u s i n g way, see [13]. Because it is n a t u r a l to assume that s o m e t h i n g c a i i e d " e a r t h " or " g r o u n d " is an i n f i n i t e s i n k for noise c u r r e n t s ~ even t h o u g h such a t h i n g s i m p l y c a n n o t exist - the use o f such w o r d s or t h e i r graphical symbols encourages i n c o r r e c t design for SI, PI and E M C , a n d I have seen m i l l i o n s o f d o l l a r s have been wasted over the years for t h i s exact reason. So I always strongly recommend t h a t the w o r d s " e a r t h " or " g r o u n d " and t h e i r g r a p h i c a l s y m b o l s are never used in electronic design (except w h e n a safety e a r t h or g r o u n d is a c t u a l l y i n t e n d e d - a n d t h e n for e l e c t r i c a l safety purposes only). Instead, call the c o n d u c t i v e s t r u c t u r e s by other names t h a t mean what they say, e.g. RF Reference (see 8 below), C M R e t u r n Path,
: pWCelM-lleMeetiteeueeelie j
b)
is not an
w i t h wavelength T h e second i t e m concerns matched conductor naission-iine m a t c h i n g . W h e n m i s characteristic impedances cause p r o p a g a t i n g waves to be reflected, u n d e r c e r t a i n c o n d i t i o n s a n d at c e r t a i n frequencies they c a n cause s t a n d i n g waves to arise, w h i c h are a t y p e o f resonance. At resonant frequencies,
i m p e d a n c e s f l u c t u a t e w i l d l y , i n the range b e t w e e n the c o n d u c t o r ' s series resistance (possibly j u s t a few m f l ) , up to the stray s h u n t resistance (possibly a few i V i n ) , A c c i d e n t a l a n t e n n a effects (stray
Figure 12. These are not "earths" "grounds" or
c o u p l i n g s , w h e t h e r near-field or farfield) are s i g n i f i c a n t l y a m p l i f i e d by r e s o n a n c e s , o f t e n b e t w e e n 10 a n d 100 t i m e s (20 to 40dB), possibly more, a f f e c t i n g b o t h emissions and i m m u n i t y e q u a l l y due to the P r i n c i p l e o f Reciprocity.
absorb, or o t h e r w i s e make u n w a n t e d e l e c t r i c a l power, signals or noises go away, can't possibly be t r u e - it is a t o t a l m y t h , pure and s i m p l e , h a v i n g no basis i n r e a l i t y i n t h i s universe. [13] has m o r e on t h i s , especially its slides 32, 33 and 79. Even i f a z e r o - i m p e d a n c e g r o u n d could because e v e r y t h i n g has earth/ e x i s t ( w h i c h i t can't, impedance)
or whatever.
U s i n g w o r d s s u c h as "chassis", "frame", "enclosure", "shield" or "Faraday Cage" can also lead to the.same c o n c e p t u a l design errors as " e a r t h "
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US
phi.-.
V.T'-4-.
Based E M Design Tools" o u t l i n e d i n 2 t h r o u g h 7 above. Instead, they represent w h a t are u n f o r t u n a t e l y s t i l l c o m monplace bad practices in m a n y electronic p r o d u c t design departments. O n e bad practice used i n o u r e x a m p l e is the use o f so-called " s i n g l e - p o i n t e a r t h i n g / g r o u n d i n g " (sometimes (("
p.-A4f" K.14P..P
Sy
r^.^r
caiied "star e a r t h i n g / g r o u n d i n g " ) , u s i n g OV plane splits b e t w e e n (and on) the PCBs. T h i s is assumed / p,, to keep
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devices' c i r c u l a t i n g r e t u r n c u r r e n t s c o n f i n e d to c e r t a i n c i r c u i t areas, p r e v e n t i n g crosstalk o f noise between t h e m (e.g. d i g i t a l noise i n analogue) - b u t i t o n l y w o r k s w e l l below a few tens o f k H z . S p l i t t i n g OV pianes ignores the fact t h a t f l u c t u a t i n g c u r r e n t s always d i v i d e up a c c o r d i n g to the a d m i t t a n c e s of the v a r i o u s a l t e r n a t i v e paths, i n c l u d i n g "stray" paths t h r o u g h the air or i n s u l a t i o n (see 7.1 above). For t h i s reason, since 1980, the a u t h o r has always f o u n d t h a t w h e n m i c r o p r o c e s s o r s a n d s w i t c h - m o d e converters are used, s i n g l e - p o i n t e a r t h i n g / g r o u n d i n g has always been a bad design practice for Si, PI and E M C . O t h e r s w i l l no d o u b t be able to give examples f r o m before 1980. A n o t h e r bad design practice used i n the example is the a s s u m p t i o n t h a t a c h i e v i n g the lowest B O M cost is sufficient to produce the most p r o f i t a b l e p r o d u c t . So the n u m b e r o f b o a r d layers and a m o u n t o f power d e c o u p l i n g was reduced to the m i n i m u m that achieved the f u n c t i o n a l specifications. A l s o , p r o v i s i o n has not been made for fitt i n g E M I filters to a i l o f the cable c o n n e c t i o n s , because t h i s w o u l d have increased the board's area. Section 1 m e n t i o n e d that r e l y i n g o n a c h i e v i n g the l o w est B O M cost to create profitable products has been k n o w n to be an i n c o r r e c t p r a c t i c e since 2000. P l a i n c o m m o n sense easily reveals the fallacy i n h e r e n t i n t h i s overlys i m p l i s t i c approach - we o n l y have to consider a p r o d u c t t h a t had a B O M cost t h a t was h a l f (or less) o f t h a t o f ail its c o m p e t i t o r s - b u t suffered a 100% w a r r a n t y r e t u r n rate. Clearly, t h i s w o u l d n o t be a successful p r o d u c t , so there is v e r y m u c h m o r e to a product's p r o f i t a b i l i t y t h a n its B O M cost. I see m a n y designs iike the example i n Figure 16 every
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iE?yp77T\
p.j.>,
or " g r o u n d " - so i t is i m p o r t a n t to be very c a r e f u l to o n l y use t h e m to mean w h a t they a c t u a l l y are (i.e. m e c h a n i c a l s t r u c t u r e s made o f metal) rather t h a n assume they are ( m y t h i c a l ) i n f i n i t e sinks for noise c u r r e n t s . For m o r e d e t a i l o n t h i s , see 5.7 o f [6] or 2.7.7 o f [7], also
11.1.2 a n d 11.1.3 o f [10]. 8. APPLYING T H E S E "EM DESIGN TOOLS" TO A REAL-LIFE P C B A S S E M B L Y 8.1 Introduction to the example
Sections 2 to 7 above have given us a set o f E M design tools - r e a l l y j u s t m e n t a l concepts for h o w the E M energy t h a t we call o u r power and signals a c t u a l l y prefers to f l o w to m a x i m i z e SI, PI and E M C . N o t i c e t h a t i n sections 2 t h r o u g h 7 I i n t e n t i o n a l l y used very l i t t l e m a t h ; i t is n o t necessary for an u n d e r s t a n d i n g of these i m p o r t a n t concepts, i n fact, u s i n g equations can obscure w h a t is really g o i n g o n , w h i c h every successful E M C designer learns to "see" w i t h h i s / h e r " m i n d ' s eye" j u s t by l o o k i n g at the c o n d u c t i v e s t r u c t u r e o f a p r o d u c t . W i t h the c o m p l e x i t y of m o d e r n p r o d u c t s i t is best for the designer to u n d e r s t a n d the concepts and have "the eye" for t h e m , l e a v i n g the c a l c u l a t i o n s to the a p p r o p r i a t e types o f E M field solvers. A n y w a y , n o w for a real-life example - c o n t r o i i i n g the E M e m i s s i o n s a n d i m m u n i t y o f the t y p i c a l e l e c t r o n i c p r o d u c t sketched i n Figure 16. To m i n i m i z e the o v e r a l l cost o f m a n u f a c t u r e , t h i s PCB assembly s h o u l d have g o o d E M C c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , so t h a t a l o t o f money and t i m e does n o t have to be spent (and add w e i g h t and size) by s h i e l d i n g and f i l t e r i n g i t to get it to pass its E M C tests. Because o u r E M design tools are a i l c o n c e r n e d w i t h c o n t r o i i i n g E M f i e l d p a t t e r n s to m i n i m i z e u n w a n t e d
"noise" coupling, the exact same tools also improve immun i t y (e.g. m a x i m i z i n g i m m u n i t y to nearby w a l k i e - t a l k i e s , cellphones, CPRS, 3C, W i - F i and B l u e t o o t h t r a n s m i t t e r s , and also t r a n s i e n t s , ESD and l i g h t n i n g ) . T h e a s s u m p t i o n s made i n the i n i t i a l design o f the exFigure 16. Overview of the example PCB assembly.
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to the c i r c u i t design and PCB layout, to reduce the areas of the D M and C M c u r r e n t loops a n d make t h e i r near
Near-field intensity
fields more c o m p a c t .
(simulated, or
measured
year. T h e y a l l suffer p o o r f u n c t i o n a l p e r f o r m a n c e at first, especially p o o r signai-to-noise (S/N) ratios and unreliable software t h a t take m a n y design iterations to solve, causing project delays, increasing costs and r e d u c i n g p r o f i t a b i l i t y . Once the f u n c t i o n a l problems are solved, they t h e n fail t h e i r E M C tests, r e q u i r i n g m a n y more design i t e r a t i o n s to solve, causing more delays and more project costs, plus r e q u i r i n g the a d d i t i o n o f filters and s h i e l d i n g that increase B O M cost, w e i g h t and size and reduce p r o f i t a b i l i t y even more. T h e y also suffer h i g h e r - t h a n - h o p e d - f o r w a r r a n t y r e t u r n rates, w h i c h erode p r o f i t a b i l i t y even more. A p l o t o f the n e a r - f i e l d emissions 2 0 m m above the PCB assembly, at the stage where i t meets its f u n c t i o n a l s p e c i f i c a t i o n s but has n o t yet been tested for E M C , is s h o w n i n Figure 17. W h a t do such near-fields mean? T h i s close to the PCB and its c o m p o n e n t s they are the w a n t e d D M signals, plus D M and C M crosstalk and noise. H i g h levels mean reduced S/N ratios i n analogue c i r c u i t s , and reduced noise margins i n d i g i t a l c i r c u i t s - l e a d i n g to u n r e l i a b l e software. I n E M C t e s t i n g , h i g h levels o f near-fields over large areas indicate h i g h levels o f c o n d u c t e d and radiated emissions, a n d c o r r e s p o n d i n g l y p o o r c o n d u c t e d a n d radiated immunity. I n real life, h i g h levels o f near-fields over large areas means a lower p r o p o r t i o n o f satisfied customers (increasi n g the cost o f f u t u r e sales, because i t is easier to sell p r o d u c t s t h a t customers like), a n d h i g h e r levels o f w a r r a n t y costs. A i l causing lower p r o f i t a b i l i t y . W e u n d e r s t a n d , f r o m the laws o f physics discussed i n sections 2 t h r o u g h 7, that: a i l c u r r e n t s ( i n c l u d i n g D M and C M "noise" c u r r e n t s ) f l o w i n closed loops c u r r e n t loop shape and area govern field patterns
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ARE
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US
See C h a p t e r 7.4 o f [7], 3 and 4 of [12] and 11.2.2 o f [10] for m o r e d e t a i l o n c r e a t i n g effective l o w - i m p e d a n c e RF Reference Planes i n PCBs.
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Figure 19. Near-field plot of the improved PCB assembly (simulated, or measured with near-field probes).
a n d E M I S i m u l a t i o n " , 2 3 r d M a r c h 2011, O x f o r d , U K . w w w . a n s y s . c o m / staticassets/AKiSYS%20UK/statica,ssets/I<eith_Armstrong_Presentation_ANSYS_March_23%2020U.pdf [2]. A r m s t r o n g , K. " E M C a n d S i g n a l I n t e g r i t y , " Compliance ing, M a r c h / A p r i l 1999. [3] "The C o n s u m e r E l e c t r o n i c s B o o m H o w S e m i c o n d u c t o r a n d C o n sumer Electronics Companies Can Improve Cost, T i m e - t o - M a r k e t , and Product Q u a l i t y , " K P M G LLP's I n f o r m a t i o n , C o m m u n i c a t i o n and E n t e r t a i n m e n t (ICE) Practice, 2008. [4] A r m s t r o n g , K. " B O M c o s t , a n d p r o f i t a b i l i t y , " Vie EMC M a y 2009, pp 32-34. [5] A r m s t r o n g , K . " M a x w e l l ' s E q u a t i o n s , Q u a n t u m Electrodynamics, Journal, journal. Engineer-
very small and local field patterns, w i t h great benefits for SI, PI and E M C . W h e n we have achieved t h i s , as s h o w n in Figure 19, we see very l i t t l e f i e l d - s p r e a d i n g is seen due to C M noise c u r r e n t s .
9. CONCLUSIONS
A l l e l e c t r i c a l and e l e c t r o n i c activities are really E M energies t r a v e l l i n g as p r o p a g a t i n g waves, and c o n n e c t i n g to safety e a r t h / g r o u n d has no effect o n t h e m so is u n i m p o r t ant and unnecessary for SI, PI and E M C . W e can easily design c i r c u i t s and PCBs to create s m a l l , l o w - Z c u r r e n t loops for b o t h the w a n t e d D M and the stray C M c u r r e n t s , the E M waves n a t u r a l l y prefer to f l o w i n these routes. So, by w o r k i n g with the laws of physics, we a u t o m a t i c a l l y achieve very c o m p a c t field patterns, w h i c h are best for i n t e r n a l a n d e x t e r n a l E M C a n d f i n a n c i a l success. Because these techniques c o n t r o l field patterns to m i n i m i z e u n w a n t e d "noise" c o u p l i n g , because of the p r i n c i p l e or r e c i p r o c i t y the exact same t e c h n i q u e s also m i n i m i z e s u s c e p t i b i l i t y , for example m i n i m i z i n g u n w a n t e d "noise" couplings. T h e p r i n c i p l e s of good design t e c h n i q u e s for SI, PI and E M C are very clear, easy to understand, and easy for everyone to i m p l e m e n t at l o w cost i n practice. Products really are d o i n g t h e i r best to help us pass E M C tests a n d meet E M C r e q u i r e m e n t specifications - all we need to do is give t h e m a l i t t l e help, f r o m the s t a r t of t h e i r design process.
[6] A r m s t r o n g , K. " T l i e Physical Basis o f E M C , " A r m s t r o n g / N u t w o o d U K , O c t o b e r 2010, ISBiV: 9 7 8 - 0 - 9 5 5 5 1 1 8 - 3 - 7 . [7] A r m s t r o n g , K. " E M C D e s i g n T e c h n i q u e s for E l e c t r o n i c E n g i n e e r s , " N u t w o o d U K N o v e m b e r 2010, I S B N : 9 7 8 - 0 - 9 5 5 5 1 1 8 - 4 - 4 . [8] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vacuum_state R.P. " Q E D The S t r a n g e T h e o r y o f L i g h t a n d M a t t e r , "
[9] E e y n m a n ,
P e n g u i n B o o k s , 1990, I S B N : 0 - 1 4 - 0 1 2 5 0 5 - 1 . [10] W i l l i a m s , T . " E M C f o r P r o d u c t D e s i g n e r s , 4 t h E d i t i o n , " Elsevier 2007, I S B N - 1 0 : 0 - 7 5 0 - 6 8 1 7 0 - 5 , I S B N - 1 3 : 9 7 8 - 0 - 7 5 - 0 6 8 1 7 0 - 4 . [11] K l i n g e r , M . " M o d e l i n g a n d S i m u l a t i o n o f P o w e r t r a i n s f o r E l e c t r i c and H y b r i d Vehicles," W o r k s h o p FR-AM-4-1,1EEE 2009 I nternational S y m p o s i u m o n E M C , A u s t i n , T X , A u g 17-21, 2 0 0 9 . [12] A r m s t r o n g , K. " E M C f o r P r i n t e d C i r c u i t B o a r d s Basic a n d
A d v a n c e d Design and Layout Techniques," N u t w o o d U K December 2010, I S B N 9 7 8 - 0 - 9 5 5 5 1 1 8 - 5 - 1 . . [13] A r c h a m b e a u l t , B. "The ' G r o u n d ' M y t h " , 18 N o v e m b e r 2 0 0 8 , http:.// ewh.ieee.org/r6/phoenix/phoenixemc/PCB-Design.pdf
KEITH with
ARMSTRONG an Honours
graduated degree
from
in
1972
in electrical
member Group
10. REFERENCES
[1]. A r m s t r o n g , K. " K e y k n o w l e d g e for the e f f i c i e n t design o f e l e c t r o n i c p r o d u c t s a n d t h e i r EiVlC - t h a t we were never t a u g h t at u n i v e r s i t y " , K e i t h A r m s t r o n g , A N S Y S S e m i n a r "Ne.xt G e n e r a t i o n S i g n a l I n t e g r i t y
1977,
1978, Clough
Engineer can
He founded
Consultants
Keith
be reached
keith.armstrong@cherryclough.com.
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