IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON PLASMA SCIENCE, VOL. 35, NO.

4, AUGUST 2007

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Numerical Simulation of a Moving High-Current Vacuum Arc Driven by a Transverse Magnetic Field (TMF)
Thierry Delachaux, Oliver Fritz, Dietmar Gentsch, Ekkehard Schade, and Dmitry L. Shmelev
AbstractThis paper deals with the numerical simulation of the constricted high-current vacuum arc (> 15 kA), driven by a transverse magnetic eld (TMF), as found in vacuum circuit breakers applying the TMF arc control. The magnetohydrodynamic approach, together with the detailed heat transfer and evaporation equations for the electrodes, is used to describe the arc behavior self-consistently, restricted to 2-D. A newly developed model describes the cathode attachment of the constricted arc, as a large laterally extended foot points, instead of regular cathode spots. The arc maintains itself when the electrode temperatures are higher than 3400 K on the cathode and 2900 K on the anode. This model leads to the characterization of the physical quantities of the arc plasma and describes the arc motion. A stepwise movement of the arc results due to different instantaneous velocities of the current attachment areas at the cathode and anode. Index TermsCathode connection, heat transfer, magnetohydrodynamic (MHD), moving arc, numerical simulations, transverse magnetic eld (TMF) vacuum interrupter, vacuum arc.
Fig. 1. Sketch of the 2-D TMF arc model. BTMF, external is the TMF component, applied by an external source and homogeneously distributed between the two electrodes. Baz is the magnetic eld component resulting from the ow of current through the arc channel.

I. I NTRODUCTION HIS PAPER focuses on the behavior of vacuum arcs with high current densities driven by a transverse magnetic eld (TMF), such as found in vacuum circuit breakers. For currents above 15 kA, the arc is constricted and an intense energy ux from the arc heats up the contact surfaces to high temperatures, which results in strong evaporation of metal vapor. When the vapor density exceeds a certain critical limit, the interruption of current can no longer occur when the current passes to zero in case of alternating current. In the perspective of a better control of the heat transfer to the contacts and reducing the surface temperature, simulations of the arc have become an important means. This paper describes a newly developed numerical model for an arc driven by TMF, as it occurs in a contact system with spiral geometry contacts, for example. The model is based on the magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) approach. As a rst step, the model is restricted to 2-D, in order to reduce the complexity of the problem and to reduce the calculation time. The essential

point is a proper treatment of the arc attachment at the cathode and anode. As already found by Hass and Hartman [1], and Dullni et al. [2], the mechanism of the attachment areas determines the speed of the arc motion. Fig. 1 describes the 2-D arcing arrangement. It consists of two parallel rails separated by a gap distance d. The rails (pure Cu) are assumed to be innitely long. The TMF BTMF external is distributed homogenously between the two electrodes and results from a separate external source, i.e., not resulting from the current ow through the rails. The arc parameters are constant in z -direction corresponding to the assumption of 2-D. This restriction will have an inuence, but nevertheless it is expected that the principal features will not change essentially and that the present numerical simulations will give insight to the prevailing physical processes of this kind of arc. II. P HYSICAL M ODEL Our physical model of the TMF arc is composed of three distinctive regions: the cathode and anode connections and the plasma zone. The physical details and equations describing these three parts are given in the following. A. Plasma Zone The present conditions allow the application of the MHD approach [3], based on the continuity equations of mass, momentum, and energy, in combination with the induction equation. As usual, the plasma is regarded as quasi-neutral

Manuscript received July 14, 2006; revised February 28, 2007. T. Delachaux, O. Fritz, and E. Schade are with ABB Switzerland Ltd., Corporate Research, CH-5405 Dttwil, Switzerland (e-mail: thierry.delachaux@ ch.abb.com; oliver.fritz@ch.abb.com; ekkehard.schade@ch.abb.com). D. Gentsch is with the ABB Calor Emag Mittelspannung GmbH, 40472 Ratingen, Germany (e-mail: dietmar.gentsch@de.abb.com). D. L. Shmelev is with the Institute of Electrophysics, Russian Academy of Science, 620016 Ekaterimburg, Russia (e-mail: dlshmelev@etel.ru). Digital Object Identier 10.1109/TPS.2007.896756

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and consisting of interpenetrating uids of heavy species (ions and neutrals) and of electrons. The mass balance (1) includes the rate equations for Cu, Cu+ , Cu++ and Cu+++ . The respective densities are represented by nk , with n0 = nCu , n1 = nCu+ , n2 = nCu++ and n3 = nCu+++ . The considered processes are the ion production and loss by electron impact (ionization coefcients k ) and three body collisions recombination (recombination coefcients k ), where the various k and k depends on the electron temperature [4]. Those coefcients include the effects of excitation and deexcitation to and from higher quantum levels of the different species. The uids of heavy species and electrons have the temperature T and Te , the convection velocity u and ue , and a pressure p and pe , respectively. The momentum balance (2) considers the action of the pressure gradients and the Lorentz force. The internal energy balance corresponding to [3] (3) and (4) for the heavy species and electrons takes into account the electron-ion energy exchange with an opposite sign in each equation. Various small terms in the ion energy balance are not considered accounting for the asymmetry between the (3) and (4). For the electron energy balance, the electron heat ux (qe ) is calculated, as well as the Joule heating and heat due to the thermal forces, respectively, the second and third terms in the right hand-side of (4). The energy losses by radiation (Rrad ) are accounted as the volumetric net emission (i.e., the difference between local emission of radiation and absorption of radiation coming from the surroundings), where Rrad has been approximated in the same way as described in [5] in detail. It is found that about 50% of the energy is lost through radiation. The last term (Rioniz ) described the energy lost in the ionization process of the heavy species, as well as the energy gained in the three-body recombination process leading to the production of electrons with the ionization potential transferred into kinetic energy. The other parameters and coefcients in the equations are the total current density (J ), the Braginskii coefcients (, ), the electron-ion collision time ( ) and the electrical conductivity ( )

with 1) qe = ne Te (ue u) ((ne Te )/me )Te ; 2 2) Rioniz = 3 k=1 Ik (k1 nk ne k nk ne ). ue,y Bz ue,x Bz Bz + + t y x = c2 4 1 Bz 1 Bz + x x y y (5)

Ik in the ionization loss term (Rioniz ) is the k th ionization potential (I1 : 7.73 eV, I2 : 20.29 eV, I3 :36.84 eV). Finally, the induction (5) completes the set of equations describing the plasma zone of the arc. B. Cathode Connection At low current densities, when the arc appears diffuse, cathode spots connect the current from the plasma to the surface. This is no more the case at high current densities (j > 108 A/m2 ) when the arc constricts itself under the inuence of its self-induced magnetic eld. Therefore, in our model, we have assumed the existence of an extended cathode area to explain the current connection, when the surface temperature and additionally the electric eld strength at surface are high enough. This idea of an extended area makes sense in the light of high-speed video recordings of TMF arcs, which show wide connection areas between the arc and the electrodes. Also, the arc track left at the electrodes after arcing does not show any characteristics of tiny cathode spots connections. The simulations have shown that thermal eld emission (TFE) is able to provide sufcient electron current emission also in case of copper, similar to what is known for refractory metal with higher melting and boiling temperature. The surface temperature has to exceed 3400 K, which is well above the boiling temperature Tboiling of 2840 K. The required strong energy ux to rise the cathode surface temperature is possible because of the high plasma density in front of cathode, which is a consequence of the strong evaporation rate at these high temperatures. The presence of a dense plasma adjacent to the cathode surface leads also to a strong electrical eld that lowers the work function of the cathode. However, there is no direct experimental proof of the high surface temperatures predicted by the numerical simulation. Haas and Hartmann have only estimated the electrode temperature at the foot points of a TMF constricted arc, at anode between 3300 K and 3600 K and at cathode between 3200 K and 3400 K, respectively [1]. Their ndings support the present assumption. The emission of electron current due to TFE of density Jem is described by the SchottkyRichardson (6). The electric eld strength at cathode surface Ec , which reduces the work function is determined by Mackeown (7), and the total current density at cathode consists of the

nk + div nk u = n k t
2 n k = k1 nk1 ne k1 nk n2 e k nk ne + k nk+1 ne

for k = 0, 1, 2, 3 mn 3 n 2 3 ne 2 u + u u t T + u T t 1 = (ne Te + nT ) + [J B ] c + nT div u = 3 me ne (Te T ) m

(1) (2)

(3)

Te + ue Te + ne Te div ue + div qe t
2 2 Jx + Jy me ne (Te Ti )+ + J Te Rrad Rioniz m e

= 3

(4)

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component of electron current Jem and the ion current Ji , respectively Jem = 120 Ts2 exp
2 Ec = 16

C. Anode Connection The current ow to the anode is limited to the area where a sufcient plasma density in front of the anode exists. The source of this plasma material is evaporated from the anode. A sufcient plasma density is accomplished when the surface temperature exceeds 2900 K as shown by simulations. At lower temperatures, the current ow is neglected. Fast temperature rise on the anode results from the deposition of energy carried by the uxes of electrons and ions arriving at the anode. The rate of evaporation is treated in a similar way as described for the cathode (Section II-B. Cathode connection). The total current is composed of the electron and ion current components. The electron current is regulated by the negative sheath voltage corresponding to (12) and (13), Gai being the ion ux to anode Ua = Te ln e J + z e Gai Jth Te 2me (12)

; Tcs

e3 Ec

(6) (7) (8)

me Uc Ji 2e

mi Jem me z

J = Ji + Jem .

The heat ux to the cathode includes the contribution of the voltage drop Uc across the cathode sheath. It is approximated by the equation (9) Uc (x) =
Ji z Eioniz

Jem 2.5 Ts + U0 . Jem

(9)

The rst term represents the energy required for ionization of the vapor ux. The constant term U0 is chosen to be 10 V in the present numerical simulations. The surface temperature is determined by solving the timedependent temperature diffusion equations within the electrodes: heating occurs by the energy deposited by the plasma at the surface only, while cooling happens by evaporation, radiation, and heat conduction into the bulk material of the electrodes. The retreat of the contact surface due to material loss by evaporation, and the movement of the melt are not taken into account. The net vapor ux going to the plasma Gcv is given by the relation (10) taken from [6]. It consists of the difference between the rates of vapor emission due to surface temperature Ts , i.e., G0 , and the back ow of vapor from the vapor cloud in front of the cathode. PS stands for the vapor pressure under equilibrium conditions Gcv = 2 G0 1 G0 = Ps . 2mi Ts nT + mi n u2 Ps (10)

Jth = e n Ex =

(13) (14)

1 Ua Jx 1 pe ue,y B = . c ene x x

The electric eld strength along the boundary between the plasma zone and the anode sheath is given by (14). The anode sheath voltage outside the current connecting area, where the net current ow is zero, is set to oating potential as in the case of the cathode. D. Numerical Method and Initial Conditions The above system of equations was solved numerically using a xed rectangular grid with a mesh renement close to the electrodes. The explicit nite-volume method was used for the solution of the ow of heavy particles [(1)(3)]. The electron temperature (4) was treated with the help of the implicit fractional-step method, whereas the magnetic eld (5) was solved by a successive overrelaxation method. The numerical simulations are started assuming an initial condition with a homogenous plasma column having temperatures of 2 eV and an ion density of 1018 cm3 . The initial size of the current attachment areas is set to s0 = 1 cm with a temperature of 3500 K at the anode and cathode. Initially, the current density is homogenously distributed at the attachment areas accordingly to (15). The total current (50 kA) is maintained constant throughout the simulations. The strength of the TMF externally applied amounts to 0.8 T. The gap distance between the two rails electrodes is xed to 6.4 mm. The starting position of the arc is arbitrary chosen
s0

The electric eld strength along the boundary between the cathode sheath and plasma zone within the area of current ow is given by the generalized Ohms law (11) Ex = 1 UC Jx 1 pe ue,y B = . c ene x x (11)

Outside the current connection area, the voltage drop across the cathode sheath is chosen to be equal to the oating potential of the plasma. In the numerical simulations, the current ow is allowed when the cathode temperature exceeds 3400 K. Below 3400 K, the current density is set to zero because the electric current emission drops quickly to small values due to the exponential dependence of (6). Initial conditions at cathode are given in Section II-D. Numerical treatment.

jsurface ds = 5 104 A/cm2 s0 .

0

(15)

It must be stressed that the chosen initial condition does not inuence the rest of the calculations. The arc forgets the initial values after a few microseconds only.

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Fig. 2. Plasma pressure distribution in the arc column in bars, 0.4075 ms after the arc initiation. BTMF ext is 0.8 T and the total current is equivalent to 50 kA.

Fig. 4. Temperature distribution of the electrons in electronvolts, 0.4075 ms after the arc initiation. The parameters are the same as for Fig. 2.

Fig. 3. Distribution of the ion ux density in 1023 cm2 s1 , 0.4075 ms after the arc initiation. The parameters are the same as for Fig. 2.

Fig. 5. Temperature distribution of the ions in electronvolts, 0.4075 ms after the arc initiation. The parameters are the same as for Fig. 2.

III. R ESULTS One of the major results from the present modeling is a comprehensive description of the arc movement and insight into the underlying physical phenomena, including their quantities. It will be described in detail in the following Sections A to C. Most of the pictures discussed (Figs. 2 to 9) correspond to a time of 0.4075 ms after the arc initiation. A. Behavior of Plasma There is a steady stream of plasma from the current connecting areas due to the strong evaporation at these locations. The highest pressures prevail close to the electrodes and in center region, where the opposite jets emanating from the cathode and the anode meet each other (Fig. 2). Pressure values of the order of several tens of bars are reached. The applied TMF is homogenous. But the total magnetic eld component across the gap is weaker in moving direction due to the superposition

of the azimuthal magnetic eld generated by the current ow through the plasma. Due to the action of the total magnetic eld the ow of plasma is directed toward the arc motion (Fig. 3). Plasma velocities of the order of 104 m/s are obtained in the center region. The electron temperature Te reaches several electronvolts close to the current connecting areas at cathode and anode, where the ionization of the vapor ux from the electrodes occurs, and in the center region where the opposing ow from the cathode and anode interact (Fig. 4). The ion temperature Ti reaches about same values as Te in center region, but is smaller in the ionization regions, indicating the strongest deviation from local thermal equilibrium (Fig. 5). B. Attachment to Electrodes The current density at the cathode and anode is high due to the strong constriction of the arc at these locations (Fig. 6). Peak values of current density of several 105 A/cm2 are reached at the edge of current connection in direction of movement. The component of ion current might surpass the electron current.

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Fig. 6. Current density at the cathode and anode 0.4075 ms after the arc initiation. The dashed line shows the contribution of the electron current to the total current at the cathode. The parameters are the same as for Fig. 2.

Fig. 9. Cathode and anode sheath voltage, Uc and Ua , respectively, 0.4075 ms after the arc initiation. Note that the anode sheath voltage drop Ua is negative. The parameters are the same as for Fig. 2.

C. Movement of the Arc The effect of the TMF is to bend the plasma ow in the moving direction and to direct part of the heat ux ahead of the current connection areas, where, as a consequence, the surface temperature rises, which prepares the conditions for a movement of the attachments area. To achieve the arc movement, a nonsymmetric heating of the surface is essential. In this respect, the effect of thermal heat conduction at the edge of the molten area in the moving direction is negligible. High heat ux densities from the plasma are not only necessary to obtain high surface temperature and to provide consequently a strong evaporation and electron emission at the cathode. A high ux density is also required to establish fast temperature rise. Otherwise, the attachment areas, and with them the arc, would not be able to move fast enough. This is demonstrated by the course of the energy ux density (Fig. 7) and by the cathode surface temperature (Fig. 8), respectively. When the temperature has grown high enough, the attachment area is able to change its location, i.e., to move in the forward direction. As a certain time interval is necessary to rise the surface temperature again, a movement with incremental steps results. Furthermore, the instantaneous velocities of the cathode and anode connection areas are different. This movement is demonstrated by the series of ion distribution in Fig. 10, which shows the dynamic of the cathode and anode foot points. At 0.408 ms, the anode connection is a little bit ahead of the cathode connection. This modies the heat ux, which heats preferably in front of the cathode until the lowest temperature limit is reached to conduct the current (3400 K). Depending of the heat ux distribution this can give rise to multiple connection paths (see Fig. 10 after 0.419 ms). In the following 10 s, the cathode connection catches up and even overtakes the anode connection. Finally, after 0.432 ms, the anode is behind the cathode and a similar sequence will happen. And so on, the motion of the TMF arc develops itself. This is summarized in Fig. 11, where the evolution of the front edge of the cathode and anode connection areas are reported. The average speed of the running arc is 310 m/s, but the whole motion is characterized by a number of plateaus which are the time needed to heat up

Fig. 7. Heat ux density to the cathode and anode 0.4075 ms after the arc initiation. The parameters are the same as for Fig. 2.

Fig. 8. Cathode and anode temperature 0.4075 ms after the arc initiation. The parameters are the same as for Fig. 2.

The energy ux to the electrodes, with peak values up to several 1010 W/m2 , is able to rise the surface temperature quickly to values of around 4500 K (Figs. 7 and 8). The potential drops across the cathode and the anode sheath are depicted in Fig. 9.

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The stepwise nature of the arc motion, as just described, is directly related to the assumptions in the Sections II-B and C. The main characteristic of those assumptions is the reection of the asymmetrical role of the cathode and the anode for the current collection, as it is known in the literature. Therefore, the electrodes speeds and the consequent stepwise motion can be regarded as a consequence of this asymmetry. It is to stress that the authors are not aware of direct experimental evidence of this stepwise arc movement, so far, in experiments with highcurrent vacuum arcs. A very close experimental setup has been investigated by Boxman [7], where the motion of vacuum arcs on rail electrodes was studied. However, direct observations up to 8 kA were possible, which corresponds to a more diffuse arc mode that is not described by the present model only valid for constricted arc over 15 kA. The experimental difculty reported over 10 kA is due to the very fast moving arc leaving the observation tube before the peak current were obtained. The predictions of our model regarding the order of magnitude for the arc velocity are of several 10 m/s to several 100 m/s, depending on the gap distance and current conditions. This is in accordance with velocities measured by a number of authors [1], [8]. IV. C ONCLUDING R EMARKS A new model using an MHD approach that allows the simulation of a vacuum arc driven by a TMF in 2-D for high currents has been described. For surface temperatures higher than 3400 K and 2900 K on the cathode and anode, respectively, the current connection from the plasma to the cathode surface occurs over an extended area instead of the tiny cathode spots as found at lower currents. Taking into account the detailed heat transfer to the electrodes and evaporation equations, it allows to understanding of the arc behavior and the origin of its stepwise movement, which is the result from different anode and cathode motion due to the different attachment processes. Experiments are urgently required to verify the present ndings and with that the underlying physical reasoning. For example, the high surface temperatures at the arc attachment areas should be conrmed experimentally. R EFERENCES
[1] W. Haas and W. Hartmann, Investigation of arc roots of constricted high current vacuum arcs, IEEE Trans. Plasma Sci., vol. 27, no. 4, pp. 954960, Aug. 1999. [2] E. Dullni, E. Schade, and W. Shang, Vacuum arcs driven by cross-magnetic elds (RMF), IEEE Trans. Plasma Sci., vol. 31, no. 5, pp. 902908, Oct. 2003. [3] S. I. Braginskii, Transport Processes in a Plasma, in Reviews of Plasma Physics, M. A. Leontovich, Ed. New York: Consultants Bureau, 1965. (only the perpendicular coefcients corresponding to our 2D conguration are used). [4] A. Anders, A Formulary for Plasma Physics. Berlin, Germany: Akademie-Verlag, 1990. [5] E. Schade and D. L. Shmelev, Numerical simulation of high-current vacuum arcs with an external axial magnetic eld, IEEE Trans. Plasma Sci., vol. 31, no. 5, pp. 890901, Oct. 2003. [6] V. I. Mazhukin and A. A. Samohkin, Matematicheskoe Modelirovanie. Moscow, Russia: Nauka, 1987, pp. 191244, (in Russian). [7] R. L. Boxman, High-current vacuum arc column motion on rail electrodes, J. Appl. Phys., vol. 48, no. 5, pp. 18851889, May 1977. [8] E. Dullni, Motion of high current vacuum arcs on spiral-type contacts, IEEE Trans. Plasma Sci., vol. 17, no. 6, pp. 875879, Dec. 1989.

Fig. 10. Evolution of the ions density distribution (1018 cm3 ) between 0.408 and 0.432 ms. The parameters are the same as for Fig. 2.

Fig. 11. Anode (black points) and cathode (gray points) motion for a BTMF ext of 0.8 T and a total current equivalent to 50 kA. The arc motion is characterized by successive steps in the cathode and anode movement. The dotted area represents the region depicted on Fig. 10.

a new attachment area in front of the existing one. On average, the anode connection area is ahead of the cathode connection area, so that the processes at the cathode determine the average arc movement under the present conditions.

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Thierry Delachaux received the Dipl.Ing. and Ph.D. degrees in studied physics from Ecole Polytechnique Fdrale de Lausanne (EPFL), Lausanne, Switzerland, in 1998 and 2003, respectively. The subject of his thesis was the interaction of a lowpressure plasma discharge with ceramics. Since 2004, he has been at ABB Corporate Research Center in Baden, Switzerland, working in the eld of vacuum interrupters. His research interests include experimental methods and modeling of the vacuum arcs.

Oliver Fritz received the degree in studied physics from University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland, in 1991. After graduation, he worked on his thesis in theoretical physics which dealt with the interactions between magnetic ux lines in superconductors and small magnetic particles used as sensor tips for magnetic force microscopes. Between 1996 and 1999, he was a member of the condensed-matter theory groups at the Rutherford Appleton Laboratory, Oxford, U.K., and at the Paul Scherrer Institut, Switzerland. During this time, the main subjects of his work were the static and dynamic properties of unconventional and low-dimensional magnetic systems, and the investigation of related materials by neutron and X-ray scattering techniques. Since February 1999, he has been working at the ABB Corporate Research Center, Baden, Switzerland. As Head of the theoretical physics group, he is concerned with a variety of problems from the elds of physics and information technologies.

Ekkehard Schade received the Dipl.Ing. degree in physics from Technical University of Berlin, Berlin, Germany, in 1964 and the Dr. Ing. degree from Technical University of Munich, Munich, Germany, in 1968. His thesis was on the energy transport in high-pressure cascade arcs. Since 1968, he has been with the ABB Switzerland, Ltd., Corporate Research, Baden-Daettwil, Switzerland, in various research and leading positions, and currently as Consultant. His research interests include the basic physics of switchgear arcs in gases and metal vapor (vacuum arcs), and dielectric insulation. Dr. Schade is member of the Current Zero Club, of the Permanent Scientic Committee of the International Symposium on Discharges and Electrical Insulation in Vacuum (ISDEIV), and of the German Physical Society. In 2004, he received the Walter Dyke Award from the ISDEIV.

Dmitry L. Shmelev received the M.S. degree in physics from Ural State University, Ekaterinburg, Russia, in 1990, and the Ph.D. degree from Institute of Electrophysics of Ural branch of Russian Academy of Science, Ekaterinburg, Russia, in 1999. Since 1990, he has been working at the Institute of Electrophysics, where he is currently a Senior Researcher. His research interests include physics of vacuum discharges, magnetohydrodynamics, and numerical methods.

Dietmar Gentsch received the Dipl.Ing. degree in mechanical engineering from Institute for Mechanical Science, Technical University Hannover, Hannover, Germany, in 1992 and the Dr. Ing. degree from Institute for Electrical Science, Technical University, Braunschweig, Germany, in 2002. He worked in the eld of interruption performance of vacuum interrupter in medium-voltage switchgear and simulations in test devices at the Institute for Electrical Science, Technical University, Braunschweig, Germany. Since 1993, he has been with ABB Calor Emag Medium Voltage, Ltd., particularly in the development of material and construction of vacuum interrupter. In 2001, he is the Team Leader, and since 2005, he has been the Leader of research and development for vacuum interrupters.