Topic X Mathematical

Skills

LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to: 1. Differentiate between estimations and approximations of arithmetic results; 2. Apply simple calculations for everyday use; 3. Write algebraic statements; 4. Write simple equations; and 5. Interpret tables, graphs, quantitative information. diagrams and charts which convey

INTRODUCTION
Mathematical skills refer to skills which students are expected to use to solve mathematical problems, for example, approximation and estimation, arithmetic manipulation, algebraic manipulation and data handling.

8.1

APPROXIMATION AND ESTIMATION

This sub-topic will define approximation and estimation in greater depth.

8.1.1

Approximation

Approximation is an operation of rounding off a certain number to a value nearest to the place value stated. A number can be rounded to the nearest ten, hundred, thousand, etc.

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Example:

The time that a planet takes to complete its orbit around the sun is called period of rotation (see Figure 8.1). Table 8.1 gives the period of rotation (in years) for each planet.

Figure 8.1: Solar system Table 8.1: Period of Rotation Around the Sun for Each Planet Planet Mercury Venus Mars Jupiter Saturn Uranus Neptune Pluto Period of rotation (in years) 0.241 0.616 1.881 11.862 29.458 84.013 164.789 247.701

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Example: The period of rotation for planet Pluto is 247.701. This is rounded to: The nearest hundredth The nearest tenth The nearest one The nearest ten The nearest hundred

is is is is is

247.70 247.7 248 250 200

The general rules for rounding off are as follows: (a) If the digit after the place value to be rounded off is 5 or more than 5, then 1 is added to the digit of the place value stated. Example: 55 rounded to the nearest ten is 555 rounded to the nearest hundred is 60. 600.

(b)

If the digit after the place value to be rounded off is less than 5, then 0 is added to the place value stated. Example: 44 rounded to the nearest ten is 444 rounded to the nearest hundred is 40. 400.

8.1.2

Estimation

Before we go shopping, it is good to make an estimation of our total expenditure so that we can bring along enough money for the purchase. Example: Imagine that we are going to buy six books at RM5.80 each. To estimate the total expenditure, we need to approximate the price of a book. Using Approximation RM5.80 rounded to the nearest hundredth is RM6.00. Using Estimation At approximately RM6.00 per book, the total expenditure is then estimated at RM36.00 (RM6.00 x 6).

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SELF-CHECK 8.1
What is the difference between approximation and estimation?

ACTIVITY 8.1
1. Very often, the process of estimation involves approximation. For instance, estimate the answer for 49.5 x 1.23. Was there a process of approximation as well? Discuss. Complete the following: The period of rotation for the planet Saturn is 29.458. Rounded to: i. ii. iii. The nearest hundredth is The nearest tenth is The nearest one is _________________ _________________ _________________

2.

8.2

ARITHMETIC MANIPULATION

To be successful in any career, a good grasp of basic arithmetic is needed. You must have a sound foundation of arithmetic skills before you can begin to engage in any real problem solving.

8.2.1

Working with Whole Numbers and Their Signs

First, let us learn how to work with whole numbers (called integers), with their signs (+ or ). (a) Multiplying: When you multiply two numbers, the answer is their product. If the two numbers have the same sign, the sign of the product is +. If they differ, the product is . Examples: (+ 7) u (+ 3) = + 21 ( 4) u ( 5) = + 20 (3) u (+ 6) = 18

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(b)

Dividing:

If you divide one number by another number, the rules are the same as multiplication. (+ 25) / (+ 5) = + 5 ( 40) /( 8) = + 5 (+ 21)/ ( 3) = 7 If the two numbers have the same sign, you add their absolute values and affix their common sign. If they differ, find the difference of their absolute values and affix the sign of the number with the larger absolute value. (+ 13) + ( 3) = 13 3 = 10 ( 5) + ( 6) = 5 6 = 11 To subtract one number with a negative sign from another, change the sign of the number being subtracted and proceed as in addition. (+ 18) ( 3) = 18 + 3 = 21 ( 21) ( 5) = 21 + 5 = 16

Examples:

(c)

Adding:

Examples:

(d)

Subtracting:

Examples:

It is important for everyone to know the order in which the operations are performed so that the right result is obtained. The following order of operations is universally accepted: (i) (ii) First, perform operations within parentheses. Then, perform multiplications and divisions from left to right.

(iii) After that, perform additions and subtractions from left to right.

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8.2.2

Working with Fractions

Here are a number of rules to follow when working with fractions. (a) When you add or subtract fractions, express both fractions to the same denominator before you simplify it. If the denominators are of different multiples, then use the highest multiple. For instance, in the following example, 3 and 9 are both multiples of 3, so the highest multiple of both denominators is 9. Example:

2 5  3 9

11 2 or 1 9 9

In order for

4 to have a denominator of 9, the denominator 3 is multiplied by 5

3. Hence, the numerator 2 must also be multiplied by 3 to become 6. Now that both fractions have the same denominator, you can add or subtract the numbers. If one or more of the fractions is a mixed number, turn them into improper fractions. An improper fraction has a numerator larger than the denominator. Example:

1 2

5 1 ,4 2 2

9 2

SELF-CHECK 8.2
After your birthday party, there were two and three quarter cakes left on the table. Express the number of cakes in terms of a mixed number and then convert the number into an improper fraction.

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(b)

When you multiply two fractions, you should multiply the two numerators and the two denominators and then simplify your answer. Example:

3 5 u 2 2
(c)

3u5 2u 2

When you divide two fractions, leave the first fraction alone, change the division sign to a multiplication sign and invert the second fraction, then proceed as for multiplication. Example:

3 2 y 2 5

3 5 u 2 2

Try the following exercise to test your understanding.

SELF-CHECK 8.3
1. State the numerator and the denominator of proper or an improper fraction? 2. Describe briefly the rules of working with fractions.

4 . Is the fraction a 9

8.2.3

Working with Percentages

A percentage is a way of expressing a number as a fraction of 100. Thus, 8% effectively means And 8% of RM600 is Example:

8 100

8 u RM600 RM48 100

If you have RM200 in a savings account that pays interest 8% per year, calculation of the interest is as follows:

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Interest for 1 year =

8 u 200 RM16 100

New amount = Savings + Interest = RM200 + RM16 = RM216 Sometimes, the value of an asset depreciates with time. Example: Let us say the depreciation rate of an asset is 10% per year. Thus, if the initial cost of the asset was RM100,000, the depreciation in the first year will be as follows:

Depreciation=

10 u RM100, 000 RM10, 000 100

= = = Initial cost Depreciation RM 100,000 RM 10,000 RM 90,000

Value of the asset

8.3

ALGEBRAIC MANIPULATION

Algebra has its roots in ancient Egypt and Babylon but it was not until the third century AD that Arab mathematicians created this discipline as we know it today. Algebra uses symbols, including letters of the alphabet, in place of numbers.

8.3.1

Algebraic Expressions

Expressions which contain letters that are used to represent unknown numbers are called algebraic expressions, as shown in Figure 8.2. Example:

Figure 8.2: An algebraic expression

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Other examples of algebraic expressions are as follows: (a) (b) (c) (d) a+4 8 z c or 8c xy 1/4 h

We simplify expressions that involve like terms. These are terms of the same kind. For example, we cannot simplify 8c + 3d.

SELF-CHECK 8.4
Can you provide other examples of like terms?

8.3.2

Algebraic Equations

An equation contains an equal sign. In an equation, the symbol whose value is to be found is called the unknown. The process of finding this value is described as solving the equation. An equation of the form y = mx + c, where x is an unknown and m and c are constants, is called a linear equation. These are examples of linear equations: (a) (b) (c)

y = 2x - 3 y=3 x=2

The following are steps in solving algebraic linear equations (with one unknown): (i) (ii) Analyse the problem carefully. Identify the unknown in the problem. Use a letter to represent the unknown number in the problem (e.g., let the unknown be x).

(iii) Formulate the problem in the form of an equation. (iv) Solve the equation. (v) Substitute your solution into the equation to verify that the solution/answer is correct.

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Remember that before you can solve algebraic linear equations, you must first be able to form an algebraic equation. Example: When 5 is added to a certain number, the result is 13. Express this statement using algebraic symbols. Let the unknown number be x. Thus, the following equation expresses the information above via algebraic symbols.

x + 5 = 13

ACTIVITY 8.2
Rewrite each of the following open sentences in the form of an equation: (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) 6 more than y is 14. 15 subtracted from z gives 12. Adding 50 to the sum of X and y gives 450. The length m cm of a rectangle is 7cm more than the breadth n cm. The difference between x and y is 32, where y is less than x.

8.3.3

Inequality

When we talk about algebra, most people tend to think it only involves equality. However, this is not always true. In real life, inequality is more common than equality. In dealing with equality, we use the symbol =, which means is equal to. Table 8.2 shows the symbols for various forms of inequality and their interpretations.
Table 8.2: Symbols for Inequality Symbol > < t d Meaning is greater than is less than is greater than or equal to is less than or equal to

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The equation x = 7 is true for only one value of x, whereas the statement x > 7 is true for all values of x greater than 7. However, to solve ax2 6x < 7, we need special techniques to find the solution.

8.4

HANDLING DATA

In statistical analysis, the first step is the collection of data. We use various statistical tools and techniques to help us summarise raw data, analyse it and draw conclusions from it. Usually, we use a graph to represent statistical data. A graph has the advantage of showing us clearly the relationship between different parts of a particular set of information. However, the data shown is often an approximation. There are many ways of showing information in a graph, some of which will be discussed here.

SELF-CHECK 8.5
Explain the importance of statistics in our everyday life.

8.4.1

Types of Data

Statistical information has to be collected in the form of data. The data collected is called raw data. You can have either qualitative or quantitative data. (a) Qualitative data involves quality that we cannot measure such as colour, taste of food and types of clothes. However, quantitative data can be measured such as length, weight, volume and temperature. We can order them and assign numeric values to them. Quantitative data can be divided into two types, namely, continuous and discrete. Continuous data includes time, weight and length while discrete data includes number of persons, shoe sizes and clothing sizes.

(b)

ACTIVITY 8.3
Give examples of continuous and discrete data.

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8.4.2

Tables

The raw data collected needs to be organised so that it is easier to interpret. One of the ways to add meaning to data is to organise it in the form of tables. Consider the following information collected from people employed by a certain company (see Table 8.3).
Table 8.3: Frequency Distribution Table Employee Salesman Secretaries Drivers Accountants Engineers Number 10 3 5 8 6

The numbers in the second column are called the data. This column gives us the frequency. Frequency means the number of times an observation appears. The table above is also called a frequency distribution table. However, most people believe that a picture is worth a thousand words and prefer information presented in a graphic form. There are a number of ways to show information in this form and these will be discussed in the ensuing sub-topics.

SELF-CHECK 8.6
Ask about the hobbies of students in your tutorial class. Can you make a table like the one in Table 8.3?

8.4.3

Bar Charts

The bars of a bar chart are of equal width. The vertical scale on the left of the chart indicate frequency, so equal intervals on the scale stand for equal changes in frequency. The bars stand on a horizontal axis with gaps between them and with labels to show what each category represents (see Figure 8.3).

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Figure 8.3: Example of a bar chart

8.4.4

Pie Charts

Pie chart is another interesting way of presenting information in pictorial form. Pie charts create a visual representation that help students understand the relationships and meanings of numbers. Pie charts are useful in representing percentages, proportions and fractions. A pie chart uses a circle for the whole distribution and an individual sector to represent the classes. The angle at the centre of each sector is proportional to the frequency of the value that sector represents. The area of the sector is also proportional to the angle at the centre (see Table 8.4 and Figure 8.4).
Table 8.4: Distribution of Staff in a Computer Centre Class Operators Programmers Analysts Managers Number of Staff 20 25 10 5

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Figure 8.4: Pie chart

Try the following exercise to test your understanding.

ACTIVITY 8.4
A pie chart is shown below. Use your creativity to briefly describe what it means.

8.4.5

Histograms

A histogram is like a bar chart but there are no gaps between the bars and the horizontal axis has a linear scale. It is constructed by putting scores along the horizontal axis and the frequency with which they occur along the vertical axis. A frequency table is usually set up to prepare the data for the histogram.

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Example 1 (see Table 8.5 and Figure 8.5): :

Table 8.5: Frequency Table 1 Score 30 31 32 33 34 35 Frequency 1 2 4 4 3 2

Figure 8.5: Histogram of the frequency of scores

8.4.6

Scatter Diagrams

A scatter diagram is used to examine and help you visualise the relationship between two sets of data. Consider Figure 8.6 which highlights data collected by observing variations in two variables: x x Students performance in English. Students attitudes towards English.

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Figure 8.6: Example of a scatter diagram on directly correlated variables

The plotted points approximate to a straight line (as shown) with positive slope. This indicates a positive correlation between the two variables. Try the following exercise to test your understanding.

ACTIVITY 8.5
State two sources of statistical information that you can obtain in class.

Mathematical skills are skills that students are expected to use to solve mathematical problems. Approximation involves rounding off a certain number up to a value nearest to the place value stated. In solving mathematical problems, it is important to know the order in which mathematical operations should be performed so that the correct result is obtained. The following order of operations is universally accepted: Perform operations within parentheses;

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Perform multiplications and divisions from left to right; and Perform additions and subtractions from left to right.

Expressions which contain letters that are used to represent unknown numbers are called algebraic expressions. Data is regarded as statistical data if the numbers collected have some relationship with each other. Statistical information has to be collected in the form of raw data. Qualitative data involves quality that we cannot measure such as colour, foods and types of clothes. Quantitative data can be divided into two types continuous and discrete. Examples of continuous data include time, weight and length while examples of discrete data include number of persons, shoe sizes and clothing sizes. A histogram is like a bar chart but there are no gaps between the bars and the horizontal axis has a linear scale. The scatter diagram is a set of points scattered between the axes. It is unlikely that the points will lie along some curve or straight line but they may approximate to one.

x x

x x

Approximation Bar chart Continuous data Discreet data Equals to Estimation Histogram

Less than Linear equation More than Pie chart Qualitative Quantitative Scatter diagram