193 RESONANCE December 2005

Diracs Conception of the Magnetic Monopole, and its Modern Avatars

Diracs Conception of the Magnetic Monopole,
and its Modern Avatars
Sunil Mukhi
Sunil Mukhi is a Professor
at Tata Institute of
Fundamental Research,
Mumbai. His research
interests are string theory,
quantum field theory,
quantum gravity and
supersymmetry.
Keywords Keywords Keywords Keywords Keywords
Magnetic monopoles, charge
quantization, magnetic strings,
domain walls.
EIoctrIcIty, ^agnotIsn and OuaIIty
A cnrions ligl-sclool sinocni in ilc carly 1930`s migli
lavc spccnlaico ahoni ilc cxisicncc of magnciic mono-
polcs. Jlcrc is no rccoro of sncl a sinocni, hni if slc
lao cxisico, slc conlo lavc rcasonco as follows.
Slc wonlo lavc lcarnco ilai aioms arc maoc of clccirons
wlirling aronno a ccniral corc, ilc nnclcns. Jlc clcciron
las a ncgaiivc clccirical clargc, wlilc ilc nnclcns las a
posiiivc clargc. Opposiic clargcs aiiraci cacl oilcr via
ilc clccirosiaiic forcc, wlicl canscs ilc clccirons io siay
in ilcir orhiis aronno ilc nnclcns.
Now ii is qniic casy io conncci a pair of clargco splcrcs
wiil an insnlaiing roo. Onc splcrc can hc givcn a pos-
iiivc clargc ano ilc oilcr, an cqnal amonni of ncgaiivc
clargc. Jlns ilc wlolc ohjcci las no nci clcciric clargc.
Ii is callco an clcciric oipolc`.
Onr sinocni`s scicncc icaclcr migli lavc hrongli a sci
of sncl clcciric oipolcs io class ano carrico oni ilc fol-
lowing cxpcrimcni. Wlcn ilc posiiivcly clargco cnos of
iwo oipolcs arc hrongli closc iogcilcr, ilcy rcpcl. Jlc
samc is irnc of ilc ncgaiivcly clargco cnos. Lni wlcn
wc hring ilc posiiivc cno of onc oipolc ano ilc ncgaiivc
cno of anoilcr iogcilcr, ilcy aiiraci.
Aficr kccnly ohscrving ilcsc cxpcrimcnis, ilc sinocni
migli lavc noiicco a similariiy wiil magnciism. Wlai
wc call ilc noril` ano sonil` polcs of a har magnci
hclavc jnsi likc ilc posiiivcly ano ncgaiivcly clargco
cnos of ilc clcciric oipolc. Ior har magncis, wc know
ilai likc polcs rcpcl, ano nnlikc polcs aiiraci. Wlai is
Appeared in Vol.8, No.8, pp.17-26, 2003
194 RESONANCE December 2005
Sunil Mukhi
morc, ilc forcc hciwccn iwo har magncis slows ilc samc
variaiion wiil oisiancc ano anglc as ilc forcc hciwccn
iwo clcciric oipolcs.
If onr sinocni lao a nair for clcvcr-sonnoing cxprcssions,
slc migli lavc ocscrihco ilis similariiy as clcciric-mag-
nciic onaliiy`. Ly ilis, slc wonlo lavc mcani ilai npon
rcplacing all ilc clcciric ohjccis in an cxpcrimcni hy
ilcir magnciic connicrparis, ilc plysical hclavionr of
ilc sysicm rcmains ilc samc.
Jlongl plcasco ai lcr originaliiy, lcr scicncc icaclcr
wonlo rcgrcifnlly lavc poinico oni a naw in ilc onal-
iiy` ioca. If wc cni an clcciric oipolc in iwo hy hrcaking
ilc insnlaiing roo, wc rccovcr ilc clargco splcrcs ilai
wc siarico wiil. Lacl of ilcsc las a nci clcciric clargc
(onc is posiiivc, ilc oilcr ncgaiivc), ano can hc callco
an clcciric monopolc`. On ilc oilcr lano, wlcn wc cni
a har magnci in iwo, wc cno np noi wiil iwo magnciic
monopolcs, hni wiil iwo smallcr har magncis, cacl lav-
ing a noril polc ai onc cno ano a sonil polc ai ilc oilcr.
So clcciric ano magnciic oipolcs oo noi hclavc ilc samc
way wlcn wc cni ilcm. Jlis sccms io hc hao ncws for
onaliiy`.
Jlc sinocni fccls ilai lcr ioca was ioo clcgani io hc
rcjccico so qnickly. Slc poinis oni ilai all wc ncco io rc-
siorc clcciric-magnciic onaliiy is for magnciic monopolcs
io cxisi in nainrc, jnsi as clcciric monopolcs cxisi. Wc
oo noi nno magnciic monopolcs wlcn wc cni a har mag-
nci, hni ilcrc migli wcll hc oilcr ways of prooncing
ilcm.
Wlilc ilc ahovc anccooic is lypoilciical, onc of ilc
mosi crcaiivc minos of ilai pcrioo prohahly wcni ilrongl
a similar ilongli proccss ano camc io a similar con-
clnsion. Lni wlcn Ianl Aoricn Manricc Dirac camc io
wriic ahoni lis ilcorciical nnoings in 1931, lc cxprcssco
ilc ioca railcr oincrcnily.
195 RESONANCE December 2005
Diracs Conception of the Magnetic Monopole, and its Modern Avatars
OIrac`s ^onooIo Faor
On May 29, 1931, Dirac snhmiiico a papcr io ilc Ioyal
Sociciy wiil ilc iiilc Qnaniisco Singnlariiics in ilc
Llcciromagnciic Iiclo`. Jlis was io hc ilc nrsi signin-
cani pnhlicaiion on ilc snhjcci of magnciic monopolcs.
Jnsi a fcw ycars carlicr, in 1928, Dirac lao proposco a
wavc cqnaiion for ilc clcciron ilai saiisnco ilc princi-
plcs of spccial rclaiiviiy. Ly mailcmaiical analysis of
lis cqnaiion lc lao fonno, somcwlai io lis snrprisc,
ilai ii prcoicico ilc cxisicncc of a ncw pariiclc, similar
io ilc clcciron hni of opposiic clcciric clargc. Sncl a
pariiclc, ilc posiiron`, was oiscovcrco hy Carl Anocrson
in 1932.
Ircliminary cxpcrimcnial rcsnlis lao hccn ohiainco hy
Anocrson in ilc snmmcr of 1931, hni ii is noi clcar (ai
lcasi io mc) wlcilcr Dirac kncw of ilcsc rcsnlis ai ilc
iimc ilai lc snhmiiico lis monopolc papcr. Ccriainly
lc oio noi rcfcr io ilcm. Lni a consisicni ilcorciical
picinrc of aniipariiclcs lao cmcrgco hy ilcn, ano Dirac
sccmco saiisnco ilai ilc ioca of aniipariiclcs was cor-
rcci.
Jlc lcsson ilai Dirac orcw from ilc aniipariiclc siory
was ilai mailcmaiical consisicncy conlo hc nsco io prc-
oici a ncw clcmcniary pariiclc. Ii was hccoming ioo oif-
ncnli io ocvclop ilcorciical plysics in ilc oircci way: hy
analysing cxpcrimcnial rcsnlis ano proposing ilcorciical
formnlac io ni ilcm. Hc snggcsico ilai ilc ilcorciical
workcr in ilc fninrc will ilcrcforc lavc io proccco in
a morc inoircci way', hy irying io pcrfcci ano gcncr-
alisc ilc mailcmaiical formalism ilai forms ilc cxisi-
ing hasis of ilcorciical plysics'. Jlis conlo lcao io ncw
ilcorciical prcoiciions, ano cxpcrimcnis wonlo only hc
invokco ai a laicr siagc io connrm ilcm.
Wiil ilis hclicf, Dirac occioco io go occp inio ilc fonn-
oaiions of qnaninm ilcory ano invcsiigaic ilc mcaning
The theoretical
worker in the
future will therefore
have to proceed in
a more indirect
way, by trying to
perfect and
generalise the
mathematical
formalism that
forms the existing
basis of theoretical
physics
196 RESONANCE December 2005
Sunil Mukhi
of clargc. Hc was loping io cxplain ilc qnaniisaiion
of clcciric clargc ilc faci ilai ii always appcars in
wlolc mnliiplcs of a hasic nnii. Hc oio noi nno sncl an
cxplanaiion, hni insicao sinmhlco on somciling closcly
rclaico a law rclaiing ilc qnania of clcciric ano mag-
nciic clargc, now known as Dirac`s qnaniisaiion con-
oiiion`. In ilc proccss, lc provioco ilc nrsi convincing
argnmcni ilai magnciic monopolcs arc consisicni oh-
jccis wiilin ilc framcwork of qnaninm mcclanics.
Accoroing io qnaninm mcclanics, ilc prohahiliiy am-
pliinoc for a pariiclc is givcn hy a wavc fnnciion`, a
complcx nnmhcr ai cacl poini of spacc. Jlc plasc pari
of ilis complcx nnmhcr is a snhilc qnaniiiy. Ii oocs
noi conirihnic io ilc ahsolnic sqnarc of ilc wavc fnnc-
iion, wlicl iclls ns ilc prohahiliiy ilai a pariiclc is in
a givcn placc. Lni ii conirihnics if wc nrsi snpcrposc
iwo oincrcni wavc fnnciions (wiil oincrcni plascs) ano
ilcn sqnarc ilcm. Jlc plasc is ilc sonrcc of all plc-
nomcna in qnaninm mcclanics ilai go hy ilc namc of
inicrfcrcncc`.
Dirac pni ilis plasc facior nnocr lis formioahlc inicl-
lccinal microscopc. Dio ii lavc io hc inicgrahlc` Jlis
amonnico io asking wlcilcr, if ilc plasc of a wavc fnnc-
iion was followco wlilc iravcrsing a closco pail, ii camc
hack io iis original valnc or noi. If noi, ii was saio io hc
non-inicgrahlc`. Dirac conclnoco ilai non-inicgrahlc
plasc faciors wcrc allowco in qnaninm mcclanics, hni
ilcy conlo only arisc if an clcciromagnciic nclo was
prcscni. An oroinary plysicisi migli lavc sioppco ai
ilis vcry rcasonahlc conclnsion, hni Dirac ilcn wcni onc
sicp fnrilcr.
Hc noico ilai any anglc, inclnoing ilc plasc of ilc wavc
fnnciion, is ocnnco only np io ilc aooiiion of mnliiplcs
of 2. Dincrcni closco pails conlo in principlc lcao io
oincrcni jnmps in ilc wavc fnnciion, as long as all ilc
jnmps wcrc mnliiplcs of ilis nnii. His analysis rcvcalco
197 RESONANCE December 2005
Diracs Conception of the Magnetic Monopole, and its Modern Avatars
ilai ilis in inrn was possihlc only if, ai somc poini in
spacc, ilcrc was a magnciic monopolc. A linc in spacc,
ilai Dirac callco a nooal linc`, wonlo cmanaic from ilc
monopolc, ano ilc plascs of wavc fnnciions wonlo jnmp
or noi ocpcnoing on wlcilcr ilc closco pail cncirclco
ilis nooal linc. Jlis linc was laicr io hc onhhco ilc
Dirac siring`.
In orocr for ilc jnmps in ilc plasc io acinally hc mnlii-
plcs of 2, ilc monopolc lao io lavc a clargc wlicl,
iogcilcr wiil ilc smallcsi clcciric clargc in ilc Uni-
vcrsc, ohcyco ilc rclaiion
= 2
wlcrc is Ilanck`s consiani.
Wiil consiocrahlc saiisfaciion, Dirac conclnoco ilai noi
only can magnciic monopolcs cxisi, hni if ilcy oo, ilcn
clcciric clargc in ilc Univcrsc is qnaniisco. Jlc min-
imnm clcciric clargc is ocicrminco hy ilc valnc of ilc
magnciic clargc.
Having prcscnico ilis cxiraoroinary insigli, Dirac con-
clnoco lis papcr on a moocsi noic: ilc ohjcci lao
hccn io slow ilai qnaninm mcclanics oocs noi rc-
ally prcclnoc ilc cxisicncc of isolaico magnciic polcs'.
No clangc in qnaninm mcclanical ilcory was rcqnirco,
jnsi a occpcr nnocrsianoing of ii. Dirac fcli ilai ilis
was gooo cnongl rcason for magnciic monopolcs io cx-
isi ilcy wcrc pcrmiiico hy lis analysis, ano lc wonlo
hc snrprisco if Nainrc lao maoc no nsc of ii'.
In lis papcr, Dirac also noico ilai ilc cxisicncc of mag-
nciic monopolcs wonlo rcsiorc clcciric-magnciic onaliiy.
As lc pni ii, ilc ilcorciical rcciprociiy hciwccn clcc-
iriciiy ano magnciism is pcrfcci'.
Dirac`s proposal of ilc monopolc lco io a nnmhcr of
inicrcsiing ocvclopmcnis. Onc of ilcsc was ilc ohscr-
vaiion, onc io Mcglnao Sala, ilai a pariiclc conlo in
Quantum
mechanics does
not really preclude
the existence of
isolated magnetic
poles
The theoretical
reciprocity
between electricity
and magnetism is
perfect
198 RESONANCE December 2005
Sunil Mukhi
principlc lavc hoil clcciric ano magnciic clargc. Sncl
a pariiclc wonlo hc callco a oyon`. Jlc qnaniisaiion
conoiiion on iis clargcs, ocrivco hy Sala, inrnco oni
io hc an clcgani gcncralisaiion of ilc onc proposco hy
Dirac for monopolcs.
^agnotIc ^onooIos In FIoId Thoory
Jlc lanoscapc of ilcorciical plysics clangco rapioly
ilrongl ilc mioolc of ilc iwcniicil ccninry. Ly ilc
1900`s ii was clcar ilai qnaninm mcclanics alonc was
noi cnongl io nnocrsiano all proccsscs involving clc-
mcniary pariiclcs. Jlc incorporaiion of spccial rcla-
iiviiy incviiahly rcqnirco ilc possihiliiy of pariiclc crc-
aiion ano ocsirnciion. Jlis in inrn rcqnirco a formal-
ism ilai was noi hasco on inoivional pariiclcs (as ilcsc
conlo hc crcaico ano ocsiroyco) hni railcr, on nclos of
forcc. Jlcsc hccamc ilc fnnoamcnial hniloing hlocks,
ano ilc rcsnliing qnaninm nclo ilcory` is ilc hasic iool
hy wlicl ilc plysics of clcmcniary pariiclcs is nnocr-
siooo iooay.
Lcsiocs ilc clcciromagnciic nclo, ilcrc arc oilcr forccs
hy wlicl clcmcniary pariiclcs inicraci, in pariicnlar ilc
wcak ano sirong nnclcar forccs. Jlcsc arc ocscrihco hy a
gcncralisaiion of clcciromagnciism callco gangc ilcory`
or YangMills ilcory`.
In ilc 1970`s, Gcraro `i Hoofi in ilc Ncilcrlanos ano
Alcxanocr Iolyakov in Inssia wcrc sinoying ilc prop-
criics of YangMills ilcorics wlcn ilcy cnconnicrco a
snrprising rcsnli. In ilcsc ilcorics onc conlo nno cxci-
iaiions of ilc YangMills nclo wlicl, ai largc oisianccs,
lookco jnsi likc Dirac`s magnciic monopolcs. Howcvcr,
ai slori oisianccs ilcy lookco vcry oincrcni, wiil all
kinos of oilcr nclos hcsiocs ilc clcciromagnciic onc hc-
ing cxciico. Jlcsc wcrc novcl cxamplcs of soliions`,
localisco ano rclaiivcly siahlc nclo cxciiaiions ilai hc-
lavco mncl likc clcmcniary pariiclcs.
The incorporation
of special relativity
inevitably required
the possibility of
particle creation
and destruction.
199 RESONANCE December 2005
Diracs Conception of the Magnetic Monopole, and its Modern Avatars
A rcmarkahlc fcainrc of ilcsc i HoofiIolyakov` mono-
polcs is ilai ilcy oo noi posscss ilc nooal linc or Dirac
siring. Jlc laiicr lao hccn a somcwlai nnocsirahlc
fcainrc of ilc Dirac monopolc. Alilongl ii conlo noi
hc oirccily ohscrvco, ii lao io hc prcscni somcwlcrc in
spacc ano sccmco railcr arhiirary. Jlc ncw YangMills
monopolcs wcrc smooil lnmps carrying magnciic clargc
hni wiil no sirings coming oni.
Jlc i HoofiIolyakov monopolc laicr fonno a nainral
sciiing in ilc conicxi of grano nninco ilcorics`. Ac-
coroing io ilcsc railcr spccnlaiivc ilcorics, ilc carly
Univcrsc was in a liglly symmciric plasc wlcrc clcc-
iromagnciism as sncl oio noi lavc a mcaning. As ilc
Univcrsc coolco, ilc forcc of clcciromagnciism cmcrgco`
from ilc morc complicaico YangMills nclo. Wlcn ilis
lappcnco, magnciic monopolcs conlo hc formco. Insioc
ilc monopolcs ilc worlo wonlo look likc ilc symmciric
plasc of ilc nninco ilcory, hni onisioc ilc monopolcs
wc wonlo scc oroinary clcciromagnciism. Jlc monopolc
wonlo hc a sori of iwisi` or `ocfcci`, in spacc.
In mosi ilcorics, ilc nnmhcr of sncl monopolcs ilai
wcrc crcaico wlcn ilc Univcrsc coolco wonlo lavc hccn
railcr small. Sincc ilcy arc now oisirihnico ovcr ilc
cniirc Univcrsc, ilcir ocnsiiy wonlo hc ioo small for ns
io cvcr ocicci ilcm, nnlcss wc wcrc cspccially lncky. In-
occo, many aiicmpis lavc hccn maoc io ocicci magnciic
monopolcs hni io oaic, nonc lavc hccn fonno. Mncl as
ilis is oisappoiniing, ii sccms io hc consisicni wiil ilc
calcnlaiions of nninco ilcorics. In ilis conicxi wc conlo
wcll acccpi ilai monopolcs cxisi in nainrc, hni arc ioo
scarcc io hc ohscrvco.
Anoilcr class of nninco ilcorics ilai allow magnciic
monopolc cxciiaiions arc ilc liglcr oimcnsional, or Ka-
lnzaKlcin, ilcorics. Ii is an olo spccnlaiion ilai ilc
rcal worlo inirinsically las morc ilan ilrcc spaiial oi-
mcnsions. Jlc oncs ilai wc oo noi scc arc snpposco
It is an old
speculation that
the real world
intrinsically has
more than three
spatial dimensions.
200 RESONANCE December 2005
Sunil Mukhi
io hc compaci`, cnrlco np on ilcmsclvcs in small cir-
clcs. In sncl ilcorics, ii was fonno hy Iafacl Sorkin,
Davio Gross ano Malcolm Icrry ilai onc can nno cxci-
iaiions of ilc graviiaiional nclo wlicl hclavc likc mag-
nciic monopolcs ai largc oisianccs from a ccniral corc`.
Insioc ilc corc, spacc acinally appcars io lavc a liglcr
oimcnsion! Lni onisioc ii wc arc in normal spacc. Ii
hcgan io look as if monopolcs wcrc nainral in any nclo
ilcory, ilongl Dirac lao only posinlaico ilcm in ilc
conicxi of ilc qnaninm mcclanics of ilc carly 1930`s.
Extondod ^onooIos
Jo wriic a mailcmaiical ocscripiion of magnciic mono-
polcs as nclo cxciiaiions, wc siari hy assnming ilai ilc
cxciiaiion is localisco, likc a lnmp`. Jlcn wc solvc
ilc corrcsponoing nclo cqnaiions`. Inocco, ilc simplcsi
monopolcs arc splcrical, making ilc cqnaiions rclaiivcly
simplc io solvc.
Howcvcr, a oincrcni siariing assnmpiion lcaos io nclo
cxciiaiions ilai arc cxicnoco. Snpposc ilai wc look for
an cxciiaiion ilai is narrow in iwo spaiial oircciions,
hni cxicnoco for a largc oisiancc along onc oircciion.
Ii looks railcr likc a narrow inhc. Insioc ilis inhc ilc
nclos arc liglly cxciico, jnsi as ilcy arc in ilc corc of a
monopolc. Sncl an ohjcci can hc callco a soliion siring`
hccansc of iis slapc. Sncl ilings arc noi as cxoiic as
wc migli ilink: for cxamplc a iornaoo or iwisicr` is
a nainrally occnrring ohjcci vcry mncl likc a soliion
siring.
In sniiahlc nclo ilcorics ilcrc arc soliion sirings ilai
carry a nxco magnciic clargc pcr nnii lcngil. Jlcy
arc magnciic sirings`, railcr likc cxicnoco magnciic
monopolcs. Ohjccis of ilis iypc arc somciimcs callco
cosmic sirings`, ano migli also lavc hccn prooncco in
ilc carly Univcrsc wlcn ii coolco.
Can wc nno nclo cxciiaiions ilai arc cxicnoco in iwo
201 RESONANCE December 2005
Diracs Conception of the Magnetic Monopole, and its Modern Avatars
spaiial oircciions, likc a slcci Sncl ohjccis ioo arc
known, ano arc callco mcmhrancs` or oomain walls` hc-
cansc ilcy can cxicno ovcr vcry largc arcas, likc a wall
oivioing spacc inio rcgions. Likc soliion lnmps ano soli-
ion sirings, ilcsc ioo can carry magnciic clargc. If wc
crossco ilc oomain wall, ilc Univcrsc wonlo appcar io
clangc iis plysical propcriics. Ior cxamplc, on onc sioc
ilcrc conlo hc pcrvasivc magnciic nclos wlicl arc ah-
scni on ilc oilcr sioc, onc io ilc magnciic clargc siorco
in ilc wall. Sncl oomain walls arc popnlar in somc cos-
mological ilcorics wlicl rcqnirc oincrcni paris of ilc
Univcrsc io ohcy sccmingly oincrcni laws of plysics.
Jlc mosi conicmporary class of nninco ilcorics is ilc
ilcory of sirings. Jlis ilcory posinlaics ilai all ilc
fnnoamcnial pariiclcs arc rcally iiny loops of a fnnoa-
mcnial siring`, ano ilai vihraiions of ilcsc sirings in
oincrcni moocs lcao io ilc ohscrvco oincrcnccs among
pariiclcs. Sncl ilcorics iypically rcqnirc spacc io lavc a
largc nnmhcr of inocpcnocni oimcnsions (sncl as ninc,
railcr ilan ilc cxpcrimcnially ohscrvco ilrcc). In ilcsc
ilcorics ilcrc is lois of room io makc ohjccis ilai arc cx-
icnoco in 1,2,3... oimcnsions. Jlcsc arc callco hrancs`,
a woro ocrivco from mcmhrancs. Somc of ilcsc arc mag-
nciically clargco, oilcrs lavc hoil clcciric ano mag-
nciic clargc. Jlcy arc ccniral io ilc sirncinrc of siring
ilcory, wlicl morcovcr las a largc sci of onaliiy sym-
mcirics incorporaiing clcciric-magnciic onaliiy. In ilis
scnsc, moocrn avaiars of Dirac`s monopolc play a ccniral
rolc in onr conccpiion of nainrc iooay.

Dirac`s plilosoply of mailcmaiical clcgancc lco io lis

pionccring work on magnciic monopolcs ano inspirco
a largc nnmhcr of snhscqncni ocvclopmcnis. Ii rcmains
irnc ilai magnciic monopolcs lavc ncvcr hccn ociccico,
ocspiic nnmcrons aiicmpis, hni aficr all ii was Dirac
wlo oncc rcmarkco, Ii is morc imporiani io lavc hcaniy
The most
contemporary
class of unified
theories is the
theory of strings.
In this sense,
modern avatars of
Diracs monopole
play a central role
in our conception
of nature today.
202 RESONANCE December 2005
Sunil Mukhi
Address for Correspondence
Sunil Mukhi
Tata Institute of Fundamental
Research
Homi Bhabha Road
Mumbai 400 005, India.
Prof. S N Bose, Dr Poornima Sinha (his first Ph.D.
student) and Prof. Dirac in the Botanical Gardens,
Calcutta in 1954.
in onc`s cqnaiions ilan io lavc ilcm ni cxpcrimcni'.
Onc migli ilcrcforc assnmc ilai lc was morc ilan sai-
isnco wiil ilc impaci of ilis work.
Jlis is noi qniic ilc casc. Jowaros ilc cno of lis lifc,
ilc complcic lack of cxpcrimcnial cviocncc for magnciic
monopolcs hcgan io wcigl on lim. In 1981, a ycar slori
of lis 80il hiriloay, lc was inviico io Jricsic for a
confcrcncc io commcmoraic ilc 0il annivcrsary of lis
monopolc papcr. Hc occlinco ilc inviiaiion onc io ilc
sirain of iravclling, hni scni a lciicr of ilanks io Ahons
Salam, ilc Nohcl Lanrcaic ano Dirccior of ilc Ccnirc
ai Jricsic. In ilis lciicr, Dirac wroic: I am inclinco
now io hclicvc ilai monopolcs oo noi cxisi. So many
ycars lavc gonc hy wiiloni any cnconragcmcni from ilc
cxpcrimcnial sioc.'
Dirac passco away ncarly iwo occaocs ago, hni ii rc-
mains io hc ocicrminco wlo was rigli ahoni monopolcs:
Dirac in 1931, or Dirac in 1981.