Paper 7 Notes Chemistry

Health and Safety Eye protection Laboratory coats Plastic gloves Substances spilled on skin Rinsed off immediately Chemicals never tasted Gases and vapours Never be smelt unless question instructs

Reducing risk (Likelihood of harm) Smaller scale Lower concentration Careful planning + risk assessment Fume cupboard + eye goggles Temp kept low to reduce rate of reaction Alternative methods used which are less hazardous (Hazard Situation which is likely to cause harm)

Accuracy Titres average To two dps Two titres should be within 0.20cm3 Burette readings To the nearest 0.05cm3 Repeating the same experiment with the same apparatus wont increase accuracy Same systematic errors could occur To increase accuracy of titration: o Use white tile beneath conical flask o Ensure there are no air bubbles o Read burette at eye level o Swirl flask o Ensure burette is vertical

Errors Graphs Dependent (Quantity being measured) Y-Axis Independent (Pre-determined quantity) X-Axis Error in the reading = (Uncertainty in the equipment / The reading) * 100% Improper use of burette or pipette Inaccurate result in titration

Laboratory skills Burettes, pipette and measuring cylinders Should be rinsed with the solution they are to contain Conical flask (Used in titration) + Volumetric flask (Used to prepare solution) Should be rinsed with distilled water Burette should be read at eye level Thermometers + stirring rods removed from solution Drops could be lost

Flame tests Dip a nichrome wire in concentrated hydrochloric acid, dip this in the solid, and hold wire in the hottest part of the flame, observe colour Sodium Yellow Potassium Lilac Calcium Red-yellow Lithium + strontium Red Barium Green Magnesium No colour

Heating compounds Carbonates of metals (except group 1) CO2 Group 1 nitrates (Except Lithium) O2 ONLY Nitrates (Other than Na or K) O2 and NO2 Hydrated salts Water

Common gases Oxygen Colourless gas, relights glowing splint Carbon dioxide Colourless gas, gives a white precipitate (turns cloudy) with limewater (Calcium hydroxide solution) Ammonia Colourless gas, turns moist red litmus paper blue, forms white smoke with Hydrogen Chloride Hydrogen Colourless gas, ignites with a pop Nitrogen dioxide Brown gas (BROWNITROGENDIOXIDE) Hydrogen chloride Steamy fumes on exposure to moist air, acidic, forms white smoke with ammonia Chlorine Pale green gas, bleaches moist litmus paper Bromine Brown gas Iodine Purple vapour Water vapour Turns blue cobalt chloride paper pink (Blue Pink, BP!!) Sulfur dioxide Turns filter paper soaked in acidified aqueous potassium dichromate from orange to green Redox reaction o Sulfur = yellow solid

Dilute acids Dilute Sulfuric acid (H2SO4) or Hydrochloric acid (HCl) added to a substance: Carbonate CO2 evolved Metal H2 evolved Chromate (VI) to dichromate (VI) Yellow solution turns orange Thiosulfate SO2 evolved and pale yellow precipitate formed

Reducing agents Usually: Decolourise aqueous acidified potassium manganite (VIII) May turns aqueous, acidified potassium dichromate (VI) from Orange to Green

Oxidising agents Liberate iodine as a BROWN solution or BLACK solid from aqueuous potassium iodide Iodine solution gives a blue-black coloration with starch E.g: Aqueous chlorine and aqueous bromine

Dilute sodium hydroxide (NaOH) Magnesium, calcium, strontium, barium White ppte, insoluble in excess NaOH Sodium, potassium No ppte Ammonium No ppte, ammonia evolved on warming

Dilute ammonia solution (NH3) Magnesium White ppte, insoluble in excess

Aqueous barium chloride Sulfate White ppte (BaSO4) Insoluble in dilute HCl Sulfite White ppte (BaSO3) Dissolves in dilute HCl Carbonate White ppte (BaCO3) Dissolves with effervescence

If HCl added before aqueous BaCl, only sulfate will form as a ppte Test for halides Carbonates removed and solution neutralized by adding dilute nitric acid before the aqueous silver nitrate Add aqueous silver nitrate Chloride White ppte which darkens in sunlight (AgCl) Dissolves in dilute aqueous NH3 Bromide Cream ppte which darkens in sunlight (AgBr) Dissolves in concentrated aqueous NH3 Iodide Yellow ppte which doesnt darken in sunlight (AgI) Doesnt dissolve

Concentrated sulfuric acid Burns skin, corrosive, very exothermic Added to solid halide Potentially hazardous reaction, use fume cupboard, small scale: Halide Chloride Bromide Iodide Observation on adding concentrated H2SO4 Steamy fumes, vigorous reaction Steamy fumes, vigorous reaction, brown vapour Steamy fumes, vigorous reaction, black solid, purple vapour Observed reaction products HCl HBr, Br2, SO2 HI, I2, S, H2S

Chemical test Test Warm with acidified potassium dichromate (VI) Shake with bromine water PCl5 (Phosphorous (V) Chloride) Boil with Fehlings or Benedicts solution Add sodium or potassium carbonate Add a small piece of sodium Observation Orange to Green Inference Primary, secondary alcohol, aldehyde Alkene OH group in alcohols and carboxylic acids Cl replaces OH Aldehyde

Yellow solution is decolourised Steamy fumes of HCl that turn damn blue litmus paper red

Blue solution gives red ppte

Effervescence Effervescence Sodium dissolved White solid formed Temperature gets hot

Carboxylic acid Alcohol, carboxylic acid

Chlorine Yellowy/greeny gas Bromine Red/brown liquid Iodine Black/gray solid

Gas syringe

Distillation: -> Collection vessel shouldnt be sealed -> Water should go in against direction of gravity

Reflux:

Separating funnel

Aqueous layer is always denser so it goes to the bottom. To separate: Run off lower layer to waste Run off upper layer (the desired product) to flask

Acids Hydrochloric acid HCl Sulfuric acid H2SO4 Nitric acid HNO3 CnH2n+2 CnH2n CnH2n+2O CnH2n-1X CnH2nO CnH2nO CnH2nO2

Alkane Alkene Alcohol Halogenoalkane Aldehyde Ketone Carboxylic Acid

Random notes collected from mark schemes Drying agent Calcium chloride Filter paper Might absorb some of the product Indicator of iodine and sodium thiosulfate Starch, which changes from blue-black to colourless Sample washed with carbonate Neutralises acid Reflux primary alcohol Carboxylic acid Distill primary alcohol Aldehyde Purify sample by distillation Group 1 and 2 oxides and hydroxides are white solids Solution should be continuously stirred so that the heat is evenly distributed Putting lid on cup gives more accurate results Alkene + Bromine water Double bond broken, Br added to each C (Two Brs added) Decant Pour off liquid, leaving solid behind Preparing saturated solution: 1. 2. 3. 4. Add excess of solid to water until no more dissolves Head it Leave to cool Decant

Standard enthalpy change in kJ mol-1, we assume density of solution is 1g cm-1 Always recheck numbers youre using, and recheck calculations! Limewater Calcium hydroxide Ca(OH)2 in water

For quicker reaction Secondary halogenoalkane No water added Lower yield, dehydration to alkene Yield is not 100% because: Reaction didnt go to completion Side reactions Solution lost o In aqueous layers o In apparatus