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Urban solid waste generation in Port Harcourt metropolis and its implications for waste management
D.N. Ogbonna
Department of Applied and Environmental Biology, Rivers State University of Science and Technology, Port Harcourt, Nigeria

Urban solid waste generation in Port Harcourt 71

G.T. Amangabara
Ofce of the Shell Professorial Chair on Environmental Studies, Institute of Pollution Studies, Rivers State University of Science and Technology, Port Harcourt, Nigeria, and

T.O. Ekere
Department of Environmental Health, Shell Petroleum Development Company, Port Harcourt, Nigeria
Abstract
Purpose The purpose of this paper is to examine the impact of rapid population growth due to uncontrolled and unplanned urbanization as it affects environmental degradation through solid waste generation in Port Harcourt Metropolis, which has brought about the problem of solid waste management to city authorities and state government Design/methodology/approach The study involved the administration of questionnaires to 76 different households with a total population of 393 persons giving an average size of 7 persons per household. Also, formal interviews with ofcials of relevant government departments as wells as private stakeholders in urban solid waste management were conducted. The questionnaires were designed to elicit information on the characteristics of the respondents and waste generation capacity as well as disposal methods. The data abstracted from the questionnaires were analysed using the multiple linear regression to test for the signicant differences. The study period was between January 1999 to December 1999 Findings A total of 207.3 tonnes of solid waste was generated giving per capita annual waste generation rate of 0.53 tonnes equivalent to a waste generator rate of 1.45 kg of waste per capita daily. Analysis of solid waste composition was by land use types. The study showed that cartoons accounted for 16.1 percent, while papers and food remnants had 14.4 percent and 26.6 percent of total waste generated respectively. Practical implications Assist city dwellers tackle the problem posed by urban waste through provision of adequate infrastructure and social services. Originality/value The paper suggests continuous enlightenment programmes as well as employment of good technical services in the management of solid waste rather than the use of political will to tackle the problems. This work is original, as no such analysis has been carried out in Port Harcourt metropolis. The paper has provided data and knowledge upon which further research can be carried out. Keywords Waste handling, Waste management, Waste disposal, Urban areas, Nigeria Paper type General review

Management of Environmental Quality: An International Journal Vol. 18 No. 1, 2007 pp. 71-88 q Emerald Group Publishing Limited 1477-7835 DOI 10.1108/14777830710717730

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Introduction One major problem of urbanisation is solid waste generation. This problem has become more severe over the last ten years (Onibokun, 1989). Because of the increasing population and the increasing waste generation rates due to increased consumption of a range of products and its associated packaging, heaps of MSW along major roads, stream channels, riverbanks and in open spaces are very common in Nigeria (Ogbonna et al., 2002). In recognition of the monumental challenges of MSW management, Governments in Nigeria have attempted to tackle waste management issues through the task force approach. This approach involves: . the designation of solid waste collection centres on major roads and public markets; and . the use of local contractors/agencies to evacuate the waste generated. The City is usually demarcated into several zones for each local contractor. However, This approach has been found to be counter productive in the long run as it has created more problems due to lack of coordination on the part of the Government and inadequate solid waste management knowledge of the responsible agencies. Solid waste dumped along roadsides are usually left over a long time to decompose naturally (by micro organisms), eaten by animals, picked by scavengers or washed away by the oods into the larger creek and rivers thus affecting the surface water quality (Nweke, 2000). In addition to the degradation of the physical environment, this condition impacts the natural environment aesthetically and health wise. They harbour ies, eas, mosquitoes, rats and other disease vectors, which could cause several diseases such as Lassa fever, malaria, lariasis, yellow fever (Ekugo, 1998). The constant presence of litter may be psychologically depressing to a city dweller and clearly stands in way of tourism development. Also, uncollected litters can also in effect attract more litters perpetuating poor solid waste management practices. As a result, there is unsustainable and wasteful utilization of resources which give rise to pollution of rivers and lakes resulting in extensive sh kills and destruction of other forms of aquatic life due to increased organic load and the concomitant depletion of dissolved oxygen in the water (Sundaresan, 1977; Ajiwe et al., 2000; Phiri et al., 2005; Emongor et al., 2005.) Lack of adequate data on solid waste generation has resulted in ineffective planning for solid waste management (PAI Associates, 1982; Onokerhoraye, 1985). This has greatly contributed to indiscriminate dumping of wastes on the roads, stream channels, bush lands and open spaces (Sule, 1982; Adedibu, 1983; Ayoade, 1983; Folarin, 1995; Ibitoye, 1995; Ogbonna et al., 2002, Ekere, 2003), thus defacing the landscape of the city, causing ooding and spread of vector borne diseases. Previously, Nigerian government made use of sanitary inspectors or public health workers to monitor waste generation and management. This method for sometime now has not been operational and the issue of sanitation in the cities has been left to inexperienced contractors who rather see solid waste management simply as moving from one dump point to another. This paper therefore highlights the solid waste generation rate; pattern and possible management strategies, which is sustainable for the inhabitants of Port Harcourt metropolis.

Solid waste generation and characteristics Studies have shown that solid waste characteristics in Nigeria are similar to those of other third world countries (Pickford, 1983; Chefetz et al., 1996). Nwankwo (1994) classied solid waste in Nigeria into three basic categories, namely: (1) Residential which include commercial, homes, stores, hotels and restaurants. (2) Municipal which include streets, sidewalk and alleys. (3) Industrial which include factories, power plants, construction sites, sewage treatment plants, septic tanks and vacant plots. He noted that municipal or urban solid waste comprised of 55 percent paper, 21 percent food waste, 7 percent glass, 4 percent wood, 5 percent residence wastes, 5 percent plastic and 3 percent others. Generally, waste of all forms are primarily the creation of normal human living, it is to be expected that the more people living in a particular physical space, the more acute will be the problem of waste. Population therefore constitutes a vital component of urban solid waste management and disposal. The 1991 base population census gure for Port Harcourt metropolis stood at 653,183, and the nationally adopted average annual growth rate for rural areas is 2.5 percent and 3.0 percent for urban area (Federal Ofce of Statistics, 1991). The current estimated population of Port Harcourt is about 1,356,000 (Federal Ofce of Statistics, 2003) with an estimated municipal solid waste (category 1-3 above) generated as around 1,393,880 kg/day with each of the zones in the metropolis on average generating 199,126 kg/day with approximately 1.03 kg/person/day (Ayotamuno and Gobo, 2004) (see Table I). A joint study by both the Rivers State Ministry of Environment, and Agip Oil Company Limited Port Harcourt, estimated 342,352 metric tons of municipal solid waste generated in Port Harcourt metropolis in the year 2001 compared to 273,095 metric tons in 2000 representing about 25.4 percent increase in annual waste generation rate in the city. Dike (2003) blamed the deplorable state of sanitation in Port Harcourt and its environs on democratic rule. Politicians in order to do away with every structure put in place by the Military abolished the monthly environmental sanitation exercise, which was effective for over ten years. People lost consciousness to
Estimated annual municipal solid waste generated (tonnes) 113,300 73,386 32,327 78,603 733,542 33,977 72,066 2,937,687.5 285,466 Waste generated per head per year (t/person/year) 0.21 0.179 0.037 0.146 0.550 0.50 0.076 0.5110 0.404

Urban solid waste generation in Port Harcourt 73

City Aba Abeokuta Benin City Enugu Ibadan Jos Kano Lagos Port Harcourt

Estimated 1994 population 539,973 409,601 853,394 538,379 1,335,935 680,630 948,381 5,748,587 705,774

Source: Enugu State Environmental Sanitation Authority (1994)

Table I. Waste generated per head per year for selected Nigerian cities

MEQ 18,1

take appropriate care of their immediate environment but rather relapsed into the old ways of indiscriminate dumping of these solid wastes and utter neglect of their immediate environment. Area of study: Port Harcourt Port Harcourt is situated within the Niger Delta region at the southernmost part of Nigeria and it is bound by longitude 68560 to 78070 E and latitude 48440 to 48520 N of the Equator (Figure 1). It has a plain topography and about 5 m above sea level. This plain is well drained and provides several connections with the sea (Gulf of Guinea) by a large number of creeks and channels. Five streams drain the Port Harcourt Metropolis connecting to the several Creeks that leads to the Sea. Port Harcourt climate falls within the sub equatorial climate belt. Temperature and humidity are high throughout the year. The area is marked by two distinct seasons the wet and the dry seasons with 70 percent of the annual rains falling between April and August, while 22 percent is spread in the three months of September to November. The driest months are from December to March (Gobo, 1998; Ayotamuno et al., 2000) with humidity oscillating between 80 percent and 90 percent. The soil type consists mainly of poorly drained silt clays mixed with sand, which is geologically classied under the Benin formation. Established in 1912; administratively it is made up of two local government Authorities The Port Harcourt City Local Government and Obio/Akpor Local Government Councils. Port Harcourt, the Capital City/Seat of Government of Rivers State is also the hub of the oil and Gas industry in Nigeria. The activities of these oil companies generate solid, liquid and gaseous waste such as drill cuttings, uids, lube oil, paper printer cartridges, food waste, batteries, tyres, associated gas, scrap metals, produced water etc. Solid waste management infrastructure Port Harcourt at its establishment was 30,000 acres (315 km2) but it has since expanded northward to about 470 km. Its development has mainly been determined by its origin as a port situated on a narrow peninsular and surrounded by many native villages. The old Port Harcourt Township was laid out with a proper town plan and basic infrastructure such as well-paved roads good drainage network markets and waste disposal centres. But due to rapid growth in population from the 1950s following the oil boom, uncontrolled development began to take place as many native villages gradually develop into suburban residential areas with no proper government control. At present Port Harcourt is characterised by a rapid population increase severe housing shortage and unplanned roads networks etc. The management of Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) has traditionally been the exclusive responsibility of the local or municipal governments. The City Council (Port Harcourt City Council), have historically been responsible for managing MSW generated within the Port Harcourt Metropolis (The current Obio/Akpor and Port Harcourt City Local Government Areas.) However, in 1986 the Rivers State Environmental Sanitation edict was enacted and from about 1989 in line with agenda 21 which emphasizes the need for all countries to maintain the quality of the Earths environment and especially achieve environmentally-sound and sustainable development that the Rivers State Government promulgated the Rivers State Refuse Collection and Disposal Law of 1991 as well as the Rivers State Environmental

74

Urban solid waste generation in Port Harcourt 75

Figure 1. Map of Port Harcourt metropolis

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Protection Agency Law of 1991 giving power to the State government to create particular parastatals to manage MSW thus eroding the traditional functions of local government councils in conict with paragraph (h) of the fourth schedule of the Nigerian 1999 constitution which maintains the status quo of management of MSW to local government authorities. The Rivers State Environmental Sanitation Authority (RSESA), a parasatal under the Rivers State Ministry of Environment was established by edict to manage the Solid waste generated with the metropolis and its environs. One of the major works of RSESA is to supervise the contractors appointed by the State Government to collect and dispose off municipal solid waste. The Government provide places and/or large bins at market places and at street corners and road junctions for residents to dump their household wastes. The solid waste disposal contractors then evacuate these wastes by method described by Ayotamuno and Gobo (2004) Methodology Direct measurements, formal interview with ofcials of relevant government departments as well as some private companies charged with the task of refuse collection as well as the administration of questionnaire was employed. Questionnaires were designed to collect information on the characteristics of the respondents and their waste generative capacities. In addition, the questionnaire included: . land use categorization; . functional use of house; . size of household; . occupation of respondents; . availability of waste containers; . distance of house to the nearest refuse dump; . collection rate of refuse; and . level of sanitary condition. The waste generated by each household was determined by measurement of wastes generated. Waste was sorted out into types (nylon, textile, glasses, bottles, tins, cans, waste food, wood, papers, and other wastes) and the weight of each type was determined (Environmental Protection Agency, 1976; Ramastry, 1985; Olorunfemi and Odita, 1998). Design of sample frame One of the steps taken to design the sample frame for the survey was to demarcate the whole building into wards (Table II). In the second step of the survey, the number of residential dwellings in each of the wards demarcated was obtained so as to provide a rough guide to the density of population within each of them. On the whole a total number of 61,029 dwelling houses were identied using Obio/Akpor Section of the Port Harcourt Metropolis. Using the 1999 population projection of Obio/Akpor Area, that is 419,560, it gives an average of 7 persons per household. The population in each of the wards was estimated by counting the average number of houses in each ward and multiplying this by average number of persons in each household (Ayotamuno, 1997).

Serial No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17

Number of Wards One Two A Two B Three A Three B Four A Four B Five Six A Six B Seven A Seven B Eight A Eight B Nine Ten Eleven Total

Number of building identication 3,012 2,798 3,049 4,494 4,246 3,987 4,919 3,193 2,688 3,216 3,145 2,566 3,875 3,979 5,942 2,918 3,002 61,029

Urban solid waste generation in Port Harcourt 77

Table II. Number of residential buildings by Wards

On the basis of the nal selection of sample population, the following steps were taken: . serial numbering of the entire road and street beginning from zero upwards; . serial numbering of all dwelling houses in sampled streets beginning from O upwards; . using a table of random numbers to select sampled streets; and . the use of a table of random numbers to select sampled households. From a ve-gure table of random numbers (Neave, 1978) and reading horizontally, the rst two digits indicate the street number while the last three digits indicate the house number. However, where the rest three numbers are not within the range of the number of houses recorded for the street, the next three numbers in the table thereafter becomes the house to be sampled (Table III). Although the sampling frame enabled clusters of dwelling units enclosed by the grid squares to be sampled in questionnaire administration, individuals were required to be respondents. It became necessary that the household which represents a number of people living together would be the convenient smallest unit of the population that would generate solid waste or house hold waste. The household is also a convenient economic unit of administration. In each of the residential areas/houses selected for the questionnaire survey, all the households were surveyed but only the household head was interviewed. Cadwell and Okonjo (1968) stated that household is bound together not merely by social ties but by economic forces. The household was chosen as a convenient sample unit of production and consumption of goods and services. Therefore, in this study, the linkage with household is that the household unit provides the relevant data to the assessment of refuse generation and management.

78

MEQ 18,1

Serial Name of sampled No. roads/streets 1,599 46 34 182 1,306 513 67 102 88 52 74 812 115 205 98 1,122 48 480 65 230 103 114 1,106 79 380 413 271 382 253 465 010 013 027 266 159 005 019 015 020 033 115 032 108 016 305 008 099 017 049 051 063 253 021 378 092 036 119 101 2 1 2 3 1 2 1 1 3 1 2 1 2 2 1 2 3 1 1 1 2 1 2 2 1 2 4 1 2 12 7 5 8 11 9 7 10 8 6 9 11 7 6 9 7 5 12 10 9 7 8 10 12 9 11 8 10 9 5.6 2.7 2.0 4.1 5.3 4.5 3.0 4.9 3.0 2.8 4.3 5.1 2.8 2.0 4.1 2.5 2.0 5.8 5.2 5.0 2.3 2.9 4.7 5.5 4.0 5.6 2.7 5.3 4.2 0.47 0.39 0.40 0.51 0.48 0.50 0.43 0.49 0.38 0.47 0.48 0.46 0.40 0.33 0.46 0.36 0.40 0.48 0.52 0.56 0.33 0.36 0.47 0.46 0.44 0.51 0.34 0.53 0.47

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29

Table III. Sampled streets and households surveyed No. of residential buildings identied Size of No. of households in households the building surveyed (X) Annual refuse generation (tonnes) (Y) Street number of sampled house Per capita annual Per capita daily refuse refuse generation generation (kg) (tonnes) 1.3 1.1 1.1 1.4 1.3 1.4 1.2 1.3 1.0 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.1 0.9 1.3 1.0 1.1 1.3 1.4 1.5 0.9 1.0 1.3 1.3 1.2 1.4 0.9 1.5 1.3 (continued )

Ikwerre Road Okpowu-Obasi Worlu Street Omachi Street Eligbolo Road Rumuagholu Road Ovunwo Street Nwachukwu Street Worlu Eguma Street David Ejekwu Street Chinda Street Rumuomoi/Orosi Road Owhor Street Obi Wali Road Kesiolu Street Mgbouba-Choba Road Ehio Street Ogbogoro Road Kala Street Ebara Street Orazi Road Eligbam Road Rumuola Road Mbarajah Street PHC-Aba Express Road Arochukwu Street Uyo Street Market Road Bende Street

Serial Name of sampled No. roads/streets 190 101 78 64 1,262 92 99 72 39 61 529 767 921 1,022 1,103 327 106 17,172 476 086 011 4,822 2 1 2 76 10 8 6 393 4.8 3.6 2.4 176.3 0.48 0.45 0.40 20.25 052 014 018 003 367 030 007 012 009 001 118 201 204 318 1 1 2 1 2 2 1 2 1 1 2 1 3 1 7 6 5 8 10 9 11 8 6 5 10 12 9 11 2.4 2.1 2.2 2.5 5.1 3.9 5.0 3.8 2.6 2.1 5.0 5.7 4.0 5.2 0.34 0.35 0.44 0.31 0.51 0.43 0.45 0.48 0.43 0.42 0.50 0.47 0.44 0.47

No. of residential buildings identied Size of No. of households in households the building surveyed (X) Annual refuse generation (tonnes) (Y)

Street number of sampled house

Per capita annual Per capita daily refuse refuse generation generation (kg) (tonnes) 0.9 1.0 1.2 0.8 1.4 1.2 1.2 1.3 1.2 1.2 1.4 1.3 1.2 1.3 1.3 1.2 1.1 55.6

30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43

44 45 46

Geodetic Street Wopara Street Ekere Street Enugu Street Woji Road Obadiah Street Elitor Street Ihunwo Street Peace Crescent Unity Avenue Rumuibekwe Road Old Aba Road Okporo Rumuodara Road Elelenwo Road Rumuokwurusi-Igwuruta Road Oroigwe Road Eneka-Rukpokwu Road Total

Urban solid waste generation in Port Harcourt 79

Table III.

MEQ 18,1

Effect of population on generation rate In determining the rate of population growth in Obio/Akpor Area for example, the natural growth equation or the exponential population projection model (Toyne and Newby, 1971) can be expressed thus: Pi Pol r n

80

where: Pi Po n population of the city at future date the present population the number of years between the present and the future date.

To facilitate the possible use of this equation, the estimated growth of Nigerian rural and urban population has been put at 2.5 and 3.5 percent per annum respectively. While Port Harcourt metropolis assumed the growth rate of 3.1 percent; this can be applied to the 1999-projected population gure for Obio/Akpor (328,643) to obtain the future population size. Also from the household population survey the study revealed that the population estimate for the year 1999 was 419,560. Figures 2-4 present a result using the regression analysis in deriving this equation thus: Y b0 b 1 X e where: Y b0 household waste generation rate (independent variable) constant or an intercept

Figure 2. Normal P-P plot of regression standardized residuals of annual waste generation in Port Harcourt

Urban solid waste generation in Port Harcourt 81

Figure 3. Scatter plot of studentized deleted residuals versus standardized

Figure 4. Scatter plot of regression standardized predicted values

MEQ 18,1

b1
X E

slope of the regression line explanatory variable (Household size) error term

82

However, the survey covered 76 households with a total household population of 393 persons giving an average household size of about seven persons per household. The study also revealed that within the period of study (January-December) a total of 207.3 tonnes of waste was generated giving a per capita annual waste generation rate of 0.53 tonnes, equivalent to a waste generation rate of about 1.45 kg of waste per capita daily. The model summary of the linear regression of waste generation rate (dependent variable) against the household size (predictor variable) reveals a relationship between the dependent and predictor variables with an R-value of 0.950 and a coefcient of determination (R 2) of 90.3 percent. This shows that the proportion of the total variability in the waste generation rate accounted for by the household size is 90.3 percent, a gure that is quite high. The estimates of the model coefcients B0 (intercept) and B1 (slope) are respectively 2 1.149 and 0.583. So the estimate model for annual waste generation rate in Port Harcourt metropolis is: Annual waste generation rate 21:149 0:583 household population: Several plots were used to evaluate the t of the model: a normal probability plot of the standardized residual, the scatter plot of the studentized residuals against predicted values, and predicted values against the observed values of the independent variables. (Figures 2-4) Waste composition by land use types The problem of MSW is primarily an urban phenomenon. Rapid urbanisation and indiscriminate setting up of industries and commercial activities within cities worsens the problem. It appears that as a city grows in population and physical size, its land use becomes more complex. And as the land use becomes more complex, so does the solid waste generated increase in volume and variety (Ayotamuno and Gobo, 2004). However n Port Harcourt a survey of solid waste generated by land use types indicate that the highest mean generation rates averaging 106,152 tonnes of waste per day in 1999 were found in Residential areas. This was followed by the industrial areas with a mean of 36,203 tonnes per day per industry while commercial and educational centres have 20,129 tonnes and 12,377 tonnes per day respectively (Table IV). Statistically using the analysis of variance (ANOVA) techniques this observation is signicant at
Types of land use Residential Industrial Commercial Educational Others Total Total waste generated (tones) 106,152 36,203 20,129 12,377 7,828 182,684 Total 58.1 19.8 11.0 6.8 4.3 100

Table IV. Solid waste generation and composition by land use types in 1999

1 percent level indicating that there were differences n the mean waste generated by different land use types. Also, Table V shows the variation in the mean percentage solid waste composition by weight various land use types. The variation in the solid waste composition is associated with the taste and consumption patterns of the people, which in turn depend on the socio economic status of the people. For example, cartons accounted for 16.1 percent of total solid waste. This can be explained by the lack of refuse separation at source, or what is referred to as resource recovery at source. The survey took note of increase in volume of waste materials during the months of October to December (festive period) with high percentage of packaging materials using cartons and paper. This also applies to paper component with a total of 14.4 percent of waste. In the case of food remnants (leaves and food wastes) with 26.6 percent, the period of study October coincides with the harvest period, although it may be considered not to be too high considering the high moisture content of food waste. Others are plastic and polythene 11.7 percent; rags 6.0 percent; tins and metals 14.7 percent; bones 0.5 percent; bottles and glasses 9.6 percent; and ashes and dust 0.4 percent of total solid waste. In conclusion, organic wastes predominate in all the land uses except for Industrial land use where scrap metals and tins were the major types. The predominance of cartons as wastes could be explained by the fact that packaging wastes comprise a growing part of MSW in virtually all cities in the world, whether developing or advanced. Similarly the high proportion of food wastes in this study is due to lack of food preservation techniques/technology, coupled with regular power outage in most Nigerian cities a common occurrence in Port Harcourt as huge quantities of food items are discarded into waste bins due to lack of adequate preservation methods and spoilage by micro organisms. Discussion A typical Municipal Solid Waste Management (MSWM) system in developing country displays an array of problems, including low waste collection coverage and irregular collection services, as well as improper disposal methods. This ineffectiveness of contemporary MSWM practices constitutes a number of health and environmental problems. Open spaces, market places and street corners are littered with solid waste.
Mean percentage composition by weight Com. Ind. Instit. Rec. Total average 5.0 6.3 27.0 14.0 20.2 3.0 11.2 N/A 13.3 N/A 100 3.4 6.8 18.8 10.0 18.4 4.6 29.0 N/A 9.2 N/A 100 14.7 16.1 14.4 15.2 17.2 6.7 9.0 N/A 6.7 N/A 100 20.8 5.8 12.5 15.4 10.0 6.5 18.1 N/A 10.5 N/A 100 10.9 15.7 16.1 11.7 14.4 6.0 14.7 0.5 9.6 0.4 100

Urban solid waste generation in Port Harcourt 83

Serial No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Component Leaves Food items Cartons Plastic and polythene Papers Rags Tins and metals Bones Bottles and glasses Ashes and dust Total

Res. 10.4 43.5 8.03 4.0 6.2 9.07 6.2 2.3 8.2 2.1 100

Table V. Solid waste composition by land use types

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Also, in most cases drains are clogged or totally blocked and many compounds are hemmed in by solid waste. This deplorable situation is not unique to Port Harcourt, but also exists in most African cities. In Accra, Ghana. only 11 percent of the 1.4 million residents benet from home collection (Songsore, 1992), while the remaining 89 percent dispose of their waste at community dumps, in open spaces, in water bodies, and in storm drainage channels. Kulaba (1989) observes that on average, city authorities in Tanzania collect only 24 percent of the refuse; in Kinshasa, Zaire. Mbuyi (1989) points out that household waste collection and street clearing are restricted to wealthy neighbourhoods, while in the remaining area household wastes are dumped along roads, in illegal dumps and in storm water drains or buried in burrow pits or landlls (Ogbonna, 2004). In Nigeria, Onibokun (1989) indicates that 35 percent of Ibadans households, 28 percent of Port Harcourts, 33 percent of Kadunas, and 44 percent of Enugus do not have access to waste collection, and sixteen years after the situation has not improved (Ayotamuno and Gobo, 2004). When waste is not collected, unsanitary conditions develop and pose environmental and human health risks. Through indiscriminate dumping of refuse by the public, some urban drainage systems/channels are being blocked with the refuse and this practice could lead to surface and ground water contamination. (Olayinka, 2004). Outside of the government quarters, such as the GRA (phases 1-4), Port Harcourt has no good sewerage system. The condition of open channel drains and sewers in Port Harcourt, in terms of their hydraulic capacity and efciency is very low, especially in the high density areas of Diobu; drainage channels in these areas are always silted or lled with solid waste at all times of the year. During the monthly sanitation exercise, some effort is expended in removing sediment from the drains, but this does not help the situation. The underground system which started in the early 1980s is now completely silted and non-functional. Section of the Aba Road drainage system is also silted resulting in ooding of portions of the road after a heavy storm. Siltation or sedimentation is therefore a major problem that must be tackled in order to improve the drainage facilities in the metropolis. In this study, it is estimated that the magnitude of solid waste within the major streets of the city such as Ikwerre road, Eliogbolo road, Rumuomoi, Rumuomasi, and Old Aba roads stands at an average of 5.5 tonnes per household. The uncontrolled disposal of solid waste into open gutters, open spaces, along roads, etc. block drainage systems retaining stagnant water which produces bad odour, breed mosquitoes and sometimes obstruct the movement of people and goods. The prevalence of parasites, tetanus, malaria, hookworm, cholera and diarrhoea in most African cities especially in Nigeria, is attributed to the unsanitary conditions in these cities (Stephens and Harpham, 1992; Ekugo, 1998; Ogbonna et al., 2002). Songsore and McGanahan (1993) revealed that malaria, diarrhoea, intestinal worms and upper respiratory tract infections were among the most common health problems reported at out- patient facilities in the Greater Accra Region of Ghana, the major health problem is disease attributed to poor environmental sanitation, which is exacerbated by ignorance and poverty (Ababio, 1992). Also in Tanzania, Yhdego and Majura (1988) have reported that poor sanitation and improper waste disposal practices result in the spread of infections diseases, which are the most frequent causes of morbidity and mortality. The high rate of population growth and urbanization, together with economic growth, not only accelerates consumption rates but it also accelerates the generation of

waste. In Port Harcourt Nigeria, the amount of waste is rising to levels that are both difcult and costly to manage. In addition, lack of management capacity to deal with the increasing volume of waste and its changing characteristics as a city that host most of the multinational oil companies in the Niger Delta region of Nigeria, is overwhelmed by overpopulation and economic afuence. Very frightening and perhaps more easily observable are the human and environmental poverty, the declining quality of life, and the untapped wealth of human resources that they represent. Housing and associated facilities (water, electricity, etc) are similarly inadequate, such that millions now live in substandard and subhuman environments, plagued by slums squalor, and similarly inadequate social amenities, such as schools, and health and recreational facilities. The gradual decline of social values and the breakdown of family cohesiveness and community spirit have resulted in increased levels of juvenile delinquency and crime. The provision of infrastructural facilities has declined, and intra city mobility is greatly hindered by poorly planned and inefciently managed land use and a sharply reduced network of roads. These situations account for the high waste generation in each household whose waste generation annually per capita is estimated at 207.3 tonnes for a household of 5.5 persons. Worst still is the fact that the MSW management infrastructure which include the allocation of a space to dump MSW that are collected once or at most twice a week by manual method as described by Ayotamuno and Gobo (2004) is very inadequate. Furthermore, there is a conict of MSW management between the various organs of government the State and the respective local government councils/authorities. The situation is made more complex when companies with no background in MSW management are contracted to evacuate the dumps.

Urban solid waste generation in Port Harcourt 85

Conclusion As we all know growth does not appear everywhere at the same time; it manifests itself in points or poles of growth with variable terminal effects for the economy as a whole (Perroux, 1950; Uchhegbu, 1998). Certain regions of the nation therefore become better favoured than others so that as a consequence there was tremendous urban growth with a shift in development from the rural to urban areas. This growth in population has given rise to the rising mountains of garbage, which now characterise most urban cities. In the case of refuse its collection and disposal have become the most glaring problem in our areas, which have deed solution by both military and civilian administrators in Nigeria. However the volume of waste generated by the populace in any city town or village is directly related to the population density. (Falomo, 1995) For efciency in the conversion of waste to wealth we recommend the privatisation of solid waste services. This method has proved more efcient in advanced and developed countries. Alongside privatisation, the principle of pay as you generate needs to be adopted so as to make the public mentally and nancially committed to the maintenance of a clean and healthy environment. More resources should be mobilized and channelled towards the public recycling and re-use of recyclable waste items. This means that the public will need to be educated to separate wastes into their various components right from the points of generation.

MEQ 18,1

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References Ababio, B. (1992), Urban Primary Health Care: Accra Ghana Healthy Cities Project, Accra Planning and Development Programme (draft), Accra. Adedibu, A.A. (1983), Solid wastes management in Nigeria: problems and prospect, paper presented at the National Conference on Development and the Environment, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, January 17-19. Ajiwe, V.I.E., Nnabuike, B.O., Onochie, C.C. and Ajobola, V.O. (2000), Surfacewater pollution by efuents from some industries in Nnewi area, Nigeria, Journal of Applied Sciences, Vol. 3, pp. 1265-80. Ayoade, J.O. (1983), The impact of urban physical development on the environment: a case study of Ibadan, paper presented at the National Conference on Development and the Environment, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, January 17-19. Ayotamuno, M.J. (1997), Housing situation in Port Harcourt with reference to waterfront settlement, Journal of Environmental Education and Information, Vol. 16 No. 2, pp. 151-8. Ayotamuno, M.J. and Gobo, A.E. (2004), Municipal solid waste management in Port Harcourt, Nigeria obstacles and prospects, Management of Environmental Quality: An International Journal, Vol. 15 No. 4, pp. 389-98. Ayotamuno, M.J., Akor, A.J., Teme, S.C., Essiet, R.W.U., Isirimah, N.O. and Idike, F.I. (2000), Relating corn yield to water use during the dry season in Port Harcourt area, Nigeria, Agricultural Mechanisation in Asia, Africa and Latin America, Vol. 31 No. 4, pp. 47-51. Cadwell, J.C. and Okonjo, C. (1968), The Population of Tropical Africa, Longmans, London. Chefetz, B., Hatcher, P.G., Hadar, Y. and Chen, Y. (1996), Chemical and biological characteristics of organic matter during composting of municipal solid waste, Journal of Environmental Quality, Vol. 25, pp. 776-85. Dike, C.W. (2003), Port Harcourt and the burden of garbage, The Guardian, Friday June 20, p. 12. Ekere, T.O. (2003), Planning a solid waste management system in Obio Akpor local government area of Rivers State, MPhil thesis, Rivers State University of Science and Technology, Port Harcourt, 128 pp. Emongor, V., Kealotswe, E., Koorapetse, I., Sankwasa, S. and Keikanetswe, S. (2005), Pollution indicators in Gerone efuent, Journal of Applied Sciences, Vol. 5, pp. 147-50. Ekugo, E.I. (1998), Public health and urban sanitation, Environmental News, Vol. 5 No. 7. Environmental Protection Agency (1976), Decision Makers. Guide on Solid Waste Management, Washington Ofce of Solid Waste Programs, Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC. Federal Ofce of Statistics (1991), General demographic and health survey of Nigeria, Federal Ofce of Statistics Bulletin, Federal Ministry of Information, Lagos. Federal Ofce of Statistics (2003), General demographic and health survey of Nigeria, Federal Ofce of Statistics Bulletin, Federal Ministry of Information and National Orientation, Abuja. Falomo, A.A. (1995), City waste as public nuisance, paper presented at the Annual Conference of the Nigerian Environmental Society, Lagos. Folarin, B.A. (1995), Behavioural eans of tackling environmental pollution, paper presented at the 6th Annual Conference of the Environment and Behavior Association of Nigeria, Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife, 17-20 January. Gobo, A.E. (1998), Meterology and the Environment, Afrika Links Books, Ibadan.

Ibitoye, O.A. (1995), The relationship between household patterns and household domestic waste characteristics, paper presented at the 6th Annual Conference of the Environment and Behaviours Association of Nigeria, Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife, January 17-20. Kulaba, S. (1989), Local government and management of urban services in Tanzania, in Stren, R.E. and White, R.R. (Eds), African Cities in Crisis: Managing Rapid Urban Growth, Westview Press, Boulder, CO, pp. 205-45. Mbuyi, K. (1989), Supply, in Stren, R.E. and White, R.R. (Eds), African Cities in Crisis: Managing Rapid Urban Growth, Westview Press, Boulder, CO, pp. 149-75. Neave, H. (1978), Statistical Tables, George Allen and Unwin, London. Nwankwo, C.K. (1994), Solid waste management, general reviews and a Glance at the Nigerian situation, Journal of Mining Geology, Vol. 27, pp. 20-5. Nweke, A.A. (2000), Impact of organic waste pollution on the macro-benthos and sh fauna of Elechi Creek, PhD thesis, Rivers State University of Science and Technology, Port Harcourt. Ogbonna, D.N. (2004), Use of burrow pits: a relatively inexpensive practical mode of waste disposal in Nigeria, Journal of Nigerian Environmental Society, Vol. 2 No. 2, pp. 210-5. Ogbonna, D.N., Ekweozor, I.k.E. and Igwe, F.U. (2002), Waste management: a tool for environmental protection in Nigeria, Ambio, Vol. 31 No. 1, pp. 55-7. Olayinka, K.O. (2004), Studies on Industrial pollution in Nigeria: the effect of textile efuents on the quality of groundwater in some parts of Lagos, Nigerian Journal of Health and Biomedical Science, Vol. 3, pp. 44-50. Olorunfemi, J.F. and Odita, C.O. (1998), Land use and solid waste generation in Ilorin, Kwara State Nigeria, The Environmentalist, Vol. 18, pp. 67-75. Onibokun, A.G. (1989), Urban growth and management in Nigeria, in Stren, R.E. and White, R.R. (Eds), African Cities in Crisis: Managing Rapid Urban Growth, Westview Press, Boulder, CO, pp. 69-111. Onokerhoraye, A.G. (1985), Case studies of urban shims and environmental problems in Nigerian cities, paper presented at the National Policy Seminar on Environmental Issues and Management in Nigeria, November 25-27. PAI Associates (1982), Solid Waste Management in Fifteen Cities and Urban Areas in Nigeria, PAI Associates International for Federal Ministry of Housing and Environment, Lagos. Perroux, F. (1950), Notes on the concept of Growth Poles, in Economic Policy for Development, selected readings, Harmondworth, pp. 278-89. Phiri, O., Mumba, P., Moyo, B.H.Z. and Kadewa, W. (2005), Assessment of the impact of industrial efuents on water quality of receiving riovers in urban areas of Malawi, International Journal of Environmental Science and Technology, Vol. 2 No. 3, pp. 237-44. Pickford, J. (1983), The Solid Waste Problem of Poor People in the Third World Waste Management, John Wiley, Chichester, pp. 485-92. Ramastry, C.V. (1985), Estimation of solid wastes in Bendel State Nigeria, paper presented at the National Policy Seminar on Environmental Issues and Management in Nigerian Development, University of Benin, Benin, November 25-27. Songsore, J. (1992), Review of Household Environmental Problems in Accra Metropolitan Area, Stockholm Environmental Institute, Stockholm. Songsore, J. and McGanahan, G. (1993), Environment, Wealth and Health: Towards an Analysis of Intra-Urban Differentials within the Greater Accra Metropolitan Area. Accra, Ghana, Stockholm Environmental Institute, Stockholm.

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Stephens, C. and Harpham, T. (1992), Health and environment in urban areas in developing countries, Third World Planning Review, Vol. 14 No. 3. Sule, R.A. (1982), Environmental population in an urban centre: waste disposal in Calabar, Third World Plan. Review, Vol. 3, pp. 4-7. Sundaresan, B.B. (1977), Seminar on Industrial waste: Calcutta, organized by NEERI and Calcutta Metropolitan Development Authority, Calcutta. Toyne, P. and Newby, C. (1971), Techniques in Human Geography, Macmillan Education, London. Uchhegbu, S.N. (1998), Environmental Management and Protection, Precision Printers & Publishers, Enugu, p. 224. Yhdego, M. and Majura, P. (1988), Malaria control in Tanzania, Environmental International, p. 14. Further reading Adedibu, A.A. and Okenkuule, A.A. (1989), Issues on the environmental sanitation of Lagos mainland Nigeria, The Environmentalist, Vol. 9 No. 2, pp. 91-100. Anon (1985), MPhil marine biology programme: introduction, in Oduro, K.A. (Ed.), Handbook of Undergraduate and Postgraduate Programmes, Rivers State University of Science and Technology, Port Harcourt, pp 71-3. Enugu State (1994), Enugu State Enugu State Environmental Sanitation Edict, Government Printing Press, Enugu. Koehn, P. (1992), Decentralisation for sustainable development: constraints and opportunities, paper presented at the Economic Commission for Africa Regional Conference on Development Management Africa, Economic Commission for Africa, Addis Ababa, 9-13 November. NEST (1991), Nigerias Threatened Environment: A National Prole, NEST, Ibadan. Olowu, D. (1981), The administration of social services in Nigeria: the challenge to local governments, Local Government Training Programme, University of Ile-Ife, Ile-Ife. RSMENR/AGIP (2001), Rivers State Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources and AGIP OIL Company Limited, Proceedings of the National Workshop on Sustainable Environmental Practices in Rivers State, Port Harcourt. Stren, R.E. and White, R.R. (Eds) (1989), Supply, African Cities in Crisis: Managing Rapid Urban Growth, Westview Press, Boulder, CO, pp. 149-75. Stren, R., Halfani, M. and Malombe, J. (1994), Coping with urbanization and urban policy, in Barkan, J.D. (Ed.), Beyond Capitalism vs. Socialism in Kenya and Tanzania, Lynne Reinner Publishers, Boulder, CO. Corresponding author D.N. Ogbonna can be contacted at: dnogbonna@yahoo.com

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