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Chapter 1

Keys to the Study of Chemistry

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Chapter 1 : Keys to the Study of Chemistry

1.1 Some Fundamental Definitions 1.2 The Scientific Approach: Developing a Model 1.3 Chemical Problem Solving 1.4 Measurement in Scientific Study 1.5 Uncertainty in Measurement: Significant Figures

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Is the study of matter, its properties, the changes that matter undergoes, and the energy associated with these changes.

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Definitions Matter
anything that has mass and volume -the stuff of the universe: books, planets, trees, professors, students

Composition the types and amounts of simpler substances that

make up a sample of matter

Properties

the characteristics that give each substance a unique identity

Physical Properties
those which the substance shows by itself without interacting with another substance such as color, melting point, boiling point, density

Chemical Properties
those which the substance shows as it interacts with, or transforms into, other substances such as flammability, corrosiveness

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Figure 1.1

The distinction between physical and chemical change.

A Physical change

B Chemical change

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Figure 1.2

The physical states of matter.

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Sample Problem 1.1

Distinguishing Between Physical and Chemical Change

PROBLEM: Decide whether each of the following process is primarily a physical or a chemical change, and explain briefly: (a) Frost forms as the temperature drops on a humid winter night. (b) A cornstalk grows from a seed that is watered and fertilized. (c) Dynamite explodes to form a mixture of gases. (d) Perspiration evaporates when you relax after jogging. (e) A silver fork tarnishes slowly in air. PLAN: Does the substance change composition or just change form?

SOLUTION: (a) physical change (b) chemical change (c) chemical change

(d) physical change

(e) chemical change

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Energy is the capacity to do work.

Potential Energy

energy due to the position of the object or energy from a chemical reaction

Kinetic Energy

energy due to the motion of the object

Potential and kinetic energy can be interconverted.

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Energy is the capacity to do work.

Figure 1.3A

less stable

change in potential energy EQUALS kinetic energy

more stable
A gravitational system. The potential energy gained when a lifted weight is converted to kinetic energy as the weight falls.

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Energy is the capacity to do work.

Figure 1.3B

less stable
change in potential energy EQUALS kinetic energy

more stable

A system of two balls attached by a spring. The potential energy gained by a stretched spring is converted to kinetic energy when the moving balls are released.

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Energy is the capacity to do work.

Figure 1.3C

less stable
change in potential energy EQUALS kinetic energy

more stable
A system of oppositely charged particles. The potential energy gained when the charges are separated is converted to kinetic energy as the attraction pulls these charges together.

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Energy is the capacity to do work.

Figure 1.3D

less stable
change in potential energy EQUALS kinetic energy

more stable
A system of fuel and exhaust. A fuel is higher in chemical potential energy than the exhaust. As the fuel burns, some of its potential energy is converted to the kinetic energy of the moving car.

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Scientific Approach: Developing a Model Observations : Natural phenomena and measured events; universally consistent ones can be stated as a natural law. Tentative proposal that explains observations.
revised if experiments do not support it

Hypothesis:

Experiment:

Procedure to test hypothesis; measures one variable at a time. Set of conceptual assumptions that explains data from accumulated experiments; predicts altered if related phenomena. predictions do
not support it

Model (Theory):

Further Experiment: Tests predictions based on model.

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A Systematic Approach to Solving Chemistry Problems

Problem statement Clarify the known and unknown. Plan Suggest steps from known to unknown. Prepare a visual summary of steps. Solution Check

Comment and Follow-up Problem

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Sample Problem 1.2

Converting Units of Length

PROBLEM: To wire your stereo equipment, you need 325 centimeters (cm) of speaker wire that sells for $0.15/ft. What is the price of the wire? PLAN: Known - length (in cm) of wire and cost per length ($/ft) We have to convert cm to inches and inches to ft followed by finding the cost for the length in ft. SOLUTION: Length (in) = length (cm) x conversion factor = 128 in = 325 cm x in 2.54 cm Length (ft) = length (in) x conversion factor = 10.7 ft ft 12 in Price ($) = length (ft) x conversion factor = 128 in x = 10.7 ft x $0.15 ft = $1.60

length (cm) of wire 2.54 cm = 1 in length (in) of wire 12 in = 1 ft length (ft) of wire 1 ft = $0.15 Price ($) of wire

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Table 1. 1

SI Base Units
Unit Abbreviation kg m s K A mol cd

Physical Quantity (Dimension) mass length time temperature electric current amount of substance luminous intensity

Unit Name kilogram meter second kelvin ampere mole candela

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Table 1.2

Common Decimal Prefixes Used with SI Units

Prefix Symbol T G M k h da ---d c m n p f

Prefix
tera giga mega kilo hecto deka ----deci centi milli micro nano pico femto

Word
trillion billion million thousand hundred ten one tenth hundredth thousandth millionth billionth trillionth quadrillionth

Conventional Notation
1,000,000,000,000 1,000,000,000 1,000,000 1,000 100 10 1 0.1 0.01 0.001 0.000001 0.000000001 0.000000000001 0.000000000000001

Exponential Notation

1x1012 1x109 1x106 1x103 1x102 1x101 1x100 1x10-1 1x10-2 1x10-3 1x10-6 1x10-9 1x10-12 1x10-15

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Common SI-English Equivalent Quantities Quantity SI Unit SI Equivalent English Equivalent Length English to 1 kilometer(km) 1000(103)m SI Equivalent
Table 1.3

0.62miles(mi)

1 mi = 1.61km 1 meter(m) 100(102)cm 1000(103)mm 1.094yards(yd) 39.37inches(in) 1 yd = 0.9144m 1 foot (ft) = 0.3048m 1 centimeter(cm) 0.01(10-2)m

0.3937in

1 in = 2.54cm (exactly!)

1 kilometer(km) 1000(103)m 0.62mi

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Common SI-English Equivalent Quantities Quantity SI Unit SI Equivalent English Equivalent Volume English to SI Equivalent 1 cubic meter(m3)
Table 1.3

1,000,000(106) cubic centimeters 35.2cubic feet (ft3) 1 cubic decimeter(dm3) 1000cm3 0.2642 gallon (gal) 1.057 quarts (qt) 1 ft3 = 0.0283m3

1 gal = 3.785 dm3 1 qt = 0.9464 dm3

1 cubic centimeter (cm3) 0.001 dm3 0.0338 fluid ounce 1 qt = 946.4 cm3 1 fluid ounce = 29.6 cm3

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Common SI-English Equivalent Quantities Quantity SI Unit SI Equivalent English Equivalent Mass English to 1 kilogram (kg) SI Equivalent
Table 1.3

1000 grams 2,205 pounds (lb)

1 (lb) = 0.4536 kg

1 gram (g) 1000 milligrams 0.03527 ounce(oz)

1 lb = 453.6 g 1 ounce = 28.35 g

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Sample Problem 1.3

Converting Units of Volume

PROBLEM: The volume of an irregularly shaped solid can be determined from the volume of water it displaces. A graduated cylinder contains 19.9mL of water. When a small piece of galena, an ore of lead, is submerged in the water, the volume increases to 24.5mL. What is the volume of the piece of galena in cm3 and in L? PLAN:

The volume of galena is equal to the change in the water volume before and after submerging the solid.
SOLUTION:

volume (mL) before and after addition subtract volume (mL) of galena 1 mL = 1 cm3 volume (cm3) of galena 1 mL = 10-3 L volume (L) of galena

(24.5 - 19.9)mL = volume of galena 4.6 mL x 1 cm mL

-3 3

= 4.6 cm3 = 4.6x10-3 L

4.6 mL x 10 L mL

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Sample Problem 1.4

Converting Units of Mass

PROBLEM: International computer communications are often carried by optical fibers in cables laid along the ocean floor. If one strand of optical fiber weighs 1.19 x 10-3lbs/m, what is the total mass (in kg) of a cable made of six strands of optical fiber, each long enough to link New York and Paris (8.84 x 103km)? PLAN:

The sequence of steps may vary but essentially you have to find the length of the entire cable and convert it to mass.
SOLUTION:

length (km) of fiber 1 km = 103 m length (m) of fiber 1 m = 1.19x10-3 lb mass (lb) of fiber 6 fibers = 1 cable mass (lb) of cable

8.84 x 8.84 x

103km 106m

103m x km

= 8.84 x 106m

1.19 x 10 -3lbs x = 1.05 x 104lb m 6.30x 104lb cable 2.86x104 kg = x cable 2.205 lb 1kg

6 fibers = 1.05 x 104lb x cable 6.30x 104lb cable mass (kg) of cable

2.205 lb = 1 kg

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Sample Problem 1.5

Calculating Density from Mass and Length

PROBLEM: Lithium (Li) is a soft, gray solid that has the lowest density of any metal. If a slab of Li weighs 1.49 x 103 mg and has sides that measure 20.9 mm by 11.1 mm by 11.9 mm, what is the density of Li in g/cm3 ? PLAN:

Density is expressed in g/cm3 so we need the mass in grams and the volume in cm3. SOLUTION: lengths (mm) of sides 10-3g 1.49x103mg x = 1.49g 1mg 10 mm = 1 cm 1cm lengths (cm) of sides 20.9mm x = 2.09cm 10mm multiply lengths Similarly the other sides will be 1.11 3 volume (cm ) cm and 1.19 cm, respectively. 2.09 x 1.11 x 1.20 = 2.76cm3 density (g/cm3) of Li density of Li = 1.49g 2.76 cm3 = 0.540 g/cm3

mass (mg) of Li 103 mg = 1 g mass (g) of Li

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Figure 1.8

The freezing and boiling points of water.

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Temperature Scales and Interconversions Kelvin ( K ) - The Absolute temperature scale begins at
absolute zero and only has positive values.

Celsius ( oC ) - The temperature scale used by science,

formally called centigrade, most commonly used scale around the world; water freezes at 0oC, and boils at 100oC.

Fahrenheit ( oF ) - Commonly used scale in the U.S. for our

weather reports; water freezes at 32oF and boils at 212oF.

T (in K) = T (in oC) + 273.15 T (in oC) = T (in K) - 273.15

T (in oF) = 9/5 T (in oC) + 32 T (in oC) = [ T (in oF) - 32 ] 5/9

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Sample Problem 1.6

Converting Units of Temperature

PROBLEM: A child has a body temperature of 38.70C.

(a) If normal body temperature is 98.60F, does the child have a fever? (b) What is the childs temperature in kelvins?
PLAN:

We have to convert 0C to 0F to find out if the child has a fever and we use the 0C to kelvin relationship to find the temperature in kelvins.

SOLUTION:

(a) Converting from 0C to 0F (b) Converting from 0C to K

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(38.70C) + 32 = 101.70F

38.70C + 273.15 = 311.8K

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Figure 1.9A

The number of significant figures in a measurement depends upon the measuring device.

32.330C

32.30C

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Rules for Determining Which Digits are Significant

All digits are significant except zeros that are used only to position the decimal point.

Make sure that the measured quantity has a decimal point. Start at the left of the number and move right until you reach the first nonzero digit. Count that digit and every digit to its right as significant. Zeros that end a number and lie either after or before the decimal point are significant; thus 1.030 ml has four significant figures, and 5300. L has four significant figures also. Numbers such as 5300 L are assumed to only have 2 significant figures. A terminal decimal point is often used to clarify the situation, but scientific notation is the best!

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Sample Problem 1.7

Determining the Number of Significant Figures

PROBLEM: For each of the following quantities, underline the zeros that are significant figures(sf), and determine the number of significant figures in each quantity. For (d) to (f), express each in exponential notation first. (a) 0.0030 L (d) 0.00004715 m PLAN: (b) 0.1044 g (e) 57,600. s (c) 53,069 mL (f) 0.0000007160 cm3

Determine the number of sf by counting digits and paying attention to the placement of zeros.

SOLUTION: (a) 0.0030 L 2sf (d) 0.00004715 m (d) 4.715x10-5 m 4sf (b) 0.1044 g 4sf (e) 57,600. s (e) 5.7600x104 s 5sf (c) 53.069 mL 5sf (f) 0.0000007160 cm3 (f) 7.160x10-7 cm3

4sf

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Rules for Significant Figures in Answers 1. For addition and subtraction. The answer has the same number of decimal places as there are in the measurement with the fewest decimal places. Example: adding two volumes 83.5 mL + 23.28 mL 106.78 mL = 106.8 mL Example: subtracting two volumes 865.9 mL - 2.8121 mL 863.0879 mL = 863.1 mL

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Rules for Significant Figures in Answers

2. For multiplication and division. The number with the least certainty limits the certainty of the result. Therefore, the answer contains the same number of significant figures as there are in the measurement with the fewest significant figures.

Multiply the following numbers:

9.2 cm x 6.8 cm x 0.3744 cm = 23.4225 cm3 = 23 cm3

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Rules for Rounding Off Numbers

1. If the digit removed is more than 5, the preceding number increases by 1. 5.379 rounds to 5.38 if three significant figures are retained and to 5.4 if two significant figures are retained. 2. If the digit removed is less than 5, the preceding number is unchanged. 0.2413 rounds to 0.241 if three significant figures are retained and to 0.24 if two significant figures are retained. 3.If the digit removed is 5, the preceding number increases by 1 if it is odd and remains unchanged if it is even. 17.75 rounds to 17.8, but 17.65 rounds to 17.6. If the 5 is followed only by zeros, rule 3 is followed; if the 5 is followed by nonzeros, rule 1 is followed: 17.6500 rounds to 17.6, but 17.6513 rounds to 17.7 4. Be sure to carry two or more additional significant figures through a multistep calculation and round off only the final answer.

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Issues Concerning Significant Figures

Electronic Calculators be sure to correlate with the problem FIX function on some calculators Choice of Measuring Device graduated cylinder < buret pipet

Exact Numbers numbers with no uncertainty 60 min = 1 hr 1000 mg = 1 g These have as many significant digits as the calculation requires.

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Sample Problem 1.8

Significant Figures and Rounding

PROBLEM: Perform the following calculations and round the answer to the correct number of significant figures: 1g 4.80x104 mg 1000 mg 16.3521 cm2 - 1.448 cm2 (a) (b) 7.085 cm 11.55 cm3 PLAN:

In (a) we subtract before we divide; for (b) we are using an exact number.
(a)

SOLUTION:

16.3521 cm2 - 1.448 cm2 7.085 cm 1g 4.80x104 mg

14.904 cm2

= 2.104 cm 7.085 cm 48.0 g

(b)

1000 mg

11.55 cm3

= 4.16 g/ cm3

11.55 cm3

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Precision and Accuracy Errors in Scientific Measurements

Precision Refers to reproducibility or how close the measurements are to each other. Accuracy Refers to how close a measurement is to the real value. Systematic Error Values that are either all higher or all lower than the actual value. Random Error In the absence of systematic error, some values that are higher and some that are lower than the actual value.

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Figure 1.10

Precision and accuracy in the laboratory.

precise and accurate

precise but not accurate

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Precision and accuracy in the laboratory. Figure 1.10 continued

random error

systematic error

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