The World Through Your Eyes

Project in General Psychology

By: Salve Dalmacio, Tricia Cubillas, Eunice Marbella

Introduction
Have you ever wondered why you should learn more about Psychology? Whether you're taking an introductory course to fulfill a general education requirement or you're a psychology major thinking of a career in research or mental health, there are plenty of great reasons to develop your psychological understanding. Psychology is both an applied and a theoretical subject. It can be utilized in a number of ways, from exploring academic questions to solving real-world problems. By learning more about psychology, you can gain a richer understanding of yourself and the people around you. With this, we have decided to make a short film or a motion picture that inculcates our basic understanding as we study General Psychology (Psych113). We are all very aware that modern technology has been greatly affecting our society. It continuously shows progression with our daily living especially to students like us. We may also say that nowadays, advanced technology is essential for it supports us with enhancing and improving our ways towards our path to a better education. In line with this, we will make use and maximize our potentials and resources to introduce the study of Psychology in our simplest means which will lead for a better understanding of what this may be all about or give hints or ideas about this field, and provides enjoyment all throughout the process of learning or instilling pieces of information. Thus, giving them an idea and knowledge that even in a simplest scenario we encounter with our every day living might actually be a part or involves the study of Psychology. We can still recall our first meeting with Maam Perla Villanueva and as an introductory, she asked us of what is the first thing that comes into our minds as we hear the topic Psychology. Many of us answered that it has something to do with the human mind, or that is deals with our behavior. And as we further discuss different topics, it gave us a much broader conception of what Psychology is. Thus, with the short film we have prepared, one goal we try to achieve is that to give the viewers an answer or more like an idea of what Psychology could mean or what concepts of idea that is has under this field, and not just by giving that Psychology is about the human mind and our behavior as an answer.

Content

*clips taken from the video

Psychology
The term "Psychology" consists of two Greek words Psyche and Logos. The former means "soul" and the latter means "Science". Psychology thus means science of soul. But the term "soul" cannot be easily explained and understood. This led to the meaning of psychology as the "science of mind". This also raised a number of questions. What is mind? Where is mind? What it does? The answers to these questions are not clear and acceptable to all. Such confusion led to the definition of psychology as "the science of consciousness". But it was contended that man's thought and action are not limited to the stage of "consciousness" alone. Man is active even when he is unconscious. That is why; psychology is called the "science of behavior" which means the study of human nature and activities. Thus the definition of psychology as the "Science of behavior" has been accepted by the majority. What does the term "behavior" mean? According to J.B. Watson, "By behavior" we mean an action which can be seen and observed in an objective way." Behavior is a broad concept. It includes all kinds of activities and experience of an individual. It refers to not only motor or physical activities like walking, talking, writing, but also mental activities like thinking, remembering, imagining and emotional activities, like love, anger and fear. Life manifests through all these activities and behavior is a collective name for all kinds of activities. Behavior is universal. Every living objects behavior in some way or other. That is why, according to some psychologists "behavior" has been derived from the English term "have". Behavior is that which all have or possess. But all kinds of behavior are with reference to environment. The same individual may behave differently in different environments and different individuals may behave differently in different environments. Psychology thus studies the behavior of individuals in different contexts.

Birth of Psychology
Ancient Greek philosophers, from Thales (fl. 550 BC) to the Roman period, developed an elaborate theory of what they termed the psuch (from which the first half of "psychology" is derived). These philosophers also developed other "psychological" terms, such as nous, thumos, and logistikon. The most influential of these are the accounts of Plato (especially in the Republic), Pythagoras, and of Aristotle (especially Peri Psyches, better known under its Latin title, De Anima). Hellenistic philosophers (the Stoics and Epicurians) diverged from the Classical Greek tradition in several important ways, specifically in their concern with questions of the physiological basis of the mind. The Roman physician Galen addressed these issues most elaborately and influentially of all. Additionally, the Greek tradition influenced some Christian and Islamic thought on the topic. Wilhelm Maximilian Wundt (August 16, 1832 to August 31, 1920) was a German physician, psychologist, physiologist, philosopher, and professor, known today as one of the founding figures of modern psychology. He is widely regarded as the "father of experimental psychology." In 1879, Wundt founded the first formal laboratory for psychological research at the University of Leipzig. Psychology as we know it started in December of 1879 in a small room on the third floor of a shabby building at Germanys University of Leipzig. There two young men were helping Professor Wundt create an experimental apparatus. Their machine measured the time lag between a person hearing a ball hit a platform, and then pressing a telegraph key. Later, the researchers compared this lag to the time required for slightly more complex tasks. Curiously, people responded in about one-tenth of a second when asked to press the key as soon as the sound occurred and in about two-tenths of a second when asked to press the key as soon as they were aware of perceiving the sound. Wundt was seeking to measure atoms of the mindthe fastest and simplest mental processes. Thus began what many consider psychologys first experiment: launching the first psychology laboratory, staffed by Wundt and psychologys first graduate students. The psychological schools of thought are the great classical theories of psychology. Each is highly influential; however, most psychologists hold eclectic views that combine aspects of each school. The most influential schools of thought are behaviorism, the psychoanalytic school of Freud, systems psychology, functionalism, humanistic/Gestalt, and cognitivism.

Overview of Sensation and Perception

(Introduction)

Sensations are sensory impressions, whereas perception refers to the set of processes whereby we make sense of these sensations.

Subjective Contours
Illusory contours or subjective contours are a form of visual illusion where contours are perceived without a luminance or color change across the contour. Friedrich Schumann discovered illusory contours.

Key Points Sensation is the bodily recognition of a stimulus in the environment. Perception is the interpretation, through thoughts, of the stimulus. In a disorder called "prosopagnosia," there is a disconnect between them results in an inability to recognize faces. Terms perception conscious understanding of something sensation A physical feeling or perception from something that comes into contact with the body; something sensed. prosopagnosia A form of visual agnosia characterized by difficulty with face recognition despite intact, low-level visual processing. Also known as PA. What if you looked at your mother and could not recognize her face? This is a surprisingly common problem since as many as 10% of people have some form of face blindness that can be lifelong or brought about by brain injury. Prosopagnosia (Greek: "prosopon" = "face", "agnosia" = "inabilty to recognize/identify familiar people or objects") is a disorder of face perception where the ability to recognize faces is impaired, while the ability to recognize other objects may be relatively intact. There are many narrative accounts of prosopagnosia. Heather Sellers (2010) famously describes her experience with prosopagnosia. Sellers writes that she could never recognize anyone by face and would instead rely on circumstance, voice, hair, or gait, looking for any clues to confirm an individuals identity.

Psychologists typically make a distinction between sensation and perception. Sensations are sensory impressions created by the detection of environmental stimuli, whereas perception refers to the set of processes whereby we make sense of these sensations. Perception enables us to literally navigate through the world by avoiding danger, making decisions, and preparing for action. Sensation is the function of the low-level biochemical and neurological events that begin with the impinging of a stimulus upon the receptor cells of a sensory organ. Perception is the mental process or state that is reflected in statements suc as, "I see a uniformly blue wall," representing awareness or understanding of the realworld cause of the sensory input. In other words, sensations are the first stages in the functioning of senses to represent stimuli from the environment. Perception is a higher brain function about interpreting events and objects in the world. Sensation and perception are normally seamlessly intertwined. However, in the case of prosopagnosia, sensation is intact, but perception of faces is somehow disrupted. In Sellers case, although she could see faces, she could not understand them as faces. The study of prosopagnosia has been crucial in the development of theories of face perception. Because prosopagnosia is not a unitary disorder (i.e., different people may show different types and levels of impairment), it has been argued that face perception involves a number of stages, each of which can be separately damaged. This is reflected, not just in the amount of impairment displayed, but also in the qualitative differences in impairment that a person with prosopagnosia may present. It has also been argued that prosopagnosia may be a general impairment in understanding how individual perceptual components make up the structure or gestalt of an object. Psychologist Martha Farah has been particularly associated with this view.

Processing Sensation
Perception of sensory information involves two main types of processing: top-down and bottomup.

Interpreting Perceptual Information

Our sensory and perceptual processes work to break down complicated images into various pieces. At first, bottom-up processing allows us to view what looks like random shading. However, our top-down processing allows us to see that the image is of a cow facing the viewer.

Key Points

Bottom-up processing occurs when the sensation produced by a stimuli reaches the brain and is then interpreted by the brain. Top-down processing occurs when perception of a stimulus is altered by higher mental functions, such as previous experiences and expectations. Humans employ both of these processes every day. They allow us to perceive our environments efficiently and effectively. For example, they allow an individual to see the complexities in an image that contains both simple and hidden aspects. Sensory organs are adaptive. Frogs have receptors in their eyes to detect the slightest motion of a fly; male silkworms are attracted by a miniscule amount of the female silkworms odor.

The brain processes sensations in two main ways. Psychologists distinguish between these two as top-down and bottom-up processing. In top-down processing, knowledge or expectations are used to guide processing. However, bottom-up is more structuralist; the brain pieces together sensations until a bigger picture is arrived at. The study of visual attention provides an example. If your attention is drawn to a flower in a field, it may be that the flower is more visually salient than the surrounding field. The information which caused you to attend to the flower came to you in a bottom-up fashion; your attention was not contingent upon knowledge of the flower; the outside stimulus was sufficient on its own. Contrast this situation with one in which you are looking for a flower. In this case, you have a representation of what you are looking for. When you see the object, it is salient. This is an example of the use of top-down information. Humans use both top-down and bottom-up processing to see complexity within an image. Other living organisms have receptors to sense the world around them, including many of the senses humans possess. However, the mechanisms and capabilities vary widely. Certain animals, including bats and cetaceans, have the ability to determine orientation to other objects through interpretation of reflected sound (like sonar). They often use this to navigate through poor lighting conditions or to identify and track prey. Sharks combine their keen sense of smell with timing, to determine the direction of a smell by following the nostril that first detected the smell. Insects have olfactory receptors on their antennae. Flies and butterflies have taste organs on

their feet, allowing them to taste anything they land on. Catfish have taste organs across their entire bodies, and can taste anything they touch, including chemicals in the water.

Thresholds Allow for Sensitivity to Stimuli

Psychophysics explores the sensation and perception of physical stimuli within the context of psychology.
Key Points Psychophysicists study the ways in which individuals' psychological experiences affect their sensation and perception of the physical world. The discipline investigates the perception of auditory, visual, tactile, olfactory, and gustatory sensations. One particular branch studies the sensation and perception of energy (light, heat, radio waves, magnetic, and gravitational fields, etc.). The field also investigates the capacity of some animals to sense and perceive stimuli that humans cannot. Terms psychophysics The branch of psychology concerned with the effects of physical stimuli on mental processes. absolute threshold The smallest amount of stimulus to which one can respond recognition threshold The level at which a stimulus can be both detected and recognized. signal detection theory a means of quantifying the ability to discern between information-bearing patterns (called stimulus) and random patterns that distract from the information (called noise or background stimuli) Psychophysics is a subdiscipline of psychology that deals with the relationship between physical stimuli and their perception. Gustav Theodor Fechner founded psychophysics in 1860. He described research relating physical stimuli with how they are perceived and set out the philosophical foundations of the field. Fechner wanted to develop a theory that could relate mind to matter and to describe the relationship between the world and the way it is perceived. More than half the brain is devoted to processing sensory information and the brain itself consumes roughly one-fourth of one's metabolic resources. Perception accurately mirrors the world and animals get useful, accurate information through their senses. To quantify the detection of stimuli, psychophysists measure thresholds. Other species often have very different detection thresholds for stimuli such as hearing and smell; some (like bees) can even perceive light that we are incapable of perceiving ( e.g. ultraviolet light). Many experts, such as Jerry Fodor, write that the purpose of perception is knowledge. However, evolutionary psychologists hold that its primary purpose is to guide action. For example, depth perception seems to have evolved not to help us know the distances to other objects but rather to help us move around in a physical space. Evolutionary psychologists say that animals from fiddler crabs to humans use eyesight for collision avoidance, suggesting that vision is basically for directing action, not providing knowledge. Several different sensory thresholds have been defined. The absolute threshold is the lowest level at which a stimulus can be detected. The recognition threshold is the level at which a stimulus can not only be detected but also recognized. The differential threshold is the level at which an increase in a detected stimulus can be perceived. The terminal threshold is the level beyond which a stimulus is no longer detected.

Adapting to a stimulus
Sensory adaptation describes when a once-detectable stimulus becomes undetectable.

Sensory Adaptation in Vision

A projector is assembled onto a contact lens, allowing the projected image to follow eye movements. The person first sees the image as a whole, but after the eye has adapted, the eye will move to segments of the image and occasionally back to the image as a whole.

Key Points

Neurologically, sensory adaptation occurs when neurons that initially fired in response to a stimulus cease firing after the stimulus has persisted for a certain amount of time. In experiments on sensory adaptation, observers' eye movements are tracked while an image is presented for a period of time. Sensory adaptation allows us to ignore insignificant details and focus on novel stimuli in our environments. By changing the movement of the camera and adding sudden noise, TV-show producers use knowledge of sensory adaption to keep viewers' attention. Sensory adaptation and thresholds exist for all five senses.

Neural Adaptation
Sensory adaptation, or neural adaptation, is a change over time in the responsiveness of the sensory system to a constant stimulus. It is usually experienced as a change in the stimulus. For example, if you rest your hand on a table, you immediately feel the table's surface on your skin. However, within a few seconds, you stop feeling the table's surface. The sensory neurons stimulated by the table's surface respond immediately when you first touch the table, but over time they respond less and less until ultimately they may no longer respond at all. This is neural adaptation. Neural adaptation refers to a temporary change in the neural response to a stimulus as the result of preceding stimulation. It is usually distinguished from memory, which is thought to involve a more permanent change in neural responsiveness. Some people use adaptation as an umbrella term that encompasses the neural correlates of priming and habituation. In most cases, adaptation results in a response decrease, but response facilitation can also occur. Some adaptation may result from simple fatigue, but some may result from an active recalibration of the responses of neurons to ensure optimal sensitivity.

Psychological Adaptation
Habituation, a form of non-associative learning, is the psychological process in humans and other organisms in which there is a decrease in psychological and behavioral response to a stimulus after repeated exposure to that stimulus. The learning underlying habituation is a fundamental process of biological systems and does not require conscious motivation or awareness. Without habituation, we would be unable to distinguish meaningful information from the background. Habituation need not be conscious; for example, a short time after you put on clothes, the stimulus created by the clothes is no longer recognized by your nervous system, and you become unaware of it. Habituation also commonly occurs with odors. For example, a person may not be able to smell her own bad breath but is able to smell another person's. In this way, habituation ignores any continual stimulus. This is presumably because changes in stimulus level are normally far more important than absolute levels of stimulation. This sort of habituation can occur through neural adaptation in sensory nerves themselves, as well as through negative feedback from the brain to peripheral sensory organs. Habituation is frequently used in testing psychological phenomena. Both adults and infants gaze less at a particular visual stimulus the longer it is presented. Therefore, the amount of time a person spends looking at a new stimulus after he has habituated to the initial stimulus indicates how similar he judges the two stimuli to be. Habituation also used to discover the resolution of perceptual systems. For instance, by habituating someone to one stimulus and then observing her responses to similar ones, we can determine the smallest detectable change. Habituation is also a form of integration. An animal may respond to a stimulus at first, but if it is neither a rewarding nor a harmful experience, the animal reduces subsequent responses. An example of this phenomenon can be seen in small songbirds. If a stuffed owl (or similar predator) is put into their cage, the birds initially react to it as though it were a real predator. Soon the birds react less, showing habituation. If another stuffed owl is introduced (or the same one is removed and re-introduced), the birds again react to it as though it were a predator, showing that they have habituated only to a very specific stimulus (namely, one particular unmoving owl in one particular place). Habituation has been shown in essentially every species of animal.

Detection of stimuli
Detecting stimuli in the environment, such as light, touch, or sound, requires overcoming a sensitivity threshold.
Key Points The absolute threshold is the point at which the stimulus will be detected in 50 percent of exposures. The threshold at which an individual can detect certain stimuli becomes higher with age, such that older people become less sensitive to weak stimuli. The absolute threshold can be influenced by several different factors, such as the subject's motivations and expectations, cognitive processes, and whether the subject is adapted to the stimulus.

Terms

absolute threshold The smallest amount of stimulus to which one can respond threshold the level at which a stimulus is intense enough to elicit a sensation

In neuroscience and psychophysics, an "absolute threshold" is the smallest detectable level of a stimulus. However, at this low level, subjects will only sometimes detect the stimulus. Therefore, an alternative definition of an absolute threshold is the lowest intensity at which a stimulus can be detected 50 percent of the time. The absolute threshold can be influenced by several different factors, such as the subject's motivations and expectations, cognitive processes, and whether the subject is adapted to the stimulus. An example of this would be an odor test. The absolute threshold would be the smallest amount of the odorous object necessary in order for people to still smell it 50 percent of the time. Therefore, the absolute minimum threshold is the measure of that lowest frequency that organisms still detect for a specific sensor. As people age, their absolute detection threshold increases. For instance, presbycusis is the progressive loss of the ability to hear high frequencies with increasing age. This begins in early adulthood but does not usually interfere with the ability to understand conversation until much later. In psychoacoustics it has been determined that children can hear some high-pitched sounds that older adults cannot hear; this is because the upper limit of the pitch that humans are able to hear tends to decrease with age. A cell-phone company has taken advantage of this phenomenon to create ring signals that supposedly only younger people can hear. However, many older people claim to be able to hear it. This is likely true, given the considerable variation of age-related deterioration in the upper hearing threshold.

Sensing stimuli below the threshold

Signal-detection theory states that detection of a signal depends on an individual's goals and experiences.

Detecting Stimuli
The detection of a signal on a radar can be influenced by whether the individual finds the stimuli to be important or not, whether they believe that an attack is coming, and whether they are in a focused state when it happens.

Key Points Studies show that fatigue, motivation, experience, the importance of the stimuli, the task, and the time of day can affect signal detection (Warm & Dember, 1986; Winerman, 2006; Green & Bavelier, 2003). Signal-detection theory can be used to predict the point at which we can perceive a weak stimulus among background noise. Signal detection is extremely important for military workers who monitor radar blips for signs of danger. The capacity to detect these signals depends on the person's motivation, expectations, and whether the person finds the task important Signal-detection theory, or detection theory, is a way to quantify the ability to distinguish between signal and noise. According to this theory, there are a number of psychological determiners of how we detect signals and where our threshold levels will be. Experience, expectations, physiological state (e.g., fatigue), and other factors affect thresholds. For instance, an alert sentry in wartime will likely detect fainter stimuli than the same sentry in peacetime. Video-game players with many hours of experience can detect subtle changes in shadowing that a nonvideo game player cannot (Green & Bavelier, 2003). Signal-detection theory (SDT) is used when psychologists want to measure the way we make decisions under conditions of uncertainty. For example, they are interested in how we would perceive distances in foggy conditions. SDT assumes that the decision maker is not a passive receiver of information but rather an active participant who must make difficult and demanding perceptual judgments under conditions of uncertainty. In foggy conditions, we are forced to decide how far away from us an object is based solely upon visual stimuli, and those visual stimuli are of course impaired by the fog. Since the brightness of the object, such as a traffic light, is used by the brain to discriminate the distance of an object, and the fog reduces the brightness of objects, we perceive the object to be much farther away than it actually is. Detection theory has important applications in many different fields, such as diagnostics, quality control, telecommunications, and psychology.

Auditory Processing
Audition

Hearing (or audition) is the ability to perceive sound by detecting vibrations through an organ such as the ear.
Key Points Hearing can also be referred to as audition. Hearing is adaptive and was evolutionarily important for survival. Once we hear a sound, we are instantly able to interpret the sound and determine whether it is familiar or not. We have a high sensitivity to a variety of types and intensity of sounds. Terms audition

The sense of hearing

temporal lobe

one of the four major divisions of the cerebrum of the brain, located behind the temples
cortex

The outer layer of an internal organ or body structure, such as the kidney or the brain.
Hearing is one of the traditional five senses. The inability to hear is called deafness. In humans and other vertebrates, hearing is performed primarily by the auditory system: vibrations are detected by the ear and transduced into nerve impulses that are perceived by the brain (primarily in the temporal lobe). Like touch, audition requires sensitivity to the movement of molecules in the world outside the organism. Both hearing and touch are types of mechanosensation. The temporal lobes are in the front of the visual areas and nest under the parietal and the frontal lobes. Whether a person appreciates classical music symphonies or punk rock music, the brain responds through the activity of these lobes. At the top of each temporal lobe is an area responsible for receiving information from the

ears. The underside of each temporal lobe plays a crucial role in forming and retrieving memories, including those associated with music. Other parts of this lobe seem to integrate memories and the sensations of taste, sound, sight, and touch. While more of our brain's cortex is allotted to our sense of sight than all of the other senses, without the combination of all of the senses our world would not seem as rich. Hearing (or audition; adjectival form: "auditory" or "aural") is the ability to perceive sound by detecting vibrations through an organ such as the ear. It is one of the traditional five senses. Many animals use sound to communicate with each other, and hearing in these species is particularly important for survival and reproduction. In species that use sound as a primary means of communication, hearing is typically most acute for the range of pitches produced in calls and speech.

Sound waves are the basic auditory stimulus

Our ears detect the vibrations in the air and convert the vibrations into neural messages to be sent to the brain. In a concert, instruments, such as a cello, can produce low frequency sound waves, resulting in a lowpitched sound. A violin can produce high-frequency sounds which make higher pitches. The amplitude of the sound waves can also change how loud the music is. KEY POINTS Sound waves are a form of energy which radiates from a source and causes vibration through a medium such as air.

The amplitude, or height, of sound waves determines the volume of a sound. The frequency, or length of the wave, determines the pitch of the sound. Low frequencies (long waves) allow for low pitches and high frequencies (short waves) allow for higher pitches. Sound is measured in decibels. The absolute threshold for hearing a sound is at 0 decibels. For every 10 decibels, the intensity of a sound will increase tenfold. A generic example is that a 40 decibel sound is 100 times the intensity of a 20 decibel sound. TERMS amplitude The maximum absolute value of the vertical component of a curve or function, especially one that is periodic.

pitch The perceived frequency of a sound or note.

frequency The rate of occurrence of anything; the relationship between incidence and time period. EXAMPLES The mechanics of sound is what inspires the question of whether one can hear it if a tree falls in the forest with no one there to witness it. Without the receiver, is there sound?

In humans and other vertebrates, hearing is performed primarily by the auditory system. Vibrations are detected by the ear and transduced into nerve impulses that are perceived by the brain (primarily in the temporall lobe). Not all sounds are normally audible to all animals. Each species has a range of normal hearing for both loudness (amplitude) and pitch (frequency). The decibel (dB) is a logarithmic unit that indicates the ratio of a physical quantity (usually power or intensity) relative to a specified or implied reference level. A ratio in decibels is 10 times the logarithm to base 10 of the ratio of two power quantities. A decibel is one-tenth of a bel, a seldom-used unit. The decibel is used for a wide variety of measurements in science and engineering, most prominently in acoustics, electronics, and control theory. In electronics, the gains of amplifiers, attenuation of signals, and signal-to-noise ratios are often expressed in decibels. The decibel confers a number of advantages, such as the ability to conveniently represent very large or small numbers, and the ability to carry out multiplication of ratios by simple addition and subtraction. The decibel symbol is often qualified with a suffix, that indicates which reference quantity or frequency weighting function has been used. For example, dBm indicates that the reference quantity is one milliwatt, while dBu is referenced to 0.775 volts RMS. The definitions of the decibel and bel use logarithms to base 10. The neper, an alternative logarithmic ratio unit sometimes used, uses the natural logarithm (base e). Sound is transmitted through gases, plasma, and liquids as longitudinal waves, also called "compression waves." Through solids, however, it can be transmitted as both longitudinal waves and transverse waves. Longitudinal sound waves are waves of alternating pressure deviations from the equilibrium pressure, causing local regions of compression and rarefaction, while transverse waves (in solids) are waves of alternating shear stress at right angle to the direction of propagation. Matter in the medium is periodically displaced by a sound wave, and thus oscillates. The energy carried by the sound wave converts back and forth between the potential energy of the extra compression (in case of longitudinal waves) or lateral displacement strain (in case of transverse waves) of the matter and the kinetic energy of the oscillations of the medium. Sound waves are often simplified to a description in terms of sinusoidal plane waves, which are characterized by these generic properties: Frequency, or its inverse, the period Wavelength Wavenumber Amplitude Sound pressure Sound intensity Speed of sound Direction

Amplitude: The maximum absolute value of the vertical component of a curve or function, especially one that is periodic. APPEARS IN THIS RELATED CONCEPT: Sound waves are the basic auditory stimulus Control: a separate group or subject in an experiment against which the results are compared where the primary variable is low or nonexistence

APPEARS IN THIS RELATED CONCEPT: Enhancing or Reducing One's Sense of Personal Control Displacement: an unconscious defense mechanism whereby the mind redirects effects from an object felt to be dangerous or unacceptable to an object felt to be safe or acceptable APPEARS IN THIS RELATED CONCEPT: Examining Defense Mechanisms Frequency: The rate of occurrence of anything; the relationship between incidence and time period. APPEARS IN THESE RELATED CONCEPTS: The perception of volume Sound waves are the basic auditory stimulus Automatic Processing of Information Loudness: The physical strength of the sound pressure level, measured in decibels.

APPEARS IN THIS RELATED CONCEPT: The perception of volume The perceived frequency of a sound or note.

Pitch:

APPEARS IN THIS RELATED CONCEPT: Sound waves are the basic auditory stimulus the length of the smallest interval which contains all the data in a sample; the difference between the largest and smallest observations in the sample

Range:

APPEARS IN THIS RELATED CONCEPT: Behavior Assessments Emotional pressure suffered by a human being or other animal.

Stress:

APPEARS IN THIS RELATED CONCEPT: Psychological and cultural factors influence drug use In modern science, the term "theory" refers to scientific theory, a well-confirmed type of explanation of nature, made in a way consistent with scientific method and fulfilling the criteria required by modern science. Theories are described in such a way that any scientist in the field is in a position to understand and either provide empirical support ("verify") or empirically contradict ("falsify") them. Scientific theories are the most reliable, rigorous, and comprehensive form of scientific knowledge, in contrast to

Theory:

more common uses of the word "theory" that imply that something is unproven or speculative. Scientific theories are also distinguished from hypotheses, which are individual empirically testable conjectures, and scientific laws, which are descriptive accounts of how nature will behave under certain conditions. APPEARS IN THIS RELATED CONCEPT: Using The Scientific Method Wavelength: The length of a single cycle of a wave, as measured by the distance between one peak or trough of a wave and the next; it is often designated in physics as , and corresponds to the velocity of the wave divided by its frequency.

APPEARS IN THIS RELATED CONCEPT: Light is the basic visual stimulus

The ear transforms auditory stimuli into neural signals

The ear transforms sound waves into neural messages for the brain.

Examples of Sounds Varying in Intensity A sound of high intensity, such as thunder, will produce an intensity of about 120 decibels.

KEY POINTS

Sound waves first approach the outer ear and then funnel through the eardrum. Waves pass through this canal and cause vibrations in the eardrum. From the middle ear, vibrations move to the cochlea, a fluid-filled coiled tube, in the inner ear. Vibrations go through the oval window, a membrane of the cochlea, and vibrate the fluid in the cochlea. The movement of fluid will then cause the basilar membrane inside the cochlea to move. The basilar membrane is lined with hair cells that bend when the membrane moves. The bending of these hair cells sends neural messages which converge onto the auditory nerve (bundle of axons). The auditory nerve sends signals to the thalamus and eventually to the auditory cortex. The 16,000 hair cells in the cochlea of the ear are extremely sensitive to sounds. Hearing loss can occur if they are damaged by frequent loud noises, especially those about 100 decibels. Ringing in the ears following exposure to prolonged loud noise is a result of damaged hair cells. (Zogby, 2006).
TERMS

cochlea

The complex, spirally coiled, tapered cavity of the inner ear in which sound vibrations are converted into nerve impulses.

middle ear The cavity in the temporal bone between the eardrum and the inner ear that contains the ossicles, and which conveys sound to the cochlea.

eardrum A thin membrane that separates the outer ear from the middle ear and transmits sound from the air to the malleus.

EXAMPLES Men tend to have more exposure to loud noises and hence, less hearing acuity than women

The ear is the organ where the first processing of sound occurs and where the sensory receptors are located. It consists of three parts: the outer, middle, and inner ear. Sound waves are reflected and attenuated when they hit the pinna (outer ear), and these changes provide additional information that will help the brain determine the direction from which the sounds came. The sound waves enter the auditory canal, a deceptively simple tube. The ear canal amplifies sounds that are between 3 and 12 kHz. At the far end of the ear canal is the tympanic membrane (eardrum), which marks the beginning of the middle ear. Sound waves traveling through the ear canal will hit the tympanic membrane (tympanum, eardrum). This wave information travels across the air-filled tympanic cavity (middle ear cavity) via a series of bones: the malleus (hammer), incus (anvil), and stapes (stirrup). These ossicles act as a lever and a teletype, converting the lowerpressure eardrum sound vibrations into higher-pressure sound vibrations at another, smaller membrane called the "oval" (or elliptical) window, which is one of two openings into the cochlea of the inner ear. The second opening is called "round window." It allows the fluid in the cochlea to move. The middle ear still contains the sound information in wave form; it is converted to nerve impulses in the cochlea. The inner ear consists of the cochlea and several non-auditory structures. The cochlea is a snail-shaped part of the inner ear. The cochlea supports a fluid wave driven by pressure across the basilar membrane. The basilar membrane is about 3 cm long and between 0.5 to 0.04 mm wide. The organ of Corti forms a ribbon of sensory epithelium, which runs lengthwise down the entire cochlea. The hair cells of the organ of Corti transform the fluid waves into nerve signals. The journey of a billion nerves begins with this first step; from here further processing leads to a series of auditory reactions and sensations. Hair cells are columnar cells, each with a bundle of 100-200 specialized cilia at the top, for which they are named. These cilia are the mechanosensors for hearing. Noiseinduced hearing loss (NIHL) is an increasingly prevalent disorder that results from exposure to high-intensity sound, especially over a long period of time. NIHL occurs when too much sound intensity is transmitted into and through the auditory system. When the ear is exposed to excessive sound levels or loud sounds over time, the overstimulation of the hair cells leads to cell death. Males tend to have more exposure to loud noises and less hearing acuity than women (Zogby, 2006). The sound information, now re-encoded in form of electric signals, travels down the auditory nerve (acoustic nerve, vestibulocochlear nerve, VIIIth cranial nerve), through intermediate stations such as the cochlear nuclei and superior olivary complex of the brainstem and the inferior colliculus of the midbrain, being further processed at each waypoint. The information eventually reaches the thalamus and from there, it is relayed to the cortex. In the human brain, the primary auditory cortex is located in the temporal lobe.

Basilar membrane:

a stiff structural element within the cochlea of the inner ear, which separates two liquid-filled tubes that run along the coil of the cochlea - the scala media and the scala tympani
APPEARS IN THIS RELATED CONCEPT:

The perception of sound frequencies

Brainstem:
the part of the brain that connects the spinal cord to the forebrain and cerebrum
APPEARS IN THIS RELATED CONCEPT:

The oldest region of the brain: The brainstem

Cochlea:
The complex, spirally coiled, tapered cavity of the inner ear in which sound vibrations are converted into nerve impulses.
APPEARS IN THIS RELATED CONCEPT:

The ear transforms auditory stimuli into neural signals

Cortex:
The outer layer of an internal organ or body structure, such as the kidney or the brain.
APPEARS IN THESE RELATED CONCEPTS:

Audition The sensory cortex Examining Deep-Brain Stimulation

Eardrum:
A thin membrane that separates the outer ear from the middle ear and transmits sound from the air to the malleus.
APPEARS IN THIS RELATED CONCEPT:

The ear transforms auditory stimuli into neural signals

Middle ear:
The cavity in the temporal bone between the eardrum and the inner ear that contains the ossicles, and which conveys sound to the cochlea.
APPEARS IN THIS RELATED CONCEPT:

The ear transforms auditory stimuli into neural signals

Outer ear:
the outer portion of the ear which includes the auricle and the ear canal and leads to the eardrum
APPEARS IN THIS RELATED CONCEPT:

Hearing deficits and current therapies

Sensory:
Of the senses or sensation.
APPEARS IN THIS RELATED CONCEPT:

The sensory cortex

Temporal lobe:

one of the four major divisions of the cerebrum of the brain, located behind the temples
APPEARS IN THESE RELATED CONCEPTS:

Audition In What Ways are Brains of People with Schizophrenia Different for Typical Brains?

Thalamus:
either of two large, ovoid structures of grey matter within the forebrain that relay sensory impulses to the cerebral cortex
APPEARS IN THIS RELATED CONCEPT:

In What Ways are Brains of People with Schizophrenia Different for Typical Brains?

Hearing deficits and current therapies

Deafness is a condition wherein the ability to detect certain frequencies of sound is completely or partially impaired. Cochlear implants A cochlear implant is composed of a series of wires which stimulate 12 different areas along the auditory nerve.

KEY POINTS

Conduction hearing loss occurs when systems within the middle ear fail to transmit sound waves to the cochlea. Sensorineural hearing loss (nerve deafness) results when the hair cells, or the neurons attached to them, are damaged. One way to restore hearing loss is with a cochlear implant. Cochlear implants have helped over 60,000 people hear again (2003). A cochlear implant is a device that converts sound waves into electrical signals which are sent to the auditory nerves. The brain converts these signals into sounds. This device has only been successful in remedying hearing loss in adults who were once able to hear. TERMS cochlear implant A cochlear implant is a surgically implanted electronic device that can help provide a sense of sound to a person who is profoundly deaf or severely hard of hearing.

sensorineural hearing loss Sensorineural hearing loss (SNHL) is a type of hearing loss in which the root cause lies in the vestibulocochlear nerve (Cranial nerve VIII), the inner ear, or central processing centers of the brain.

conduction hearing loss Conductive hearing loss occurs when there is a problem conducting sound waves anywhere along the route through the outer ear, tympanic membrane (eardrum), or middle ear (ossicles). outer ear the outer portion of the ear which includes the auricle and the ear canal and leads to the eardrum EXAMPLES There is some debate over the use of cochlear implants, especially from the deaf culture advocates who argue that deafness is not a disability and that the other senses, like vision, are often enhanced when one is deaf. Deafness is a condition wherein the ability to detect certain frequencies of sound is completely or partially impaired. When applied to humans, the term hearing impaired is rejected by the deaf culture movement, where the terms deaf and hard-of-hearing are preferred. Hearing impairments are categorized by their type (conductive, sensorineural, or both), by their severity, and by the age of onset. Furthermore, a hearing impairment may exist in only one ear (unilateral) or in both ears (bilateral). Types of Hearing Impairment A conductive hearing impairment is an impairment resulting from dysfunction in any of the mechanisms that normally conduct sound waves through the outer ear, the eardrum, or the bones of the middle ear. Conductive hearing impairment can be due to earwax and ear infection or to any number or issues with the ear, such as a tear in the eardrum. To differentiate between conductive and sensorineural hearing impairment, two tests are conducted. When a Weber test is carried out, sound localizes to the ear affected by the conductive loss. A Rinne test, in which air conduction is normally greater than bone conduction, is usually negative (or abnormal, note the unusual terminology here compared with other medical tests), and shows greater bone conduction than air conduction. A sensorineural hearing impairment is one resulting from dysfunction in the inner ear, especially the cochlea, where sound vibrations are converted into neural signals, or in any part of the brain that subsequently processes these signals. The vast majority of human sensorineural hearing loss is associated with abnormalities in the hair cells of the organ of Corti in the cochlea. This dysfunction may be present from birth, due to genetic or developmental abnormalities, or arise through trauma or disease during the lifetime of an individual. There are also very unusual sensorineural hearing impairments that involve the VIIIth cranial nerve, the Vestibulocochlear nerve or, in rare cases, auditory cortex. Damage to parts of the brain that process auditory signals can lead to a condition in which sounds may be heard at normal thresholds, but the quality of the sound perceived is so poor that speech cannot be understood. Sensorineural hearing loss associated with abnormalities of the auditory system in the brain is called Central Hearing Impairment. Cochlear Implants Cochlear implants artificially stimulate the VIIIth Nerve by providing an electric impulse substitution for the firing of hair cells. Cochlear implants are not only expensive, but require sophisticated programming in

conjunction with patient training for effectiveness. The United States Food and Drug Administration reported that cochlear implant recipients may be at higher risk for meningitis. People who have hearing impairments, especially those who develop a hearing problem in childhood or old age, may need the support and technical adaptations as part of the rehabilitation process. Recent research shows variations in efficacy but some studies show that if implanted at a very young age, some profoundly impaired children can acquire effective hearing and speech, particularly if supported by appropriate rehabilitation such as auditory-verbal therapy [12]. There has been considerable controversy within the Deaf Community over cochlear implants. For the most part, there is little objection to those who lost their hearing later in life or culturally deaf adults (voluntarily) choosing to be fitted with a cochlear implant. Many in the Deaf Community strongly object to a deaf child being fitted with a cochlear implant (often on the advice of an audiologist). New parents may not have sufficient information on raising deaf children and the child may be placed in an oral-only program that emphasizes the ability to speak and listen over other forms of communication, such as sign language or total communication. This may be because not all audiologists are familiar with the benefits of sign language to deaf children and their families. There are many arguments against the cochlear implant including the loss of deaf culture and the fact that the surgery does not always restore hearing. Most parents and doctors tell children not to play sports or get involved in activities that can result in injuries to the head. A child with a hearing loss may prefer to stay away from noisy places, such as rock concerts, football games, or airports as this can cause noise overflow (noise overflow is a type of headache that occurs in many children and adults when they are near loud noises).

Bilateral: involving both sides equally APPEARS IN THESE RELATED CONCEPTS: The dominant hand and the brain What is Eye Movement Desensitization & Reprocessing Therapy? Cochlea:

The complex, spirally coiled, tapered cavity of the inner ear in which sound vibrations are converted into nerve impulses. APPEARS IN THIS RELATED CONCEPT: The ear transforms auditory stimuli into neural signals Cochlear implant:

A cochlear implant is a surgically implanted electronic device that can help provide a sense of sound to a person who is profoundly deaf or severely hard of hearing. APPEARS IN THIS RELATED CONCEPT: Hearing deficits and current therapies Communication: The concept or state of exchanging information between entities.

APPEARS IN THIS RELATED CONCEPT: Animal Communication The outer layer of an internal organ or body structure, such as the kidney or the brain.

Cortex:

APPEARS IN THESE RELATED CONCEPTS: Audition The sensory cortex Examining Deep-Brain Stimulation Culture: the beliefs, values, behavior, and material objects that constitute a people's way of life APPEARS IN THIS RELATED CONCEPT: Diversity within a group Deaf culture: Deaf culture describes the social beliefs, behaviors, art, literary traditions, history, values and shared institutions of communities that are affected by deafness and which use sign languages as the main means of communication. APPEARS IN THIS RELATED CONCEPT: Close-up: Deaf culture eardrum: A thin membrane that separates the outer ear from the middle ear and transmits sound from the air to the malleus. APPEARS IN THIS RELATED CONCEPT: The ear transforms auditory stimuli into neural signals Language: a form of communication using words either spoken or gestured with the hands and structured with grammar, often with a writing system APPEARS IN THIS RELATED CONCEPT: Overview of Language Middle ear: The cavity in the temporal bone between the eardrum and the inner ear that contains the ossicles, and which conveys sound to the cochlea. APPEARS IN THIS RELATED CONCEPT: The ear transforms auditory stimuli into neural signals Outer ear:

the outer portion of the ear which includes the auricle and the ear canal and leads to the eardrum

APPEARS IN THIS RELATED CONCEPT: Hearing deficits and current therapies sensorineural hearing loss: Sensorineural hearing loss (SNHL) is a type of hearing loss in which the root cause lies in the vestibulocochlear nerve (Cranial nerve VIII), the inner ear, or central processing centers of the brain.

APPEARS IN THIS RELATED CONCEPT: Hearing deficits and current therapies

The perception of volume

The perception of loudness is related to both the sound pressure level and the duration of a sound.

Sound Frequency Sound vibrations of increasing frequencies

KEY POINTS

Most sounds are composed of multiple frequencies and are related to the sound pressure level and the duration of the sound. The brain processes the distinct frequencies of sounds, not the complete sounds. The sound is thereby split into its different frequencies, and each hair cell on the membrane corresponds to a certain frequency. In hearing loss, a person's hair cells can lose sensitivity to soft sounds, but loud sounds can still stimulate the damaged hair cells. To correct hearing deficits, only softer sounds are amplified through a process called compression. With hearing loss, sounds at low levels (often perceived by those without hearing loss as relatively quiet) are no longer audible to the hearing impaired. Interestingly, sounds at high levels are often perceived as having the same loudness as they would for an unimpaired listener. TERMS loudness The physical strength of the sound pressure level, measured in decibels.

frequency The rate of occurrence of anything; the relationship between incidence and time period.

hair cell a sensory receptor of either the auditory system or the vestibular system in all vertebrates

EXAMPLES Loud sounds activate a greater number of hair cells than soft sounds (and the more cells activated, the louder the sound).

Most sounds are composed of multiple frequencies. The brain processes the distinct frequencies, not the complete sounds. The sound is thereby split into its different frequencies, and each hair cell on the membrane corresponds to a certain frequency. The loudness of the frequencies is encoded by the firing rate of the corresponding afferent fiber. This is due to the amplitude of the traveling wave on the basilar membrane, which depends on the loudness of the incoming sound. The perception of loudness is related to both the sound pressure level and the duration of a sound. The human auditory system integrates (averages) the effects of sound pressure level (SPL) over a 600 to 1,000 millisecond window. For example, a sound of constant sound pressure level will be perceived to increase in loudness as 20, 50, 100, 200 millisecond samples are played, up to a maximum of approximately one second at which point the perception of loudness will stabilize (Figure 1). For long duration sounds (greater than one second), the moment by moment perception of loudness will be based on the integration of the preceding 600 to 1,000 milliseconds. When sensorineural hearing loss (damage to the cochlea or in the brain) is present, the perception of loudness is altered. Sounds at low levels (often perceived by those without hearing loss as relatively quiet) are no longer audible to the hearing impaired. Interestingly, sounds at high levels are often perceived as having the same loudness as they would for an unimpaired listener. Within the ear, hair cells in the ear canal detect sound and move to adapt to the sound. Louder sounds move the hair cells more vigorously, damaging them and contributing to hearing loss. In hearing loss, a person's hair cells can lose sensitivity to softer sounds, but louder sounds can still stimulate the damaged hair cells. To correct hearing deficits, only softer sounds are amplified. Amplitude: The maximum absolute value of the vertical component of a curve or function, especially one that is periodic. APPEARS IN THIS RELATED CONCEPT: Sound waves are the basic auditory stimulus Basilar membrane: a stiff structural element within the cochlea of the inner ear, which separates two liquid-filled tubes that run along the coil of the cochlea - the scala media and the scala tympani APPEARS IN THIS RELATED CONCEPT: The perception of sound frequencies Cochlea: The complex, spirally coiled, tapered cavity of the inner ear in which sound vibrations are converted into nerve impulses. APPEARS IN THIS RELATED CONCEPT: The ear transforms auditory stimuli into neural signals Frequency:

The rate of occurrence of anything; the relationship between incidence and time period. APPEARS IN THESE RELATED CONCEPTS: The perception of volume Sound waves are the basic auditory stimulus Automatic Processing of Information Hair cell: a sensory receptor of either the auditory system or the vestibular system in all vertebrates APPEARS IN THIS RELATED CONCEPT: The perception of volume Loudness: The physical strength of the sound pressure level, measured in decibels. APPEARS IN THIS RELATED CONCEPT: The perception of volume Perception: conscious understanding of something APPEARS IN THESE RELATED CONCEPTS: Overview of Sensation and Perception Taste Psychological processes influence pain Effects of emotion and goals on perception Introduction to Perceptual Processing Perception: he organization, identification, and interpretation of sensory information in order to fabricate a mental representation through the process of transduction, which sensors in the body transform signals from the environment into encoded neural signals APPEARS IN THIS RELATED CONCEPT: Components of Perception sensorineural hearing loss:

Sensorineural hearing loss (SNHL) is a type of hearing loss in which the root cause lies in the vestibulocochlear nerve (Cranial nerve VIII), the inner ear, or central processing centers of the brain.

APPEARS IN THIS RELATED CONCEPT: Hearing deficits and current therapies

Taste
Taste is the ability to respond with the tongue to dissolved molecules and ions called "tastants".

The Basic Sensations Were Crucial for Survival Tastes exist either for our pleasure or toward us away from aversive stimuli.

KEY POINTS

The five basic taste sensations are sour, sweet, salty, bitter, and umami (a meaty flavor). The taste sensations can also be mixed to produce other flavors (McBurney & Gent, 1979). Taste bud receptors are renewed every few weeks. Smoking or heavy alcohol use tends to negatively affect the production of taste bud receptors. Sensitivity to tastes and the number of taste buds decrease with age (Cowart, 1981). Sensory interaction occurs when one sense is modified by other senses. The senses tend to interact to produce a sensory experience. For example, smell affects taste, such that when the nose is covered, food tastes bland. Vision and touch can also interact. For example, a weak visual stimuli, such as a flash of light, can be amplified by a loud sound. In synesthesia, the senses become joined. For example, a person may hear a sound, but perceive it as a color (Brang et al., 2008). TERMS

synaesthesia A neurological or psychological phenomenon whereby a particular sensory stimulus triggers a second kind of sensation. McGurk effect A perceptual phenomenon that demonstrates an interaction between hearing and vision in speech perception. perception conscious understanding of something

Taste is the ability to respond with the tongue to dissolved molecules and ions, called tastants. Humans detect taste with taste receptor cells, which are clustered in taste buds. Each taste bud has a pore that opens out to the surface of the tongue, enabling molecules and ions taken into the mouth to reach the receptor cells inside. A taste bud is flask-like in shape. Its broad base rests on the corium, and its neck opens by way of an orifice, called the gustatory pore, between the cells of the epithelium. There are five primary taste sensations: salty, sour, sweet, bitter, and umami (savory sensation of meatiness, notably with monosodium glutamate).

A single taste bud contains 50100 taste cells representing all five taste sensations (so the classic textbook pictures showing separate taste areas on the tongue are wrong). Each taste cell has receptors on its surface. These admit the ions that give rise to the sensations of salty and sour or bind to the molecules that give rise to the sensations of sweet, bitter, and umami. A single taste cell seems to be restricted to expressing only a single type of receptor (except for bitter receptors). Taste receptor cells are connected to a sensory neuron leading back to the brain. Taste bud receptors are renewed every few weeks. Smoking or heavy alcohol use tends to negatively affect the production of taste bud receptors. Just as in the auditory system, the sensitivity to tastes and the number of taste buds decreases with age (Cowart, 1981). In humans, the sense of taste is transduced by taste buds and is conveyed via three of the twelve cranial nerves: Cranial nerve VII, Cranial nerve IX, and a branch of the vagus nerve. These nerves carry taste sensations from the back of the oral cavity (i.e., pharynx and epiglottis). Information from these cranial nerves is processed by the gustatory system. Sensitivity to all tastes is distributed across the whole tongue and indeed to other regions of the mouth where there are taste buds. It is also important to consider that flavor is the overall, total sensation induced during mastication. Smell plays a major role in flavor perception. One's expectations can also influence the taste experienced. For example, if a person is told that something tastes badly, the taste will be perceived as unpleasant. However, if the person is told the same taste is only mildly unpleasant, the person will perceive the taste as less offensive (Nitschke et al., 2006).
Sensory Integration

This is the ability to take in information through the senses of touch, movement, smell, taste, vision, and hearing, and to combine the resulting perceptions with prior information, memories, and knowledge already stored in the brain, in order to derive coherent meaning from processing the stimuli. The mid-brain and brain-stem regions of the central nervous systemare early centers in the processing pathway for sensory integration. These regions are involved in processes including coordination, attention, arousal, and autonomic function. After sensory information passes through these centers, it is then routed to the brain regions responsible for emotions, memory, and higher-level cognitive functions. An example of an interaction between hearing and vision in speech perception is called The McGurk effect. It is a perceptual phenomenon which suggests that speech perception is multimodal, or that it involves information from more than one sensory modality. This effect may be experienced when a video of one phoneme's production (such as a /ga/) is dubbed with a sound-recording of a different phoneme (such as /ba/) being spoken. Often, the perceived phoneme is a third, intermediate phoneme (/da/). The effect is very robust; that is, knowledge about it seems to have little effect on one's perception of it. This is different from certain optical illusions, which break down once one sees through them. Vision and touch are automatically integrated for the perception of sequences of events. Synesthesia (also spelled synsthesia or synaesthesia) - from the Greek syn- meaning union and aesthesis meaning sensation, is a neurological condition in which two or more bodily senses are coupled. For example, in a form known as grapheme-color synesthesia, letters or numbers may be perceived as inherently colored. While cross-sensory metaphors are sometimes described as synesthetic, true neurological synesthesia is involuntary and occurs in about four percent of the population across

its range of variants. It runs strongly in families, possibly inherited as an X-linked dominant trait. Synesthesia has been proposed as the means for creativity.
Affect: One's mood or inclination; mental state. APPEARS IN THIS RELATED CONCEPT: Do Certain Emotions Produce Similar Physiological Responses? Arousal:

A physiological and psychological state of being awake or reactive to stimuli, including elevated heart rate and blood pressure and a condition of sensory alertness, mobility, and readiness to respond. APPEARS IN THESE RELATED CONCEPTS: Arousal Experiencing Emotion Central nervous system: In vertebrates, that part of the nervous system comprising the brain, brainstem, and spinal cord. APPEARS IN THESE RELATED CONCEPTS: Overview of the Nervous System Introduction to Psychopharmacology and Drugs of Abuse The effects on cocaine on behavior Caffeine increases arousal Cognitive:

The part of mental function that deals with logic, as opposed to affective, which deals with emotions. APPEARS IN THIS RELATED CONCEPT: Theories of Development Glutamate:

An important neurotransmitter that plays a key role in long-term potentiation and is important for learning and memory. APPEARS IN THESE RELATED CONCEPTS: How Does Our Genetic Makeup Contribute to Developing Anxiety? What Role Does Dopamine Play in the Development of Schizophrenia? McGurk effect:

A perceptual phenomenon that demonstrates an interaction between hearing and vision in speech perception. APPEARS IN THIS RELATED CONCEPT: Taste Memory:

The ability of an organism to record information about things or events with the facility of recalling them later at will. APPEARS IN THIS RELATED CONCEPT: Overview of Memory Nervous system:

An organ system containing a network of specialized cells called neurons that coordinate the actions of an animal and transmit signals between different parts of its body APPEARS IN THESE RELATED CONCEPTS: The Endocrine System Overview of the Nervous System Neuron:

A cell of the nervous system, which conducts nerve impulses; consisting of an axon and several dendrites. Neurons are connected by synapses. APPEARS IN THESE RELATED CONCEPTS: The perception of sound frequencies Neurons Perception:

conscious understanding of something APPEARS IN THESE RELATED CONCEPTS: Overview of Sensation and Perception Taste Psychological processes influence pain Effects of emotion and goals on perception Introduction to Perceptual Processing Perception: he organization, identification, and interpretation of sensory information in order to fabricate a mental representation through the process of transduction, which sensors in the body transform signals from the environment into encoded neural signals APPEARS IN THIS RELATED CONCEPT: Components of Perception Phoneme:

the smallest indivisible unit of sound in a given language APPEARS IN THIS RELATED CONCEPT: Most Basic Units of Sound Population: A group of units (persons, objects, or other items) enumerated in a census or from which a sample is drawn.

APPEARS IN THIS RELATED CONCEPT: Explanation of Random Sampling the length of the smallest interval which contains all the data in a sample; the difference between the largest and smallest observations in the sample

Range:

APPEARS IN THIS RELATED CONCEPT: Behavior Assessments The expected behavior of an individual in a society.

Role:

APPEARS IN THIS RELATED CONCEPT: Men and women have differing roles Sensation: The function of the low-level biochemical and neurological events that begin with the impinging of a stimulus upon the receptor cells of a sensory organ APPEARS IN THIS RELATED CONCEPT: Components of Perception Sensation:

A physical feeling or perception from something that comes into contact with the body; something sensed. APPEARS IN THESE RELATED CONCEPTS: Overview of Sensation and Perception Introduction to Perceptual Processing Sensory:

Of the senses or sensation. APPEARS IN THIS RELATED CONCEPT: The sensory cortex Sensory neuron: a cell of the nervous system that is responsible for converting various external stimuli that come from the environment into corresponding internal stimuli APPEARS IN THIS RELATED CONCEPT: The sensory cortex Stimuli: in psychology, any energy patterns (e.g. light or sound) which are registered by the senses

APPEARS IN THIS RELATED CONCEPT: Unsuccessful Encoding

Synaesthesia: A neurological or psychological phenomenon whereby a particular sensory stimulus triggers a second kind of sensation.

APPEARS IN THESE RELATED CONCEPTS: Taste Overview of Memory