Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
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Engineering
Series
FEEDBACK
CONTROL
With MATLAB
Boris J.
Paul
Lurie
J.
Enright
FEEDBACK
CONTROL
CONTROL
ENGINEERING
A Series
NEIL
MUNRO,
Control
Institute United
PH.D., D.SC.
Engineering of Science
Kingdom
Professor
Applied
University of Manchester
and Technology
Manchester,
1.
Nonlinear
Timothy
Computational
Darren
M. Dawson,
Jun
Hu,
and
2.
3.
Quantitative Stantine
Feedback H. Houpis
and Steven J. Rasmussen of Finite Markov Chains, A. S. Poznyak, K. Najim, Control A. Self-Learning andE. Gdmez-Ramirez Control and Filtering for Time-Delay Systems, Magdi S. Mahmoud 5, Robust Boris J. Lurie and Paul J. 6, Classical Feedback Control:With MATLAB,
Enright
Con-
Additional
Volumes
in Preparation
FEEDBACK
CONTROL
With
MATLAB
Boris J.
Paul
Lurie
J.
Enright
MARCEL
Marcel DEXKER
Dekker,
Inc.
New York
\342\200\242 Basel
Library of CongressCataloging-in-Publication
Lurie, B.
p.
Data
J.
control with MATLAB cm. \342\200\224 6) (Control engineering; control
Classical feedback 1.
(Marcel
/ Boris J. Lurie,
Paul
J. Enright.
ISBN 0-8247-0370-7
Feedback
systems.
I. Enright,
Paul
J. II.
engineering
Dekker); 6.
99-087832
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PRINTED
IN THE
UNITED STATES
OF AMERICA
PREFACE
Classical
Feedback Control
is
feedback
methods
describesdesign and
used
implementation book
of high-performance
emphasizes
It
the frequencypresents
nonlinear
engineering.
for
single-input,
design
single-output
multi-output, analog and digital control systems. Modern technology allows implementation of high-performance controllers at a tools which were previously considered an very low cost. Conversely,several analysis inherent the design to low-order (and thereforelowpart of control system courseslimit the detection of performance) method, compensators. Among these are the root-locus roots calculations right-sidedpolynomial using the Routh-Hurwitz criterion, and manual transforms. These methods have been rendered obsolete using the Laplace and Fourier and are granted a brief treatment in the book, making room for loop by computers only Bode structural simulation of complexsystems, shaping, integrals, multiloop systems, and nonlinear controllers, all of which are essential for good design practice. In the design philosophy adopted by Classical Feedback Control, Bodeintegral relations are employed to estimate the available play a key role. The integrals system and to determine the frequency that maximize the disturbance performance responses and the feedback bandwidth. This to quickly estimate the attainable rejection ability is critical for system-level trades in the design of complex engineering performance is one of many the controller systems, of which Only at the final subsystems. design and only for the finally selected do the stage configuration option of the system in detail, by approximation of the already found compensators need to be designed
optimal
and multi-input,
frequency
responses.
and process global dynamic compensation is employed to provide and to transient responses. The nearly-optimal high-order stability, improve are then economically implemented analog and digital technology. using compensators The first six chapters support a one-semester course in linear control. The rest of the issues of complexsystem the considers book robustness, simulation, global stability, are used for and SPICE the book, MATLAB and nonlinear control. Throughout this is no with software simulation and required. The design; preliminary experience transform and frequency responses; student should have some knowledge of the Laplace the 2. required theory is reviewed in Appendix of feedback control, which can be used as treatment Appendix 1 is an elementary an introduction to the course. not only a textbook to make Classical FeedbackControl It is the authors' intention become engineers, enabling them to design for students as they but also a reference the transition from school to the competitive and controllers easing high-performance industrial environment. The methods describedin this book were used by the authors and tools for feedback loops of aerospace and their colleagues as the major design telecommunication systems. and criticism our readers We would be grateful for any comments, corrections, may or addressed take the trouble to communicate to us, via E-mail b.j.lurie@jpl.nasa.gov CA 91109. to B. J. Lurie, 198/326, JPL, 4800 Oak Grove Drive,Pasadena
Nonlinear
Acknowledgment.
We
Ahmed.
thank
Alia
Lurie
for technical
editing
and
acknowledge
the
many
generous help
of
Asif
We
greatly
ill
iv
Preface
Professor the
and collaboration, comments and advice of John O'Brien, laboratory, and especially Propulsion Daniel Chang, Edward about the in the told the authors (who jump-resonance Kopf Drs. Alexander attitude control of the Mariner 10 spacecraft), Abramovichi, loop Thomas Bak, DavidBayard edit the chapter on adaptive systems), (who helped Dimitrius Chen (who contributed Boussalis, 7), Ali Ghavimi (who Appendix Gun-Shing contributed to Appendix A13.14), FredHadaegh (who co-authored several papers on the digital which 13 is based), John Hench (who contributed signal profiling Chapter function in Section 5.11), Kenneth Wei Min Liu, Mehran Mesbahi, GregoryNeat, Lau, and corrections made by Samuel John Spanos, and Michael Zak. Suggestions Sirlin, Professors Smith allowed us to improve the Osita and Bird, Nwokah, Randolph Roy and Dr. Jason the Modisette read manuscript suggested many changes and manuscript. of a mechanical snake control in corrections. Allan Schier contributed the example A13.15. To all of them we extendour sincere gratitude. Appendix
Isaac
Horowitz,
our colleagues
at
Jet
Boris J.
Contents
ix
Chapter
INTRODUCTION
8.1
CONTROLLER DESIGN
QFT
TO ALTERNATIVE METHODS OF
245
245
pole
8.2
8.3 8.4
8.5
State-spacemethods LQRandLQG .
H^,
247 249
253
matrix inequalities
^-synthesis,
and linear
255
Chapter
9
257
ADAPTIVE SYSTEMS
9.1
Benefits
of adaptation to
dynamic
the
plant
parameter
variations
257
259
9.2
9.3
Static and
Plant
transfer
259
260
261
9.4
9.5
9.6
Flexibleand
Pilot signals
n.p.
dithering
262
264
9.7
Adaptive
filters
Chapter
10
PROVISION
OF GLOBAL
of the
STABILITY
feedback
systems
path,
266
and
10.1
10.2
10.3
Nonlinearities
actuator,
plant
266
267
Types of self-oscillation
Stability 103.1
10.3.2
Absolute
269
269
Global stability
270
270
10.4
10.5
Popov criterion
271
to passive
10.5.1
10.6
Analogy
two-poles'connection
Popov
271
274
275
10.5.2 Different forms of the criterion Applications of Popov 10.6.1 Low-pass system with 10.6.2 Band-pass system with
Absolutely
maximum maximum
10.7
stable
systems
10.7.1
Nonlinear
Reduction
10.7.2
10.7.3
10.8
compensation
....
275 275
276
276
277
278
Designexamples 11
Problems
286
Chapter
DESCRIBING FUNCTIONS
289
289
11.1
Harmonic
balance
11.1.1
11.1.2
289
290
balance
accuracy
CONTENTS
PREFACE
TO
iii
INSTRUCTORS
xiii
Chapter
FEEDBACK
1.1
1.2 1.3
AND SENSITIVITY
control
l
1 3
Feedback
system
negative
1.4
gain
Gain
1.4.1
1.4.2
1.5
and phase
and
frequency responses
responses
4 6
6
9
10
phase
diagram
Nyquist
11
12
nonlinearity
1.6
1.7
1.8
of system feedback
analysis
on the
Effect of
Sensitivity
actuator
15
17
finite
1.9
Effect of
Automatic
1.10
1.11
1.12
variations
18
19
20
Lead and
PID
Conclusion and
20
1.13
Problems
21
Chapter 2
FEEDFORWARD,
2.1
2.3
MULTILOOP,
feedforward
and
AND
MIMO
SYSTEMS
.31
31
Command
2.2 2.4
Prefilter
Error
the
feedback
path equivalent
33
34
feedforward
35
36
37
2.5
2.6
2.7
feedback
systems
2.8
2.9
38
functions...
of block
diagrams
40
2.10
43
46
Chapter
FREQUENCY
RESPONSE
of
Approximate
METHODS
requirements
3.1
3.2
3.3
Conversion
time-domain
relations
to frequency domain
52 52
52
3.1.1
3.1.2
Filters
transient
56
response
Closed-loop
Root locus
58
59
vi
Contents
3.4
Nyquist
Robustness Nyquist
stability criterion
and criterion
61
margins
with
3.5
3.6 3.7
3.8 3.9
stability for a
system
loop
an criterion
unstable
63 67
69
. . 71
Successiveloop closurestability
Nyquist diagrams for the Bode integrals
transfer
functions
74
functions
3.9.1
3.9.2 3.9.3 3.9.4
phase
74 75 76
3.9.5 3.9.6
3.10
over
relation
78 78
79
Phase-gain
Phase calculations
From
81
the
3.11
3.12
3.13
the
Nyquist
diagram to
Bode
diagram links
83
85 m.p.
3.14
86
88
Chapter 4
SHAPINGTHELOOP
4.1
FREQUENCY
RESPONSE
94
Optimality of the
compensator
design
94
96
4.2
Feedback maximization
4.2.1 4.2.3
Structural Example
Reshaping
4.2.2 Bodestep
96
97
4.2.4
4.2.5
4.2.6
response
with a
Bode step. .
. 100
105
106
feedback
response
Bode cutoff
Band-pass
Nyquist-stable
systems
systems
107
108 110
110
4.2.7
4.3
Feedback bandwidth limitations 4.3.1 Feedback bandwidth 4.3.2 Sensor noise at the system
4.3.3 4.3.4
4.3.5
Sensornoise
Non-minimum-phase
at
the
Ill 112
113
Plant tolerances
Lightly and
114
flexible
4.3.6
4.3.7
4.4
damped non-collocated
control
Unstable plants
in MIMO
parallel
4.5
4.6
Coupling
Shaping
systems
responses
120
121
channel
Problems
125
Chapter 5
DESIGN COMPENSATOR
5.1
130
Accuracy
of the
loop shaping
130
5.2
Asymptotic
Bode diagram
131
Contents
5.3
vii
Approximation
Lead
5.4
5.5
5.6
and
gain response
133
135
Complexpoles
Cascaded
; . .
137
138
141
5.7
5.8
Parallelconnection
Simulation ofaPID
Analog
controller
controllers
143
146
5.9
5.10
and
digital
146
integrator transforms
5.10.1
5.10.2 5.10.3
Discrete
trapezoidal
and
5.10.4 Block
5.10.5
5.10.6 5.10.7
Compensator Aliasing
146 148
151
and computer
equations, design
code
151
153 156
example
for
and
5.11
5.12
157
159
159
Chapter
6.1
6
170
RC circuits
Operational
170
amplifier
differentiator
6.1.1
6.1.2
6.1.3
170
171
Integrator and
Noninverting
Op-amp Transfer
6.1.4
configuration
range, with
. 172 packaging
and
6.1.5
6.1.6
6.1.7
dynamic functions
(.
173
174
176
poles
zeros
178
element value domain
6.2
iterations and
in the Foster
180
180
182
RC two-poles
chart controlled
/?C-impedance
6.3 6.4
183
184
184
185
186
design
6.5
6.5.1
6.5.3
Ground
Stability
tunable
186
187
testing
6.5.2 Signaltransmission
and
issues
189 190
6.6
PID
6.6.1
controller
6.6.2
6.7
PID compensator
TID
190
192
one
compensator
variable
parameter
193
193
194
6.7.1
6.7.2
6.7.3
Bilineartransfer
function
6.8
6.9
196
196
Loopresponse
Problems
200
viii
Contents
Chapter
7
205
LINEAR
7.1
LINKS
Mathematical
205
205 208
7.1.1
7.1.2 7.1.3
Electro-mechanical analogies
Electrical
209
211
211
7.2
Junctions
links
7.2.1
7.2.2
design
Junction variables
Loading
212
213
7.2.3
7.3
transfer
diagram and
actuator
impedances
on
the
plant
7.4
of feedback
uncertainty on the impedance (mobility) feedback with and force sensors Large velocity feedback
214
215
215
216
217
217
7.6
7.6.1
7.6.2
7.6.3 7.6.4
Compound feedback on feedback of load impedance for the chain connection of bidirectional two-ports
Chain
218
219 220
220
223 224
connection
of two-ports
DC motors
Motor output Piezoelements
mobility
224
and
7.6.5
7.6.6
7.7
Drivers,transformers,
gears
225
227
7.8
227
230
230 230
structures
system Impedance (mobility) of a lossless Lossless distributed structures Collocated control Non-collocated
7.8.1
7.8.2 7.8.3
232
232
7.8.4
7.9
control
Sensor noise
233
sensors
7.9.1
Motion
233
and
7.9.1.1
Position
angle
sensors
233
234
235
7.9.1.3Accelerometers
7.9.1.4
7.9.2
7.10
Effect
235 signal-to-noise
system
ratio
236
Mathematical
analogies to
the
feedback
237
237
7.10.1
7.10.2
Feedback-to-parallel-channel analogy
Feedback-to-two-pole-connection
time-variable
analogy
237
238
7.11
7.12
Linear
systems
Problems
240
x
11.2
Contents
Describing
11.3.1
function
for
11.3
Describingfunctions
Exact
symmetrical
formulas
piece-linear
characteristics
....
291
292
expressions
292
296
11.3.2
11.4
Approximate
Hysteresis
Nonlinear Two NDC
297
links
11.5
11.8
11.6
11.7
11.9 11.10 11.11
nonlinear with
with
phase advance for large-amplitude signals the feedback loop link single nonlinear nondynamic
yielding links in channels
. . . 300
301
302
NDC
parallel
between
and
the
common
loops
systems
intermodulation
311
312
313
Harmonics
Intermodulation
313
314 315
11.13.2
11.14 11.15
Verification Problems
of global stability
317
Chapter
12
PROCESS INSTABILITY
322
322
12.1
12.2
Process
instability
stability
Absolute
Jump-resonance
of the
output process.
322
324
12.3
12.4
Subharmonics
327
327
12.4.1
12.4.2
Odd subharmonics
Second
dynamic
subharmonic
compensation
328
329
12.5
12.6
Nonlinear
Problems
329
Chapter
13
MULTI-WINDOWCONTROLLERS
13.1
13.4
13.5
13.6
331
331
333
Composite Multi-window
nonlinear control
controllers and to
13.2
13.3
controllers
a cold controller
335
336
339
and
anti-windup
controllers
. . .
Selectionorder
and tracking Time-optimal control
Acquisition
340
13.7
343
343
13.8
13.9
Examples
Problems
347
APPENDICES
349
Feedback Introduction
Appendix 1
Al.l
control,
elementary
treatment
349
349
Contents
A1.2
XI
Feedback Al.2.1
Al.2.2
Al.2.3
349
349
350
control
Links
control
A1.3
Why
cannot
Dynamic
be perfect
links
352 353
353
354
Al.3.1
A1.4
355
355
Al.4.1
Al.4.2
Self-oscillation
Al.4.3
Al.4.4
Loop frequency
Control
response
design
356
frequency responses . . .
357
system
using
Some
algebra
357
358
Al.4.5
Al.4.6
Disturbance rejection
Conclusion
responses
359
A1.5
New words
Frequency
359
360
Appendix2
A2.1 A2.3
Frequency responses
function and function
360
362 the s-plane
A2.2 Complextransfer
Laplace
transform
362
363 365
poles
A2.4
A2.5 A2.6
Laplacetransfer
and zeros
366
A2.7
Time-responses
Problems
367
367 positive
A2.8
Appendix
Appendix
3
4 A4.1 A4.2
Causal systems, passivesystems,and Derivation of Bode integrals Integral of the real part Integral of the imaginary part
real
functions
...
371
372 372
372
373
A4.3
Appendix
General relation
Program for phase calculation
376
379
Appendix 6
Appendix
Appendix Appendix
Appendix 9
383
384
385
bridge
feedback
for
Appendix 11 Discussions
10 Phase-gainrelation
Compensator
describing
functions
386
387
387
negative
All.l
A11.2 A11.3
implementation
388
of the function
feedback system
uncertainty
388 388
389
390
390
A11.6 The Nyquist criterion stability A11.7 Actuator's output impedance A11.8 Integral of feedback
391
391
391
A11.9
A11.10
All.ll
Bode
integrals
392
xii
Contents
A11.12 Feedbackmaximization
A11.13
392
in
Feedback
Nonminimum
maximization
phase
multi-loop
systems
A11.14 A11.15
A11.16
functions
394 394
394
Feedback controldesignprocedure
Global
stability
and
absolute and
A11.17
A11.18
Describing function
Multi-loop
395
compensation
. . ,
395
systems
396
396
A11.19 MIMOsystems
A11.20
The Bode's
Design
book
397
398
Appendix 12
Appendix
sequence
13
A13.1
A13.2
Examples
Industrial
399
furnace
mirror
temperature
of a
control
399
A13.3
A13.4 A13.5
A13.6
mapping spectrometer control with an NDC Telecommunication repeater control Attitude of a flexible plant
Rocket
Scanning
400
402 403
404
booster
nutation
A13.7
A13.8
Voltage
regulator
with
a main, repeater
vernier, and
local loops
405
407
Telecommunication
Distributed regulators
Saturn
409
A13.9
flight control system A13.10 PLL computer clock with duty cycle A13.ll Attitude control of solarpanels
V S-IC
410
adjustments
411 411
A 13.12
Conceptual design of an
Pathlength
antenna
attitude
control
Bode
412
A13.13
A13.15
Appendix
control motor
of an
A13.14 MIMO
14
417
steps . .
control
having loop
responses with
430
431
432
BIBLIOGRAPHY
441
445
NOTATION
INDEX
449
TO
INSTRUCTORS
design
industry,
techniques
which
the
authors
found
most
useful
in
telecommunication,
and
in the
area of high-performance
the
controllers.
of control (plant) is object of effective frequency response over the range feedback or by a rather simple input/output mathematical model. Classical not utilize the plant's internal does variables and/or their estimates design for compensation, unlike the full-state The feedback approach. appropriate loop are achieved responses by a stand-alone high-order compensator. These are the reasons this book starts with disturbance and feedback, rejection, loop shaping, compensator design, and not with extensive plant modeling.
characterizedeither
and compensator. In
by
classical control,
its
measured
speaking,
four
systems, feedback,modeling
contained in this book is organized level Each considers linear design layers. layer and simulation. The layers are the following:
material linear elementary
as
feedback simulation
and
system
in
design:
depth
feedback
(Chapters one-semester
theory
3-4)
design
by
developed
(Chapter
followed
methods
5-6).
first
This completesthe 3
Integration
course in control.
of
linear
and
nonlinear
of feedback
a brief
the
system
model,
methods
simulation
survey of
9).
controller
design
methods
and
11),
and
with
practical
reduction
design
of
or
process
controllers
layer
(Chapter 13). on
the
Each consecutive
of
is based
preceding
For example,
introduction
absolute
primitive
stable effects
systems in the
precisely in links'input and output impedances on the plant uncertainty in the third layer is based on the elementary feedbacktheory the effects of plant tolerances on of the first layer and in available the second the feedback developed layer. and allows This architecture the multifaceted character of real life design, reflects stability
then
are
treated
more
second layer is preceded by a and absolute first layer; global stability the effects of the fourth Treatment of layer.
in the
illustration
of the
theory by real
system exampleswithout
excessive
idealization.
Design
Propulsion
\342\200\242 A
These controllers
of high-performance controllers. are examples those chosen among designed by the authors of the book at the Jet various robotic missions. for Laboratory space
examples.
are
The
following
other and several of the controller for a retroreflector carriage prototype All these is in Section 4.2.3. described controllers of the Chemistry Spacecraft and controllers are high-order and nonlinear, control plants with structural modes, include a high-orderlinear part with a Bode step.
xiii
xiv
To
Instructors
digital controller for the Mars Pathfinder high-gain Seqtion 5.10.5. \342\200\242 controller for the STRV spacecraftcryogenic Switched-capacitor
\342\200\242 A nonlinear
antenna
cooler
pointing
to
Earth,
vibration
rejection,
\342\200\242 Vibration
Section 7.1.1 and Example2 in Section 7.7. \342\200\242 Mars Global attitude control, Surveyor
of a spacestellar
briefly
interferometer,
Example in
2 in
described
Example
in
1,
in
Section 13.6.
\342\200\242
Microgravity
accelerometer
analog
thermal
feedback
control,
loop, described
described
detail
Example
\342\200\242 Cassini
2, Section
Narrow
11.9.
in detail
in
View Camera
Section
7.1.2
and in Example
\342\200\242 More mapping
design Space
in
spectrometer
Section
Deep
Network
Section
A13.10;
klystron radar, Section 13.6; Cassini computer a feedback-feedforward attitude controller digital
PLL,
for
DS-1
attitude
Limb Sounder spacecraft solarpanels,SectionA 13.11; Microwave control of the Chemistry spacecraft,Section A13.12; and Space optical delay line control, Section A13.13.
(The
antenna
Interferometer
book's
cover
depicts
simulation
DS-1
in
spacecraft.)
the
Software.
MathWorks,
Most
using only
design
Inc. Some
examples
book
use MATLAB
the
\302\256 from
MATLAB a small
alone.
logspace,
No
preliminary
knowledge
subset of
on,
MATLAB
commands
of their
introduction:
bode,
conv, rlocus,
bilinear,
listed below in the zp2tf, step, gtext, tf2zp, inv, linspace, plot(x,y),
is used, residue, functions the design
inv,
invlaplace,
and described
impulse.
the
Additional
MATLAB
authors the
in Appendix
book.
If SIMULINK is
should
complement design
tool,
students
to plot
in SPICE be shown how to make simulations (SPICE examples given in this book are listed in the Index). These examples can be bypassedin are given in Chapter 5. Some simple C codeexamples other specialties. teaching
EE majors
diagrams
Frequency responses.The
frequency
design
methods
for
taught
proving
frequency responsemethods.
Laplace
book,
impulse.
experience with practical applications of the in this feedback system design as described is required, transform with MATLAB commands step and the transforms are performednumerically
No
responses.
The j-plane is
used only
EE
the
students
prerequisite
to the
know the frequency responses from the control course. Mechanical, chemical,
Signals
and
aerospace
majors know frequency responses from the courses on dynamic responses. If needed, for these specialties can be taught 2, either before using Appendix frequency responses or in parallel with Chapter 3. Appendix 2 contains a number of problemson the Laplace transform and frequency responses.
To Instructors
Undergraduate control,
xv
also
include
should be omitted mechanical/aerospace/chemical engineering majors when extra to be bypassed are listed frequency responses. The sections
beginning
The first 6 chapters,which constitute some material better suited for a graduate from a one-semester course, especially when
course.
first course in This material the course is taught to time is needed to teach the at the in abstracts
the
course.
of each
chapter.
Appendix 1 can
be used for
an
introductory
lecture.
controllers,
best
simple.The
continuous
way
controller,
a digital
form;
thus,
is needed. The
links
conversionformulas
and C make MATLAB, SIMULINK, digital controller design of designing a good discretecontroller is to design a high-order break it properly into several links, and then convert each link to command is all that two small tables of formulas or one MATLAB of digital controllers must be low-order, so there is no need for functions. The accuracy of the Tustin is for high-order transform
adequate, so there is no need for The digital control design and courses on DSP, estimation,
pre-warping.
can serve
adaptive
The
as
a prerequisite
for
the
following
special
digital control.
input
frequently
electrical,
the
output
signal
of a
is
the
are analog, electrical. always Very often, the signals compensators are thereforealmost which allows implementation of the summer and compensator as analog electrical circuits in electrical and as well mechanical/hydraulic/thermal control systems. controllers are easier and cheaper to design,implement, and troubleshoot, Analog
manufacture
than digital in many applications. of the all specialties. Nonetheless, engineers one-semester course, and can be used for
need
Therefore,
chapter
self-study
need
or
for
the
during
when
a
the
for practical
design arises.
course.
Secondone-semester
semester course
(it
Chapters
7-13
can be
for
used for
and
the
second
one-
can
be a
self-study
as a
reference for
motors,
actuator
and
tailoring
simulation
the
systems
feedback
with
drivers,
particular,
it shows
plant
that
output
impedance
of
in the
the
is
to reduce the
tolerances
and to
increase the
outer loop.
introduction to quantitative feedback theory and HM control time-domain control based on state variables. students need not be taught Undergraduate adaptive systems design since practical control systems need to be designed as adaptive. But the need for some adaptive rarely the engineer should be aware of the major systems does exist.Therefore, concepts, of adaptive and limitations control. He must be able to recognize the need advantages for such control, and, at the same to achieve the time, not to waste time on trying in The material 9 will enable to how him either out to impossible. Chapter figure design an adaptive system himself, or to understand the language of the specialized literature. The design of high-order nonlinear controllers is covered in Chapters 10-13. These methods have in been effective but are far from being design proven very practice, finalized. Further research needs to be done to advancethesemethods.
a short Problems.
Chapter8 gives
Design
problems
with
mechanical
plants
both
ME
and
xvi
To Instructors
problems
EE majors. Additional
convey
problems
insights
for EE
majors can
explicitly.
be found
A booklet
in
not
presented
in the
text
is available
for
instructors
from
the publisher.
FEEDBACK
CONTROL
Left Blank
Chapter 1
I
FEEDBACK
AND
SENSITIVITY
1 introduces the basics of feedback control. The purpose of feedback is to and disturbances. insensitive to plant parameter variations make the output Negative, and discussed and along with sensitivity positive, and large feedback are defined the Nyquist of frequency and the disturbance response, rejection. The notion diagram, criterion is presented in Chapter Nichols chart are introduced. 3.) (The Nyquist stability are explained at an elementary level control and block diagram Feedback algebra to this chapter. Laplace transfer in Appendix 1, which can be used as an introduction
Chapter
functions
are
described
in
Appendix
2.
1.1
Feedback
to
control
system
It is best
the
with an example. Fig. 1.1 (a) depictsa servomechanism regulating of an antenna. Fig. 1.1 (b) shows a block diagram for this control system letters stand for the signals' The made of cascaded elements,i.e. Laplace capital of the linear links. This block diagram functions and also for the transfer transforms
begin elevation
links.
shows
a Single-Input
single-output
elevation Evidently
Vi, which is the commanded actual elevation of the antenna. is also referredto as single-loop. commanded
elevation _
(SISO) system. There is one input command, is the U2, which angle, and just one output, there is one feedbackloop, and so the system
Actuator
Elevation
Error
Driver
Plant (a)
feedback path,
elevation
angle sensor
CE.
(b)
BU,,
or
TE
Fig.
The
1.1
the
most case
transfer U\\,
sensorfor
value
the
output
measured output
the
BUt
value
the
E =
U\\-BUi
output
of the
summer is zero. In
of the
time the
is nonzero
but small.
C is applied to the actuator A, in this amplified by the compensator a motor regulator (driver) and a motor. The motor rotates the plant P, the antenna is the object of the control. The compensator, actuator and plant make up itself, which the forward path with the transfer function CAP. If the feedback were not path present, the system would be referred to as open-loop, and the output [72 would simply
The error
CAPU\\.
return
signal
which goes
into
the
summer
from
the feedback
path
is TE,
2
where ratio.
Chapter 1.
the product The output
E=UX-ET
Feedbackand
the hop
Sensitivity
T=
CAPB
is
called
transfer
function, or the
return
of the summer
is
A.1)
so
that
the
error
A.2)
T + l
whereF \302\261= T +
seen
that
1 is the
when
the feedback
IFI is
the
feedback.
It is
in for steering a toy car (using wires) is shown Example 1. A servomechanism 1.2. Another The command is a Fig. regulated by joystick potentiometer. voltage U\\ of the motor produces voltage identical potentiometer (angle sensor) placed on the shaft makes the error small so the shaft The feedback to rotation proportional angle. Wangle that the sensor voltage approximates the input and therefore the motor shaft voltage, tracks the commanded joystick angle. angle
of a
steering
mechanism
The arrangement of a motor with an angle sensor is often called or servomotor, simply servo. Similar servosare used for animation purposes in movie production. The system of regulating aircraft control surfaces using joysticks and servoswas termed to replace bulky mechanical \"fly by wire\" when it was first introduced gears and cables. The required high reliability was achieved by using four independent parallel analog electrical circuits. link The telecommunication between the control box and the servo can certainly also be wireless.
Example
2. A
phase-locked
a voltage-controlled
frequency
is
proportional
loop (PLL) is shown oscillator (VCO). The VCO to the voltage applied to its sensors
the
and
in Fig.
is input.
here
is
whose
of phase
between
input
summer:
input
phase
difference
the
so mat
The phase detector its output is proportional to of the VCO. Large output
the
output
the
signal has
the
a small
phase In other
difference compared
the
input
signal
and, therefore,
with
same
frequency.
words,
PLL
synchronizes
the VCO
input
periodic
signal.
Chapter 1.
input
Feedback and
Sensitivity
phase
Phase
periodic signal
error
Compensator
frequency
output
control
detector
VCO
periodic
signal
Fig. 1.3
Analog
Phase-locked loop
and
receivers
synchronizing
and
in telecommunications PLLs are widely used (for tuning digital for recovering the computer clock from a string of digital data), for several motors' and for many other angular positions and velocities,
purposes.
1.2 Feedback: positive and negative The output signal in Fig. 1.1(b) is U2 = ECAP,
output
transfer
function
of
the
to as
the ciosed-loop
U2
system
with
input-to-
referred
,13)
reduces
the
Itis
l?l.
clear
the feedback is
input-output
signal
transmission
\\F\\
by the
(although
factor
the
has
H72I>
The
system
IF1
said
that
to have
positive).
> 1
expression
to do with
i.e.,
is certainly
was
developed
LEI
in the
and
1920s and
output
the fact
\"negative\"
reduces
in
the error
output
the
produces The
a negative
logarithmic
increment
values
the
level
when
the level
is
expressedin
\"Positive\" We
feedback
feedback will
adhere
without
for example) preferredby engineers. is said to be \"positive?'if IFI < 1, which makes \\E\\>\\UX\\. increases the error and the level of the output. of \"negative\" to these definitions and \"positive\" feedback (and use
(in dB, marks) since 4, are basedon
positive only very
these terms
be studied in
Whether
important
theoretical
developments,
amplitude
to
these
definitions.
or on
and
as
phase
summer
is stated
treatments
numerical
of feedback).
examples.
Let's considerseveral
1. The forward CAP is 100 and the feedback Example path gain coefficient path coefficient B is -0.003. The return ratio Tis -0.3. Hence, the return difference F is 0.7, the feedback is positive, and the closed-loop 100/0.7 = 143 is greater gain coefficient than the open-loop coefficient. gain
Example 2.
The
forward
coefficient is 0.003. The return feedback is negative, and the open-loop gain coefficient.
It
the feedback gain coefficient is 100 and path T is 0.3. Hence,the return difference F is 1.3, the 100/1.3 = 77 is lessthan the gain coefficient closed-loop
path ratio
is seen
that when
transfer
T is small,
function
whether
the feedback
is positive or negative
depends
on the
sign of the
about the
loop.
4
the feedback is always
Example is
Chapter
1.
Feedback
and
\\T + II negative.
> 1
the
feedback
I.e.
when
171 is
large.
therefore
path
gain
coefficient
is
difference
closed-loop
Example to
return
ratio and
the
In the
-1000,
is still
is 10.1.
1.3
Large
feedback
the
Multiplying
numerator
and denominator
of A.3)
by
yields
another
meaningful
formula:
V\302\261 = \302\261L
= \302\261M,
Ux
B F
A.4)
where
M=
T \342\200\224 = \342\200\224\342\200\224
F
Equation
T+l
A.4)
A.5)
indicates
that the
the
closed-loop transfer
by
function
is the
the
inverse
feedback
of
and
the
feedback
path
transfer
function
multiplied
the
coefficient
F\302\273 T,
M. When
coefficient
is
the
large,
output
i.e.
when
171 \302\273 1,
return
difference
the
M~ 1,
becomes
U2~\302\261VX.
A.6)
the One result of large feedback is that transfer function depends closed-loop be constructed of precise path which can usually nearly exclusively on the feedback is since the of the This feature of fundamental parameters components. importance have large uncertainties. In a system actuator and the plant in the forward path typically the affect of theseuncertainties on the closed-loop characteristics is with large feedback, small.The larger the feedback, the smaller the error expressed by A.2).
Manufacturing
an
plant
without
feedback
actuator may be much Using feedback the inexpensive powerful, precise, and reasonably
According
that is sufficiently and precise to handle the powerful An imprecise or can be prohibitively expensive impossible. be and a sensor also may relatively inexpensive. precise cheaper, to form a actuator and the sensor can be combined cheaper
actuator
system. antenna
dividedby B. If B = 1, as
elevation
angle
in
Fig. the
1.1
equals
the command
should be
command
Bq.
transfer function is just M 1.4(a), then the closed-loop and V21=1Vu i.e. the output U\\. Such U2 follows (tracks) the commanded input a star or a tracking systems are widely used. Examples are: a telescopetracking the position of a knob rotated by the on the roof of a vehicletracking planet, an antenna tool following a probe on a model to be inside the vehicle, and a cutting operator
in Fig.
copied.
Chapter1. Feedback
\022
and
Sensitivity
error CAP
10\"
(a)
(b)
system,
(b) voltage
unity
follower
The
an
and
amplifier
output only
with
feedback.
error voltage
is the
voltage
difference
between
the input
input
is 104,
the error
voltage constitutes
the
nearly equals
voltage,
If the
a voltage
follower.
so that M = T/(T+ 1)= were to then T would become 110. This would make M = 0.991, an increase of 0.1%, which is reflected in the output signal. Without the the variation of the output of feedback, signal would be 10%. Therefore,introduction in this case reduces the variations 100 times. feedback negative output signal - it would increase the feedback would do just the opposite Introducing positive in the closed-loop input-output variations transfer function.
Example 2.
that Suppose
T=
100,
If P 0.9901.
deviate
value
by
+10%,
Consider
Fig.
the
voltage
regulator
differential
shown
amplifier
and
in Fig.
with input
1.5(a)
with
its
block
1.5(b).
Here, the
E)
and
current dual
10 A/V
actuator.
high
The
potentiometer
The power supply voltage is VCC. with the voltage division ratio B
1 r \302\246
> B
\342\200\224
4-
Tb k
*'
\342\200\224*\342\200\2241
(a)
(b)
(a) schematic
Fig. 1.5
Voltage
regulator:
ratio The and the return is E=U\\-TE, input voltage is the error amplifier is set to B = 0.5. T= 10B/?L. Assume that the load resistor is 1 kQ and the potentiometer ratio is T = 5000. the return Consequently, The command is the 5 V input (when the command is constant, as in this voltage
commonly calleda reference, and the control system is called a regulator). = 9.998 V. The VCC Hence,the output voltage according to A.4) is 10x5000/5001 12 V to 30 V would be appropriate. this value, should be higher than
case,
it is
6
When
Chapter 1.
Feedback and
Sensitivity
voltage
is
the load resistance is reduced by 10%, the feedback the without will be 10% less. With the feedback, T decreases by 10% and the output = 10x4500/4501 0.002% less. The feedback reduces the only
output
9.99778 i.e.
voltage
output
voltage
This
variations
example
the
voltage to
feedback same
10%/0.002% = 5000times. also illustrates another feature of that the regulator indicates loading
alters
feedback.Insensitivity
output
from
resistance
very
dramatically is
the output
shown
impedance
in
high
true
impedance
Fig.
1.4(b).)
The effects
of
feedback
on
in Chapter
7.
responses
1.4 Loop
1.4.1
The
Gain
sum
with
responses of the
is same
(or the
signal
the
frequency
is a sinusoidal
of
simplified
when
on a
amplitude
and the
phase of the
complex plane.
vector
The modulus
a vector
equals
the
= IC/ilsin(cot + q>0 is representedby Signal \302\253i = number + jWilsiiupi. U{ complex It/ilcosqh = + lt/2lsin(oot Signal w2 q^) is represented by = number l/2 lt/2lcos(p2 complex +/l?/2lsinq>2. The sum of these two signals is
the
l/2 = It^LZq^,
i-e.
by
the
u= i.e. Ret/
lt/lsin(cot
+ q>) =
(it/jlcostpi
and
+ (ll/ilsinq>i +l?/2lcos(f>2)sina>t
= Imt/j
+ Il/Jsinq^osart, + U2.
= Ret/,
of the
+ Rel/2
m,
imU
+ Imt/2,
vectors
i.e.
U =
Ux
Thus, the
vector for
the sum
signals
for the
signals.
0.866+J0.5. If
0.425
number)
Example 1. If
+./0.425.
1.29 Example
+ n/6), it is represented by the vector 4Zn/6, or + it is n/4), sin(oot by the vector 6Zn/4, or represented The sum of these two signals is represented by the vector (complex = 1.59Z 0.622 rad or 1.59Z35.6\302\260. +/0.925
= 6 m2
the
= E + TE of 2. Fig. 1.6 shows four U\\ diagrams phasor possible and In cases the feedback summer at some (a) (b), presence signals frequency. \\F\\ < 1 and the feedback at fed back signal TE makes \\E\\ > It/J; therefore, is positive. In cases (c) and (d), \\E\\ < \\U\\\\, and the feedback at this frequency frequency
at the
of
this
is negative.
\"<
TE
\"TE
(a)
Fig.
(b)
Examples
(c)
(a,b)
(d)
1.6
positive
and (c,d)
negative feedback
Chapter
1.
Feedback
and Sensitivity
where co is transfer input,
s by /co in a Laplace transfer function, in rad/sec, results in the frequency-dependent is the ratio of the signals at the link's output
and
ratio and the return Therefore, the return signal frequency. difference are functions of frequency. To accurately track rapidly commands, varying i.e., commands with substantial content, one has to make the feedback high-frequency over a sufficiently wide frequency range. large Plots of the gain and phase of a transfer function vs. frequency are referred to
depends on the
genericalryas the
The loop
magnitude
frequency
response.
frequency
expressed
\\T(jai)\\
the
to
T(ja>).The
is usually loop phase shift which expressed in sometimes the phase) of the loop transfer function with logarithmic frequency scale are often called Bode diagrams, in honor of Hendrik W. Bode, who, although he did not invent the diagrams, of using them for did develop an improved methodology feedback system design,to be explained in detail in Chapters 3 and 4. The plots can be of
T(jco)
is the
gain
(and
drawn
/= co/Bji)in
5000
s3
Hz.
3. Let
5000
den
+ 55s2
+250s
+0
where
and num., den are the numerator The frequency responses for in
denominator
polynomials.
dB,
201ogi7X/ca)l,
shift
the
loop phase
in
can be
software
package
Mathworks
script:
10
2);
Frequency
10
(rad/sec)
Iogspace{-1,
scale
log
of
w
angular
frequency
num
bode(num,den,
The
den = [1 55 250
w)
= 5000;
0];
Fig. decreases
-180
plots
are shown
rapidly
in
1.7.
-270
The
with
the
loop gain
10'
10\"
10'
Frequency (rad/sec)
steeper at
is
frequencies;
this
Fig. 1.7
MATLAB
plots
of gain
typical
The
loopresponses
systems.
loop
is OdB
at
9 rad/sec, i.e.,
shift
gradually
changes
from
-90\302\260 toward
-270\302\260,
to 270\302\260. 90\302\260
MATLAB
function
conv
can be
used to
the
polynomials
s, (s
+ 5), and
Chapter
1.
Feedback
and Sensitivity
(s + 50)in
the
denominator:
a = [1 0]; b ab = conv(a,b);
= [1 5];
den = conv(ab,c)
[1
50];
typing help
window,
More information the MATLAB about functions used above can be obtained in the MATLAB working bode, help logspace, and help conv
and
function
by
of a
from the
can
MATLAB
done
manual. using
Conversions MATLAB
from functions
one to
another
form
rational
be also
to zero-pole
form) and
zp2tf (zero-poleform
ratio
to transfer
tf2zp function).
expressed
(transfer
as a
function
/co,is
Example 4.
The return
from
Example
1,
explicitly
function of
500\302\260
At
frequency with
co =
2, T=
1OZ-11O0 and
F=9Z-115\302\260,
so the
reduces
frequency.
At frequency co =
9,
7\"\302\273 1Z-16O0
and
feedback
is positive.
of
the
crossover
171 for a typical is shown in Fig. tracking system decreases with increasing frequency. The diagram where, by definition, frequency/b \\T(fb)\\ = 1.
1.8 by
crosses
Gain, dB
negative
feedback,
positive
negligible
feedback,
feedback,
Fig. 1.8
Typical
frequency
responses
for T, F,
and M
seen that
becomes
the
feedback
IFI is
shown
feedback
positive
in
>
0)
then
the dashed
frequencieswhere
The
F-\302\273 1
by the dotted line. The gain closed-loop system responseis shown input-output is OdB (i.e., the gain of large feedback. The is 1) over the entire bandwidth coefficient feedback. This hump, as is of the near the crossover a result hump frequency positive will be demonstrated in transient in an 3, results oscillatory closed-loop Chapter and should therefore be bounded. response,
Chapter
1.
Feedback
and Sensitivity
9
whose degrades
In general,feedback
dominant the system's
feedback.
improves
the tracking
Fourier
system's accuracy for commands of negative feedback, but content is in the area
of positive
1.4.2
Nyquist
diagram
to look at the from negative to positive feedback, it is helpful To visualizethe transition as the 0 to T on the varies from \302\260\302\260. This is to as of referred plot frequency plot T-plane or the Nyquist diagram and is shown in Fig. 1.9. Either Cartesian (ReT, ImT) polar coordinates(ITI and arg T) can be used.
T-plane
T-plane
(a)
(b)
diagram
Fig. 1.9
Nyquist
the
feedback
The Nyquist in feedback tool diagram is a major system design and will 3. Here, we use the diagram discussed in detail in Chapter only to show the locations and positive feedback in typical control systems. the frequency bands of negative At the distance to the diagram from each the is in, and frequency, origin distance
frequencies,
the
from the
which
-1
point
is
IFI.
It can
be seen that
there.
\\F\\ becomes
less than
1 at higher point -I
or
means the
else
frequency unacceptably large. In practice, Nyquist are commonly diagrams plotted on the logarithmic L-plane with rectangular coordinate axes for the phase of and the gain T, as shown in Notice that the critical point -1 of the T-plane maps to point 1.10(a). Fig. (-180\302\260, OdB) of the L-plane. The Nyquist avoid this point should diagram by a certain margin.
this
close
to the
critical
at
the Example 1. Fig. 1.10(b) shows L-plane T= B0s +10)/O4 + 10/ +20/ + s) chartedwith MATLAB num = [20 10]; den = [1 10 20 10];
[mag,
Nyquist
script
diagram
for
phase]
= bode(num,
Nyquist
den);
diagram')
plot(phase,
title('L-plane
recommended
20*loglO(mag),
-240
'r';
-180, 0, 'wo')
-180 -150
grid Itis
set(gca,'XTick',[-270
-210
-120 -90])
transfer
for
the reader
to
run
this
program
for modified
functions
10
and
Chapter
to observe
1. Feedback and
polynomial
Sensitivity
the effects
of the
coefficient
variations
on
the
shape
of the
Nyquist diagram.
L-plane
Nyquist
100
gain,
diagram
L-plane
dB
50
\\
-50
-100
(a)
/ -270-240-210-180-150-120 -90
(b)
(a) typical
for
for Example
1.4.3 Nicholschart
The
Nichols
chart
is an L-plane
in
mapping diagram
from for
A.5),
and
is shown
Fig.
1.11.
the
Nyquist
template,
the curves
indicatethe
tracking
system
gain 20
log IMI.
80\302\260 0\302\260 10\302\260 20\302\260 30\302\260 40\302\260 50\302\260 60\302\260 70\302\260 90\302\260
deviation
in phase
from
-180\302\260
Fig.
1.11
Nichols chart
Chapter 1.
It is
(-180\302\260,
Feedback and
Sensitivity
11
critical
the
seen
that
the
closer
\\M\\
the
and
OdB),
the larger
is,
approaches the
is the
point
peak of
closed-loop
in Fig. 1.8. The limiting response indicating that the system goes unstable. Typically, than two times, i.e., not to exceed 6 dB. Therefore, the Nyquist diagram should not
frequency
has
\\M\\
approaching
infinity,
more
IMI is
penetrate
the
area
bounded
by the
line marked
Consider
\026
dB\".
which
several examples
loop
make
the
use of
loop
Example 1. The
feedback
gain
gain
is 15 dB,
is
phase
the Nichols
-1.4dB.
The
feedback
is 15-1.4=
13.6dB.
The
is
1 dB,
6dB.
is -150\302\260. From
the Nichols
feedback
= -5dB. The
shift
is
is
-10dB,
the loop
phase
is
-170\302\260.
From
the
gain
is -7
dB. The
feedback
is -10
- (-7)
= -3 dB.The
is positive.
1.5
Disturbance
are or
rejection
signals
Disturbances plant
actuator,
feedback
system
at the
input
or
output
at
of the
system
undesirable signal
might
the
output.
gravity,
In the
The
antenna
control
disturbances
the
be
due
to wind,
and
temperature
changes,
and imperfections
characterized
motor, by
time
the gearing,
the or,
driver.
frequency
disturbance
either
their
time
history,
in
the
transform
of
this
history
which
gives
density.
31
command ^_
-f
Fig. 1.12
Disturbance sources in
a feedback
system
the
of the
effect
of a
disturbance
calculated in
calculated:
the
it
is
output can be to a command is frequency response for divided example) by the return
at
system's
difference
F.
In Fig.
combined
shown.
Since effect
in linear
sum
systems,
of the
the
effect
of
several
different
input
the
signals is the
effects
of each separate
the disturbances
produce
output
12
Chapter 1,
Feedbackand
Sensitivity
The effects of the disturbances is negate the feedback on the output are reducedwhen and increasedwhen the feedback is positive. Disturbance rejectionis the major purpose for using negative feedbackin most control systems. There exist systems where there is no command at all, and the disturbance rejection is the only of introducing feedback. Such systems are called homing purpose
systems.
signal
which
typical
example
given
is a
to
homing
missile
which
the
No explicit
command is
is
the missile.
Rather,
The
the
deviation
from
the
the
target.
is designed to follow the target. missile receives only an error feedback causes the vehicle's
is
This
consideredas a disturbance,
popular
uses
type
motors
of a system or solenoids to
the
vibration
propagating
Example
1. The
when
feedback
the
by
a temperature
Without
temperature
6\302\260. With
outside
feedback,
100.
chamber
2, Gusty The
winds
disturb
the
orientation
contain
oscillating.
various
radio telescope.The
in time
winds
rapidly
and others
control The
for
drops
0.1
with
frequency
(since
motors
5.
times
very
low
antenna
Hz
the feedback
is
only
by
the
feedback
accordingly, 200
Detailed
the effect
times for the 0.1 Hz gust components. be given in the next section.
calculations
for a
example
will
To
some
(or
further
reduce
that
the
higher
will
might be introduced
from
adjust
feedback loop frequency disturbances, an additional the position not of the entire antenna dish but of dish to the receiver front-end path from the antenna
transmitter).
1.6
We
Example
proceed in
of system
now
analysis
antenna elevation control system with the analysis of the simplified the 1,1 (b). Assume that the elevation is IV/rad, angle sensor function feedback path coefficient is B = 1, the actuator transfer function (the ratio of the output and the antenna is a rigid Nm/V, body torque to the input voltage) is A ~ 5000/(j + 10) = is torque, the \342\200\242/ variable with the moment of inertia The plant's input 5000kgnV!. is the elevation angle, i.e., the plant is a double integrator with variable gain output of an integrator is l/s, the transfer coefficient 1/7. Since the Laplace transform function is of the plant
shown
Fig,
P(s)
= l/(//).
shown
As
produced
in Fig.
t appliedto
the
the
antenna
is the
sum of the
torque
by the actuator
known
the
disturbance
It is
approximately
that proportional
for to
large
antennas,
torque
spectral
density
is
Chapter
13
'
)
command
\342\200\236_
Compensator
elevation
Js2
Fig.
1.13
of
Elevation
the
control
system
block
antenna
diagram
elevation
density
disturbance
in the
angle
is therefore
1
+ + 2.1s3
0-7)
0.2s2
in
the
disturbance in
Fig.
1.14,
dB
normalized to lOOdB at co = 0.01. The spectral at lower frequencies. Large is larger density these at be introduced feedback must
100
80 60
1 \\
Feedback
in dB
frequencies to rejectthe
The plotted
w
% % num
disturbance.
of A.7)
can
be
40 20 *\"**\342\200\242-,.\\
n
/, logsc
-20
logspace(-2,1);
range
-40
Spectral
o.r-^i
s
of the
frequency
0.01
=
to
1;
10 rad/sec
bode(num, den,
The
den
[1 2.1
0.2 0 0];
w)
elevation angle disturbance, in units: before the feedback relative solid was introduced, line; with the
Fig.1.14
density
compensator
transfer
function is
s(s
(this
simple
compensator
The loop
transfer
makes
function
the
system
work
reasonably
well,
although
not
optimally).
is
T(s)
= CAP
5000
s +10
x-
5000/
i.e.
T(s)
num
50(j+0.05Xif+03)
_ 50.?2
+275if+0.25
den
difference
The return
F(s) =
is
+ den)lden.
T(s) + 1 = (num
transfer
A.8) = T/F
The closed-loop
function
M(s)
= numl(num
+ den).
14
The
Chapter 1.
and Feedback
Sensitivity
for
plots of the gain and phase for the with: MO'oo) can be made in MATLAB w = logspace(-l,l);
loop
transfer
function
and
% 0
den = [1
num
g
= [0
0 0 50
15 50
den,
freq
range
0.1
addition
to 10
rad/sec
num on
+ den;
w)
27.5 0.25];
0];
% % % %
% makes
allowable
bode(num,
hold
for
T
M
bode(g,
bode(num,
den,
g,
w)
for F
w)
hold
off
for
The The labels are placedwith plots are shown in Fig. 1.15(a). one at a time, using MATLAB command gtext (' label'). The low frequencies and is negative up 0.8 rad/sec.
mouse feedback
and
is large
cursor, at
50
\302\246-?!L CD \"O
L-plane
200
Nyqilst diagram
S 3:
F
T
\302\246*,
150 100
-50 10
10\"
10'
\\ l M
50
Frequency
(rad/sec)
0
-120
|-150
f>
1-180
-50
a--210
-240 10\"
/
-100 -270
-240
-210
-180
-150
-120
10\"
10'
(b)
control
Frequency
(rad/sec)
(a)
Fig. 1.15
at lower
frequencies,
for the elevation (a) Loopfrequency response Tand F overlap; at higher frequencies, (b) L-plane diagram Nyquist
system:
7 and
M overlap.
is nearly flat up to 1.4 rad/sec, i.e., up to gain response 201oglMI at 0.8 rad/sec. The hump on the gain response does not exceed the rule which satisfies mentioned in Section 1.4.3. More precise 6dB, design in methods will be studied the design following chapters. line in Fig. 1.14, The plot for disturbances in the system with feedback, the dashed from the is obtained feedback disturbance the by subtracting response (in dB) spectral or directly by dividing A.7) by A.8). The disturbances are greatly density response, reduced by the feedback. The mean square of the output error is proportional of the squared to the integral to with linear of the axes. The scales calculate the spectral density plots required in the mean square error can be generated with MATLAB and the areas under reduction
The
closed-loop
gain
0.2 Hz.
The
is
peaking
Chapter 1.
Feedbackand
Sensitivity
15
the responses found or the mean square error can be directly calculated graphically, MATLAB functions. using The in Fig. 15(b). The diagram avoids the JL-plane Nyquist diagram is shown critical 20 dB from below, by 40 dB from above, and point by significant margins: by the 42 from by degrees right. the compensator gain coefficient in the system with the Nyquist is increased 5 times, i.e. by 14dB, the Nyquist diagram 1.15(a) shifts from below decreases from 20dB to 6 dB. up by 14 dB and the margin If the loop gain is increased by (approximately) 20 dB, the Nyquist shifts diagram return ratio 1 at a the becomes certain up by 20dB, gain frequency, and the closed-loop at this frequency therefore becomesinfinite. As we already mentioned in Section 1.4.3, this is a condition for the system to become unstable. Similarly, if the loop gain is reduced by 40 dB, the Nyquist diagram shifts down, at some frequency the return ratio for stability becomes 1, and the system becomes unstable. Using the Nyquist diagram in in 3. will detail be discussed Chapter analysis
Example
1. If
in
diagram
shown
Fig.
transient response of the closed-loop the 1 radian command Step the elevation angle (\"increase instantly 1 radian\") is found with:
The
system
1.6 1.4
by gain ir
to
;reasec
12
'
nomina case
num
=
= num
den
g =
grid
[0
[1
0 0 50
15 50 + den;
0 0 0];
step(num,
27.5 0.25];
g)
0.4
0.2
\\l
/
in Fig.
seconds
slightly
reasonable
shape
it rises by then overshoots by 30%, then with undershoots, and settles to 1 radian in about 10 seconds. This accuracy
ideal:
/
4
Time
but
6
(sees)
10
of
the
closed-loop
effect
transient
response
is
response
command
typical
and, commonly,
acceptable.
of the
can be
Nyquist diagram passingcloserto the critical point with transient response. The response generated = 0.2*den The response is increased\". is shown den 1.16, curve \"loop gain Fig. much more and is quite oscillatory. faster, but it overshoots
Example2. The
seen
on
the
closed-loop
1.7
Effect of
can
the
and power-hungry. be relatively expensive, bulky, Economy heavy, when be as small as actuator However, using small actuators, possible. requires that we have to accept the fact that these actuators will not be able to reproduce signals of such be designed without distortion. The controllersmust amplitudes relatively large We a is failure such that this effect will not cause a catastrophic real). (and danger quite
Actuators
3 and later, in Chapters will consider these issuesin Chapter of Because the output any actuator is limited, the power
9-13.
input-to-output
relationship
limits
invariably
saturates
when
the
input
amplitude
is large enough.
Saturation
the
16
amplitude of the output Fig. 1.17(a) by the dashed solid curve.
output
Chapter
1.
Feedback
and Sensitivity
saturation
signal.
The
many
ideal (hard)
actuators,
characteristic
is shown
in
the
line. In
the saturation
is soft
as shown
by
without
output feedback
with
feedback
* - \342\200\242 _
Input
input
(a)
(b)
characteristic
Fig. 1.17
When
Input-output
with
(a)
soft saturation
the
amplitude will
of the
input
the
ratio
of
the
output
to the link
input
the
in
gain
coefficient
11.)
of
the
saturation
decreases.
reduction
be studied
the signal too
Chapter
feedback about Large If the input characteristic. saturation curve is not yet
actuator level
changes
that the
the shape
the
of
the
input-output
is such
slope
can
(differential
be
flattened
out, then
differential
large
and
the
closed-loop
differential
characteristic
transfer
shown
function
of a by the dotted line is therefore a segment the reduces nearly straight line. (The slopeof the line is shallow since the feedback in a system with soft saturation, the inputTherefore, gain.) input-output differential when the feedback is larse. curve as hard saturation output appears The dead-zone characteristic is shown in Fig. 1.17(b). Large feedback reduces the differential coefficient and therefore makes the input-output input-output gain as shown characteristic shallower curve. Therefore, at any specified by the dotted and particularly for the output marked by the amplitude of the output signal, amplitude thin dashed the feedback is larger. Relative to this line, the input signal amplitude with the part of the input signal that causes no response in the output due to input amplitude, the dead decreases. zone, reduces the relative width In other words, the feedback of the dead zone. This in control systems which feature allowsthe achievement of high resolution and linearity use actuators and drivers with rather large dead zones (such actuators and drivers may less from the power supply like push-pull be less expensive or consume line, power
closed-loop amplitude
valve class B amplifiers or hydraulic spool briefly described in Section amplifiers, mechanical 7.1.3, or the motors with gears). of the distortions caused by a small deviation Next, consider the output signal the output of In response to a sinusoidal input with actuator from linearity. frequency/, with amplitude the nonlinear forward Vi and path consists of a fundamental component called nonlinear additional Fourier products. The ratio of the amplitude components is the nonlinear of a nonlinear to the amplitude of the fundamental product product
coefficient.
Consider one of
forward disturbance
these
products
having
the
frequency nf
nonlinear
and
amplitude
U^ny
If the
path
is
source
linear,
output
product
can
be viewed
as a
as shown
in Fig.
1.18.
Chapter1. Feedback
and
Sensitivity
17
P
of nonlinear
Fig. 1.18
Now,
Equivalent
representation
distortions
feedback,
in
the
actuator and
compare
feedback
two
cases:
first, second
the system
input
without
second,
output
the
of the
system
amplitude
with
and
with the
signal
increased
so that the
signal
output,
i.e., the
value
amplitude
of the
feedback.
bv the
product
frequency
closed-loopsystem
is reduced
the nonlinear distortion coefficient in feedback, is 5%. When feedback of 100 is introduced over the entire frequency interest, the coefficient becomes0.05%.
Example
an
audio
band of
feedbackin
A
third
frequency
amplifier is used is very large amplifier harmonic of the 67 MHz signal 200 MHz that falls within
2.
An
to
at
amplify
signals
of several
TV channels.
The
the
but drops to 5 at 200MHz. frequencies an undesirable nonlinear product with produces the band of a higher channel. The frequency
lower
of this
product
5 times.
in the telecommunication feedback amplifiers Low nonlinear distortion invented by in the 1920s, alloweddevelopment of long-haul Harold Black at the Bell Laboratories of and the Bell Black multi-channel telecommunication systems. The works and for the Laboratories' scientists Hendrik Bode established the basis Harry Nyquist domain of feedback and feedback maximization. This enabled systems design frequency an increase in the number of telephone channels over telecommunication expensive to cables. Later, these methods were the feedback control applied systems to maximize and of accuracy operation. speed
1.8 Sensitivity
Sensitivity
functions
are
generally
parameters' deviations
function,
from
normal
although
numerically
sensitivity
undesirable Sensitivity
effects is not
to
of some
transfer
one.For control
transfer
function
engineers,
of
particular
An
interest is the
infinitesimal
the
closed-loop
the
plant
parameter variations.
relative The
infinitesimal
function
relative
Uj/Ui.
transfer the
function closed-loop
the
dPIP system
ratio
causes an transfer
of
is defined as
these
changes:
= d(V2/Vl)/(V2/Vx)
dP/P
= dWog(U2
rf(logP)
the better.
/VQ]
'
The smallerthe U2 _
?/,
CAP
sensitivity,
From A.3),
CAPB
+ l '
18
then
Chapter1. Feedback P
U2/Ul
Therefore, S =
and
Sensitivity
5 =
d(U2/Vl) _
dP
P(CAPB
+ l)
[CA(CAPB+l)-C2A2PB]
CAP
Harold
+ lJ (CAPB
Black,
(CAPB
+ l)
as was established by
\342\200\224.
A.10)
The sensitivity
is small
when
the
feedback
is large,
and
the
feedback or in
reduces
small
variations
\\F\\
in
the
output
variables,
expressed either in
is 10 changes
percents
logarithmic values,
by 10%,
times.
Example
1. When
transfer
the
feedback
and
the
plant
magnitude
\\P\\
changes
the closed-loop
the
function the
by
and
only 1%.
the
Example 2. When
closed-loop
When
feedback
is 10
plant
magnitude
IF I
changes
by 3
dB,
gain
the
changes transfer
by 0.3
dB.
function depends on some parameter q (temperature, this dependence can be characterized etc.), voltage, by the pressure, power supply = find the T he chain rule can then be used to sensitivity of sensitivity 5pq [dPfP]f[dqfq], a closed-looptransfer function to q, i.e., the product of the sensitivities: Sx5pq.
plant
10,the
changes
plant's
sensitivity
the
to one
closed-loop
of its
elements
by 20%,
transfer
is 0.5. function
1%.
the actuator and compensator transfer functions enter the equation A.3) in the in as the effects of variations the actuator similar formulas describe and P, way of a large-feedback closed-loop transfer functions. Since the sensitivity compensator and accuracy 1, lesser response to the feedback path is nearly of the compensator actuator implementation is acceptable than the accuracy of the feedback path.
same
Example 4. The
actuator
feedback
is
100, the
plant
gain
uncertainty
is 3dB. When
the
and
compensator
uncertainty
uncertainty
of
will
the
forward
implementation accuracy (together) is 0.2dB, the total the closed-loop path gain is 3.2 dB. Due to the feedback, dB.
uncertainty
be 0.032 path
If
the
feedback
uncertainty is 0.042dB.
the
total
closed-loop
response
1.9 Effectoffiniteplantparameter
Plant
variations
furnace can
For example,payloads in a temperature-controlled while mass of a rocket changes the propellant is be controlled mass of a cart whose position or velocity must of inertia of an antenna about one depends on what is placed in the cart. The moment axis might depend on the angle of rotation about another axis. for calculation of closed-loop response tool Sensitivity analysis is a convenient error sufficient accuracy when variations are small. When and provides parameter plant the plant P deviates from the nominal is more than 50% of Po, plant Po by AP which better the Horowitz sensitivity (after IsaacM.Horowitz) can be used: for accuracy
parameters
The
Chapter 1.
Feedbackand
Sensitivity
19
A.11)
[AP]/P0
This is the
With
the
perturbed
inverse
of
relative changes, where the plant perturbed value P = Pa + AP. the same both for cases and the nominal the input U\\ kept V^ output, = + It can be shown that the Horowitz sensitivity is the A?/2. ?/& output U2 the feedback for the perturbed plant (see Problem 8):
ratio
of finite
CA(P0+AP)B+ l
Again
F
renders
the
A.12)
closed-loop
transfer
function
Example 1. If the
the
nominal
value
of the
this
plant
is Po
= 100,
the
perturbed
output
feedback
is F
= 50 (with
plant
variation
is
is
P),
then the
relative
V 2o
100 50
A.13)
block
diagram
of automatic
volume control
is to system of the signal
maintain
in
an the
at
AM carrier
the
Fig. AM
in
at
the
strength
antenna.
Antenna
reference
Fig. 1.19
The
antenna
Automatic
carrier
level
control
is amplified and applied to the and applied amplified 1000 times at the output of the detector is the sum that appears to very-low-frequency component that is proportional
signal multiplier
is further
the audio frequency 0.5 Hz removes then the reference B is with voltage. compared multiplied by is applied to the second The error signal processedby the compensator input of the for the RF When the feedback is large, its transfer function signal. changing multiplier, level the carrier error small and the output approximates reference/B. gets
with
corner
M. The signal from the to the AM detector. The signal of the audio component and the the carrier. The low-pass filter B of the and the carrier signal, amplitude
multiplier
Example 1. If,
amplitude
amplitude
for
example,
at
the
modulator
at the
detector
reference = 0.5 V, B = 0.5, C = 100,and ratio T=50. is 0.001 V, the return input = x to + 0.98 V which l)B] reference TI{{T equals
reference/B
the
RF carrier
The carrier
is very
close
to the desired
carrier amplitude
= 1V.
20
Since
Chapter 1.
RF signals
Feedback and
Sensitivity
change
over a very large range, the gain in the feedback loop can feedback must be large even when the RF signal is the smallest acceptable (when the signal level is only slightly larger than the level of the always well when the loop gain noise), and, on the other hand, the system must perform present an additional 80dBdue increases 60 to to the increase of the by signal at the antenna. accordingly.
can vary
The
1.11
Compensator
Lead
and PID
design
compensators
will be discussed in Chapters 3-6. However, to make this chapter a course on servo design, we present below rules for simple design two most used types of the compensators. We assume (Dt, has been already frequently chosen (it must be, typically, at least 10 times lower than the frequency of the plant structural the and sensor and noise at not be must mode, (Dt, excessive). imperfection A lead the plant transfer C(s) = k(s + a)/(s+ b) is often used when compensator function is close to a double integrator. The zero a \302\273 and the pole b = 3@^The 0.3(\302\273b, \302\253 k is adjusted for the loop gain to be OdB at a^, k coefficient Lead b/[a>b'xPlant((%)]. are used in the Problems 42-44. compensators A PID compensator transfer function + q) is tuned by C(s) = P + Hs + Dqsl(s P (proportional), / (integral), and D (derivative). The adjusting three real coefficients: coefficient to confuse with the plant) P \302\253 / <, 0.2^0^. The coefficient (not VPlant((%). = a lead.) The coefficient D is0 for a single-integrator becomes (If / 0,the compensator for a double-integrator 4a>b. plant and, approximately, O.3P/c0b plant. The pole q \302\273 are The fine-tuned either or compensator parameters experimentally using a model and plotting computer simulated and closed-loop mathematical plant open-loop The loop phase shift at <% [i.e., step-response. frequency responses and the closed-loop be between and -150\302\260 must -120\302\260 (as shown in Fig. 1.15). The arg 7X<Bb)] kept degrees in Chapters 5 and 6. hardware and software is described compensator implementation
short self-contained
1.12 Conclusion
The
and a lookahead
in this
can
control systems.
of single-loop linear chapter enables some analysis even some control and also probably design systems that feedback vastly the demonstrate The system performance. examplesin improves in order to 13 should start to become and Still, interesting Appendix comprehensible. need to with close to the best the topics performance design systems possible, following be mastered: \342\200\242 to improve of prefilters and feedforward paths the closed-loop responses; addition \342\200\242 for in a real and of control since, systems multiloop example, design analysis the there also a antenna attitude control exists feedback loop stabilizing system is \"nested\" within the main loop; motor rate which - since the feedback \342\200\242 maximum of feedback systems with available accuracy design some fundamental is limited, as we will learn, laws; by material
presented
The reader
\342\200\242
of controllers mathematical
digital
technology;
\342\200\242
models
the
of
plants
and
control
systems
to evaluate design of
system
\342\200\242
analysis controllers.
of
the
(The
effects of
controller
link's
the
nonlinearities, having
for
system
nonlinear
and
Nyquist
diagrams
1. Feedback and
nonlinear
Sensitivity
21
1.15 must
becomes
include
elements
to ensure
the
system
stability
overloaded.)
1.13
Problems
feedback and sensors, draw block diagrams for actuators, plants, (a) temperature and (b) pressure in a chamber, (c) machine element, (d) luminescence of an illuminated angular velocity of a rotating surface, (e) frequency of an oscillator, (f) pitch, yaw and roll of an airplane.
Using
proper
names
for the
systems
controlling
When
a control
system
fast. 0 1
conversionsfrom
following
numbers
table
must
to dB and be memorized:
20n
1.12
1.4
6 2
dB, i.e.
10
20
3.16
10
10\"
Then,
10
+ 20
Convert Convert
to dB:
(a) 100;
(f)
to numbers:
(b) 200;(c)3000;(d)5, (e)8. 110 dB; (g) 63 dB; (h) 12 dB; (i)
(b) -0.01;
3 Tis equal
Calculate
large
to
(a) 0.01;
M,
(c)0.1;(d)
whether
-0.1;
(e) 2.72;
(f) -0,9;
F and
and
conclude
or
negative,
or negligible.
For T= 99 and B equal to (a) 0.01; (b) 0.1; (c) 1; (d) 0.05; (e) 2.72; (f) 3, calculate the closed-looptransfer and find the error E and the command U% to functions, make the output ik = 10.
The
open-loop
gain
coefficient
is 3000, the
difference,
(b) 200, (c)3000,(d) 5, (e) 2.72. What are the feedback, return positive or negative feedback?
The
closed-loopgain
and
coefficient
is (a)
the
100,
of
return
ratio? Is
this
case
open-loop gain coefficient is 5000, the closed-loop gain (b) 200, (c)3000,(d) 5, (e) 2.72. Is the feedback large? How much will the closed-loop gain when, because of changes in the plant, the open-loop gain
coefficient
is (a)
100,
coefficient coefficient
change becomes
6000?
In
an
antenna
is
elevation
430
feedbackis large,
motor
the
antenna
moment
What
of
inertia
kgm2, the
three-phase
sensor
angle
1.5\302\260; (e)
10kW
with
painted green, and the angle be the command for fie elevation
(a)
30.5\302\260; (b) 15.5\302\260; (c) 3.5\302\260; (d)
gear
ratio 1200:1 is
must
30 mrad?
Use the
the
following
MATLAB
commands
numerator
coefficient = 10;
and
zeros: 1, 3, 8; poles: 4, 35,100, 200; = 20; zeros: 3, 3,9; poles: 400; 4, 65,100, 6,35,100, 600; (c) k= 13; zeros: 1,5,8; poles: k = 25; zeros: 3,7,9; poles: 5,65,300,400; (d)
to calculate the
for
coefficientsof
having
the
functions
the
(a) k
(b) k
22
Chapter
(e)
(f)
1. Feedback and
Sensitivity
k=
k=
2.72; zeros:
20; zeros:
poles:4,165,150,500; zeros: 500; 1,50,80; 6,35,300, (g)k= 1300; poles: 400. 300, 5,150, (h) k= 150; zeros: 3, 70, 90; poles:
3, 4,12;
the
9 Use
(a)
MATLAB
command
root
and/or tf
2zp to
calculate
the
poles and
zeros of
the function
+ 900); B0s2 + 30s + 40)/{2s4+ 10s3+ + 300); (b) (V + 3s + 4)/(s4 + 2s3+ + 100s2 + 2000); (c) A Os2 + 10s +40)/Bs4 20s3 + 5s3 + 50s2 + 300); + 200)/(s4 (d) (s2+ + 200)/(s4 + 2.72s3 + 50s2+ 272); + 27.2s (e) + 150). (f) (s2 + 10s + 8)/(s4 + 2s3 +
20s B.72s2
20s2
100s2
12s2
10
bode
response
for
the
first-order,
functions
(bI00/(s+10J;
(cI000/(s+10K.
the
slope
of the
phase shift.
Plot times.
the
response at
11
step time-response.
higher
frequencies
Describe the correlation betweenthe slope of the gain and the curvature of the time-response at small
response
plot
the
frequency
and step
time-responsefor
the
first-
functions
(bI00/(s2 + 4s+100);
(cI00/(s2
(d) IOO/^ frequency
2s+100); correlation
Describe the
Find the
polynomial
+ s+IOO).
between
the step
of
the
responses.
roots,
between
the denominator
the shapes
step-responses.
and
12 Use MATLAB
to convert the function to a ratio of polynomials frequency response for the function + 30)(s+ 55)(s + 100)(s + 1000)]; (a) 50(s + 3)(s + 12)/[(s + + 60(s (b) 3)(s 16)/[(s + 33)(s + 75)(s + 200)(s+ 2000)]; + 22)/[(s + 40)(s + 65)(s + 150)]; + 2)(s (c)10(s + 250)(s + 2500)]; (d) -20(s + 2)(s + 26)/[(s+ 43)(s+ 85)(s (e) 2.72(s + 7)(s+ 20)/[(s + 10)(s + 100)(s +1000)]; + 66)(s + 77)(s + 8800)]. + 2)(s + 44)/[(s + 55)(s (f) -25(s
For
plot the
13
14
Example
in Section
MATLAB.
1.3.1,
find
F{s)
and
M(s), and
plot
their
frequency
responses
When
using
relation
to frequency
(as
in
most
feedback
M?
in Problem
15
the
return
loop frequency
function
12, and
0=1,
plot
the
closed-
Chapter
1. Feedback
and
Sensitivity
23
16
With the
return
ratio
equal
to the
for
function
in Problem
12, and
0 = 4, plot
and
for
the
closed-
loop frequency
17
responses
in
(a),
(b), (c), 12
the
Considering
functions
Problem
ratio,
B=10,
(a),
ratio responses
(b), (c),
18
on the L-plane for the functions Plot Nyquist diagrams (a) B0s* + 30s + 40W2S4+ s3+ s?+ 3); + 2s3 + 2i + 3); (b) (s* + 30s + 4)/(s< (c) A0s2 + 10s +40)/Bs4 + 2s3 + i + 3); (d) (s2 + 20s + 5)/(s4 + 5s3 + ? + 3). What feedback
19
needs to be introduced
harmonic
in an
amplifier
with
harmonic
coefficient
5%,
for the
resulting
coefficient
to be
0.02%?
20
the third harmonic coefficient in a feedback an amplifier with open-loop is at the frequency of the fundamental harmonic coefficient of 5%, if the feedback and the return ratio is inversely 272, (a) 100; (b) 200; (cK00; (dL00; to the frequency. proportional
Find
(e)
21
Before introduction
what is the dead
of feedback,
zone after
of is this
the
feedback
the actuator dead zone was (a) 5 N; of 50 was introduced? the maximum actuator output after the feedback of 30 was introduced?
(b)
200 mrad;
22 Before
23
introduction What
feedback,
signal
was
100 m/sec.
The
parameter
open-loop gain is (a)80dB; (b) 100dB; (c) 120dB.The closed-loop 20 dB. Because of plant parameter variations, the open-loop gain reduced What is the change in the closed-loop gain?
gain is by 1 dB.
24
gain
is
uncertain
within
\302\2611.5dB.
What
is
the
the
closed-loop
gain?
constitute
25
In
an
amplifier,
variations
26
0.1 dB.
What
will
these
The
gain
open-loop
coefficient
2000;
reduced
by 5%.
is the
change
in
the
closed-loop
0.5.
gain? gain is
uncertain
27
Plant
within
\302\26115%.
is the
uncertainty
in
the
closed-loop (cI;
the
The plant's
changes
sensitivity
to
the
by
much
will the
-6 degrees, by
output
change?
in
29
Tubes
were expensive
feedback
improved
the
(regenerative)
was
the
feedback also
the
of the received signal). the above Illustrate The forward path consists of a using the following example. tuned at the signal frequency 100 kHz an amplifier. The resonancecontour and function-is forward transfer the 10000/(s2 +12.5s+ 6282), where path angular
bandwidth
early days of tube radio receivers, and positive used to increase the amplifier The positive gain. of the regenerative receiver (but narrowed selectivity
24
velocity
Chapter 1.
Feedbackand
Sensitivity
is expressed in krad/sec. The feedback path coefficientB = -0.0077. the gain response of the receiver without and with regenerative feedback. By how much does the feedback increase the receivergain? What is the sensitivity at the frequency of the resonance? How do small deviations in the amplifier's gain affect the output What needs to be done in the feedback path to keep the signal?
Plot
closed-loopgain
What,
constant?
opinion,
in your
the
will happen
when the
amplifier
gain
coefficient
increases
by 2%
but
feedback
path is
not
adjusted?
By 2.5%?
feedback) the gain
30
In
the
B=
previous
example,
then
with
B =
and the
31 32
Prove
that
Horowitz value
sensitivity
of the
With
equals 1/F.
perturbed
The
nominal
of the
feedback is 20.
Horowitz
value
is 50. of the
The
output
perturbed
value
nominal
plant, the
in
value of the
would
when
be 10.
the
Using
changes 33
sensitivity,
nominal
find the
to
change
the
value
output
plant
from
perturbed.
The perturbed value of the plant is 30, the nominal value is 50. The nominal value is 10. Using of the feedback is 20. With the perturbed plant, the value of the output the Horowitz sensitivity, find in the value of the output when the change plant to perturbed. changes from nominal Derive the expression for the Bode sensitivity for the following links: P, A, C. Give links? numerical examples. What is the required implementation accuracy for these can be derived by using For example, the plant A.3) while A.10) sensitivity keeping (/i constant:
34
dU2/U2 _ ~ PdU2 =
dP/P
U2dP
plant
for
l+CAPB
Therefore,
the
implementation
the
accuracy can
system
be IFI
function. output
times
worse
than
the
required accuracy
35
closed-loop
the
transfer
Derive
an expression
function
for
Bode
sensitivity
link
of the
Give
positive,
to
variations
in the
including
transfer
cases
of the
feedback
where
the feedback
is large (negative),
of
path
B.
numerical
and
examples,
negligible.
chart
36
closed-loop
plot
gain
frequency
if
frequency response of a
response
with
T plotted
on the Nichols
tracking
in
Fig. 1.20,
find
system
(assuming
B = 1)
and 37
this
logarithmic
frequency
Nichols
scale.
chart,
Prove
that
is
plotted
upside-down
on the
the
curvilinear
Chapter
1.
Feedback
and Sensitivity
25
phase
deviation
from
-180\302\260
Fig.
1.20
with
Locus of
frequency
Ton the
0.05 boom
Nichols
chart 2 mrad
Find
38
A periodic
in
spacecraftis caused by
the
disturbance
magnetometer
the
value 2.72
pointing
(a)
to less than
control loop at this frequency required 0.1 mrad; (b) 34 urad; (c) 12 nrad; (d)
for reducing
the disturbance
0.2 mrad;
(e)
39
The disturbance spectral density is described (a) by the function (b) /c/[(s + 2)s]; (c) W[(s + 5)s]; (d) */[(s + 10)s];(e) k/[(s + 2.72)s]. The return ratio is 1000(s + 20)/[(s+ 1)s]. Plot the relative disturbance without and with the feedback. density
depicted voltage
spectral
in on the
Fig. 1.4,
and the
formula
output
load resistor
of
the
By
comparison
with the
the
equivalent
V= emf x Ri/(Rt + Rs), find voltage at a source terminal: the of Rs output impedance voltage regulator.
for the
41 Consider a current
B is the current Therefore, the
regulator output
regulator
sensing represents
high.
resistor,
current
output
in Fig. 1.21. Here, schematic diagram shown at the output. feedback i.e. the system has current in the load Ri is stabilized by the feedback, and the of the a current source. Hence, the output impedance
with the
regulator must be
26
Chapter
1. Feedback and
Sensitivity
vcc
Fig. 1.21
Current
regulator
The reference is much voltage is 0.5 V. The output impedance of the amplifier larger than ft + B. Set B for the output current to be (a) 0.1A; (b) 0.25 A; (c) 0.5 A; (d) 0.4 A; (e) 2.72 A; (f) 0.66 A; In each case find the return ratio and the output impedance of the regulator. 42
A temperature is shown at
the
was measured and the experimental was approximated by transfer response = 200\302\260C/kW.) function + 25)]. The P{s) = 500/[(s + 0.1)(s (At dc, when s = 0, P@) transfer function C = 8(s + 1.6)/(s + 0.2). The thermometer transfer compensator
function
heater is a voltage-controlled
function (in
in Fig.
1.22. The
dimensionality
of the power
source
signals with
The
transfer
\302\260C/kW)of
the
loaded
furnace
is 0.01
v7\302\260C. The
command
is 4
V.
command
Controller
Heater
Furnace
with payload
temperature
measure of the
temperature
Electrical thermometer
ure
8(s +
volts
s+
kW
500
(s + 0.1)(s + 25)
\302\260C
Ml
volts
0.01
V/\302\260C
Fig.
1.22
Temperature
regulator
the return ratio and the feedback at dc (in a stationary regime). Find the loop transfer function and transfer function. Plot Bode input-output for the loop transfer and for the input-output transfer function function. diagrams Plot the L-plane Nyquist whether the diagram enters the area Check diagram. surrounded by the \026 dB\" line on the Nichols diagram. Plot the output time-response for the 0.01 V step command. Plot the output to the step disturbance -100 W applied to the time-response some undesired cooling effects. input of the furnace that represents
(a)
Find
(b) Create a
threshold Explain
SIMULINK output
model.
Include
responses
saturation
with
amplitudes.
43
scanning
with an
angular
velocity
drive
is shown
in
Fig.
1.23.
Chapter
1. Feedback and
Sensitivity
27
angular
velocity
sensor
Fig.
The
1.23
Mirror drive
is shown in Fig. 1.24. The controller velocity control loop motor 10(s + 30)/[(s+ 300)s].The (with driver) is a source with transfer function 300 (rad/sec)/V (the voltage-controlledvelocity actuator control loop). The mirror might have an internal velocity angular angular differs from the angular of the motor because of flexibility of the velocity velocity motor shaft and the mirror The plant transfer function inertia. ratio of the mirror (the to the motor angular is P(s) = 640000/(s?+ 160s+ angular velocity velocity) At dc, the plant transfer function is 1. The gain coefficient of the angular 640000). velocity sensor is 0.01 V/(rad/sec). mirror
angular
is
transfer
function
C(s) =
velocity
motor shaft
command^
^
I
^
measured
Controller
Diver and
motor
angular
velocity
Plant dynamics
\021
angular velocity
Angular
velocity
sensor
an tgular velocity
10(8+30)
sjs+300)
300
rad/sec
640000
s*+160s*640000
volts
0.1
rad/sec
Fig.1.24
(a)
Find
Angular
velocity
control
transfer Plot Bode transfer function and input-output function. transfer function and for the input-output transfer function. Plot an L-plane the diagram enters the area Nyquist diagram. Determine whether surrounded by the \026 dB\" line on the Nichols diagram. Plot the output time-response for the 1 V step command. to step disturbance -0.1 rad/sec applied to the Plot the output time-response the inaccuracy of the dc permanent motor input of the plant that represents magnet caused by switching between, the stator windings. the
for
loop
diagrams
the
loop
(b)
Create
SIMULINK
model. output
Include
responses
threshold
of
2kW
in the
different
amplitude.
44
the a torque drive is shown in Fig. 1.25. The goal is to maintain in the cable so that the force of the of the lifting a prescribed profile torque pulley is shown in Fig. 1.26. The load will be as desired. The motor torque control loop from the torque to the angle, is out of the function plant dynamics, i.e., the transfer the pulley torque directly at the feedback loop since the torque sensor is measuring
A
pulley
with
motor.
28
Chapter
1.
Feedback
and Sensitivity
Fig. 1.25
The
Torque
regulation
in a
pulley
The controller transfer function gain coefficient is 0.1 V/Nm. with an appropriate 100). The actuator (a motor driver) is a voltage-controlled source with transfer function 30 Nm/V. The disturbance torque torque due to the motor imperfections is 0.1 Nm.
is C{s) = 0.8(s+
torque
sensor
15)/(s+
torque
command
angle
Fig. 1.26
Find the loop transfer diagrams for the loop Plot an L-plane Nyquist
(a)
surrounded
Torquecontrol
the input-output transfer function. Plot Bode and for the input-output transfer function. Check whether the diagram enters the area
function
transfer
and
function
by the the
Plot the
Plot function.
the Nichols diagram. torque time-response for the 0.01 V step command. torque time-response response to the disturbance torque
\026
as a step
(b) plant
Assuming moment
that the
of inertia
pulley
radius xm2,
is 0.1 m
is 0.02 kg
i.e., the
transfer
function is 20/s2, plof the position command (assume that at zero time the load is on the ground). Create a SIMULINK model. Include in the driver model a (c)
Explain
and the load mass is 2 kg, i.e.,the and its plant is a double integrator time history in response to a step torque
saturation
with
threshold
output
responses
to command
steps of
different
amplitude.
(d)
With
command: 2 seconds,
in time history to the following response plot position the duration of 2 seconds, 0 V for the duration of the next and -1 V for the duration of the next 2 seconds.
of torque schematicdrawing control in a drilling rig. of torque control in a lathe, for keeping constant the (f) Make a schematicdrawing to the cutting tool (there could be several kinematic force applied possible
(e)
Make a
schemes).
Chapter 1.
45 An x-positioner is shown motion to translational 0.5 mm/rad.
Feedbackand
Sensitivity
29
in
motion
motor with
rotational gear
ratio
Ball power
screw
Moving Table
source
_ ~
Motor
command
t Optical
Motor position
sensor
controller
Fig.
1.27
A positioner
with
an
optical
position sensor
The positioner control is shown in The controller transfer loop Fig. 1.28. actuator the is a C(s) = 0.03(s + 20)/(s+ 70). The (the driver with motor) source with transfer function 500 (rad/sec)/V. voltage controlledangular velocity is the ratio of the position to the velocity, i.e., A/sH.5. The plant transfer function The gain coefficient of the optical position is 0.2 V/mm. The disturbancein sensor
function the
angle
represents
the
ball
screw
imperfections.
command
position
Fig. 1.28
Position
control
function and input-output transfer function. Plot Bode (a) Find the loop transfer function and for the input-output transfer function. diagrams for the loop transfer Plot an L-plane Nyquist Check whether the diagram enters the area diagram. surrounded diagram. by the \026 dB\" line on the Nichols Plot the output time-response for the 0.01 V step command. Plot the output time-response to step disturbance - 0.1mm. response If the a has dead zone of 0.02 dead zone of the mm, what is the resulting gear
model.
Include
output
and
responses
3000
steps of
station
rpm
in
the
different
AM
receiver
conditions.
level
control
at the
largest
signal level is
1000.What
loop
to station gain of
is the
range of the
30
output signal
47
Chapter1. Feedback
carrier variations?
and
Sensitivity
The
functions.
the complex
plane of
function.
the Why
formulas of this chapter are bilinear other function maps a circle(or a straight line) from onto a circle (or a straight in the complex variable line) then are the coordinate curves in the Nichols chart not
many
T and
a bilinear
48
49
is the
reason
for
using
followers?
A common
electric heating
What
has
thermal
if
control.
were
What
would
happen
if
it is
left
happen
there
no thermal control?
Answers
to selected problems
Heater,
(a)
furnace
with payload,
thermometer.
but
3 (b) F= 0.99, M
21
31
= -0.01,
negligible
(i.e.
IFI\302\253 1).
(a)
0.1
N.
and
PQ
for
the
nominal
and the
perturbed
plant
transfer
[
S
CAPB
CAP0B
Po
[l+CAPB
CAP0B
\\+CAP0B] =
l+CAPB
p~Po
Notice the
to the
peculiarity
F'
l+CAP0B
of this value.
formula: the
while
changes
true
in
the
right
nominal
plant
plant value,
The
the
feedback
in the
(since
relative
for the
perturbed
(current)
opposite
is also
nominal
and
perturbed
values
to
can be
feedback,
swapped).
the
48 Due
the
voltage
the
follower
has
high
input
from
and
its
low
output
impedances,
and
when
it
relieves
preceding
signal source
voltage
being
reduced
the
load
will
is connected.
49 The temperature
the
be kept
blanket
thermal
control,
by
reducing
power will
unsafe
be
reach
levels.
Chapter
I
FEEDFORWARD,
MULTILOOP,
is equivalent
function.
AND MEMO
to
using
SYSTEMS
a prefilter, or using a methods enable to obtain desired the function with any arbitrary compensator input-output closed-loop transfer transfer function. the compensator transfer function can be chosen as Therefore, the feedback, while the desired i.e., required to maximize the disturbance rejection, function is obtained a closed-looptransfer by using an appropriate feedback path, command feedforward, or a prefilter. While the command feedforward scheme and its equivalents do not affect disturbance rejectionand plant sensitivity, the error feedforward scheme and Black's feedforward increase disturbance rejection and reduce plant sensitivity. feedback as those Bode, Multiloop systems are defined, following having a nonlinear in each loop. This definition element reflects the importance of (saturation) into account the large uncertainty in the signal transmission of the saturation link taking caused by the signal amplitude changes. are studied: local and common loops, Major practical types of multiloop systems nestedloops, crossed loops, and the main/vernier loop configuration. The methods for equivalent of block diagrams are described. transformation The of multi-input ends with an introduction chapter multi-output (MIMO) systems, and matrices in the forward and in the feedback coupling, decoupling path. Typical
The
command
feedback path
with
All of
these
MIMOsystems are discussed, with examples. 1 from Section 2.1 and Sections2.3 and Example
introductory
2.4
can
be omitted
from
an
control course.
2.1
The but
Command
accuracy also
feedforward
function system transfer certain signals forward
of the
can
and
be improved
not
only
by the
feedback
or by are
by feeding
some combination
of
feedback
and
load,
feedforward
schemes
decisive
advantages
applications;
below.
is referred
function
The
Fig. 2.1.
first
type
The transfer
of the
is
shown
in
where
Po is
the
nominal
plant
transfer
function.
Fig. 2.1
Command
feedforwarding
31
32
and
MIMO Systems
The
transfer
function
summing
the
transmission
of the system with command is found by feedforward functions of parallel paths of the input-to-output signal the feedback reduces the transmission F times:
This
transfer
vanish,
function
and
and To'1
from
1 in two cases: first, C -> \302\260\302\260 and both T~x when approaches the when transfer function does not deviate much second, plant
nominal plant transfer function Po, i.e., P0**P and, therefore,To\302\273T. = 0 (open-loopcase),it follows directly from the block diagram C For example, if (and, from the formula) that the input-output transfer function is (JPJP) ~l. certainly, The transfer function can also be expressed as input-output
the
known
TAT
+ l)
M0
T(T0+l)
M
+ 1).
Mo
whereMo
small,
feedback
then
TJ(T0
M
If the
deviations
of the
transfer
plant P
function
from
the
nominal
value Po
when
are
the
\302\253
and
the system
can
approaches
the
1, even
is not
The command
large.
feedforward
substantially
improve
accuracy
of the
the
output
band where response to the command, especially over the frequency cannot be made large. There are three limitations however on using feedforward:
\342\200\242 The function known If the uncertainty well. pretty be then cannot made closeto P, and Po large, feedforward decrease drastically.
feedback
the
command
plant
is
must
be
command
\342\200\242 The
power
of the
numerator
polynomial
should be
smaller than
the
power
path
transfer
function
transfer
function
to be
feasible.
feedforward: at higher small and, therefore, decreases; however, making frequencies too would an excessively the large large making path gain produce of and the would become saturated. at the actuator the actuator, signal input \342\200\242 with substantial A plant with substantial pure delay would using feedforward imply
a limit
bandwidth
There is also
on the
the command
IPOI too
phase advancewhich
sensitivity
is not
feasible.
the feedback about change or the disturbance rejection.
the
plant,
the
Example 1. Biological,
well
robotic,
and
modes of operation.
is performed.
provide
systems must
high
perform
accuracy
must
be
high
must The same actuators (muscles,motors) acceleration for the plant, as when hitting a ball
the
The need
accuracy
slow
of the fast
motion
not be
as good as the
components of
of the
motion
must control
accuracy
High-accuracy
can be
achieved with
or
Chapter2. Feedforward,
Multiloop,
and
MIMO Systems
the
33
fast
The feedback other positionsensors. however, doesn't suit configuration, mode since the speed of the feedback action is bounded by the delays
action
in the
and
feedback
must
loop. To make
the
actuators
move the
maintaining
plant
with
the maximum
speed
the
acceleration
a reasonable
accuracy,
actuators
be
The blockdiagram
requirements
is shown
command into commands local sensors wideband (fast) feedback loopsusing (inner loops) which accurate. variables The plant output (average speed, direction of motion, controlled by the outer feedback loops.
a feedback/feedforward system to answer these conflicting in Fig. 2.2. The commander transforms the general input for the individual actuators. The actuators are equipped with
of make etc.)
them are
Fig.2.2
At
Feedforward
system
with fast
loops
the
low
frequencies
(i.e., for
At
output variables,
the
gains are high and fast (for motion), the compensators' higher frequencies feedforward become dominant. For each of paths transfer function system input-output
compensators'
slow motion),
the
much more approximates 1 over the entire frequency range of operation, although at where lower the feedback in is The transition accurately frequencies large. accuracy from the slow to the fast mode is gradual, since the gain of the compensator gradually decreases
with
frequency.
When the motion comprisesboth slow and fast components, the outer feedback (aswhen adjusting the general direction of running) loops control the slow components while for the fast components, only the inner loops are closed.
equivalent
block
with transfer
in the
command
path
preceding prefilter.
the
command
This
(same as the
ratio
feedback
summer)
in Fig.
2.3 is calledthe
system
B = \\IR.
closed-loop response RT/(T+ 1).The system in Fig. 2.4 has return and closed-loop response B~*T/(T+ 1). These two systems are equivalent if
T and
34
Chapter
2. Feedforward,
Multiloop,
and
MIMO
Systems
Kp->
C/B-+
P \302\246>
14 1 v_yn
Fig. 2.3
System
with
prefilter
Fig. 2.4
System
with
feedback
path
in Figs.
the
system
2.3 and 2.4 have the closed-loop transfer in Fig. 2.1. Therefore, all three systems
in
are potentially
and feedback
Figs.
equivalent.
A system
be
having all three links: feedforward path, prefilter, transformed to any one of the systems equivalently
modify
2.1,2.3,
make
change
methods desired,
compared
sensitivity.
and the input-output transfer function can with the system in Fig. 1.1 (b), but do not
or
the
system design is performedin two stages: first, the compensator C is defined; then, R, or B, or the feedforward (APo)\021. path the feedback transfer function must The compensator be chosen so as to maximize - as will be shown in Chapters 4 and 5. Once designed, of interest over the bandwidth should not be compromised during the the next stage of the design, which compensator This goal can be is the implementation of a suitable nominal response. closed-loop a of or or the feedforward achieved choice B, R, path. by proper the effects of the compensator Since the feedback reduces variations, parameter and the feedback link these links need not be precise. The tolerancesin the prefilter The required to the output so these links do need to be precise. contribute error, directly of the on the the feedforward of accuracy path depends implementation accuracy
at different and may be different function, frequencies. knowledge of the plant transfer and the feedback to integrate the prefilter, the compensator, It might seem attractive can be designed a generalized linear subsystem which link into using some universal the since the sensitivities and index. However, this is not recommended performance the design are quite different; be implemented with which the blocks should accuracies of these blocks is to a large extent independent; and it is much easier to design these
blocks oneat
2.3
a time.
Error
feedforward
an
Fig. 2.5(a)describes
entirely
different
scheme
known
as error
feedforwarding.
AJB
Load
p B
(a)
(b)
Fig. 2.5
Error
feedforward
Chapter
2. Feedforward,
function
Multiloop,
and
MIMO Systems
35
The input-output
CAXP
Ux and \\
transfer
is
B.1)
CAxPB
U2\342\200\224U1/B.
+ CAxPB
if
A2=l,
then
plant
The
function
calculated
to the
as A
parameter
the system
variations
input-output
transfer
in
C and
Aj) can
be
If A2is made closeto 1, the sensitivity approaches zero. of this method of sensitivity reduction are restricted Practical applications by the in the design of the output For an electrical amplifier with a difficulties summer. system a bridge-type known load, the output summer can be made using signal combiner as the bridge prevents the output from the upper path shown in Fig. 2.5(b); from signal the It is more difficult to with into feedback going path. implement a mechanical system
-A2)/F. such properties.
2.4
Finally,
feedforward method for sensitivity which was reduction, the the same time he invented feedback method. around Black, by the method. Note that no feedback appearsin this system. The upper Fig. 2.6(a)depicts The the main and the lower one is the error compensation error is one, path. signal path and the of the main the the command is difference between Ux output path, signal is amplified and added to the measured via the B-path. The error by the error path error in the main path. so as to compensate for the initial system's output,
Black's
invented
Harold
1/8
8 Error
\302\253\302\246{
1/8
(a)
(b)
system:
Fig. 2.6
Black's feedforward
transfer
(a) general,
The input-output
If either
The
function
is
AM
or AE
sensitivity
MB,
the
input-output
to variations
transfer in AM is
function is
\\IB.
C \342\200\224
1-AE
B.2)
1+ -
ACB
36
Chapter
the
2. Feedforward,
is requested
Multiloop,
and
MIMO Systems
in Problem 11). is two nearly equal signals,and the difference between signal the error is small. In this case the actuator Ae can be low-power. Such an actuator can be made very precise. When the gain coefficient of this actuator is AE= IIB, the sensitivity D is also zero. B.2) becomes zero. In this case the output effect of the disturbance order to make AM and AE each In these conditions in equal to 1/2?, and preserve in actuators' actuators these are commonly spite of variations parameters, both stabilized by internal or by some adaptive automatic feedback Also, in adjustment. gain the case where both of the transfer functions are MB as in Fig. 2.6(b), the feedforward scheme fails, the remaining one takes the provides redundancy: if one of the actuators full load and the input-output remains unchanged. gain substantial delays, In some physical systems, the links AM, B, and AE incorporate as do not and shown in 2.7. These the use of xE delays respectively xM, tB, Fig. prevent + feedforward if they are properly compensated by insertion of delay link tM tB in the signal path to the first summer, and delay link xB + % a* the output of the main channel. Then, the phase difference between the signals reaching the summers remains the same, of the system is transfer function and the only difference in the resulting input-output extra the delay % + nB + xEformula
(derivation of
If B a 1/AM)
the
error
delay
compensation
for telecommunication is often employedin low-distortion amplifiers of MHz to tens of GHz,but it is not hundreds for from with systems, signals frequencies when control extreme to common in control There be systems systems. may applications
accuracy
is required.
2.5
Linear
can
always
be transformed to
in Fig.
another
configuration
with
a different
2.8.
(a)
(b)
Modifications
Fig.2.8
of a
linear system
Multiloop,
and
MIMO Systems
systems,
37
only
Bode's
definition
of physical
multiloop
comprise
nonlinear
saturation-type
elements
Fig.
definition
and 2.9, system (a) is a single-loop system, is related to the problem of stability actuators are always nonlinear. Such systems will
are counted. For example, in (b) is a three-loopsystem.This system whose analysis of practical systems be studied in Chapters 4-13.
the loops
(a)
Single-loop
(a)
and three-loop
(b) feedback
in
systems
the
we
small
will
amplitude
only
linear
state of
replaced
links
equivalently
links.
Local,
(a)
common,
depicts
and nested
feedback
feedback
loops
to gain This
Fig.2.1
much
local
links is reduced
larger
in the
each
of the
the product
gain
link's
in this
arrangement
the
common-loop
arrangement,
in
Fig.
2.10(b).
ft '
I)
I)
(a)
Fig. 2.10
If each
then
Local
loops
(a) and
(b)
of
the
three
links
with nominal
coefficient
to
same system
is much
higher
than
it is
1^/A+ 1) of
the
single-loop
if
of
the
system
with local
loops.
the
This is why
gain gain
common-loop
resulting
is important.
into
amplification consideration
since the
can
need to be taken
gain blocks,
this
effect
does
compensators.
coefficient
Example 1. Each
of an
amplifier has
gain
of 50.
The feedback
38
Chapter
2.
Feedforward,
about each stage needsto be at least 10 to make the gain coefficient stable is used, the total amplifier Then, when local feedback gain coefficient will When the common loop configuration is used, the gain coefficient will be much
12500.
125.
higher,
These loops by large feedback to make its gain accurate and also to manipulate the output of the driver. The actuator makes the actuator-plus-driver subsystem impedance loop accurate and stable in time. The outer loop improves the accuracy of all links in the the forward The nested is for several path, including plant. employed loop arrangement be in detail to discussed in because the feedback reasons, Chapter 7, primarily bandwidth in the outer loop cannot be made arbitrarily The inner wideband large. loop is about the electrical amplifier (driver), the intermediate the bandwidth loop is about actuator narrow outer loop, about bandwidth the plant. (motor), and the rather
often
made
about links
with
large
parameter
variations.
shown
in Fig.
amplifier
is enlooped
fcfi
Driver
i
position
Bo
currentor voltage
Sa
force or
velocity
4 r\342\204\242 BP
Fig. 2.11
consider
op-amps
without
supply
with
gain An
an operational
and
due to power
uncertainty
reduce
the
If op-amps are used in path to only that of the compensator, plant, and actuator. the compensator, they must also have large local feedback. at the output of The variables that are fed back in the inner loops can be different: at the output the the variable can be the voltage or the current, and of the driver, the plant the velocity (rate) or the force. The choice of these variablesalters actuator, For transfer function P which is the ratio of the output to the input variables of the plant. a rigid about the actuator makes feedback force example, in a position control system,
a double while the rate feedback makes the plant a single body plant integrator the is an electromagnetic motor, rate feedback about integrator. When the actuator will feedback about the driver. (Theseissues motor is typically accompanied by voltage be studied in more detail in Chapters 4-7.)
2.7
Crossed
feedback
loops and
loops
main/vernier loops
are
Crossed
circuitry
shown
in Fig.
loops
often bias
formed stabilization
by
are frequently
as in
the
amplifier
illustrated
in Fig.
2.12(b).
Chapter2. Feedforward,
Multiloop,
and
MIMO Systems
39
p
i
(a)
(b)
crossed
Fig. 2.12
dc loops
in
an
amplifier
For high control accuracy overa large range, the actuator must be fast and dynamic If such an actuator is not if and available, powerful. large changes in the output variable actuators can be employed: need not be fast, then an arrangement of two complementary the main actuator and the vernier actuator which is orders-of-magnitude faster but also orders-of-magnitude two lesspowerful. and show block (b) equivalent Fig. 2.13(a) diagrams
The
actuator
provides most
its
action
applied
to the
plant
(force,
voltage
etc.). However,
due to
LP,
large
low-pass
components,
link
the
main
represented in the block diagram by the actuator cannot render fast signal components.These
inertia
rapidly
which is
smaller
in amplitude
changing,
are
provided
by the vernier
it
actuator.
From
is rather channels.
the diagram in Fig. 2.13(a), it is apparent what the actuators are doing, but out how to design the difficult to figure in the main and vernier compensators For this purpose, the diagram in Fig. 2.13(b). is modified as shown
LP
P hi2
B1
(/\302\246
\"
H
(b)
+#
ftJ
u.
S
Fig. 2.13
LP
Feedback systems
with
the main
40
Now,
it
Chapter
2.
Feedforward,
is given to the vernier system operates.The command loop tries to reduce the error rapidly. summer, However, when the error is large, the vernier actuator becomes saturated and cannot compensate - the vernier disturbances in the This situation is corrected is high-frequency system. \342\200\224 desaturated the main The of the vernier is actuator to by loop. output signal applied the feedback summer of the main loop. The command for the main loop is zero since the desired value of the vernier actuator for slowly varying signal components is output zero. (Therefore, is no physical command summer there in the main loop in the command in summer the main in is shown to Fig. 2.13(a); loop Fig. 2.13(b) only the of the how The slow but main simplify works.) explanation system powerful
is clear
the
how the
and
vernier
actuator
but large amplitude and commands are described in Appendix 13. can be extended to a three-loopconfiguration, By the same principle,the system etc. Each extra loop provides an economical way to improve the control accuracy by a few orders of magnitude. The feedback bandwidth of each subsequent loop increases. Due to the difference in the loop bandwidth, is rather easy to accountfor loop coupling the system stability analysis, both in linear and nonlinear modes of operation. during
from
slow
a system
stellar interferometer (a high resolution optical orbiting on an orbit about the the of the optical earth), placed lengths paths from the two primary mirrors to the summing point must be kept equal to each other. and must be adjusted The optical path lengths are measuredwith laser interferometers, with For the purpose of this adjustment, a nanometer in one of the accuracy. paths the light between additional variable delay is introduced by bouncing mirrors. The is regulated by three means. position of one of these mirrors The mirror is mounted on a piezoelectric actuator. The piezoelectric actuator can but its maximum displacement be controlled with nanometer (stroke)is only accuracy, is moved by a voice coil. (A voice 50 |xm. The small platform bearing the piezoactuator coil is an electromechanical actuator based on a coil placed in a field of a permanent in loudspeakers and hard disk drives where voice coils are widely magnet; employed Example
1.
In the
instrument
to
be
they position
the
reading/writing feedback
lower sinceits
actuator maximum stroke is much can be moved on wheels along a set of rails. is the vernier for the is the vernier for the cart, and the piezoelement The coil voice and the cart desaturates the voice coil. The voice coil desaturatesthe piezoactuator, and the optical path length coil. The entire control system is able to adjust voice rapidly in is in control described detail 13.13.) Appendix system very accurately. (The
heads.) is limited by
The accuracy of the voice coil control loop is some mechanical structural but the resonances, on a cart that 1 cm. The voice coil is placed longer,
2.8
functions
Manipulations
block
to
Equivalence
configurations
diagram
transformed
transformations the
facilitate purpose
the
conversions
of various
diagram
standard
ones for
of analysis.
in
Fig. 2.14(a)
which
can be
into
the
signal
transformation,
diagrams the
function
the node from (b) and (c) by changing value at the branch output. In this signal are ratio and the feedback loop return
preserved.
and
MIMO Systems
41
\302\273 a \302\273Q
c \302\246?
\342\200\224p+-
> \302\273O
-r+>
0
>\342\200\224 ab>
I\342\200\224nn\302\253\342\200\224i
I\342\200\224r^ui
(a)
(b)
Feedback
(C)
transformations
evident
Fig. 2.14
For
the
system
equivalent
transfer
function
calculation,
the
following
rules
apply:
is reduced b\\ the value of the feedback in the A) Transmission alone a forward path in the path. loop that includes links there are several parallel forward paths, the total transfer function can be B) When the paths, found by superposition of the signals propagating along i.e., summing the
path
transfer
junctions.
in Fig. 2.16 is obtained from the diagram in Fig. 2.15 by Example 1. The diagram taken at different points are The equivalencetransformations. by signals multiplied of the branches additional blocks' coefficientsso that the signals at the outputs remain
the same.
>(P\302\273
c *\302\251\302\246*
> \302\273(D
Fig.
2.15
Fig.
2.16
Feedback
system
with
tangent
loops
The diagram in Fig. 2.16 has tangent loops, i.e., loops with unity forward paths. reduces the signal transmission by the value of According to A.3), each tangent loop feedback in the loop. There are two forward return rations bga and cdeh, so that paths and two loops with the transfer function is
abcde
+ bga)(l of
the
flowchart
exemplified
Fig.
2.17.
42
and
MIMO Systems
C-cdehJ
representation in Fig.
2. The
gain
coefficient
of the
two
as the
tangent
graph
shown
sum
of transmissions
along
parallel
paths,
divided
loop:
C-2x5I0
1+5x6
= -2.26.
Fig.2.18
Next,
to
Flowchart
consider
nested
loop
the
loops
between
transfer
function
2.19, by converting all nested loops parallel loops. The equivalent equal to the sum of all the nested loop transfer
Fig,
several
Thus,
C)
can be formulated:
input-output
When
transfer
ratios
transmission
divided
the
sum of
and
function 1.
is
the
forward
path
Mason's
>O-^
\302\273o \302\2730
PO
e *3 1
>
-f-bdg-abdeh
(c)
Fig. 2.19
Transformation and
of (a)
further
to (c)
Chapter
2. Feedforward,
transfer
Multiloop,
and
MIMO Systems
with
43
loops
The
function
for the
system
nested
shown
in
CDAP
DBD
where
+ DABA
+ CDAPBP +1
transfer
B.4)
D is
the driver
function.
it is often possible to prove the equivalence diagram manipulations, in a single-input, control schemes. For example, command singleposition form is sometimes into several to output system paths position, velocity, and split into three acceleration and these three signals are separatelyfeedforwarded command, a low-pass different summing points; the sensor filter to output is often passed through the of the signal), attenuate sensor noise (as well as some components and then the filtered and the unfiltered sensor are fed to different linear signals summing points; filters are used to estimate the output position, velocity, and and these acceleration, the some block to form the signal driving actuator; signals are combined linearly links named predictors, plant and time-invariable models, diagrams include linear If the equivalence of these block diagrams to the block shown in estimators. diagrams the achievable often, this can be easily done), Figs. 2.1, 2.3, 2.4 is proved (very is no better than of the of control whatever the that these name, schemes, performance be inferior if the block standard control system configurations. (The might performance the order of as in are chosen that were to limit the compensators, diagrams inherently of 1 in other the block On the some hand, 8.) Example Chapter potentially equivalent diagrams may have certain advantages from the implementation point of view.
With
the block
of different
2.9
Multi-input
(MIMO)
controlled
systems
have several
For
output
commands
variables
variables are
is 2,
could
and
simultaneously.
the
number
of outputs is
3,
this
is
command and several inputs, if the number of example, a 2x3 The controlled system.
be,
same
for example,
body.
angles of
different
bodies
or
angles
in different
dimensions of the
The number of feedbackloopsdoes not necessarily correlate with the number of a multiloop and outputs. Very the often, inputs system is employed to improve of a single-input, (SISO) performance system. For example, the systems single-output shown in Figs. 2.11 and 2.12 are multiloop SISO systems. in Fig. 2.20 where different An example of a MIMOsystem is shown plant of the plant for each variables The transfer function are regulated by separate loops. The from the actuator to the sensor input. transfer output loop is the plant transmission function
from the ith actuator output to the jth line is calleda coupling transfer function. zero, then the multi-loop system is just a set of cases, coupling exists but is small.
sensor
If the
input (i coupling
5*7)shown
transfer
by
functions
the dashed
are
all
individual
single-loop
systems.
In many
Chapter
2.
Feedforward, Multiloop,
Plant
and
MIMO Systems
C,
A,
L
Decoupling
matrix
4-
Sensor 4-
M \\<
\\ Decoupling
matrtx
4- Sensor 4-
A,
Plant
$
Fig. 2.20
*
(a)
V
(b)
system
->
with loops
in
to
control
nearly
independent
the
variables.
forward
The
be placed
path or (b) in
path.
Most often, actuators are relatively and their number in engineering expensive needs to be reduced to a minimum. as a rule, only one actuator is systems Therefore, a to do below 3 offers moves assigned specificjob (Example exceptions): one actuator the plant in one direction, the second in another, etc. Or, in the case of an electrical
varies
the
signal
frequency,
quartz
the
second
third
one,
the temperature
of
the
resonator,
in Fig. 2.20 are already to a large extent loops in the block diagram of the plant matrix i.e., the terms on the main decoupled, (from plant actuators diagonal to plant sensors) are substantially terms. bigger than the off-diagonal for by using a decoupling matrix, Coupling between loops can be compensated whoseoutputs the action of an appropriate actuator. The decoupling reflect matrix only makes the feedback loops independent of each the design and other, simplifying the system performance. The decoupling can be done in the feedback path improving by the sensor readings, or in the forward decoupling path by decoupling the signals going to actuators. Either method can make the loops independent of each other, but there is the methods: the matrix substantial difference between needs to be precise when placed and can be less precise when in the forward path. in the feedback path, placed matrix for linear plants can matrix of A decoupling be found by inverting the If the coupling transfer do not contain pure known coupling transfer functions. functions or an is causal and can be implemented with a digital matrix delay, the decoupling the are not known since However, parameters analog computer. plant exactly, is never perfect. decoupling
actuator
The following
actuator
types
of multi-loop
type
local
feedback, vernier
decoupled variable.
power, and
When
nearly
control
in practice: systems are most often encountered and in with actuators differing in speed where each of the actuators affects a dominantly
control
and biological importance, engineering complex with mechanisms large aggregation of severalSISO and relatively wideband feedback in each loop and a complex precisioncommander need not be very fast but the commands to the mechanisms. When the action producing slower common feedback loops are added to is of prime concern,additional accuracy the output variables - as shown in Example 1 in Section 2.1. control precisely
fast action is
utmost
of
arranged
as an
Example 1. The
well as
between
the
azimuth
angle
the
of the
would
antenna
elevation,
and
the result
azimuth
be
might
be
regulated
as
the
elevation
and
loops
is
typically
small,
Chapter2. Feedforward,
and compensated which
results
Multiloop,
and
MIMO Systems
45
in practically
attitude
are commonly arranged as three about the x-, y-, and z-axes. The spacecraft the transfer function inertia matrix is not symmetrical about all the axes. Therefore, the other axes, and the one axis depends on the rotation about angle and velocities about be considered as three separate SISO systems. are coupled and cannot three controllers bandwidth of interest can over most of the frequency be achieved Gooddecoupling matrix where the spacecraftparameters are well known and the decoupling transfer over some frequency calculated. for functions can be accurately However, ranges, example, at the slosh modes of the propellant in the fuel tanks, the spacecraft parameters matrix is not very accurate. much and the calculated have decoupling larger uncertainty in the feedback in the control loops as The uncertain coupling necessitatesa reduction will be discussed later, in Section 4.4.
Spacecraft
controllers
rotating
the
spacecraft
Example 3.
appropriate
transports
Multiple
actuators
of
the same
type
can
be
used
to achieve
plants
the
the
is the use power and/or balance. An example is one of the is shown in Fig. 2.21. The output
attitude
and velocity
(i.e.,
this
block
diagram
shows
on jet
airplane
entire
control
system).
r-
OEOC
d k
u
Plant
Fig.
2.21
Several
redundancy,
parallel power
i.e.,
plants
system
The
arrangement
provides
one-engine-out
capability
support
(OEOC).
this
or manual) Special control modes (auto may be necessary to For this additional feedback purpose, loops using operation. surfaces are applied so that a single actuator can power the plant MMO event that the other actuators fail. The system is a multiloop
sort
of
aerodynamic
control
independently system.
in the
4. In a TV set or in Example More than 90% of the loops control of the loops control image color and tape. The
tuning majority
a VCR,
there are several hundred feedback loops. electrical variables (currents, voltages), and some of the brightness, speed of the motors, and tension
but
of
the
loops are
controlling
analog,
the
some
are digital,
the
receiver
and for
display.
system
is conventionally
designed
with
frequency
domain
feedback This, say, 300 x 300 MIMO were methods, as ifjthe loops
i.e., as if the system were merely a combination independent, to be controlled are to a large extent independent, variables dominant in the 300 x 300 matrix. Only seldom is someprimitive
forward
The
are
used
in the path to
path.
The
variables
calculate the
matrix is sometimes included decoupling fed back from the sensors' readings.
the
feedback
46
and
MIMO Systems
of a MIMOcontroller
as
a combination
of several independent
loops
of structural It simplifies the system testing and advantages design. and troubleshooting, improves reliability, and simplifies the work of modification in redesign. To meet these goals, most engineering devices are designedstructurally, of the mathematically attractive idea of combined spite optimization of the entire 300 x 300 multivariable system which, must produce at least as good or better ideally, - but at the of of the structural the performance
has
the
important
price
losing
advantages
approach.
2.10
Problems
system
1 For a tracking
find
the
value
of the
(B =
T equal makes
to (a)
120;
the closed-loop
function
equal
(e) 2.72 to
1.
Find
the
compensator
transfer to the
coefficients
system
without
AP
= 10
compensator C and
prefilter,
feedforward
with
0=1,
and
with
AP
path = 10,
gain coefficient
FF
for
system
so
that
the
system
is equivalent to
4
5
path
in the transfer
block diagram
function.
depicted in
the
Fig.
2.1.
Derive
C=
2, A
= 1.
nominal
plant
coefficient ranges without Calculate feedforward path. Does the feedforward affect the ratios of the minimum input-output gain coefficient?
6
is uncertain
within
10 to
20 range, and
and
with
to
a
the
maximum
The
frequency
7
is
inversely
proportional
to
the
frequency.
block
At
what
of using
feedforward
most
important?
model includes a linear Plant F\\s) = 10/(s + 10), the actuator link with threshold coefficient -4=10 followed by a saturation
0.35)/(s+3). command
Plot
is
the
C{s) = 0.3(s+ is 0.1 a(s + 10)/(s+ a). The The feedforward function path transfer from 0 to 10 Hz. sinusoidal, with possible frequencies with MATLAB. Choose coefficient a such that the responses frequency
1, and
to
gain
with gain
signal
What
is the
the
saturation
block
will
not
exceed
the threshold.
feedforward?
but
8 Same problem
simulations
the
input
signal
is a
and error.
Wi + W2 to
Wi if:
Find
the
Bode
= 50
sensitivity
W2
of transfer
function
(a)
Wi =
W\\
100and
= 2;
(b)
and W2 =
W2
50;
100/s2.
= 10;
Wz =
the
Bode
(Hint.
sensitivity
Use
to the
transfer First,
functions employ
of the Bode
Fig. 2.13.
the
chain rule.
sensitivity
and
Am in
single-loop
Chapter
2.
Feedforward,
47
system for
multiply
the
composite
function
the
channel transfer
example.
composite
link including the main link Bode sensitivity by the to variations in one only
vernier
sensitivity channel.)
11
Derive the
expression
in Fig.
for
the
sensitivity
two
system
the
shown
2.6. Compare
coefficients
rest
(b) when
dB from
the
to variations in Am of Black's feedforward (a) when -4m = 10 and the values of are nominal, i.e., <4e = 1 and S = 0.1, and nominal value of 10.
cases:
12
In
Fig.
when
>4M
is (a)
sensitivity
of the
output to
variations
in Am
13
14
in the described previous (saturation threshold) in find the maximum output in the error amplifier. signal For
the
conditions
output
problem,
the
maximum
signal
main
What
In
Black's
feedforward
Using
system
the
shown
rule,
find
in
feedback %
transfer
chain
error
Ae
has
intemal
of the
system's
input-output
function
loops,
to the error
according
amplifier
gain
variations.
are
15
How
Fig.
many
to Bode's
definition,
in the
systems diagrammed
in
2.22?
(a)
\302\246Ch
\302\246*&-+
(c)
Fig.
2.22 Feedback
coefficient
systems
16 (a) In
with temperature by \302\26130%from the the nominal, the actuator changes by nominal, and plant transfer in the driver loop is 30 dB, and in 2 dB. The loop gain function is uncertain within the actuator loop (with the driver loop closed) is 10 dB. Find the total uncertainty in the plant loop gain.
Fig.
2.11,
the driver
gain
48 (b) Same
uncertainty
Chapter2. Feedforward,
problem
Multiloop,
and
MIMO Systems
uncertainty
but
the
driver
is
\302\2612dB, and
plant
(b)
is
\302\2613 dB,
actuator
as
in
but with
in driver
loop 40 loop 20
the
in
(b)
but with
gain
in driver
the
17
a pair of actuators, one high-power and Explain why sluggish, and very fast, should typically cost less than a single powerful
Find
and
18 19 20
the
input-output input-output
multi-loop
transfer
system shown
in Fig.
in
in Fig.
Find
the
function of the
system shown
2.15.
For the
transfer
function
21
Derive
expressions
for
input-output
transfer
functions
systems
in
Fig. 2.23.
22
z' are
for the
x, y,
x',
y',
x'= 2x+0.2y+0.3z,
z?
/ = 0.1x+2.1y+0.1z,
-
0.04x+0.1y+1.9z.
are dominant,
x is
these first approximations
0.5*',
better
y = 0.5/,
z<=0.5z'.
found
to y and z into
x\302\253 0.5x'
by
substituting
0.05/
better
- 0.075z'.
approximations
with
Proceed
the
with
to y, z
script:
Compare these
with expressions
exact
solution found
MATLAB
A = [2
ans
0.2 0.3;
0
0.040.1 1.9];
-0
inv(A)
.5038
-0
-0
.0235
.0094 -0.0243
-0 .0443 0
.4795
.0772
-0
0 .5291
form
.0215
for the solution in the Draw the flowchart Problem also numerical values in, (See using implementation of the decoupling matrix
and
shown
for
in
6.10
six op-amps
IC)
18
resistors.)
Chapter
2. Feedforward, Multiloop,
and
MIMO Systems
49
,
(a)
a >i
*)
ko
><>\342\200\224>o
1
(f)
1N*>\342\200\224\302\273\302\246
0
I b
o
a
(9)
a
(b)
\\
e1
?>
\\
e1
0
a
O
c
(d)
0
f
0
d (j)
0
e1
\302\273o
c
(e)
Fig. 2.23
Flowcharts
Fig.
2.24
Decoupling
for the
x, y,
matrix flowchart
z' are
sensor readings
x',
y',
50
Chapter2. Feedforward,
x'= 2x+ y+0.3z,
y'
Multlloop,
and
MIMO Systems
0.1x
z' =
by
0.4x+0.5y+1.9z.
the coefficient
+ 2y+0.5z,
inverting
matrix
with
MATLAB.
(c) Same
as (b) for:
y= 3x+0.4y+0.3z,
z1
/= 0.3x+2.1y+0.2z,
=
0.04x
+ 0.1y+1.9z.
for:
2x+0.1y+0.1z,
y'=
Same
z' = 0.04x+0.4y+1.9z.
as (b) for:
0.1x+3.1y+0.1z,
(e)
x' =
y'=
z' =
(This
x +y
x
- z,
and three
fri
-y+z,
-x + y + z.
of three
arrangement
piezoactuators
system oscillator
in
the
spacecraft
vibration
quartz
isolation
described
Section
23
The frequency of a
power supply
transistor
environment
voltage
(the from
voltage
that participate
changes 5 V to 6
on the crystal and on the depends temperature of the changes the capacitances of pn-junctions in the the resonance The of contour). temperature 10\302\260C to 70\302\260 C. The power supply voltage uncertainty
The oscillator elementsare placedin a small compartment (\"oven\") equipped an electrical heater and a temperature sensor. The temperature and the dc return ratio is 600. The dc voltageare regulated loops. The thermal loop by control and 5 V, and the stabilizing loop return ratio is 200. The referencesare 70\302\260 voltage the quartz close to 70\302\260 and the power supply voltage, temperature loops maintain
with
range
is from
V.
close to
5 V.
frequencyof
and the transistor, the dependencies of the crystal voltage crystal temperature and on the power supply of the in the are well approximated references by linear neighborhood and -lO^Hz/V. maximum with coefficients 10~4Hz/\302\260C The dependencies and are 60\302\260 the environment disturbances in temperature (when voltage and 1 V (when the power supply is 6 V). Fig. 2.25 voltage temperature is 10\302\260) for calculations of the effects of the disturbances. shows the flow-chart
For the
employed
oscillation
quartz
on the
-10-3
Fig.2.25
Flowcharts variations
temperature
voltage and
frequency
Chapter 2. Feedforward,
the
Multiloop,
and
MIMO Systems
51
the voltage
the 24
in the dc voltage also affectsthe power dissipated the oven temperature with the rate 20\302\260C/V. The No decoupling flowchart a double-input represents single-output system. between the control is required is small since the coupling and oneloops directional, from the voltage to the temperature loop.(The effect of temperature on
since
transistor
consequently,
loopis negligibly
the total
small.) Af due
Calculate
environment
range of the frequency variations voltage. temperature and the power supply
to the
instability
of
is 0, redundancy is always Prove that, generally, when provided. sensitivity W= (aw+ of Use bilinear relation dependence b)/(cw+ d) for the general function transfer function Won a link transfer w.) system
(Hint.
linear
Chapter
I
FREQUENCY
Some
RESPONSE METHODS
to control
in frequency domain expressed others are most often formulated in time rise The latter need to be converted into the overshoot). frequency-domain specifications in order to use frequency-domain design methods. Formulations of the time-domain and the simple, requirements are commonly very are also simple. The requirements can be equivalent frequency-domain formulations
requirements
systems are
while
typically
some
translated
between
the domains
with
pass
considered.
The
Since most control systems are of the low-pass filters are reviewed for future references. Typical closed-loop frequency responses for
Nyquist
introduced
simple
approximate
of standard systems
low-
homing
its
tracking
are
stability
and
margins are
The
with
derived and
stability
applications
stability
reviewed.
discussed.
Stability
and
the absolute
criterion is developed for multiloop stability analysis systems' Feedback systems with unstable plants are analyzed with the Nyquist criterion and with the Nyquist-Bode criterion. The effect of saturation on the discussed. system stability is briefly Static error reduction is considered for systems of the first, the second, and the
Nyquist-Bode
loop
successive
closure.
servo types.
The
of minimum phase (m.p.) function is introduced. notion The theorem is considered of equality to zero of the integral of the feedback in over the frequency axis. The Bode integral real part of a function is applied to evaluation of the
of the impedances. The Bode integral imaginary part of a function estimation of feasible changes in the loop gain response. and the significance of the Bode general phase-gain The meaning the phase from a given clarified, and the procedure for calculating is
dB
of
to
are
applied
relationship gain
response diagram
function
is is
of
explained.
The problem of
finding
the
Bode
diagram
from a
is derived
for
given
Nyquist
transfer
considered.
Non-minimum phase lag is studied. A criterion two m.p. parallel paths to be m.p. of MATLAB and SPICE is illustrated The use
for the
feedback
system
modeling and
analysis.
When
the
book
is used
for
3.9.3canbe bypassed.
3.1
a single-semester
introductory
control course,
Section
Conversion
Approximate
of time-domain
relations
requirements
to frequency domain
3.1.1
Since
and in sinusoidal components, by the sums of their signals can be substituted do not interfere (i.e., the superposition linear links, the signal principle components are fully characterized by their frequency responses. The formulas applies), linear links with the Laplace transform method are often derived for the Fourier using complex conversions between transform is also used to make variable s = a +/co.The Laplace we will write W(s) domain responses. For brevity, the time domain and the frequency
52
Chapter3. Frequency
even
already
when
Response
Methods
53
the
we
only
with
mean
using
the
frequency
response
W(j(a).
We assume
2 can
links
reader
is
familiar
Frequency
responses
Appendix
be of help.
and
characterizing
best
design
specifications.
commonly
The feedback
specified
response required
for
disturbance
are domain since the disturbances in domain. characterized by their spectral i.e., density, frequency High-order by their frequency responses. compensators and plants are also most often characterized is commonly The time-domain on the other hand, characterization, applied to distortions. A or a which are without to transfer signals step-function systems required is and the series of step-functions is usually employed as the input test-signal, output in time domain. specified of a linear system, conversion between the Given a mathematical description is and and time easily performed specifications by computer. frequency responses function and the Laplace transform transformation between the time-domain Analytical and can be obtained in MATLAB The invlaplace. expression by functions laplace with standard time and frequency responses can be plotted MATLAB plotting to be able to make the commands (or with SPICE Yet, it is important simulation). of creation for the purposes and analysis of conversion approximate mentally and comparison specificationsto systems and subsystems, resolution of the trade-offs, of available versions of conceptual the simple This can be done using rules design. described below. The 3dB bandwidth is the bandwidth of a low-passsystem up to the frequency where the gain coefficient decreases 42 times. i.e.. by 3 dB. For the first-orderlow-pass transfer function al(s + a), the 3 dB bandwidth is the pole frequency in
frequency
/P
=
in Fig.
f.log.sc. 3.1(a).
as
shown
The time
is
responseof
such
a link
to step function
input
1 -exp(-af)
Appendix
2).
It is
shown
in
3.1(b).
The line
tangent
to the
at. The
found
time response
at
t =
0 is
time
it
takes
the signal to
rise to 0.9 is
from
the equation
1to
exp(-afr)= 0.9
Fig. 3.1
C.1)
be
(a) Frequency
(b) time
response and
for first-order
response
link a/(s + a) In other words, rise time is approximately one-third This rule is employed for calculating the of the period l/fr related to 3 dB bandwidth. bandwidth for not the rise time to be required longer than prescribed. 1. A a 10\" diameter telecommunication antenna, dish, to be placed on a Example balloon in the Venus needs to to be Earth with 0.5\302\260 flying pointed atmosphere, accuracy. The rate of the attitude variations of the balloon can reach 5\302\260/sec. Therefore, the rise time of the antenna control system must be smaller than 0.1 sec which translates attitude
54
into the
Chapter3. Frequency
Response
Methods
frequency
of at least 3 Hz, or, approximately, 3 dB closed-loopbandwidth the crossover These calculations of the required feedback bandwidth are /b>1.5Hz. accurate for the conceptual design, even though the transfer sufficiently closed-loop function will be not first-order for which was derived but higher-order. C.1)
For higher-order transfer the rise time is still functions, low-pass roughly of the frequency response is approximated by C.1) where under/p the cut-off frequency the transient response is more complicated, understood. and the deviation of However, from the desired the output step-function is commonly characterizedby the five time ts of settling time t,, settling parameters shown in Fig. 3.2: delay time td, rise within the dynamic error envelope,overshoot, and steady state error, all (static) of them required to be small. , overshoot
i
iinii i r 11n 11 ^
till Ml HUM
0.9
static
error
^uency
a\302\247
0.1
delay
/
\\
time rise
settling
0
time
time
Fig.
time
3.2
time
Fig. 3.3
domain
Time-response
input time-derivatives
to
At
step-function
zero
high
time,
the first
vanish
the
systems with
an
nth-order
pole at
frequencies
as follows
from
initial
Laplace
flattens
transform theorem
the time-response relate
and
increasing
transform
at
and
the
final
value Laplace
the to the
theorems
the
the
gain
gain
in
time-response
at longer times,
at
frequencies,
time-response
smooth
is predominantly
smaller
times,
as is indicated
coefficient
3.3.
For a
transient
relatively
assumethat
at frequency intervals. Numerically, according to C.1), the time-response is mostly affected by the gain coefficient at and around 0.3 Hz, i.e., the time of 1 second the output at the time of 1ms, by the interval; by the gain over the 0.1 to 1Hz frequency etc. gain over the 1kHz to 10kHz interval, to the operational bandwidth and in Fig. 3.2, the rise time corresponds Therefore, error time to the lower-frequency gain. The static the settling corresponds corresponds to the dc gain. It is zero when the dc gain is one. An also exists between the slope of the logarithmic gaincorrespondence important curvature. For the gain and the time-response frequency response (Bode diagram) the time the shown in with constant gives Laplace transform Fig. 3.4(a), slope responses the time increases with in the shown highdelay Fig. 3.4(b). Particularly, responses slope of the gain Bode diagram. asymptotic frequency over
specific
55
frequency,
log. sc.
(b)
time
(a)
Fig.
3.4
Correlation between the slope of gain-frequency of time-domain and the curvature step-response
and
response
From
roughly
the
gain
reconstruct
gain
response
at specific
frequencies, we can
the
and
relations'
useful
leads
computer-aided
Example 2. The
frequency
plant
in the
PLL
in
Fig. to
a VCO.
It
is an
but
integrator
the
since
the
input signal proportional output applied to the phase detector is the phase. Therefore,the VCO transfer function is kls when where k is some coefficientthat characterizes the VCO gain coefficient &/co. Thus, co increases twice (by an octave), the gain coefficient decreases twice (by 6dB), i.e., the
co of
the VCO is
variable
slope of
There of slopes
the
gain exist
response plants
integrators
kls2
and
triple integrators
-18
kls3. The
their
gain
responses
the
dB/oct.
Example
3. When
closed-loop
and
gain
responses
response
the
slope
since
gain
vanishes.
Then,
third
closed-loop
transient
response
at small
times
will
be
proportional
to
the
power
of time.
response
Example 4. The
T(s)
frequency 9000
for the
transfer
function
is plotted
with MATLAB
in
Fig.
3.5.
The output
can
time-response to
the
step
shown
input
trace
the correspondences
degenerates
in Figs.
high
frequencies,
the transfer
function
into
9000/.S2, i.e.,
double
integrator.
The slope
of the
gain that
same,
octaves
octave
-40dB
or, which
is the The
2.3octaves.
from
20, from
20
to 40,
from 30 to
60; each
frequency scale.)
slope of the is zero; when
-180\302\260.
gain
the
is zero,
the
phase
slope
phase
approaches
56
Chapter
3. Frequency
Response Methods
a-20
0.8 '-40
-60
10\302\260
\302\2730.6
10'
Frequency (rad/sec)
10*
1C
<0.4
\"\302\253*
-90
0.2
-180
10\"
10'
Frequency (rad/sec)
10\"
10'
0.05
0.1
\"Tims
0.15
0.2
(sees)
(a)
Fig.
(b)
3.5
(a) Frequency-domain and (b) time-domain for T(s) = 9000/[(s + 30)(s+ 300)]
responses
3.1.2
Filters
Since most
better
understood
Low-passfilters
disturbances outside preserved, then:
the low-pass type, their responses can be their similarity to the responses of the standard low-pass filters. noise and are most often employed for attenuating high-frequency must be When the shape of the signals of the filter pass-band.
(a) the
signal,
filter
gain
must be
nearly
the
same
components of the
to linear, i.e., the same for all these
for sinusoidal the overshoot. At the input, come all
and
(b) the
slope
dependence of the
dependence,
of
different
filter
which
of this
close the
components.
The
curvature
the
phase response
and
causes
profound
different
delays effect
components of
some
frequencies
has a
on
are not in phase at various signal components which and overshoot. cause the in at the output nearly phase filters. the gain and phase responses of several low-pass Fig. 3.6(a) and (b) show curved (it is extensively The phase response of an ideal filter with 40 dB selectivity to be is the weight function of the Bode in Fig. 3.40 which follows the response integral,
moment,
studied
in
Section
3.9.6).
at the filter bends sharply The gain response of the Chebyshev (equiripple) curved. corner frequency, and its phase response is also significantly filter has maximum flat gain-frequency The Butterworth i.e., the first response, filter are equal to zero at zero of the nth-order n derivatives of the gain response the Chebyshev filter, and its phase The filter has a lesser selectivity than frequency.
responseislesscurved.
The
higher
the order
of a Chebyshev
the
or
a Butterworth
filter,
the
sharper
is the
gain
responses selectivity,and
phase
shift
response is morecurved.
Chapter
3. Frequency
Response Methods 40 dB
Butterworth
step I
57
frequency
Bessel
Butterworth
-20
Bessel Chebyshev
frequency
-40
(b)
Fig.
3.6
filter low-pass
Frequency responses of the (a) gain and and for a Chebyshev, a Butterworth, of
the
(b) phase
and
a Bessel
The
curvature
the
phase
responses
manifests
Chebyshev
itself
the
in
overshoots
shown in Fig.
and
order
of a
the
Chebyshev or a Butterworth
the longer
the
Butterworth
higher is
time.
overshoot
is the
settling
Example Butterworth
1 rad/sec,
the
low-pass bandwidth
filter,
time to the
the
filters
overshoot is 16%and
The
the
settling
time is
60 sec.
is the
phase
shift
of the
Bessel filter (or Thompson, or linearphase filter) to frequency. The higher of a Bessel filter, the order
and
phase responselinearity,
filter
the
the
settling
transfer
function
smaller is
are
the
overshoot,
the rise
time,
B(s) =
bns\302\260
where
bk
= Bn
\302\246
\302\246k)\\/[2n-k(n-k)W.)].
Example
2. For
the
settling
error
of
the
10~5, the
3rd-order,
settling
time
for
the
sec, for
filter
8 sec,
and for
is 0.35%.
variations
increase
transfer
of the denominator
the settling
functions
coefficients of
to 5
the
8th-order
function
time
up
sec (i.e.,
fourth-orders
by
1 sec). Bessel
3. The
of the
second- to
filters
are
the following:
15
+
si+3s
s3
+6s2
+\\5s +
15
in Fig. 3.8. It is Bessel filters are shown The gain- and step-responses for the three to the highestof the three unmarked responses corresponds easy to recognize which order filter: the one with steepest slope of the gain high-frequency asymptote, the one
with
largest
negative
phase at
axis
higher
frequencies,
and the
one
with the
largest phase
time shift
phase
responses
since
delay at is plotted
frequency
scale.
58
Chapter
3. Frequency
Response
Methods
1.2 1 0.8
10
10
1 ;requency (rad/sec
K
'\302\247.0.6
/
A
~\302\273
0.4
0.2
180
10'
Fig.
JJ
10\"
10
1 Time
2 (sees)
Frequency (rad/sec)
3.8
of
Bessel
filters
of
second
to fourth
orders
3.2
The
-1 in the neighborhood of the critical diagram point = 1. From the isosceles At \\T\\ crossover triangle Fig. 3.9(a). frequency fb, picture,
\\F(fb)\\
is
shown
in
shown
in this
= 2sin indicates
[A80\302\260
arg T(fb))/2]
C.2)
(here, arg
than
the angle in degrees). Commonly, the angle 180\302\260-arg7*1$,)is less a result, \\F(fb)\\ < 1, i.e., the feedback becomes positive. When a = I77FI becomes 1 no IA/1 than has its greater system prefilter, closed-loop gain tracking in Fig. 3.9(b). 20 loglM has a hump as shown and the closed-loop gain response at/b,
60\302\260, and,
as
dB
degr
f,
5log. sc.
0 -5 ---60
-10'-15--
-120
-180
(a)
(b)
diagram,
(b) closed-loop
responses
and
maximum
this
of
IA/I
is commonly
at a frequency
-
the
value of
maximum = l/{2sin
[A80\302\260
maxlMI\302\273
\\M(fb)\\
arg D/2]}.
180\302\260, i.e.,
C.3)
when
large
point
when
-1.
the Nyquist
diagram
Chapter
Example
3. Frequency ResponseMethods
angle
59
1.
infinitely.
and
When
the
of
approaches
\\M\\
-180\302\260, then
grows
then
\\M\\\302\2732,
shown
is
5 Fig. 3.10
1O
to step
input
feedback
system
with a
path,
Closed-loop
prefilter
(or
transient
response
with
command feedforward path), the open-loop can be optimized there of each other (as was shown is no need independently to compromise the loop response in order to reduce the closed-loop overshoot. and the output to feedback system to be small, For the overshoot in a closed-loop settle with high accuracy in a rather short time, the closed-loop gain response (together must with the prefilter) must a Bessel filter response. The prefilter approximate from the summer the the of the to therefore hump closed-loop response output, equalize is given a broad notch. An example of such a prefilter in Section i.e., must incorporate
non-unity
feedback
or
with
4.2.3.
If the
implemented
prefilter
(or the
This
feedback
will
path,
or
to be
exactlyoptimal,
output
it should
prevent
the command feedforward link) cannot be at least in average make the closed-system of the most of the harmonical components
time.
do
not
summers
and, therefore,
be
do
not
have
made
closedmissile
by the
be as
homing
desired.
missile,
Example 2. For a
the
the
the
response
of
interest
is
that
target
of the
caused
disturbance
which is
changing
direction
to the
the disturbance is not measured or observedand only the target motion. Commonly, error is measured, the differencebetween direction and the direction the missile to the function from the disturbance to the missile transfer direction is target. The closed-loop 1/F. If the phase stability margin at/b is small, the frequency of-20 log IFI has response a large hump, the transient becomes too oscillatory, and there response of the output to avoid exists an effective maneuver for the target being hit. Typically, larg T(fb)\\ does
not exceed
135\302\260 in
such
systems.
3.3
The
Root locus
transfer is infinitely T(s)/F(s) of a closed-loopsystem big for the signal to the of the function. As as the is in the left long corresponding poles pole of s, this doesn't create a problem. when one of has a the However, poles
function
components
half-plane
positive real
transmission
part,
i.e.,
the
pole sp is
in
is infinitely
big for
the
variable s,
Then,
the
noise will be exponentially components of the random input magnified to grow exponentially. is considered Such a linear system system's output cannot perform as a control Verification of the system stability system.
major tasks in
When
functions
the
control links
stable,
of s, then,
certainly,
function
60
the loop is the open-loop T(s) are in the left half-plane of j, and system is stable. When can appear in the right halfclosed, some of the poles of the transfer function T(s)/F(s) to trace what happens It is interesting plane of j, and in this case, the system is unstable. when the loop is \"gradually\" closed: instead of switching the loop open or closed, we a link with the coefficient k in the increase k place gain loop, and we will continuously the from 0 to 1. Correspondingly, the transfer of function will change poles continuously from the poles of the open-loop system to the poles of the closed-loop on the s-plane are called root loci. The root loci start at the system. Their trajectories of T. Invasion of a root into locus the of $ indicates that the system poles right half-plane
becomes unstable.
There
exist
rules
for drawing
the
root
loci
manually
and for
using
the
loci
feedback system design.The rules provide for simple low-order system but analysis method becomes cumbersomewhen to high-performance systems which applied high-order systems. The root locus will be further discussed in Section 8.2.
= 10($
open-loop
and closed-loop
poles can
roots(d)
ans roots{n
[0
10
20];
1 1
0];
k = [0.05 0.1 0.20.51]
%open-loop
poles
= 0 + d)
=
ans
The
-1.6551
root loci
3.11 [111
with:
n =
=
hold
k
rlocus(n,d>
on
[10 20]; d
[0.05
k=o.i
.2
rlocus(n, d,
0.1
k)
0.2 0.5
k-1
1=0.1
hold off
As
titleCk
[0.05
0.1 0.2
k-0.1
k increases
and approaches
moves
The
the
pole
at
the
origin
to
loci
the
of
left the
and two
The -2
Fk=1
0.3275
\302\261j3.4608.
-1
is stable
the
with
the
coefficient
k up to the
0.1,
Real Axis
complex
\302\261jl.42.
poles
After
become
that,
purely
imaginary,
complex
the
Fig. 3.11
Root
loci
for
poles migrate
system
to the
right half-plane
=
of s and
becomes
unstable.
When a frequency,
From this
pole
of
T(s)/F(s)
function
at this
this frequency
becomes -1, i.e., 121 = 1 and arg T=\302\261nn, where n the a simple stability criterion follows: if an open-loop is stable, system here, = < 1 n at T w here is stable 171 at which \302\261n% if all arp closed-loop system frequencies criterion is convenient but it is not a is odd, i.e., in practice, when arg T=\302\261it, This and sufficient stability criterion based on the open-loop necessary one. A necessary will be derived in the next section. response frequency
at
Chapter
3.4
Stability
3. Frequency ResponseMethods
61
Nyquist
criteria
stability
allow
most
criterion
convenient
the
verification
whether
The or experiments.
passing
a judgment on
of system stability without pole position calculations them the is among Nyquist criterion. It allows is stable the plot of the opensystem by observing
which with
loop frequency response, measured or calculated. We will consider a single-loop feedback system invariable links whose transfer functions are rational
that
real
the
not
system
have
does
the
loop
half-plane
Therefore,
closed-loop
transfer
transfer
function
T(s)
have
poles
in the rieht
some the
of the function
right
half-plane
ofs.
\302\246*,)-
C.4)
$*,
Sj, jk,
closed-loop system instability. nor zeros a simple closed contour C\\ in the j-plane crossing neither Consider poles and one zero st as shown in Fig. 3.12(b). Therest of no of F(s) and encompassing poles While s makes a clockwiseround the zeros of F(s) are outside the contour. trip about the contour c\\, the vector s-Si shown in Fig. 3.12(b) completes a clockwise revolution. the contour the vectors s - Sj, s - s^,... related to zeros outside It is easy to notice that ct exercise no such revolutions.
half-plane condition
condition
for
one
or several
of the
zeros
to appear
in the
of the
s-plane
yco
s-plane
(b)
(b)
of a
the trip
of s about
Fig. 3.13
function
(a) Revolutions
F(s)
caused
a
contour
d on the s-plane
vector
moved about
revolution
of its multipliers. Therefore, a F(s) is the sum of the phases about S[ changes the phase of F(s) by 2rc, i.e., it makes the revolution about the origin as shown in Fig. 3.12(a). vector F{s) complete a clockwise no poles and several c encompassing Consider next a contour zeros sit sit s^ as in Fig. 3.13(b). When $ makes a full of each multiplier shown trip about c, the argument of the kind s \342\200\224 2rc. the number clockwise revolutions of the Therefore, si changes by of about the within the contour locus the indicates numbers F(i(i>) c, as origin of zeros
a multiplier
showninFig.3.13(a).
To find
the
number
of zeros
of F(s) in
the
right
half-plane
of s, the
contour
c should
62
envelop
radius
poles shown
Chapter 3. Frequency
the
right shown
Response
Methods
of
half-plane. in
Such
a contour
can be made
of
arc as
of F in Fig.
= T+
1 are
encompasses
revolutions
of
and an of F
infinite-
is half-plane of j. For this particular diagram, the number conjugatezeros,jj and jj( in the right half-plane of j. Therefore, loop system is unstable.
3.14(a) about
origin
gives
the number
of zeros of
this
2, reflecting
particular
closed-
Fig.
3.14
for
Fand
(b) the
As
contour
the
of s systems
arc.
when
mentioned
before,
the return
ratio
disappears
Therefore, F(s)
in
becomes1 while
$ moves
along the
Thus,
Fig.
inside
F complex
the locus of F consists of two imageconjugate, F(s) = F(s). Therefore, to halves and relating respectively positive negative symmetrical frequencies. The part of the locus of F drawn for positive <\302\273 is shown by the thicker curve and is half the number of revolutions of the called the Nyquist makes diagram. The diagram
is the mapping of thejco-axis, and the right half-plane of $ maps into the 3.14(a) of the contour on the F-plane. is rational with real coefficients. Complex The function of s makes F(s) conjugation
whole locus
The
which
reflects
the existence
of zero s-t
in the
first quadrant
is stable
Nyquist with
of the
the
j-plane.
Nyquist
is stable
criterion
with the
open,
encircle
it
system
feedback for F
loop
not
if the
diagram
does
the origin
of
the
F-plane.}
functions,
transfer the Nyquist criterion has been proven here for only rational valid as well for transcendental transfer functions since transcendental transfer can be closely approximated by rational functions. For instance, the functions transcendental with distributed parameters can be pure delay function in a medium transfer function a system with small-value by a rational many describing approximated criterion can be applied to all practical lumped elements. Therefore, the Nyquist or measured gain and phase systemsdescribed by calculated frequency responses.
Although
it
is
63
diagram
is commonly
in
in
drawn
T-plane
as
in
shown
Fig. 3.15
Fig.
(compare
The unstable
plot
with
the locus
this
3.14(a)).
critical
origin.
point
case
is -1, instead
Nyquist
of
the
Most
importantly,
whether
the
the
diagram
tells
us not
but
only
system is stable
the
or not,
by
the
stable
CO
also
how
the
to make
loop
system
stable
reshaping
compensator):
response
(by changing
by reducing
the loop
gain
over
Fig. 3.15
will
Nyquist
diagrams
specific
loop
phase 4. Chapter
frequency range, and/or reducing the lag at certain frequencies. Loop shaping
in
on T-plane
be
described
also
in detail
in
As mentioned
Chapter
1, Nyquist
diagrams can
(-1,0) in the
the
be plotted
on the
L-plane,
diagram diagram
where
on the
the
critical
points
are
Notice
critical
that when
point
a Nyquist
T-plane encircles the critical on the L-plane typically passes counterclockwise direction.
point to
clockwise direction,the
A80\302\260, OdB)
the left
of
in the
stabilitymargins
are required to be not only stable but also robust, i.e., remaining the plant parameters, and consequently the return ratio, deviate from the nominal values. The stability margins guard the critical formed point. They are often means as shown in Fig. 3.16(a), by a segment on the T-plane, or, which the same, by the in If the for on the nominal rectangles L-plane Fig. 3.16(b). diagram plant Nyquist the system will remain stable for does not penetrate the boundary of the stability margin,
systems stable
when
a certain
range
of variations
of
the
plant
parameters. L-plane
\302\246
T-plane
gam
\\
i
\302\246
phase
\302\246-1800-
X,
y180\302\260
\302\246
18O>
\302\246
y18C
(a)
(b)
and
Fig. 3.16
The
Amplitude
phase
stability margins on
shown
shape
variations
margins
phase
in
Fig.
3.16 assumes
plant
parameter
are
not correlated.
This is
typical
for
many
practical
a rigid body plant. Variations in driving plants. Consider, for example,a force actuator the force and in the plant's mass change the plant gain but not the plant phase shift. On but not the other hand, variations of small flexibilities in the plant change the phase shift Another much the gain in the frequency region of the crossover. example is the volume without control depicted in Fig. 1.19, where the loop gain changes up to 10,000 times
64
Chapter
3. Frequency ResponseMethods
The
phase shift.
lOdB,
disk
stability
margin, as
in
Fig.
3.20(c),
is less
and upper amplitude stability margins x, xx shown in and the values of the phase stability margin yl$0\302\260 are typically 30\302\260 to 45\302\260. values are also sufficient from some nonlinear to guard (These in the control loop, studied in Chapter phenomena 12.) As illustrated in Fig. 3.17, over the frequency range where the loop gain is within the interval is preserved and the system is phase[-jc,jci], the phase stability margin over the and where the the interval of T is within stabilized, frequency range angle the gain stability margin is preserved and the system is [-180\302\260(l +y), -180\302\260(l -y)], shows the Nyquist is both gain-Stabilized. Fig. 3.17(b) diagram of a system which and above/2, and either gain-stabilized phase- and gain-stabilized at frequencies below/,
of
The values
the lower
6 to
Fig. 3.16
are typically
or phase-stabilized
gain
stabilized
(a)
(b)
in
Fig. 3.17
Gain
and
phase
stabilizing
to a
(a)
the
T-plane and
Nyquist Stability
are Fig.
the crosses stable system whose Nyquist diagram and -1. shown in are 3.17(a) 3.18(a). Fig. Examples point (not phase-stabilized) at some frequencies (such only gain-stabilized at which the loop gain is larger than 1. 3.18(a))
relates left
of the
T-plane
I
(a)
CO
(b)
Fig. 3.18
Practical
Nyquist
diagrams
for (a)
systems
all include
nonlinear
at least,
to
i.e.,
i.e.,
remain
conditions
in
the saturation of the actuator, set of initial stable after any of periodic oscillation, are
Chapters
be
discussed
in more detail
9-11.)
Chapter
When
65
the only nonlinear in the loop is the actuator, link then, loosely speaking, its reduce the while the loop phase shift. This may equivalent loop gain retaining the equivalent Nyquist While causes to \"shrink.\" the of a shrinking, diagram diagram and signal level, Nyquist-stable system crossesthe point -1. At these specific frequency the equivalent return ratio -1 which is the condition of self-oscillation. becomes should be avoided in those feedback systems which Therefore, using Nyquist stability have no nonlinear links other than the actuator saturation. link and whose The absolute notion relates to systems with a saturation stability is like that in Fig. 3.18(b), i.e., not crossing the critical Nyquist point while diagram as shown the stability margins are typically chosen stability, shrinking. For the absolute in Fig. 3.19.
saturation
T-plane
\"
L-plane
' -180\302\260
y18O\302\260 y180\302\260
(b)
Fig.
3.19
with
saturation
Absolute
stability
be studied
in
Chapter
10 in criterion,
a more precisemanner.
the systems
system
the with
Example
1. According
to
the
Nyquist
the
Nyquist
diagrams
shown
-1.
in
feedbackis positive
at
the
Fig. (i.e.,
are stable,
while
1) if and
only
if T
is on
unit
point
is Nyquist-stable.
of a
with
In Fig.
3.20(c), T is real
In
amplitude
and
less
than -1 at
return
two
frequencies,
other
than
words,
the
the
signal
at these
larger
this
feedback
H.
sort of T amplifiers
is
at
stable
The
signal applied to the loop was first found experimentally Bell Laboratories, and was later
development
of
by
proven theoretically
Nyquist.
dynamic
is acceptable and even beneficial if special nonlinear Nyquist stability are introduced in the loop to exclude the possibility of self-oscillation. links is described in Chapters 10 and 11.) Designing such nonlinear One of the Nyquist criterion's is the simplicity of estimating the effects advantages of multiplicative of the loop gain variations coefficient. For example, it is seen from the in Fig. 3.20(a) that reducing the loop gain without the loop phase diagram changing will shift not make the system oscillate,that the gain by a factor of 2 will increasing cause and that increasing the loop phase delay by 60\302\260 at the frequency oscillation, where in = 1 (the crossover will also cause oscillation. frequency/b)
(Using
links
66
Chapter
3.
Frequency
Response
Methods
T-plane
T-plane
(a)
(b)
(c)
T-plane
T-plane
(e)
is positive at frequencies at Fig. 3.20 Nyquist diagrams: (a) feedback (c) disk stability Nyquist diagram is on the disk, (b) Bodestability margins, (d) robust system, (e) non-robust (f) unstable system system,
which
the
margin,
for Example 2. The linear scale is inconvenient for drawing Nyquist diagrams between practical systems, where the loop gain changes by several orders of magnitude the lowest frequency of interest and the crossover of feedback frequency. The inventor coordinate with gain in dB, and phase amplifiers H. Black employeda circular system these in degrees, as illustrated in Fig. 3.21. Another example of using coordinates is in A13.26. 13, Fig. given Appendix
90\302\260
Fig.
3.21
Nyquist diagram
with
logarithmic
magnitude
scale
67
Example
3. The
L-plane
shown
diagrams
in Fig.
to the corresponding equivalent T-plane 3.22. The vertical axis corresponds to -180\302\260.
dB
dB
dB
degr
J)degr
>
( a)
A *-\342\200\224 (c
dB
dB
^
l_ X
ir
-r
degr
V
(d)
(e)
diagrams
Fig. 3.22
(b) Bodestability
Nyquist
on the
margins,
and
margin,
feedback
areas,
system,
are defined
this concept
(e) non-robust
(f) unstable
literature,
system
stability
Example 4. In some of the contemporary if they need only apply at discrete points instead referred to as \"guard-point\" stability margins. The guard-point phase margin is the is zero, i.e., at/b. gain margin
The
margins
and
as
is
of a
solid
margin
boundary,
phase
at the
guard-point
gain
margin
is
the
gain
margin
phase
margin
is zero.
This
even general.
when
is acceptable and convenient when the order of T(s) is low, and the order of T(s)is high but the response is smooth, but it does not suffice in Because of the inescapable trade-off between and the stability margins
interpretation if
available feedback,
performance
high-order
compensator
stability
is optimized for
margins
closed-loop
the
Nyquist
while
only
the guard-point
are
enforced,
- these end up looking like Figs. 3.20(e)and 3.22(e) loop responses much too This the critical sort of misuse of the guard-point point approach closely. that may be responsible for the stability margins misconception high-order lead to non-robust systems. compensators \"generally\"
diagram
might
with an unstable Nyquist criterion for a system plant The systems discussed until now were considered stable with the are unstable without the disconnected. However, some physical systems
3.6
feedback
feedback,
loop
i.e.,
like to know what will feedback T(s) has poles in the right half-plane of j. We would make such systems stable. the function F(s) = T(s)+ which have poles and zeros within consider Now, may a pole within the contour the contour causes the plot in (a) to in Fig. 3.14(b). Having
rotate
in
the
direction
opposite
to
the
revolution
produced
by a
zero
within
the
contour
68
(b).
when s completes a trip about the contour, the number of revolutions locus equals the difference the numbers of zeros and poles of between The corresponding Nyquist the contour. encircles the critical point F(s) within diagram a number of times equal to the difference between the number of poles and the number of zeros in the first quadrant of the s-plane. The rule follows:
of
diagram
the
to become
critical
stable of
the
when
the
feedback
point
the number
s-pUtne,
of
times
open-looppolesin
counterclockwise
quadrant direction.
first
and
of be in
and relations between the loop, physical processes in the plant. This method variables is routinely of various applied to the analysis unstable plants: plants with wind thermal flutter, flutter, aerodynamic instability, gas two examples. turbulence, and the inverted pendulum. Consider the following Example
the
plant's
instability
as the result
of an internal
feedback
1.
In
the
internal
feedback
phase
at the
resonance frequency 0) = 2 of
3.23(a),
to the
the input
plant of
is unstable the
since
in
gain block
diagram
feedback
path. The
shown
Nyquist
for
the internal
loop enclosesthe
point
clockwise
as
in Fig.
3.23(b).
\\
0
degr
90 180/
-|
-180 -150
(d)
with
an unstable
loop,
(c) Nyquist
diagram plant, (b) Nyquist diagram for Ti, not to scale, Nyquist
(d) Nyquist
Because
diagram
for 7i
diagram
of the
800(f
internal
feedback,
transfer
function
P(s) =
+0.2J
+ 4)
a pair possesses
by
the
negative
positive the
real
denominator
be judged
With
the
Chapter
3. Frequency
Response Methods
69
transfer
compensator
transfer
function
cros-section A) is
800(j
shown in Fig.
3.23(a), the
main
loop
function at
+0.2J
+ 4)
(s + 40)(s
The
locus
counterclockwise
locus on
@ dB,
Another
the
encircles the critical point -1 in the Ti(j(a) shown in Fig. 3.23(c) that the closed-loop direction. This indicates system is stable. The shown in Fig. 3.23(d) correspondingly encirclesthe critical L-plane point
of the clockwise of
in 180\302\260)
direction.
stability
way
this system
function
analysis
is to
look at
the
cros-section
B),
where the
(s)
loop
transfer
is found
to be
Nyquist
diagram
for this
high-gain
cros-section is shown
amplifier
in Fig.
3.23(e). The
system is stable.
be
Example2. The
itself,
absence
shown but
shown
in Fig.
transfer
small
parasitic
standard is
of
in
the
feedback
path
shown
capacitance input-output feedback loop via R2. The in Fig. 3.24(b). The Nyquist
amplifier
the
stable
in
by
the
for
diagram
with
for the
the
parasitic loop is
when
Fig.
is operated gain
conventional
amplifier
is much
3.24(b)), the parasitic feedbackloop gain is small, and the is of view on the problem stable. Another is, that the parasitic feedback point system = when transfer + is with the normal function s/[s l/(/?Q] negligible compared path Bw feedback path transfer function B, with which the amplifier is stable. Hence, the system can be analyzed without into account the parasitic feedback. taking
dB
/, log scale
dB
-20
B. par
(a)
(b) feedback
(c)
(b) Bode
feedback loop
O. (a) schematic
diagram
diagram,
for the
parasitic
1.
Consider
shown
the
in .
multiloop
Fig3A25Assume
system
the
~ ~'\\U
Linear
System
\342\200\236
system loops
stable
when
all
is are
\\J
\\J
\\J
of a
multiloop system
70
disconnected,
Chapter
and
3. Frequency ResponseMethods
the
start closing
all
feedback
loops
successively
which
will
eventually
lead
to the
the loops
closed. A series
of five
such
Nyquist
diagrams
is
A)
B)
diagrams
C)
for the
the
D)
E)
analysis
Fig.3.26 Nyquist
It is
the
seen
in
Fig.
3.26 that
the
after
system
second
loop
is closed,
first loop is closed, the system remains stable; after becomes unstable and the system transfer function
possesses one
system
pole in
the
first
quadrant
the
of
the
s-plane;
after
the third
of s;
loop is closed,the
in
remains
unstable
since
indicates
half-plane
no change
critical the
the
fourth
difference
loop
after the
is
system
not
sincethe
criterion
When
fifth
Nyquist
diagram does
the
point.
the
By generalizing
a linear
procedure
given in the
Nyquist
for multiloop
if and only of the point
systems as follows:
certain
loops
disconnected,
in
it is
stable with
counterclockwise
these
loops
drawn
closed
for
the
total
numbers of
to each
clockwiseand
a series
encirclements
other
of Nyquist diagrams
each
successively
closingthe
hops
configuration.
the
The order
designer.
which
the
loops are
convenience
of
the
Example
three loops
2. The
system diagrammed
is viewed
Fig. 3.27
the
contains
analysis.
following:
two
local
loops
and a
system
as a
three-loop system
stability
in Fig.
and
In this
case, of closing
the
can
be the
drawing
Nyquist diagram for the common loop and drawing diagram for the remaining since it is three diagrams critical point.
the local loops open), second, closing the first local loop diagram, and the Nyquist third, drawing local loop. Thus, we would have to draw and to analyze all not than any of the three diagrams evident avoids encircling the
loop
(with
analysis
and (b)
two
cross-sections
of the
feedback loops
Chapter3. Frequency
It is
often in
Response
Methods
71
that the local loops are inherently stable because the however, is small. When this is the it is with these loops worth case, phase lag loops starting and the related diagrams sinceit is already known that the diagrams will not not drawing the critical point. It remains, enclose therefore, only to draw the diagram for the common
evident, the
loop, with
paths
the
local
Alternatively,
the
using
two eliminate
cross
sections
when
in the
forward and
as shown
Fig. 3.27(b).
by
These crosssections
only
all feedback
Further,
loops,
A) not
the
analysis
can be
performed using
itself,
two Nyquist
by
known
diagrams.
closing
that
the first
local
loop is stable
the cross
the diagram cross section
section
should
B),
with
the
for
the
cross
stability.
the
such
that
it reflects
[9].
with of the convenience approach might be inconsistent For this purpose, the order of closing the loops can be chosen in which the loops desaturate the signal level gradually order when
decreases
3.8 the
Nyquist origin
diagrams
diagrams
a
poles
at
Fig. 3.28
body
plant
VM Vs Vs Depending on the a rate employed- an accelerometer, 3.28 Mechanical \342\200\224 Fig. rigid body plant sensor the sensor, or a position plant transfer function is correspondinglya constant 1/M, a single integrator l/(Ms), or a double l/(MsJ. integrator The frequency responses for these plant are shown in Fig. 3.29(a). The functions for the single and double integrators is infinite at zero frequency. The poles(the gain
driven
by
mechanical
singularities)
for the
plants
are
at the
origin of
the
j-plane
as shown
in Fig.
3.29(b).
dB
\\V(Ms?)
VM \\ \\
s-plane
0
\302\246\\
CO,
log. sc.
o,
i
\342\200\242\\ i
\\
(a)
Fig.
(b)
3.29
and
(a) Bode
a double
diagrams for
the
plant
as a constant,
relatedcontour
a singleintegrator,
on
the
s-plane
72
The
Chapter 3. Frequency
Response
Methods
of the contour encompassing the Nyquist diagram is the mapping right of The should chosen such that the function on the contour j. contour be does half-plane not turn into the if transfer on the function Therefore, T(s) possesses infinity. poles the should the when n are at the contour avoid j'co-axis, origin, poles. Particularly, poles i.e.,
sa(.s-spl)(s-spl)(s-sp3)
the this
...
infinitesimal-radius
171
origin arc,
the
can in the
phase
the
by
an of
the pole,
is infinitely
nir as
of $ changes
T-pane
maps onto
the Nyquist
On in Fig. 3.29(b). and its phase changes by large, arc. Therefore, the small arc in the s-plane of Half of this arc becomesa part radius.
arc as
shown
diagram.
diagram plant,
The
double-integrator
Nyquist
is
shown
with
the
arc is
3.30(b).
T-plane
T-plane
(a)
(b)
Nyquist in
Fig. 3.30
(a)
a single
integrator
servo
origin.
loops are
classified
type),
Type
1, and Type
2. This number
in Fig.
The Nyquist
in Fig.
(b).
3.29(b) is of
The
frequencies
The
reduction.
considering
diagrams of Type0 are shown in Fig. 3.18(a) and and the related loop frequency responseat lower of the Nyquist diagram shape and the steady-state error define the steady-state response to commands
Type
diagram shown
3.30(a)
2. Nyquist
properties
the
of
feedback
these
system
angle 0.
keep the
Two
calculatethe
return
velocity unchanged.
can be understood three types of servomechanisms by variable is the shown in Fig. 3.31. The plant output are added after the for the sake of analysis, to plant is added Q. and the acceleration a. A double integrator to
Chapter
error
73
(a)
P{s)
A- 1/S2 fi
(b)
for constant
accelerartion time
Fig. 3.31
block
diagram
and (b)
the
profiles
of the
command
let us
to
the
is small, of keeping
variables:
command,
or a. In order
angular
specific commands
are
need \302\253i(t)
applied to
input.
In Fig.
shown
static
for, respectively,
commands.
error
angle,
constant
3.31(b), velocity,
constant
acceleration
the
To reduce
the
of the
gain
coefficient
at s
\342\200\224> OYfrom
the error
controlled
The Type
summer output
error
0 system to the
has finite loop gain at zero frequency, and the dc gain from the plant output (from error to 8) is finite. Therefore, the steady-state 8 is small but finite. On the other hand, the forward path gain to the
acceleration
at $
-\302\273 0
are infinitely
output
the \302\253i(t),
or the
not track
The the error
the
command.
infinite
loop but
from
at zero frequency, The gain gain coefficient the gain to velocity Q. is finite, and the gain to
constant
velocity
when
angle error
finite;
and
and
when
is the
error is
is not
is commanded,
the
acceleration
error
corrected at all.
Next,
consider
of disturbances entering
in
feedback
points:
disturbance
as
in shown is commonly caused by misalignment of mechanical parts; disturbance in velocity, by an extra velocity component of moving of the plant or by drift in time of the values of some of the plant's and parameters; parts the disturbance in acceleration, forces, etc. by disturbance torque due to wind, magnetic
velocity,
and
Fig. 3.32
In a
infinitely
Disturbances in
the feedback
angle,
disturbance
velocity,
and acceleration
at the
in
a feedback
system
Type 1 system, a
since
entering but
is
infinite,
this disturbance
reduced
in the
74
angle since the gain the constant Thus,
Chapter 3. Frequency
Response
Methods
coefficient at dc from the angle to the velocity is infinitely small. error in position (i.e., an velocity disturbance causesa \"hang-up\" error that does not decay in time). To eliminate this error, a Type 2 system be should The Type 2 servomechanism is also referred to as a \"zero-velocity error\" employed. In this system, the steady-state in position and in velocity errors are zero, and system.
error in acceleration. steady-state ratio has a triple at zero frequency. These systems pole have larger loop gain and better accuracy at low frequencies, but the low-frequency and the system is not 270\302\260 stable. For phase lag in such systems approaches absolutely such a system to remain after the actuator becomes overloaded, stable the compensator
there the return
must
be made
nonlinear,
as will
be discussed
in
Chapters
9-13.
3.9
Bode
Minimum
integrals
phase
3.9.1
functions
Synthesis
criterion is not quite the straightforward. example, shape Nyquist diagram, one to reduce the gain at some frequencies and did so, he might find decided out that this gain change affectedthe phase shift at other frequencies, and the system is still unstable, with a quite different of the Nyquist diagram. although shape The Nyquist criterion uses three variables: frequency, loop gain, shift. and phase H. W. Bode showed that These variables are interdependent. in most practical cases two of them (the frequency and the suffices for feedback system using only gain) design.This greatly simplifies the search for the optimal design solution. A logarithmic transfer function can be presented in the form feedback
(design) of
For
a stable
system
using the
Nyquist
if,
to correct
the
of
where A(s) is
the
even ja>,
part then
of the
function the
and real
shift.
B(s) is part
of the i.e.,
function.
the
When
s is replaced by
of the
gain, and
way.
becomesthe
The
imaginary
part,
real
phase of 8(/0))are
to
related,
although
affecting
not in a
the
unique
It is
the
gain without
affecting will
phase,
and to
add
extra phase lag (but not phase lead!) without called nonminimal phase (n.p.) lag,
Section
be
without such phase lag arecalled minimum (m.p.). phase have no later in this chapter that m.p. transfer functions It will be demonstrated zeros in the right half-plane of s, so that m.p. transfer functions of stable systems have transfer of s. Therefore, m.p. logarithmic zeros nor poles in the right neither half-plane in the right half-plane of j. of stable systems are analytical function the available As will be shown further, the delay in the feedback loop limits phase of the feedback loop links for the transfer functions feedback. Therefore, it is desirable in compensators and, if to be m.p. Designers of control loops use m.p. functions with functions. The phase-gain m.p. transfer possible, employ actuators and plants are interest in m.p. functions for feedback of special relations system designers.
3.12.
Functions
Example 1. A
Therefore,
of s. Therefore,
is stable in the two-pole passive and admittance have no its impedance are m.p. these functions
conditions
zeros or
poles
Chapter 3. Frequency
a ladder Example 2. Fig. 3.33shows electrical network. The output-toratios of the network can be input as voltage- and current-transfer expressed the transimpedance functions, (ratio of the to output voltage input current) and the transadmittance of the output (ratio
Response
Methods
75
passive
r
(r\\}\\
\302\273-<IZhrCI3jCII>HZZH\342\200\224\302\253
A
\342\200\236 I
A
T
ll
T
fl
Fig
3.33
Ladder
network
current
input voltage). All of them are minimum phase functions. that a signal applied to the input of a ladder network arrives at the the unless at of the is or of leastone series branches one branches output open, parallel is shorted. Therefore, ratio zeros are produced by poles of the the output-to-input the the of the of series and zeros of impedances two-poles impedances by shunting twothe right-half When are their are not in the and zeros poles. two-poles poles passive, transfer function does not have zeros in the right half-plane of plane of s, so the network s. Bode named such functions, also have no zeros on thejco-axis, which minimum-phase
to the
It
is evident
that
the
functions
response
and is
thus
defined
by the
transfer
function
frequency
response.
3.9.2 Integral of
Consider
half-plane
feedback
8(j)
limited
which
has
no singularities
at high
frequencies
right
for
large
s by the
series
s
By
A4.1),
integrating
s2
about
J3
9(j)
a contour
enclosing
the
right
half-plane
of j
(see
Appendix
Bode
\302\260r
proved
that
R
|(A-i4\302\273)dto
--J-.
return ratio
C.6)
T(s) of a
and
system
Now,
assume
that
that
is open-loop
stable
large,
turns
into
a/sa for
large s, where a
isa coefficient,
a\\
_o_
let 9
= lnF.
Then,when
s is
In
the most
common case
the
of
? 2,
by comparing
this
expression
with
C.6) we
see that
fii = 0,
and
integral
of feedback
is zero:
= O
jln\\F\\dea \342\200\224oo
C.7)
When Hence,
the
as illustrated
1 and
therefore In 1/1 > 0, and vice versa. over the frequency region where integral
76
the
Chapter
3.
Frequency
the
Response
negative
feedback
is negative
the
is equal to
negative
of the
positive
feedback. The
area
must be
Fig.
larger the
positive
near
feedback
Typically,
and its
as
range,
of
feedback.
crossover
illustrated
feedbackconcentrates
1.7 looks much
in Fig.
a logarithmic
the
smaller becausethis
feedbackarea
1.7, positive
in
was drawn
with
frequency
scale.
dBl
areaof
negative
,
area
of
positive
feedback
feedback
frequency,
linear
scale
Fig. 3.34
Therefore,
areas
if negative
feedback
regions,
there
must exist
frequency
increased. In practice,
the
in certain frequency feedback where these effectsare feedback decreases the output error since the mean-square the error are at higher frequencies where only components which is typically a kind of low-pass filter.
effect
of disturbances
of positive
1. needs
feedback
over
the
functional
must
frequency
of positive
feedback
be
maximized
as
well. The value of the positive feedback depends on the distance from the Nyquist diagram to the critical point. Therefore, this distance should be kept minimal over the bandwidth of the stability the Nyquist diagram should follow words, positive feedback, or, in other as possible, and the chosen stability margins should not be margins' boundary as closely
excessive.
Corollary
crossover importance
2. Since the
is concentrated within a few octaves near the feedback positive in the crossover area is of extreme accuracy of loop shaping maximum negative feedback over the functional frequency
bandwidth.
3.9.3
Next,
Integral of resistance
let
B(j(d)
2Xj(?>)
R(jai)
+ jXQco)
stand
for
the
impedance
of
the
parallel
connection
in Fig. 3.35, capacitance C and a two-pole with impedance Z', as shown at all and to be limited where Z' is assumednot to reduce to zero at infinite frequency Z== this formula with at C.5) l/(/o)C). Comparing frequencies. Then, higher frequencies called the resistance and from C.6) follows an equation integral: gives 5] = 1/C,
of a
C.8)
'\"\"\302\246Zc
Z=R+jX
Fig. 3.35
Z shunted Two-pole
by capacitance
77
is seen that the area under the frequency of the resistance R is response of R in determined by the parallel capacitanceC. The frequency responses and Z' but the of with different relate to the (c) 3.36(d) 3.36(a), (b), two-poles Fig. Fig. the curves is the same. It is also seenthat the maximum value of same C. The area under if R equals zero outside the R can be achieved the desired over frequency band
exclusively
operational
band,
which
can be
achievedby
using
as 2T a filter
loaded at a matched
resistor.
(a)
(b)
(c)
of reactive
band-pass of the
resistors:(a)low-pass,
resistive
components
The similarly
derived integral
of the
admittance
Y,
C.9)
Y' of the remaining is valid for the dual circuit shown in Fig. 3.37, where the admittance infinite not of not to 0 at does contain a series the circuit does turn i.e., part frequency, and inductance. The relations C.8) and C.9) are widely applied in radio frequency of the available bandwidth-performance microwave engineering for the evaluation where the stray reactive element, C or L, becomes critical (in product in systems in and circuits of wide-band the particular, output high-frequency amplifiers, or in input of such amplifiers). the parallel or series feedback paths
Fig. 3.37
The resistance
Stray
inductance
limiting
the real
estimating
part
of admittance
integral
is
also
useful
for
the
available
Important
performance
classes
of
of
control and active damping of mechanical flexible structures. flexible plants include active suspension micromachined systems, and lightweight relatively actively controlled and damped large,
gravity
mechanical
structures
systems, in zero
environment.
In mechanical
sometimes
the damper
some
to the
flexible
this
modes need to
diagrammed
be damped,
limits
in
port where
case,
a massor a spring
Fig.
the bandwidth
3.38,
to achieve
electrically
maximum performanceover
and
connected
to
the
transducer.
78
Chapter
3.
Frequency
Response
Methods
Spring
Electro\302\246
wv-
Electromechanical
transducer
z
Fig.
3.38
by connecting
mode
Z'
3.9.4
The
Integral of the
relation
imaginary
known as the
phase
integral
is
2*\"
C.10)
shift
infinite
whereB is the
respectively words, the
is derived
integral
phase
of an
m.p.
function,
zero and
in Appendix
can
frequency,
u = In
frequency
is taken
along the
the values of the gain at AM are and can In other be arbitrary. 0)c (o)/o)c), axis with logarithmic scale (the equation
Ao and
4).
be conveniently
and
The integral
therefore having
frequency responses
the
A\"
A'joining
same
value of AM.
between the two gainapplied to the difference at higher frequencies as shown in Fig. 3.39, and this difference is By C.10),
AA0=(A0\"-A0') = -In
\\(B\"-B')du.
dB
C.10),
units
the phase,
are
the
gain,
and
natural
the
4,\"
A\"
frequency
logarithm. degrees,
related
to
the
the
a:
cq log,
When dB,
the units
are converted to
low-frequency
sc.
and decades,
gain
difference
AA0,
is
= 0.56a
dB
where
having Fig. 3.39 Two gain responses is the difference in the phase a common high-frequency asymptote in the areas under integrals, i.e. the difference use of this formula will be illustrated in Section 5.5.) the phase (The responses. in the loop gain in the band of operation is accompanied It follows that an increase the frequency response of the loop phase lag. Hence, an increase of the area under by the feedback, the larger must be the area of the phase lag. In particular, the the larger because of their larger loop phase is larger in Nyquist-stable available feedback systems
(dec x degr)
C.11)
lag.
finite
bandwidth is B
relation 7
JI
(A-
arcsinw A\302\253,)d
@=0
JJm2 _i
d@.
...
C.12)
Chapter
3. Frequency
Response Methods
79
With
application
to feedback
be
@^1 needs to
functional
preserved,
systems, C.12) means that if the phase lag at frequencies then the loop gain response can be reshaped in the
band
&<1
as long
as
the
area
of the
gain plotted
Chapter
against arcsina is
not
changed.
Applications
of
this
rule
will be
studied
in
4.
3.9.6
Phase-gain
the
relation
the
Given
gain
frequency
minimum
phase
transfer
using
function,
famous
it is Bode
frequency
0)c
the
1 f
C.13)
units of the
where u
and
= In
uses natural
to
logarithm
for the
angle, attenuation,
frequency.
As seen,
frequency
phase
shift
a
with
logarithmic
is proportional scale.
single
the
slope
integrator
-90\302\260. For
with
transfer
having
function
the
slope
is
shift is
is
a double
integrator,
constant
slope
is -12dB/oct
phase
shift,
shift with
is
-180\302\260. For
the gain
response
the
slope
the
phase of the
proportionally,
-150\302\260. The
convenience
reason
gain
is
scale became calledBode diagrams. to Since is taken from -\302\253> the integral in C.13) from 0 to \302\260\302\260, the phase shift at any specified frequencies response slope at all frequencies. The extent of this dependence is determined by in Fig. 3.40 with the script charted
logarithmic
phase
responses
with
frequency
along
the
over
the
the
frequency
the
on
gain
weight
In coth
Im/21,
u = linspace(-3,3,200)
b = log(coth(abs(u/2)))
plot(u,b,'w');
' I
3 2 1
grid
\\
/
-2
3.40
V
Fig.
()
J
In
Weight function
cothlu/2l
Due
neighborhood
to the
selectiveness of the
of
weight
Oft,
function, which
the neighborhood
shift
ofu = 0. i.e.the
calculated). do.
the frequency
(at
the phase
the
is
being
contributes much more to ft. than the remote parts of diagram of m.p. systems, and is equivalent to the stability The Bode phase-gain relationship result rule that the to the causality i.e. the (output) never precedes the principle, be The can cause proved with countour integration (see Appendix 3). (input) integral the Hilbert transform. or with (see Appendix 4) are to the transfer that this and other Bode integrals It is important applicable
Bode
80
Chapter
of physical
integral
3. Frequency
Response Methods
rational. from
functions
systems
allows
The Bode
phase,
the
and frequency - employed in the Nyquist stability two the and the frequency, variables, remaining gain Bode diagram, contains also the information the about
system design can be basedon only diagram methods are widely applied
the
form
of the
the
Therefore,
componentsare
separately. Bode formula:
in (a), in (b),
small
or can
be
additionally
and,
therefore,
the
accounted for
structure
The sequence of
the Bode the slope
the
frequency
responses
in Fig.
3.41
illustrates
of the
is plotted;
(c) shows
weight slope
(d) showsthe
The
illustrating
weight
function.
area under
the be
structure
calculationwill
response (d) gives the phase shift at coc.Notice that Fig. 3.41 is only of the phase-gain relation. A practical method for the phase
in the
next
described
section.
(a)
cq log.sc.
|Og.
sc.
(b)
weight
(c)
cq log.
sc.
eg log, sc.
(d)
area =
shift
Fig.3.41
Phase
calculation
slope, of
at
(d) product
Example
at frequency (Oc,: (a) Bode diagram, (c) weight function centered at coc, the slope and the weight
frequency
the
1. Calculate
the phase
is
the
following decreasing
the
gain
OdB
up to
frequency
= -1.
Chapter
From
3. Frequency ResponseMethods
81
C.13),
\\
r*/
B((oc)
\342\200\224
n-l*
2 limit corresponds to the corner eo= 1, which frequency from zero to -1, i.e. u = ln(l/coc). Since changes slope
is
where
the
lower
integration
the frequency
where the
,
gain
ImI lncoth\342\200\224 =
,.
ln
l+co,./co
2
and
1-CO../CO c'
= 0)
du
<21n((fl/(Oc)
ld(a, we
can rewrite
dta
@
the
expression
for B((oc) as
!
-IJ
l In
/O) (\302\273\342\200\236
1-0)^/0) c
At
small
0)c, the
logarithm
equals
\\2xojw\\. Then
\342\200\236/ \\
dw
and
finally,
C.14)
fl(a>c)\302\273-|a>c.
The phase
shift
is negative
and proportional to
gain
the
frequency.
filter
Corollary.
Since the
manner,
response
of any
low-pass
filter
piece-linear
functions, the frequency.
the
phase
the
of a
low-pass
at
low
each proportional to
frequency,
so that
3.10
Accurate
Phase
calculations
of the phase lag from the gain is rarely needed in response and of the integral for calculation computer programs developed engineering practice, are the used rather calculation of is However, C.13) infrequently. approximate phase the the often of and for small required during conceptual stage design, quite version readjustments of the loop frequency responses. For these purposes,a modified is of a graphical procedure suggested Bode described below. by are plotted for the gain ray that originates at fc In Fig. 3.42, the phase responses with the slope of -6n dB/oct (dashedline), and for the segments (ramps) of the gain w octaves centered at /\342\200\236, i.e. at u = 1. with the slope of -6n dB/octover response should In general,if the segment's slope is a dB/oct,then the left scale of the phase be multiplied by a/6, or the right scale multiplied by a/10. Bode diagrams can be approximated piece-linearly by segments and rays, and the to these can be added up. Bode proved that even a crude phase responses related For the a fairly accurate phase frequency response. approximation of A renders need not be large. of segments responses typical for automatic control, the number
calculation
82
Chapter
3.
Frequency
Response
Methods
gain, dB
ramt
w, oct
(a)
m
CO
a.
.5
1 (b)
10
f/K
(a) Ramp gain Fig. 3.42 and the gain ray starting for different
w,
response
at
fc;
(b)
responses
centered
gain
at
fc,
and
(dashed
line) phase
to response corresponding
nonzero is approximated by two segments with Example 1. The gain response a ray to these and with zero is related segments), slope (no phase slope, three segments as the sum of the then obtained in Fig. 3.43. The phase response is as illustrated or a ray of the gain each related to a single segment responses, elementary phase of the three sum The total is the phase responses. response. phase response frequency
Example2. A
attempt
Bode
loop
the
response
feedback
crosses
at lower
at it
the is
frequency contemplated
to increase
diagram
change
chart
an
the
steeper
by 6 dB/oct
on the
in
over an
centered
effect of this
the
help
of the
will
Fig.
2 octaves from
margin Piece-linear
the
center,
by
guard-point phase margin? 3.42. From the curve That the phase is 13\302\260.
will be the at 200 Hz. What can be calculated with of marked at the distance \021,\" is, the guard-point phase stability The
effect
be reduced
13\302\260.
approximation
a physically
procedures of finding
useful
for
trial-and-error
a certain
6(/co)
that
maximizes
as weighted with a set of heterogeneousconstraints norm while (such complying under the limitation over a given frequency maximization of the real component range the for the frequency of in the form of a prescribed boundary function). hodograph
Chapter
dB
3. Frequency
Response Methods
83
degr
70
60 50 40
30
20
10
0
.25
0.5/1
2
f,
4 sc.
8X
16
\342\200\224-
-10
\302\246
segment -12dB/oct
'
log.
segment
-10dB/oct
ray
-18dB/oct
Fig.
Starting
3.43
Phase
calculation
for
piece-linear
approximation
of a
Bode diagram
the related for A, say, A', we could calculate with some initial response the B' a realizable and Next, changing Q'=A'+jB'. gain get physically response etc. As w e find related a rule, as seems would the reasonable, phase response, response of the graphical is sufficient. the process converges rapidly, and the accuracy procedure 5dB/cm and are: lOdB/cm and loct/cm for scales sketches; (The appropriate 0.5 oct/cm for more accurate calculations.)
Example3. A
responses.
(s2 + (aos
A
piece-linear
gain
response
the
ray
starting
here
at co0 with
n is 14
slope
an
@o2)\"n; in
described
m.p.
Appendix
MATLAB
function
approximation.
It calculates
phase
specified
the
diagram
frequencies,
related
the
to a
of
piece-lineargain
of
the
vector
gains
at
these
frequencies,
the
low-frequency
slopes.
Nyquist
to the
Bode diagram
and a Nyquist diagram can be the i.e. the shape of the Nyquist function B(A), plotted. The inverse problem is, given no analytical solution the Bode to find for an diagram. Although m.p. function, diagram a with the solution can be found exists to this problem, numerically computer by a high-order rational function. Alternatively, the Nyquist diagram with approximating with an iterative for practice can be found rather the easily important responses method of from the Bode A(co). B((a) finding procedure utilizing a known
Bode diagram,
84
The iterative
Chapter 3. Frequency
Response
Methods
diagram
(c)
plotting
some
converges
with
procedure
included
etc., and for rapidly smooth-shaped Nyquist diagrams. diagrams for many sharp angles (which are optimal systems), the convergence of this is slow. The convergence is improved when a sharp corner response is in the set of elementary functions. For this purpose we can use the function
first-guess 1
process consistsof the following and (b) composed of segments rays, the Nyquist diagram, (d) correcting the
plotting
a first-guess
Bode
lag,
the related
phase
C.15)
which is plotted
in
Fig.
3.44(b).
This response
the
is low-pass.It
band co <
has the
property
7t/2
of having
0) >
the
gain
of OdB
over
the
frequency
1,
and
lag of
for
1. The frequency
locusof
ratio
in C.15) dB
is plotted in
Fig.
3.44(a).
degr phase
90\302\260
lag sc.
S 1 f, log. \342\200\224\342\200\224\342\200\224\\aain
(a)
(b)
of the
ratio
gain
in
C.15)
and
phase
and of C.15)
in Fig. 3.45(a) can be calculatedby substituting/in The high-pass responseshown in can be obtained C.15) by -iff; Fig. 3.45(b) band-pass response shown substituting/in
by
C.15)
by
(/- 1//)
f,
[2].
dB
dB
log.
sc.
f,
log.
sc.
(a)
(b)
high-pass
9 by
the
Fig. 3.45
Bodediagrams
of the
the
for
transforms
of function
C.15)
Multiplication
logarithm
function
the
expression
of
to
power
n, preserves
n
m.p.
property
(although
the
p.r.
property).
of
-150\302\260,
shown
in
The asymptotic phase lag is coefficient power and (b). Fig. 3.46(a)
the
will
be then
-nn/2.
= 5/3,
Chapter3. Frequency
Response
Methods
85
phase
lag
(a)
Fig. 3.46
(a)
Nyquist
diagram
and
C.15)
of function
Combining
gain
and
phase
these
frequency
responses
with
piece-linear
responses, one
of the
(not be
can four
the sum compose diagrams sharp angles. For example, Nyquist a constant and constant A) B) C) D) responses: low-pass, high-pass, slope in the picture) producesthe response shown in Fig. 3.47. This response can
with
shown
part
of
the Nyquist
diagram for a
by
Nyquist-stable
system.
This
that
the
rest
of the
diagram
the
same
procedure
as
used
together
the low-pass
dB
L-plane
log. sc.
-180\302\260
(b)
(a) Example
responses
of a
and
of severalelementary
L-plane
3.12
Non-minimum
phase
the
lag
the
formula. Noticethat
link's
formula
that
given
with
by a finite with
poles and
might
expect have
in the
and
to appear (a)
(b)
systems
parameters
functions
described by transcendental
zeros in the
with right
functions
in systems
whose
by
half-plane.
In the
the
systems
propagation
distributed
parameters,
signal
over the
caused
the
time
x of
and
transport
lag
is
proportional
to the
frequency:
The transport
speed
when the feedback lag is substantial loop is physically long and/or the the signal propagation in the media is low as might in thermal, happen pneumatic, or acoustical systems.The transport lag of electrical signals in feedback the feedback bandwidth reaches hundreds can be significant when of MHz. amplifiers
of
86
The zeros
function
of m.p.
0
images
of
of the right-sided zeros js is exemplified in Fig. 3.48. In (a), poles and function 0m are shown. In (b), poles and zeros are shown of an n.p. which has some zeros in the right half plane of s, these zeros being mirror = some of the zeros of 0m. Notice that I0m(/O))l of I8(/co)I since the magnitude
each
multiplier
(/'oo
- s{)is preserved.
s-plane
s-plane
s-plane
(a)
and Fig.3.48 Poles
(b)
zeros
(c)
of (b) n.p.f.
of (a)
m.p.f.
Qm,
6, and of
its
pass
G/em
The ratio
8n
= 0/8m
is called
pure n.p.
lag because
phase
of the phase lag of 0m. Since I0ni = 1 at all called all pass. As shown in Fig. 3.48(c), zeros s-, Qn(s) is also of 0n are in the right half-plane and they are the mirror images of the poles which are in the left half-plane of s. Sincethe zeros are either real or come in complex conjugate be as can 0n expressed pairs,
lag of
in excess
In
particular, Bni =
each
real zero
s^
= a-,
contributes
n.p.
shift
2 arctan(co/0i).
Bni <
C.16)
0.8 rad,
a 2@/CTi
.
functions
A sum of linear
is less than
function
0.8
rad,
generally,
approximated
if the
by
n.p. lag Ba
the
linear
C.17)
where/cissomefrequency.
3.13
The
Ladder
ladder
networks
diagrammed
and parallel
in Fig.
connections of m.p.links
parallel
network
3.49 consistsof
and series
two-poles.
Chapter 3. Frequency
Response
Methods
87
rvm.
i.
V
V,
C4 C5
(a)
Fig.
(b)
3.49
function
Electrical ladder
for translational in Fig.
network:
(a)
general,
(b) example
in
The
network
transfer system
mechanical
depicted
the
^-direction
via the
of
the
electrical
ladder
shown
in
Fig. 3.49(b),
if we
use
detail
the
force-to-current,
velocity-to-voltage
electromechanical
analogy (described in
in Section
7.1.1).
Fig. 3.50
zeros
Mechanical
ladder
network
in Section 3.9.1, transfer In ladder networks, as previously mentioned function in the series branches or from can only result either from infinite zero impedances the branch in the branches. as as are Hence, long impedances shunting impedances and the transfer real and do not have function cannot zeros, positive right-sided poles possess zeros in the right half-plane. Therefore, the transfer function of a passive ladder
network
is always
m.p.
transfer
function
can be
presented as a
sum
(resulting
from
of a general
output
severalm.p.transfer
function
functions.
only
network
transfer
can
result
zeros of the
signals
half-plane.
of
paths,
which
function
several
ladder
can become n.p. when the signal transfer function Similarly, a mechanicalsystem or along the same path but from the input to the output along different paths, propagates when the incident signal excites in different motion modes, as, for example, node. add up in the motion of the target translational and torsional modes which to have a of method for control therefore of interest It is simple system designers each of them becomes of a connection several when m.p., n.p. detecting parallel paths,
transfer
of two links, Wx and W2. The composite link's Fig 3.51 shows parallel connection the function function is W\\ + W2. If both W, and W-, are stable and m.p., then not encompass the does W, + Wj is m.p. if and only if the Nyquist diagram for W,IWi
point-1,
88
Chapter
3.
Frequency
Response
Methods
(a)
Fig.
(b)
3.51
(a) Parallel
connection of two
sum Wi +
links,
(b) closed-loop
system
Here,
+ W2 has
Wx
The proof is the following: The zeros nor poles in the right handed zeros if A + W-JWi) has no The latter expression is the transfer
neither
W2= Wi(l + W2/W1). half-plane of s. Therefore,W\\ such zeros, i.e. if 1/A + W^W{)
function
possesses
of
the
system (b),
which
verified
When
with
be assigned to the path with to roll off at higher for this criterion will be exemplified in Sections 5.9 and 6.3. frequencies. Applications The minimum more than two parallel paths can be phase property of a system including verified with the analog of the Bode-Nyquist for successive loop closure. criterion
index 1 should
ratio
larger
gain at
frequencies
order
for the
\\W-JW\\\\
3.14 Problems
Many
problems
Appendix
on Laplace
2.
can be found
at the
end of
1
Derive formula
What
C.1).
bandwidth
1 nsec
2 3 4
frequency
for
the
rise-time
to be
less
than
(a)
5 sec
psec?
with
the those
system
the
highest-order
frequency
response
The
plant
is an
response,
5 6
The
plant
is a
capacitor, the
is the
input
signal
plant
is a
gain
slope of the
response,
with
MATLAB 3.1.2,
the
Section
with
using
frequency
transfer
scales
commands linspace,
7
logspace, plot).
print
Using
3rd-order
some
the
plots
for
phase of a
45\302\260; (d) 55\302\260.
Butterworth
8 The
What
phase
is the
stability
hump
in
the
Nichols
plot)?
9 Use the
relationship
shown
in Fig.
3.8 to explain
why
the
Bessel
filter
has
nearly
no
89
10 Why are
Nyquist-stable
systems
stable?
the
loop
in such
in
systems
and
signal
comes
that
back
such
phase
with
to suggest
a system
is stable
it is!) Criterion on
11
continuous
dependence
the
system
under
stable,
their
and
true
they reach
values,
and continuously further change the coefficients gradually while observing the topology of the locus of F(s). area
until
12
If
the
/co-axis
mapped?What
maps onto the locus of F(ja), onto what is the mapping of the zeros of F{sO
is stable Is the
is the right
half-plane of s
13
The
system
critical
the
point.
makes
many
poles
plane
does the
closed-loop transfer
diagram
have? system
in The
in
14
unstable
plant
shown
the L-plane Nyquist diagram for the Fig. 3.23. Change the value of damping unstable plant, and check the system stability.
and
in
the
with an local
equivalent
electrical
schematic
diagram
Fig.
following 3.52.
for feedback
inverting, s=20
compensator, crossover 1
zero
pole
node
s=40,
A)
GC 2 0
RC1
1 0 1
0
1MEG
RC2 2 0 1
LC * EP
; for
SPICE, to
make
non-floating
RC3 2 3 0.33333
3
0.033333
loop, 2
0
plant 5 0
non
GPl 4
RP 4 0
LP * GP2
4 10 5 0 1
loop 0. Is/(sA2+0.2s+4)
CP1 4 0 10
4
0.5
0.025
integrators, 0
plant 6 0 7
; Z5=0.Is/(sA2+0.05s+4) D) to F) to ; for
SPICE
0 0 6 1
5 80
G)
5 6
0
0
1MEG
1MEG
; for
1MEG
CP2 6
7
loop
7
; for
SPICE
SPICE
0 1
*
RL
closing
1MEG
resistor ; to close
*
VIN RIN
; after
reduce
RL
8 8
0 AC
11
0.1 20
;
(if
using
PSPICE)
90
Chapter
3. Frequency
Response Methods
Fig. 3.52
of the
SPICE
model
with
system
an
(de-floating unstable
When
scales,
with convenient responses using the PROBE postprocessorto plot open-loop and o.2*vpG). To plot the Nyquist diagram, make the xplot vdbG) axis scale linear, the x-variable being vp G), and the range -50, 400; plot vdb G). To plot the plant loop Bode diagram, plot vdbD)-vdbE)+20. use Alternatively, or some other analysis program. MATLAB, SIMULINK,
15
In
the
to 5.
Is the
plant
of the
system
system
stable?
shown
in Fig.
gain
block
gain
coefficient
16 Depending
Fig.
3.53(a)
attack
of
unstable.
the The
horizontal stabilizer, the airplane in block diagram for the pitch autopilot
feedback loop is shown of in Fig. 3.53(b). Here, x is the torque and J is the moment inertia about the center of gravity J = 2000, the plant CG. Consider aerodynamics surface transfer function -1000s + 2000, the control gain coefficient of 1000, and or the compensatortransfer C = 400(s + 5)/(s + 20).UseSPICE, function MATLAB, SIMULINK. Is this airplane stable with the autopilot?
Fig. 17
3.53
function
System
C.15)
with
aerodynamic
instability
in the
plant
Show
Which plant,
that the
of the and
is p.r.
18
following functions
of a
passive
physical
(a) 7= 250(s+
for plotting
5)/[(s
+ 5)(s
(b) T
= 250(s
+ 5)/[(s +
Nyquist
for stability
analysis?
Chapter
+ (c) T= 250(s + (d) T = 250(s
3. Frequency
Response Methods
91
5)(s 5)(s
19 20
21
22
In
literature,
you
Does
can
negative.\"
this statement
\"The
feedback
in this
Of what
should you
be aware?
(a)
system is
What
%M*2*B27
are
is the
slope of the
Bode diagram
and
the phase
shift of the
function:
06;
What
the
5)(s + 5)(s+
50)]?
crossoverfrequency?
margins
if T
= 6200(s +
2.5)/((s +
(c)- 8dB/oct;
If the
slope
of a
(d)
Bode diagram
-30
all
is (a) -9dB/oct;
shift?
(b)-40dB/dec;
what
23
frequencies
is (a)
90\302\260 (b)-40\302\260
(c)-150\302\260
(d)-210\302\260,
is
24
gain
response
wide wide wide wide
can be
the
approximated by
slope
a segment
(a) 3
-10 dB/oct;
(e) 1 oct
What
is
the
slope -6 dB/oct; slope -12 dB/oct; with the slope -20 dB/dec; with the slope 5 dB/oct. phase shift at the frequencies at the
plot
ends
and
the
center
of the
in Fig.
3.42)?
(b)
for a
in
looptransfer
loop.
function
(a) having
the
26
Using the Bode phase-gainrelation, explain than other filters. better phase linearity
Find
why the
Bessel-type
for the
gain
response
has
27
the
expression
for n.p.
zeros
(f)
(-1,
(a) C, -5, 0.1); (b) (-1,-3, -10);(c) A0, -4, 10); (g) A0, - 5, -3);(h) F \302\261J1.2). a Nyquist
lag at
lower
frequencies
transfer
\302\261 J12);
function
having
5, -3);
(d) E
(e) D,
-15, 0.1);
28
Sketch
Fig.
diagram
on the L-plane
related
to
the
Bode
diagram
in
3.18(a).
29
for of certain Bode diagrams approximations piece-linear responses A), B), C), D) in Fig. 3.54. For convenience, copy the pages with Figs. 3.42 and 3.54 using the same magnification (either 1:1 or 1:1.5). To the plots from one sheet of paper to another, superimpose the two sheets copy or make and use a transparent on a light table paper (or against a window glass), For w = 1.5, or 2.4, interpolate. copy of the page with the problem.
Plot phase
by
responses
shown
the
92
Chapter
3. Frequency
Response Methods
ray-18dB/oct\\
Fig. 3.54 30
Fig.
Piece-linear
Bode
diagrams
responses
3.55
shows
phase
x- and z-axes of
the loop
shift.
Calculatethe
a spacecraft. Approximate
gain
control
about
the
responses
by segments
and rays.
dB
40
\\\\
30
20
10
,025
\\\\
f,
log.
sc.
:05
0.1
0.2 \\
,^8
1,6
diagrams
for attitude
control loops of
a spacecraft
31
+ W2 m.p. if: + 200Hs + 500)]? + 5)/[(s M4 = (s,+ Wi =1000/[s\\s+10)], = 10000/[^(s + 400)(s+ + + + =, W-, Wz 10)/[(s A)(s 20)], (s (b) and W and Wz are m.p.? I Wi\\ < I W2\\ at all frequencies,
W^
Is
(a)
2)(s
1000)]?
Bessel
filter.
(c)
32
In
a homing
Find
the
system the closed-loop response is that and plot the open-loop loop transfer function
of the
4th-order
Bode diagram.
Answers
to selected
problems
the highest order is approximately
filter
3 sec,
is the rise
time
Chapter
3. Frequency
transient
Response Methods
response
93
we see
C.1)
that
= 1 sec. From
time (from
Fig.
3.3
where the
the
0.1 to 0.9 of
of the
response
output)
is about 1 sec,
i.e. formula
is plotted,
the
rise
gives
result.
a good
9 Since the
and
slope
Bessel
also
filter
does not
transient
of the
gain before
increases
which guarantees
the absence of an
overshoot.
increases gradually is already very small, gradually and does not reach
with
frequency
values,
11 Start
Start
with
a simple
function
transfer
diagram.
of
7 to
the coefficients while in the resulting observing changes Nyquist of the characteristic polynomial into the right half-plane migrates of s, it must cross the /co-axis. At the crossing frequency the closed-loop gain must become infinite and F, therefore, must 0. If this never i.e. the become happens, locus of F during the modifications never crosses the origin, i.e. the locus of T never crossesthe point -1, then the system must be stable.
changing
If
system with 71s) = 0.1 that is definitely polynomials of high order but with
stable.
infinitesimal
Augment
coefficients.
the
a root
24 (a)
is 110\302\260 at the
center of the
segment,
63\302\260 at
its ends.
26 Bessel
response
gain
by shown
response
a in Fig.
can
piece-linear
be
phase
approximated
as
3.56 (not to
scale).
phase
by
It
is
seen
rather
that
close
the
to
because
the
response is
phase
linear
f,
log.
sc.
of the contribution to the lag at lower frequencies made gain response slope at lower
For
\\
frequencies.
filters
higher
selectivity
Fig. 3.56
Bessel filter
gain
response
(Butterworth,
Cauer), the gain response slope at lower frequencies is negligible, but the passband ends, and within the passband,
at
Chebyshev,
response
becomes very steep right after the correspondingly, the phase lag is smaller
lower
frequencies
frequencies
higher
thus explanation
50
make the phase lag proportional to the phase lag increase frequency, over an octave should double such
increase over
Therefore,
increase
response
in
the
roughly
preceding
speaking,
octave.
the
\342\200\242s % S
-50
10' Frequency
10
the
slope
of
the
should
double
each
gl
gain
10 (rad/sec)
octave. 27
(a)
Bn
= 2[arctanA0oo)
+ arctan(w/3)] + 105s).
in Fig.
-\342\200\224'\342\200\224
^.
as
3.57.
-:
10\"
10\"
101
Frequency
Fig.
(rad/sec)
3.57
Bode diagram
Chapter
I
SHAPING
The
RESPONSE
independent
problem The
can be
shaping
solvedsequentially
frequencyand higher).
The
fairly
parts
that
which
frequencies
part is of
distribution
the
available
feedback over
functional
feedback
band.
The feedback bandwidth is limited at the system by the sensor noise effect output, at the the sensor noise effect actuator structural input, plant tolerances (including and nonminimum phase lag (analog and digital) in the feedback loop. The modes), of the loop gain at higher frequencies, subject to all these optimal shape response a Bode step. limitations except the first, includes The Bode step is presented in detail as a loop shaping tool for maximizing the and the feedback bandwidth. The problem of optimal described loop shaping is further formulas are presented for calculation of the maximum available feedback over the
specified
bandwidth. generalized by application of a Bode integral for solving over the functional bandwidth (i.e.,, the loop shaping problem). It is shown that the feedback is larger and
is
then
to
response
the
the
second
part
of
disturbance rejection improved in Nyquist-stable systems. with flexible modes, for collocated and nonLoop shaping is described for plants collocated control, and for the loops where the plant The effect of is unstable. resonance modecoupling on the loop shaping in MIMO is considered. systems It is described how to shape the responses of parallel feedback channels to avoid nonminimum the channels. phase lag while providing good frequency selectionbetween control course, Sections 4.2.5 When the book is used for an introductory and 4.5 can be omitted.
4.3.3,4.3.6,4.3.7,4.4,
4.1
Webster's
4.2.7,
Optimality
Collegiate
defines
the word
\"optimal\"
as
\"most
desirable,\"
and
practical engineering
In
optimality
as a
means some systems, the controller performance combination of accuracy, of and disturbance action, speed repeatability, reliability, are commonly clear and/or rejection. The trade-offs betweenthese requirements quite can be resolved with Bode integrals, The feedback controller design is incomplete without estimation of the theoretically best availableperformance.
application
The second kind of the design trade-off is that of the controller versus performance and are many times less expensivethan complexity. As a rule, compensators prefilters the plants. to make it is worthwhile Hence, in order to improve system performance, them very close to optimal, even at the price of making them complex. The order of the to be reasonably close to the optimal is, typically, 8 to 15. compensator in the the compensator order from 4 to 12 and including Example 1. Increasing links will only add 20 to 30 lines of code to the compensator several nonlinear controller software, or several extra resistors, capacitors and operational amplifiers, if
to practical control
94
Chapter
4. Shaping
the Loop
Response
the system's
95 performance.
with
the
compensator
is analog
the
and
may
substantially
For example, if
improve
settling
time of
short repetition cycle of operation can be reduced by 20% while the same retaining the time be reduced the and number 5%, accuracy, resulting per operation might by, say, of pieces of the equipment at the factory can be correspondingly reduced by 5%, with additional on maintenance. a can be Or, savings fighter's maneuverability noticeably improved. Or, the yield of a chemical process can be raised by 2% - etc. This is why the should be designed to provide closeto optimum and not compensators performance, the know doesn't in only performance specified by a customer representativewho advance what kind of performance might be available.
Even
some expensivemanufacturing
machinery
when
the
to improve
operational
the accuracy of the system with a simple controller suffices,it still pays since with larger margins in accuracy, the system will remain when some of the system to the that without the parameters degrade point
controller,
better controller, the system fails. Linear compensators are fully defined by their frequency responses. Therefore,the is the problem of optimal loop response of linear design optimal problem compensator of optimal feedback loop shaping should be able to provide the shaping. The theory and answersto the questions: (a) what performance is feasible, (b) what loop response
achievesthis
model.
performance
limit.
Commonly,
plant
are
result
initially
designed
as linear
when
in a
sound
solution
idealized
plant is
replaced by the
the
uncertainty junctions
plant
and actuator
models. Physicalsystem
behavior
nonlinearities.
the
system
at
higher
frequencies,
Example
2. In the
to
paper
the
is a
linear control
system optimal?\"
many feedback
(see
[128]
in
so
the
bibliography
Ref.
considered
difference
optimality
by
a cornerstone system
of
the
called
modern
only
control,
absolute condition
definition
and
paper.
if the
Meeting
this
is given: \"a is at
which
that
is optimal if
defined
in
the
The problem
and
with
systems. In physicalsystems
an
integrator,
according
\"at
difference
cannot be
least
be applied to physical the loop gain drops faster at higher than that of frequencies to Bode integral the absolute value of the return C.7), one at all frequencies.\"
theory
is, however,
it cannot
law design that deserves to be called optimal must provide to the system about the achievable control system engineers to the system and the related possibility of relieving certain requirements performance some initially chosen and hardware, which components may permit replacing That the must and ones. is, requirements cheaper optimality subsystems by simpler relate to the entire engineering system and not only to the controller in the narrow sense.
The process of
information
control
timely
Example
control
controller
3. In Chapter1, we
proving
analyzed
some
the
design
of
and
antenna
elevation
angle nonlinear
without
that
this design is
best
possible.
(It is not.
high-order
The real-life
is
the Reasonable questions for the customer to ask are: - Is this design compensators.) best? If not, by how much can it be improved? even ask: - and, at what we should not cost? - since, as we already Normally, is small compared with the cost of the antenna the cost of the compensator mentioned,
multiloop,
and
96
Chapter
better
4. Shaping the
Loop Response
dish (although
system cost).
or additional
servomotorscan
the plant be rolled
add
to the
Also, the
instability.
loop
responses
loop
gain
system
engineer
optimal
asked
for
control
designer
to find the
response
which is
shape of the
loop
performance without
40
completing
to estimate specific task, and the lengthy compensator design. Can this
some
the
be
available
done?
4. A flexible mode of a structure be anywhere between 30 and Example may vibration noise is accentuated and the By this resonance, the environmental of the device under control The feedback system thereforemust decreases. be accuracy able to reject the noise over the entire bandwidth 30 to 40 Hz. How to implement the maximum feedback over this frequency and what is the value of this feedback? range, Can it be quickly calculated without designing the controller?
Hz.
4.2.1
We
further
Structural
design
already
discuss
mentioned
them
system
the
advantages
of
structural
feedbackcontrol
The structural
4.1.
design
design
in
Section
2.9
flowchart
will
basic
Performance
specifications
Plant
uncertainty,
Disturbance
structural resonances,
frequency
B
rejection
and
Input-output
sensitivity responses
response
Preliminary A1
design
Loop
shaping
at higher frequencies f
Conceptual
A2
Shaping
the
functional
bandwidth
design
B1 Prefilter
design
(or feedforward,
or feedbackpath)
iterations
Hardware
w\342\200\224T System
choice
engineering
J4-
Nonlinear
compensator
design
Fig. 4.1
Feedback systemdesignflowchart
Chapter
4. Shaping
97
gain, and
by
The
performance A
i.e.,,
the loop
B
shaping.
Al
the nominal
preliminary
command-to-output design
transfer
function.
The
addresses
into
specification
by
first,
loop
response
at
appropriate
functional
loop shaping
frequency
higher
A2
achieved
range so
as
to exceedthe
Since the
makes
first
worst-case
subproblem
specifications. is to a large
They
sense
At
expressed
by rational
by
can
from the second one, it the responses need not be be expressed by rational or transcendental
independent this
stage,
functions,
After by
plots,
or by
tables.
is modified
the
adding
meet specifications
(if required)
B.
only the steps Al design of complexengineering systems, and A2 (and sometimes Bl) need to be performed to provide the system engineers with the accurate data on the available control The system engineersevaluate performance. During
the conceptual
different
preliminary
versions
design
of
the
the
hardware/software
configurations
iteratively,
using
of
the
the
results
on the
only
iteration
loop makes
loop
fast.
decide which hardware configuration is the best, system engineersfinally the compensator and prefilter are designed. The compensator is found by response the from the Then subtracting plant response loop response. the compensator C and prefilter responses are approximated rational by m.p. functions and implemented as algorithms or as analog circuits, and D the compensator with nonlinear elements and is augmented the is system
simulated.
4.2.2 Bode step of the plant parameters increases and the gain drops at In electrical this due to circuits, higher frequencies. stray capacitances and happens in thermal systems, due to thermal resistances and thermal capacitances, inductances, and in mechanical the same happens due to the plant flexibility. Because of this systems, and because of the sensor noise which will be studied in Sections 4.3.2 and 4.3.3, the
In
physical
plants,
the uncertainty
loop loop
gain gain
frequencies. well
of
For
the purpose
of analysis, the
line
with a constant
physical
feedback
slope
n>2.
In other
words,
\\T(i(O)\\
decreases
at
higher
of feedback C.7) is therefore zero. The crossover between the region studied in this section is the region of transition functional frequency band and the higher-frequency band where the feedback becomes As stated was in corollaries in Section 3.9.2, shaping the Bode diagram in negligible. the crossover in achieving a maximum region (step Al from Section4.2.1)is critical area of positive feedback near the crossover and, therefore, achieving a maximum area of negative feedback in the functional feedback band. If a system contains no other Physical systems include actuators with saturation. frequencies at
the integral
least as of2,
98
Chapter4. Shaping
is required
the
the
Loop
Response
Bode
be
and the stability must be margin boundary of phase it follows that to maximize the the maximum allowable, i.e.,, the Nyquist diagram
integral
curve
as closely
is shown
line.
The
gain monotonically
the
decreases
asymptote
Nyquist
is
increasing
frequency
degenerates into
It will
high-frequency
with the
associated phaseshift-n90\302\260.
be shown
below that
this
shown and/c.
in Fig.
The related
system
diagram corresponds to the Bode diagram is piece-linear with corner response frequencies/d less than A \342\200\224>>I80\302\260 until the loop gain becomes
is phase-stabilized the not less than with margin ylSO\" up to the the where to of the Because Bode -x. frequency /d loop gain drops phase-gain relation, the of the Bode diagram at these frequencies is approximately -12A - y) dB/oct. slope The high-frequency known. It is defined by: asymptotic loop responseis considered 6n (a) the asymptotic dB/oct, slope in Fig. 4.2(b), and (b) the point on this asymptote with coordinates (fc ,-x) as shown (c) the nonminimum Bn(fc). phase lag at this frequency
/.-plane
dB
degr
Joop
gain
.-12A
yi80\302\260
-y)dB/oct
loop
phase
lag
-180\"
A -yI80<>
f,
log. sc.
-x
'
Bode step
ft
high-frequency
asymptote
Fig.
4.2
response
Bode step: (a) absolutestability on the L-plane, (b) piece-linear gain boundary the Nyquist diagram shown in with related phase lag response that produce (a) which approximates the boundary transition
The
between
must
asymptotic maximize
at higher
slope
the
be
as
dB/oct
and
the
loop
high-frequency
selectivity,
the
increase the
to
gain
loop
gain
in the
frequency is
range
while reducing
loop at
area would be too large due to the Without the step, the phase lag in the crossover the reduces and the non-minimum phase lag. The step steep high-frequency asymptote - but also reduces the (i.e.,, given loop selectivity phase lag at the crossover frequency the lensth the feedback bandwidth). the high-frequency reduces Therefore, asymptote, of the step must not be excessive. 1 radian which is true to be less than The nonminimum phase lag BD(fc) is assumed the nonminimum in well-designed C.17), phase systems. With the linear approximation
lag at
provided
by the
Bode step
made
the
gain
is
Chapter
4. Shaping the
Loop Response
99
The with
phase
lag related
to
the
asymptotic
slope
ray which
starts
at/c
can be
expressed
C.14)
as, approximately,
2
*
/
/c
\342\200\224n\342\200\224.
Consider
this
next
the
\"discarded\" frequency
dashed-line of the
ray which is
step
the
extension
of the
main
beginning of the
related to
is expressed
with C.14)
as, approximately,
To
make
the loop
equal
phase
the
contribution
asymptotic
slope
and
the
to A nonminimum
yI80\302\260,
the
sum
should
of the
equal
phase lag
phase
contribution
of
the
\"discarded\"
dashed-line
ray.
This consideration
is
as expressed
-n-f
From
+ |fln(/c)|X,
equation,
2.2A-y)-f-
.
is
this
the Bode
\\Bn(fc)\\
\302\273+?
D.1)
/d
2A-y)
phase
stability
margin of
30\302\260, i.e.,
y =
1/6,
c).
D.2)
specified
Example 1. When
crossover frequency fb
Further,
The
when
the = 6.4
stability
the
margins are
is -lOdB/oct
30\302\260 and
lOdB,
30 fc\302\273
kHz, then
slope
n =
3 and
BJfc) = 0.5rad,
and/d = 2/b
= 12.8
then
from
D.2) fjfa
= 2.3 so that
step response closely follows the stability Nyquist diagram for the Bode in this is transfer In practice, response approximated by a rational boundary Fig. 4.2(a). the corners the rounded. and of become function, diagram Examples of loop Nyquist be in and in Chapter w ith Bode will Sections 5.11, 5.6, 5.7, 13, steps given responses
13.
a
the
Bode
disturbance
step
should be
rejection,
employed when
the
dominant
functional range. This case is frequency reduction requirements and certain implementation be differently in the crossover area. shaped the Bode diagram must be made shallow over some range in the In case, any crossover region to ensure the desired phase frequency stability margin. There are to the right of /a by the Bode several for where to do this: step, to the left of the options the sensor noise is critical, and over a where crossover frequency as in systems
i.e.,, maximizing the feedback in not ubiquitous. common but Noise issues may require Bode diagrams to
100
frequency
LoopResponse
PID controller
step typically
nearly
which
will
provide 4
transient
situated about the crossover as in the so-called symmetrically be discussed in Chapter 6. Loop responses without any Bode to 20 dBlessfeedback in the functional frequency range. to a step-disturbance in a homing system with a Bode response
stability margin has substantial the loop gain response in the this has
overshoot.
40\302\260 phase
If this
overshoot
exceeds
specifications, However,
made shallower.
rejection.
the
available
For a
equivalents
system
which
command
input,
prefilter
without
or one
reducing
of
its
can
be introduced
to ensure
available
feedback.
having
good step-responses
response
of a
with
the
a loop
implementation
a Bode
step
with
section
an example
of
the
loop response
for
a Bode
been
used
as a
prototype
several
practical
step is control
Example 1. The
1 \\Q-s
plant
s2 IQ+ s
is a double
order to
integrator a 4th-order
function
C(s)
are
is a ratio
described
of a 3rdin the
designmethods
10-,s_
s2 10+s
j+10
d(s)
with
bode(n,d,w)
so.
40
30
20
-50
\\
10
10\"
\\
10'
10
Frequency (rad/sec)
0
1
-10
-180
N \\
-360
-20
10
-30
-40
/
-150 -100
10
\302\246 Frequency
10
(rad/sec)
\302\246350-300-250-200
Fig.
4.3
Fig. 4.4
L-plane Nyquist
diagram
Chapter
The
4. Shaping the
= 1 rad/sec.
Loop Response
Nyquist
101
diagram
crossover
with
frequency
C0b
The L-plane
is plotted
in
Fig. 4.4
[mag,
phase]
= bode(n,d,w)
at lower This
plot(phase,20*loglO(mag),'w',
The
-180,0,'wo');
grid
approaches -12 dB/octand the loop response provides larger feedback at lower phase in the than the margin boundary in response Fig. 4.2(b) following stability frequencies To ensure and the at these but violates stability margin frequencies. stability Fig. 4.2(a) saturate the to and disturbances transient commands (which good responses large Such compensation is described in the loop compensation must be nonlinear. actuator), at length in Chapters 10,11, and 13. the end of this example and explained M = n/g where g = n + d is plotted in Fig. 4.5 The closed-loop transfer function
of the loop slope shift approaches
gain
frequencies
-180\302\260.
with
n =
w
g = n +
=
conv([0
d;
w)
1],n);
logspace(-l,l,200);
bode
(n, g,
the
dimensions
of vectors
and
equal
so that
1.6 A
\"X,
\342\200\242i CD -20
\\
1.2 1
\\
-40
10\021 10\"
<D
n no 10'
Frequency
(rad/sec)
|0.6 <
0.4
,-180
\\
02
0
-360
\302\2460.?
10
10 Frequency (rad/sec)
10
5 Tims
10 (sees)
15
Fig.
4.5
Closed-loop
be expected,
frequency response
Fig. 4.6
Closed-loop step-response
shown
As
should
in Fig.
4.6 has a
large,55%
the closed-loop step-response (n, g) and plotted by step The overshoot can be reducedby introduction overshoot.
response
of
a prefilter
R(s).
of the
The command-to-output
the responseof
a notch
a linear
system
with
the This
phase
prefilter
R(s) = -
102
Chapter
notch the
4. Shaping the
the
Loop Response
The In
is tuned
to 0.9c0bwith
= 1. a>b
gain
= -6 dB. 20 log(1/2)
4.7 with
w)
case
considered,
The prefilter
=
response is plotted in
bodefnr,
is plotted
g);
in
Fig.
nr=
and
[1 1
0.81]; dr
response
w)
[12
the
=
0.81];
prefilter
dr,
Fig.
the closed-loop
with
4.8 with
nc =
The
conv{nr, n); gc
gc,
response
the
convfdr,
bode(nc,
phase
in Fig.
transient
therefore
expect
a better
4.8;
Indeed,
closed-loop
system
the rise
time
and
with the prefilter plotted by step(ncgc) time remain approximately the settling
the
n
s
00
\302\246i-5
s
\\
03
\"D \342\200\224\"-\342\200\224~.
a \"
10\302\260 10\"
-10 10-
-50
10 Frequency
10\"
10'
Frequency
(racfsec) o
(rad/sec)
20
-180
\\
\\
-360
-20
10'
10\"
10\"'
10\"
10'
Frequency
(racfsec) response
Frequency (rad/sec)
Fig. 4.7
Prefilter
frequency
Fig. 4.8
the
of response Closed-loop
system
with a
notch
prefilter
1.2 1
1.2
1
0.8 0.6
0.8
\\
0.6
\302\246 0.4
\342\200\242 0.4
0.2 0
-0.2 S Time
0.2 0
10 (sees) 15
-0.2
I 5
Time 10
15
20
(sees)
Fig.
4.9
Closed-loop step-response
a notch
Fig. 4.10
of
Closed-loop step-response
system
prefilter
the
with the
of two
prefilter
composed
notches
the
Loop
Response
contributes hump
103
to the a small,
nonlinearity
1.6 dB additional
with
= [1 0.6 1]; nr2 = [1 0.5 1] ,\342\200\242 6x2 nc2 = conv(nr2, nc); gc2 = conv(dr2,
gc);
bode(nc2,
step(nc2,
gc2,
gc2)
w)
one can further reduce the overshoot as shown in Fig. 4.10. A still economical equalization can be devisedand implemented. becomes less accuratewhen the plant parameters The equalization nominal. The plant gain variations can be specified by a multiplier variations in k can be calculated as follows:
better
and
more
the
deviate from
k.
The
effects
of
n = conv([ll
d
k
= =
55 110 36],
97 83 k);
0], [1 10])
% specify
%
[-1,10]);
k
response diagram
bode(n,
[mag, plot(phase,
d,
phase]
w)
= bode(n,
20*loglO(mag))
open-loop Nyquist
d,
w)
; %
n = conv([0 g = n + d;
grid
0
w)
1],
n);
%
bode(n, g,
nr nc
closed-loop
[1
bode(nr,
1 0.81];
dr
dr,
= [1 2
0.81] ;
%
response
w)
= conv(nr,
n)
bode(nc, gc, w) nr2 = [1 0.5 1]; dr2 bode(nr2 ,dr2, w) nc2 = conv(nr2, nc); bode(nc2, gc2, w)
step(nc2,
gc = conv(dr,
% =
prefilter response
notch with
g);
1];
% second
response notch
closed-loop
[1
=
0.6
gc2
plant
notch
; response response
response
with notches with notches
conv(dr2, closed-loop
%
gc)
step
gc2) in the
gain
For
\302\26120% variations
coefficient, 10%.
the step-responses
are
shown
in
1.5
k=2.5
0.8
II
to 1.2
0.4
0.2
0.5
/
5
Time
/
10
(sees)
\\l
4
Time
-0.2
15
-0.5
6
(sees)
10
(b)
the
system
(b) for
104
When
Chapter
4. Shaping
the Loop
Response
8 dB
failure
from
response
of
gain coefficient increases to 2.5, i.e.,the plant's gain increases by thus reducing the gain stability margin to only 2 dB, the transient becomes oscillatory as shown in Fig. 4.1 l(b); still, this is not a catastrophic the controller.
the the
plant's nominal
With
with
\302\26140% variations
in k
under
20%,
and
with
it >
3.2 (i.e.,
>x) the
variations
output
is left with
as a
small
recommended
(say, 5%)
and
student
in the compensator coefficients of the polynomials to observe that these changes do not critically affect the system the coefficients can be appropriately rounded. performance, and therefore, To ensure that large-amplitude commands which the actuator will overload not and for to the transient self-oscillation, trigger responses improve large-amplitude can be made nonlinear. This is done by, first, splitting the commands, the compensation transfer two functions which function into the sum of and Cj(j) C(s) C2(s) compensator dominant at lower transfer functions of two parallel represent being paths, the first path link with an appropriate threshold in a saturation frequencies; and second, by placing front of the first path's linear link. The related theory and design methods are described as in Chapters and 13. The transfer of the paths can be found functions 10,11,
transfer
function
C, =
where
aj(s + Pl)
and
C2 =
[C(s)
- C,(*)]
be 0), or the
a0,
of C(s)(pi
residue
can
from
toolbox inertia J
Appendix
14 can motor
8 is
be used.
rotates
a spacecraft radiometerantenna
antenna
whose
moment
of
is
the
constant Nm/A. The torque is k(U (the torque-to-current ratio) = ksQ. The angle 0 = [k(U- EB)/R]/(s2J). back electromotive force EB function transfer From the latter two equations, the voltage-to-angle
k = 0.7
applied
to
angular
velocity,
and U
motor
resistance
R =
2 fl.
EB)/R
The
where
the
1
k2/(RJ)]
13
s(s+
that
U
If
the the
RJ s[s+
loop
'
needs to be 1, and if the loop response should be C(s) driver transfer function
9.07)
in Example
n.p.
lag equals
the
as in
compensator
and
by
C =
l~
U l
Q
RJ
s +
s2~
k
code
^/W) s
for this
_ 0.077U+ 9.07) ~
The MATLAB
k =
transfer function's
numerator
and
denominator
is
del
be
a = k*k/(res*ja);
=
[1
0] ;
3. To use the
frequency
fb
crossover
in Example
1 as
replaced
a prototype
by
j/fflb
for
a control
system
must
75.4) the
in the denominator
transfer
functions the
ds of
loop
with
Chapter
4. Shaping the
Loop Response
wb
105
n = conv([ll
d = conv([l
format short e;
numerators
7.7 34
55 110 36],
[-1,10]);
0
=
75.4;
[ns, dsj
97
83
0],
[1 10]);
d, notch
Ip21p(n,
the
wb) transfer
and
with
the
and
denominators
of
two
functions of the
prefilter
nr
nr2
=
=
[nrs,
[nr2s, dr2s]
will
[11 0.81]; dr = [1 2 0.81]; drs] = Ip21p(nr, dr, wb) [1 0.5 1]; dr2 = [1 0.6 1];
=
Ip21p(nr2,
dr2,
wb)
The results
calculations
be
displayed
with single
the
precision (format
stored
the
will be
(Notice that
compensator and
multiplied
if we
retain
numbers
transform the
the plant,
new
with double precision. to the not to the entire loop but only function must be transfer compensator
by a>l.)
We
Example 4.
can
now
write an example of a design specification nominal transfer function prescribed hard saturation in the actuator: gain coefficient
modes. minimized. in the
2 sec.
should
for
a timePa,
with
8,
the
nominal
loop
not
exceed
0.1/co3 in order to
gain-stabilize uncertain
\342\200\242 The \342\200\242 With
flexible
of disturbances must be = kPn where 0.8 < it <1.2, rise time must be less than
under
overshoot/undershoot
for small-amplitude
5%;
step-commands must
for the
nominal
plant,
for 0.8
<k
<1.2,
under
10%;
50%. to large-amplitude
for 0.6 < k <1.4,under 20%; for 0.4 < it < 2.5, the overshoot must be under \342\200\242 These norms on the overshoot arealso applied 10 times). (up to overloading the actuator
\342\200\242 No
step-commands
step command may trigger self-oscillation, for 0.4 < k < 2.5. The specifications on the overshoot minimum performance for the worst guarantee case of maximum plant and also assure that most in variations, parameter systems
production
(with than
the the
plant
parameters
close to
the
nominal)
have
much
better
worst case. performance From Example 1 it is seen that these specifications can be met when the stability 10 dB. If smaller stability and are chosen, the sensitivity in the margins are 30\302\260 margins increases and the of in it cause variations of deviations frequency neighborhood % larger the transient from the nominal. response
response
proceed
next
with
step
A2 from bandwidth.
Section 4.2.1,
i.e., with
shaping
the loop
response
feedback
In many practical cases the disturbances' gain should also decrease with stabilized with a constant stability margin,
loop
amplitude
frequency. the
If, loop
with frequency, and the system is phaseto that gain response is similar further,
decreases
106
shown
LoopResponse
4.2 and to be
To
response
match a
must
responses.
response C) in Fig. 4,12(a). the constant-slope gain specified disturbance response, rejection modified. Fig. 4.12(a) gives several of feasibly reshaped examples
The
loop gain
same
responses
the
redrawn
in
Fig.
area
under them
over
the
frequency
interval
at frequencies
responses
/> 1
and
stability
margins
on the arcsin/scale have the Therefore, the phase response can be the same for all shown gain
4.12(b)
[0,1].
(recall
.25
.5
f,
log.
sc.
.125/.25
Fig. 4.12
Reshaped loopgain
can
responses
on (a)
the
scale
logarithmic
frequency
scale
and
Any
frequency
be chosen to
be
the
normalized
frequency/=
1 (or
co =
1). For
the
control system design it is commonly convenient to at the constant-slope which frequency response gain
use as the
normalized
frequency
is approximately
lOdB.
Example
Cassini
structural up
1. Propellantsloshing
tanks
with
in
spacecraft's
modes to
causes
dB
a possible sloshmode
i
gain magnitude
To 8dB
the
at
16
- reshaped
nominal
be, the
least loop
8 0
range
loop gain
f,
log.
sc.
nominal
loop
gain of
needs
the
to be
16 dB.
shows the
problem,
loss constant
the
gain
C.12)
Fig. 4.13 Reshaping by reshaping the Numerically, slope response. in feedback at lower frequenciescan be estimated of the area of the loop gain) when the (preservation
obtained
the
slosh modes
the
loop gain
response
scale, with
4.2.5
When
normalized
frequency
00= 1 at
the
upper
end of
slosh
mode
range.
Bode cutoff
the
band/
components
of
the
expected
disturbances
within 171
within
functional
the
functional
same amplitudes,
4.14. The Bode
the
loop
constant as shown
To
function find
in Fig.
this
response,
gain log
the must
be
function
Q(jf) defined
The
Chapter 4. Shaping
2(l-y)9(#)
has
the
Loop
Response
107
D.3)
asymptote
in with
the
high-frequency
the
in
slope
Fig.
2A-y)n
4.14(a).
dB/oct.
It is
It
replaces the
the picture
response
formulas)
Fig.
4.2,
as shown
gain
seen from
that
this loop
at/=
1 equals
dB
t-plane
T-plane
asymptotic
slope
-6n dB/oct1
(a)
(b)
cutoff,
(c)
diagram
Bodeoptimal
triangle
(a) Bode
Nyquist
on
L-plane,
(c)
the
diagram
shown 0.5 to
in Fig.
and
4.14(a), the
feedback
loop
octaveis that
In the
12A -y)dB/oct
from
the
bandwidth
product
of
(the extra
D.4)
1):
Ao=12(l-y)(log2/b+l).
common
case
of
30\302\260 stability
margin,
i.e.,
= 1/6,
A0 =
This
10(log2/b+l).
formula
D.5)
useful
simple
is quite
for
rapid
estimation
margins
of
the
available
feedback.
Example
2. The
by
required to be constant
/b is
limited
prescribedstability
over
are
30\302\260 and
lOdB,
the
the bandwidth
crossover
the
system
the
available
feedback is
60 dB.
4.2.6
Band-pass
systems
of systems, the frequency band suppression systems, for example in vibration viewed The band can be as centered at include dc. some feedback does not functional transfer function realizable the physically finite band-pass /center- Generally, frequency
In some
can be found
by
substituting
\342\200\242
D.6)
108
for
Chapter
s
function [2]. The loop response obtained with low-pass prototype transfer the low-pass Bode optimal cutoff is shown in Fig. 4.15. Notice that in for the Nyquist diagram tp avoid are shown: -180\302\260and Fig. 4.15(b), two critical points each of the points being a mapping of the T-plane point -1 onto the L-plane. 180\302\260,
in a from
D.6)
in,
dB
-180\302\260
/
\\A->
-a
^180\302\260 ^/
'/
,A
center
vf, log.sc.
I
\"-180\302\260 -A -^180\302\260
\\ (a)
(b)
Fig.
4.15
Band-pass
Bode
diagram
(a) and
Nyquist
diagram invariant
(b) of
the
bandwidth
of
the available
feedback is
equals
an
the
low-
is illustrated
Fig. 4.16,
and
it
the
bandwidth
of
prototype /0. (The bandwidths look equal because the scale frequency to a smaller relative bandwidth corresponds
of the three responses in the picture do not is logarithmic.) It is seen that a higher /center and steeper cutoff. slopes of the band-pass
Fig.4.16
bandwidth
Preservation
of operational
transform
Fig,
4,17
of the band-pass
relative
When
steepness
the
functional
bandwidth
only
is
fairly
more
the
than 2
available
octaves,
small.
the
of the
a small
effect on
feedback This
the
entire
low-frequency roll-off
is rather
4.2.7
As
Nyquist-stable systems
shown
with
mentioned
responses
system
Section 4.2.2, and as will be detailed tailored are in Figs, 4.2, 4.12, 4.16, a saturation link in the loop. If, however, the
in
in
4.17
Chapters
10 and
to guarantee
in
system is furnished
Chapters
an
extra dynamic
nonlinear
link
of special
design (described
10,11,
and 13),
Chapter 4. Shaping
the
the
Loop
109
loop
phase
lag, the
the
slope of the
Bode
diagram,
available feedbackcan
shown
be
increased
by using Nyquist-stable system loop response Fig. 4.18 instead line. shown the thin and x represent the of the phase-stabilizing Here, xx response by A At where > lower the system is and xx, amplitude stability margins. frequencies upper in The of this is the gain-stabilized. integral phase lag system larger than in the only as over the stable and a the feedback functional bandwidth is result, system, absolutely
in
larger. This
[9].
responsecan
be
generated
by pasting together
several elementary
responses
dB
T-plans
l-plane
degr
(a)
(c)
of a
Fig. 4.18
(thin
Comparison
Nyquist-stable
lines):
(a) Bode
with
an
diagrams
absolutely (not to
stable system
scale),
(c) Nyquist
on the which
L-plane
it steep
provides
is easier to implement (although of the response are the before the upper Bode step and the presence of two Bode slope of-6nidB/oct the of the lower step calculatedwith of the and width D.1), upper step from/g to/h the similarly derived formula
features
response Fig. 4.19(a) showsa simplified somewhat less feedback). The essential
steps,
with
0.6n,.
D.7)
dB degr
-6/T,
dB/oct
%;
-arg T
*.
n
j/
V 7\\ '9
1
\\
-X \302\246
\\ (a)
(a) Bode diagram
Fig.4.19
Simplified
Nyquist-stable
loop response:
and
(b) Nyquist
Chapter
4. Shaping
the Loop
is the
Response
cannot
larger
certain
4.20
is specified
will
the
features
available feedback. The phaselag, curve A(B) exemplified in of nonlinear links in the loop (nonlinear
boundary
compensators
be
discussed
in Chapters
10-13).
L-plane
flexible
mode
Fig. 4.20
specified
The
Nyquist
diagram
should
by the
properties of the
boundary
curve
nonlinear
compensator.
In Fig. 4.20, the Nyquist is shown with a loop on it caused by a flexible diagram mode of the plant. At frequencies of this mode, the phase stability margin is excessive. In accordance with the but the feedback, integral this reduces the achieved phase feedback deficitdue to die loop is rather small sincethe mode resonance is narrow and the excess in the integral of phase is small. 1 and Type 2 systems (recall Section3.7)are Nyquist-stable. The in Type stability such systems can be achieved In with and Bode the lower upper steps. practice, transition between the steep low-frequency area is most asymptote and the crossover often made gradual to simplify the compensator transfer thus reducing functions, somewhat the available at lower frequencies. feedback
limitations
dB
4.3.1
In frequency
first definitions
Feedback
bandwidth discuss
the
high-
the
30
N
A)
M f, log. sc.
B)
-3
of
ffl#y
control
engineers,
this
following
term in
have
any
of the
three
interpretations
indicated
Wig. 4.11:
A)
Feedback bandwidth
OdB.
definitions
The crossover
/b, i.e.,the
loop
gain
exceeding
In this
book, this
definition
Chapter4. Shaping
for feedback bandwidth
B)
is accepted.
I
the
Loop
Response
111
M\\=
\\J4l,
\302\273 -3
dB.
is
This frequency
typically
is
the
system
3dB
bandwidth.
The
frequency
from
1.3/b to
1.7/b.
C)
The
frequency
bandwidth
functional feedback.
retains
is
also
4.3.2
noise
Sensor
noise
the
at the
system output
shown
be
to
the
in Fig. 4.22. The sourceN representsthe sensor noise mean square amplitude of the noise). Since from the can be viewed as a tracking with output, the system system
the square
system
U,
In
shaping
the
loop
gain
Fig. 4.22
Sensornoise
effect
at system's
output
Larger leads to larger output noise, but smaller The output feedback bandwidth disturbances. of the mean square error caused by the noise can be found simulation by computer Another to do this is to find the noise way output power by output time-responses. of the frequency-domain (on a computer or even by graphical integration integration)
rejection.
noiseresponses.
Example
response
gain
has a
response
in Fig. 4.23. This loop gain 1. Consider the Bode diagram shown rather steep cutoff after fb to reduce the output noise effect, but shallower and smaller feedback at lower frequencies. The phase stability margin is on the response of IMI is small; therefore, the overshoot in the transient
response
is employed
when
the
plant
need for large feedback at lower frequencies, the should be reduced to reduce frequency is command feedforward commonly system,
output
is already fairly accurate and there is no and positive feedbacknear the crossover noise. In such a output effect of the sensor used to improve the closed-loop input-
response.
because of
noise increases shown in Fig. 4.24, the output This causes a crossover frequency and beyond. in the output noise since the contribution of the noise spectral increase substantial to the noise bandwidth. On the other to the mean square error is proportional density should be hand, this response provides better disturbance rejection.The loop response therefore shapedin each specific case differently to reduce the total error.
When
the loop
the
responseis steep
feedback
as
positive
at the
112
Chapter 4. Shaping
dB
the
Loop
Response
-6dB/oct M
f,
dB
sc.
f,
log.
log.
sc.
Fig. 4.23
Example
Shallow slope
response
attitude
2. Consider
the spacecraft
a gyro as a sensor. The is accurate system drift causes attitude error. The drift gyro
employing
except
is
the
which
uses
the
where
eliminated
feedback
for the star
a second
sensor,
which
reduces
response two
the
mean
in
output
using
the
domain or
Chapter
stars
maintain
the star tracker noise varies with are available in its field of view, the feedback the minimum of the error. Such an adaptive
8. Since
i.e., which The calculations can be the LQG method described in on whether time, depending bright need to be varied to path responses is illustrated in Chapter 9. system
from
the
sensors,
variable.
fc
\\
P \342\200\242+
\302\246
Gyroscope
4'
Star tracker
\302\253 \302\253
Fig. 4.25
Spacecraft
attitude
control
system
using two
sensors
input
sensor
the
noise
in Fig. 4.26, the from the pre-amplifier in link is below the saturation
compensator.
threshold,
the noise from the When the signal at the the noise effect at the input
is
CAP + l
NA
C
i
Fig. 4.26
Noisesourcein
a feedback
system
LoopResponse
113
logsc
Fig.
4.27
link
input
\\CAP\\\302\273
With
other
the
At
typical
responses
and T
in
1 at
lower
the
frequencies.
hand,
these
frequencies
higher
the noise
than the
not depend on
\\C\\
C. On the
frequencies
attained
at frequencies
noise.
within It
decreases
at
the
from Fig.
link
\\C\\,
4.27 that
\\CA\\
the
increase
of the
feedback from
T to
7\" is
at
the price
of increasing
C
to
\\CA\\, i.e., at
to
the
nonlinear
because
>
the
but
at the input the price of a biggernoise effect and The noise amplitude increase not only power to the frequency the noise power is proportional
bandwidth. When
result,
the
noise
the effective
control
gain
of the
actuator
the
cannot
transfer
of the
distortions
the
system
accuracy
decreases. Hence,
noise
effect
in
actuator
The
bandwidth
must be
optimal
while
bounded.This
shape
limiting
the available
feedback
the
band
by constraining
\\C\\.
of
the
Bode
diagram
which
by this
in
the noise
responses
provides
maximum feedback
with computer Bode steps.
simulation. Typically,the
are best
Example 1. In
to the same
an
existing
mean square noise increased 1.4 times (since to the square root of the noise
bandwidth is limited by the noise at the input better sensors become availablewith half the the the feedback bandwidth can be increased. Maintaining at the actuator bandwidth can be input, the feedback amplitude noise is proportional the mean square amplitude of the white
system,
the
amplifier
and
bandwidth).
shift
4.3.4
The
Non-minimum-phase
n.p.
lag in the
it,
should
be less than
very
1 rad
This
at
/c,
or else
to
the
compensate for
feedback
Bode
step would
have to be
long.
on
feasibility
which
can be
a phase
two
a substantial
Transport
delay,
causes
to frequency,
can be
large
particularly
Let us
consider
examples
of audio
systems
with
transport
114 Example 1.
difficult
Chapter 4. Shaping
the
Loop
Sincespeaker systems
available,
a microphone
quality it
are
expensive
are
the
to
equalize, responses
frequency
reflectionsfrom
be
inexpensive
microphones to maintain
are easily
acousticalfeedbackfrom
good sound
using a
over
to make
it
possible
15,000Hz
shown
in Fig.
4.28? Probably
suspect
nobody
the
does
this. There must be a good reason. We might time of the signal propagation about the feedback
that
the reason
is
out.
excessive
loop.
Let us
check it
noise
source
cd player
|^>{JJ
Of
Fig. 4.28
feedback
This
type system
33Om/sec, transport
and the
and
= 60kHz,
the
being 2 m,
the
allowable
phase limit.
be
frequency
fc = 15 x4
rad
can response
equalized
system
plant
times
(The
identification.)
Example
microphone
speaker
The the between the noise. The acousticsignal propagation nonminimum introduces loop. phase lag into the feedback microphone and the compensating lag, the distance between the microphone phase should be short. The assembly of the microphone and the speaker is commonly
is placed where
noise
rejection
is
diagrammed
the
4.29. The
it is
desired to keep
minimum.
cancels
mounted on a helmet. 30 dB of feedback is required up to 5 kHz, then frequency fA = 20 kHz. At When the pure delay is (l/40,000)/27i\302\273 this BB should not exceed 1 rad. Therefore, frequency, be and the microphone should sec and the distance between the 0.000008 speaker than 2.6 mm. shorter
Another
source
when
of
the
conversion
next
control
the
delay
in the
analog-to-digital
in
this
delay
will be analyzed
the
chapter.
4.3.5
The
Plant tolerances
plant
transmission
and the tolerances of the plant frequency, typically decreases with curves in the as illustrated function increase with limiting by frequency the and real transfer whose functions have 4.30. In zeros, plant poles only Fig. plants are are commonly smooth and monotonic. Suchresponses and their variations responses the minimum Since control. control and for position temperature rigid-body typical which is typically the for the worst be satisfied case, necessary stability margins must case of the largest plant gain, the feedback will be smaller in the case of the minimum gain
Chapter
gain.
4. Shaping the
response
Loop Response
reduce
115
minimum
plant
This
way the
plant
tolerances
the
guaranteed
feedback.
dB degr
plant
gain
nominal
nominal
f,
log.
sc.
of Boundaries
monotonic
Fig. 4.31
Plant
gain
frequency
plant
plants
transfer
functions
responses,
responses
with
monotonic
response, nominal
as shown plant.
in Fig.
Larger
stability
it is convenient to considersome nominal is then performed for 4.30. The feedback loop design deviations from tolerances the nominal larger plant
increased
margins
for
the
nominal
response,
and thereby
limit
the
nominal
available
feedback.
For computer design and simulation, the plant uncertainty is most often modeled as that is of the transfer function multiplicative uncertainty, multiplication loop by some error response (i.e., addition of some uncertainty to the gain and phase responses). The multiplicative in Example 1 in is typically either a constant as uncertainty Section 4.2.3 (see Fig.4.11) ora function of frequency, as those shown in Fig. 4.30. of the plant transfer In general, the dependence function on its varying parameters can be complicated. For some plants, parameter uncertainty causes deviations from the like those shown nominal plant responses which are neither symmetrical nor monotonic, in Fig. 4.31. Uncertainties are also sometimes modeled addition of some error by vector function (additive uncertainty). to the transfer response
dB
f,
log. sc.
Fig. 4.32
Plant
structural
resonance
Fig.
4.33
Plant structural
resonance
diagram
on a
Flexible
Bode diagram
i.e.,
plants
on an /.-planeNyquist
composed
plants,
of rigid plants
springs
vibration.
and
dampers,
Stiffness
have
and
structural
resonances
in
corresponding
modes of
zero
mass variations
flexible
change
the pole
and
frequencies
as
116 shown
transformers in
Chapter 4. Shaping
Fig.
the
Loop
Response systems
180\302\260 wide
4.32.
and
filters.
Similar responses are obtained in low-loss electrical The resonances typically produce loops nearly as shown in Fig. 4.33. Neither diagram multiplicative
such as
on the additive
nor
these effects.
function
It is
poles
4.3.6
Some
Lightly
damped
flexible
plants;
collocated and
non-collocatedcontrol
the poles and zeros of flexible functions are only lightly plants' transfer the damping coefficients as small as 1% and even 0.1%. The loop gain of the loops with such exhibit sharp peaks and notches as in the responses plants examples in Figs. 4.32 and 4.34. For the closed-loop to be stable, the modes should be gain- or phasesystem stabilized.The modes which need attention are the modes that are not already gainin the loop gain within the interval from -x to *i, stabilized, i.e., those resulting falling as the modes 2 and 3 shown in Fig. 4.34(a). Increasing the modal damping can reduce the value of the modal peak and notch and gain-stabilize the mode. Otherwise, the mode needs to be phase-stabilized as shown in Fig. 4.34(b).
of
damped,
with
T, dB
mode1
mode
dB
2
mode 1
f,
log. sc.
mode 3
mode 3
mode
mode4
(a)
(b)
Modes
Fig. 4.34
To
(b) on
gain
response
and
diagram
phase-stabilize
the
mode 3,
lag
a phase lag
so
might
be added
to
be
the
loop
mode at
critical
phase
of
-360\302\260,
points
-180\302\260and
-540\302\260as
loop
will
kept
loop
adding
benefit
modes of higher
of the flexible mode is large, the frequency A must be the mode feasible typical case gain-stabilized. is shown in Fig. 4.35. The Bodestep of a structural mode a steep roll-off at frequencies the step. Gain-stabilization of the mode allows beyond band. The average loop gain at the frequency of reduces the feedback in the functional + x)dB. Damping of the high-frequency the than mode must be no higher B01ogQ bandwidth. mode would allow increased feedback
If
the plant's
phase
uncertainty
and
Chapter
4. Shaping
117
T,
dB
f,
log.
sc.
-x Bode step
20logQ
Af,
Fig.
4.35
Gain-stabilization
mode
Fig.
4.36
of a
high-frequency
appendages
with
flexible
collocated with
actuator
model for translational in Fig. 4.36, motion shown Next, consider flexible plant with masses M\\, M2, ... connected with The actuator consisting of rigid bodies springs. with the actuator applies a force to the first body. The motion sensor Si is collocated and senses the motion of the first body, so the control is called collocated. If the sensors are velocity sensors, the transfer function from the actuator force to the sensor Si is, in fact, the plant driving point The driving (or mobility). impedance of a passive system is positive real (see Appendix 3), and its phase point impedance The to the interval function of a lossless plant has [-90\302\260, 90\302\260]. impedance belongs axis, and the imaginary purely poles and zeros which alternate along the frequency and -90\302\260. Flexible phase of the plant transfer function alternates between 90\302\260 plants are discussed in more detail in Chapter 7.
Example 1. The
Fig. mode's
were
4.35
of the control system having plant is non-collocated since the plant has a pole at a pole. pole and zero follow, i.e., a pole follows the control would be collocated. reversed,
collocated
the zero
loop
frequency,
If the
mode pole-zeroorder
Example2. A
with
force-to-velocity
translational
respectively
two flexible
damping
appendagesresonating
is
at
3.32
negligible
s2 +10
J2+5O
j j +11
The
j +54
in
masses
of the
appendages
this
example
in
the
mass
The gain
n = d =
w
of the main body which explains and phase responses are plotted
are approximately why the poles are rather Fig. 4.36 with
to the
zeros.
0
0
50]); d = conv(d,[1
11]);
0 54]);
1,
1000);
bode(n,d,w)
118
When
Chapter
4. Shaping
the Loop
Response
an extra integrator which changes the
or slope
the
sensor
differentiator respectively
should by
accelerometer, function
adds a zero-pole pair to the appendage lower-frequency modes) and 4.37. The modes do not destabilize the system since the phase between lag only decreases by 180\302\260 the added zero-pole pair. (However, the mode reduces the integral of phase, and therefore the average gain slope and the available feedback somewhat decrease.)
loop
When
response
Figs.
4.34
(two
50
I
\342\200\224_
I
-50
-1\342\200\224
^
0\302\260
\\\\
10
Frequency (rad/sec)
90
-90
10\"
10'
Frequency
(rad/sec) a collocated
Fig. 4.37
Bodediagram
with
for
two flexible
mechanical appendages
the
plant
Placing case
loop.
the
the
sensor
on any
control
non-collocated.
In this
into
spring
connecting
the
is collocated or nonthe sensor, on M\\, on Mi, or on be placed within in practice. The sensor must often encountered M3 in Fig. the power train someplace from the actuator to the tip of the tool or other object of control. When the sensor is placed closerto the actuator, i.e., on M\\, the feedback bandwidth can be widenedbut it is the position of the first body that is controlled. The will the error in the position of the the bodies introduce between tip. flexibility when the sensor is placed on the tool, i.e., on M%, or on the tip of the tool, on However, the the variable that needs to be controlled,but M3, then we are controlling exactly The results can be be in 4.35. best reduced as shown feedback bandwidth must Fig. sensors. these obtained by combining in Sections discussed The collocated and non-collocated control will be further 7.8.3 and 7.8.4. Thus, the sensor
The
whether
location defines
associated
the
control
collocated.
with
where
to place
Example 3. A
Appendix
Nyquist
diagram
Many
for a
flexible
flexible plant
modes
(Saturn
V controller)
this
is given
While
in
13, Fig.
A13.26.
are seen on
diagram.
the
LoopResponse
where to
(in
119
place
the
be safe this
was
gyros:
would
on about serious discussions were going being designed, closer to the location that needed to be better controlled be
case
would it
control
collocated
non-collocated),
or closer to
the
engines
where
the control
be easier to implement. the gyros closer to the engines. of the modes are gain-stabilized,
and would
the
It was
only
the large
the
upper
right
sector of
diagram
is phase-stabilized.
The plant parameter not reduce this phase lag by more frequency is 315\302\260. or else the stability margins will be violated. The control at these frequencies is than 45\302\260 controller with insufficiently cause analog. A digital high sampling frequency would make the in Section 5.10.7) and would be discussed large phase uncertainty (as will
phase lag
the
mode's
central
system unstable.
of the air in compressibility Example 4. In pneumatic systems, a series\"spring\" the actuator and the plant. between control non-collocated and reduces the available feedback bandwidth.
the
actuator creates
Example
5. In
this,
Example 1 of
Section4.2.5,the
of the
slosh
modes
and
Because of
shown
4.3.7
in
gain-stabilization
modes is required
Fig.
4.14.
Unstable plants
are quite V launch vehicle and some common. For example, the Saturn in the combustion chamber or a are aerodynamically unstable; a slug formed in the chamber rotation of a prolate spacecraft is can make a rocket unstable; a large-gain external feedback electronic amplifier without circuitry is often For the purposes of analysis and design,an unstable can be equivalently plant link P with as a combination of a stable forward internal feedback path path makes the plant unstable, as shown in Fig. 4.38(a).
Unstableplants
airplanes
turbulence unstable;
unstable. presented
Bint
that
L-plane
\342\200\224
(a) Fig.
(b)
(c)
4.38
(a)
Plant
with (c)
internal Nyquist
feedback,
in Fig. 4.38(a). Assume that the plant Example 1. Considerthe system diagrammed a low-pass transfer function is a double integrator with an internal feedback path having are shown in Fig. 4.38(b). The internal Bint ~ bl(s + a). The Bodediagrams loop phase at all frequencies, unstable as seen from the and the plant becomes lag exceeds 180\302\260 Nyquist diagram in Fig. 4.38(c).
Chapter
4. Shaping
the Loop
and
Response
designing
convenient
ways of
analyzing
such systems.
When the loop is disconnected at the input to the link P, the loop transfer function is T= (Bmt + BCA)P. After the desired frequency responsefor T is specified, the function for the compensator is C = {TIP - BiM)/(AB). The method required transfer is especiallyconvenient when BCA. Bm is small compared with The compensator can be directly designedfor the unstable plant. In this case, the the critical main-loop Nyquist diagram must encompass point in the
counterclockwise
direction,
as required
by
the
Nyquist-Bode
multiloop
criterion.
stability
stated
in examples
in
Section
2.9,
coupling
is
typically
negligible
in well
control systems where the number of the actuators is kept small. However,at some the coupling can be large, and create stability problems. frequencies uncertain, In mechanical structures with multi-dimensional control, the actuators are typically in directions so the that between the applied mutually orthogonal coupling feedback is the include small. However, corresponding loops relatively plant might some flexible attachment, like an antenna, a solar panel, or a magnetometer boom on a in Fig. 4.39. The attachment's flexiblemode can be excited by any spacecraft, as shown of the actuators and will provide (reaction wheels, thrusters), signals to all the sensors. This coupling may occur at any frequency within a certain frequency range defined by
uncertainty
designed
in the
mass
and
stiffness
of the
appendage.
Fig. 4.39
with a
Mechanical
plant
Fig. 4.40
Block attitude
flexible appendage
diagram control
coupled
Because
shown
in Fig.
controllers
The
criterion
stable
of the coupling, the block diagram for the coupled loops looks like that ratios for the 4.40. Here, K(s)is the coupling transfer function. The return the coupling into account are in x and taking y calculated without
Ty
7;= QAaP^and
and
CyAyPyBy.
designedwith
the
y-actuator
Then,
Ay
is switched
the multiloop system stability Bode-Nyquist is disabled and Tx is shaped so that the jc-loopis is kept on). The transfer on (while the ^-actuator
y-channel between Ay and Py is 1 + (TJFX)K2.The compensator Cy is this is not possible). then shaped properly to make the system stable (sometimes, The in the range of the flexible is the best choice since phasemode gain-stabilization
function
Chapter
4. Shaping
the Loop
Response
K2 =
121
a2M/ (s2 + 2?<o
+
stabilization
is
difficult
because
the
transfer
function
co/J
double complex poles with large associated phase uncertainty; here, a is some If gain-stabilization coefficient. cannot be used and the system needs to be phasein the x-loop shallower over the be modified to make the response stabilized, Cx should is associated of available feedback of The reduction range coupling. frequency with closure for the successive unavoidable. Bode diagrams stability loop analysis like those shown in Fig. 4.41. for the x- and y-loops, may look criterion,
contains dB
dB
N.
\\
y-loop
gain
when
f,
log. sc.
N.
/,
log. sc.
-x
attitude
control
loops:
y-loop
open,
x-loop closed
the
Couplingbetween
about
the
x-
and y-controllers
can be
without
alsocausedby
a
effects
(even appendage). spacecraft about jr-actuators producerotation the y-axis, and y-actuators produce rotation at frequencies close to the frequency .x-axis. The effect is only profound and design are similar to those in about the z-axis. The system analysis flexible mode coupling.
z-axis
An translational rotational
in a
flexible
the
of rotation
the
case
of
x-y
positioning
motions motion
flexibility,
table is
may
shown
in Fig.
4.42. The
become
coupled
and
via
to
the
due
to the
especially
rotation.
load asymmetry
at the
due
structural
structural When
frequency of
is large
mode the
of the number
of
the
actuators
(there
of
are many
elephant),
thousand
separate sensors.
muscles
should
in the
use
trunk
an
each control
and
loop
actuator
position
(or
Fig. 4.42
x-y
positioner
velocity)
force
makesthe
the
loop
transfer
variations,
plant.
output
mobility
of the
and damping
the
This
also
of the load and the plant the variations of the loop coupling that are caused by variations can then be used effectively. Designof a loop parameters. Loop decoupling algorithms 7. will be discussed in Chapter with prescribed actuator mobility
4.5
In
Shaping
MIMO
parallel
even in
when
and
parallel,
demonstrated as shown
frequency
especially
in Fig.
responses
actuators
stable
in Chapter
3, if two
then
4.43(a),
of
the
total
often connected in are was or sensors are employed. As m.p. links Wx and W2 are connected in parallel transfer function W\\ + W2 can become n.p. The
should
the parallel
channels
be
shaped
properly
for
the
combined
channel
to be
m.p.
122
Chapter
dB
s-plane
*c
a
(a)
*c
(b)
channels,
(c)
for
(b) Bode
diagrams
loci
Wi,
W2, and
W2 + Wi, and
for Wi + W2
Wj
and
W2 are the
than
connected
in
parallel
as shown
roll-off
and
f\\
the three
where
Fig.
4.43(b).
two
At frequency
in are W2
phase more
difference than
the
output
lines
show
channels
less
equal
to n,
and
Jt. The
of IWi
+ W2\\ obtained
by vector addition
of the
the
links'
outputs
When
the
phase
difference
between
the channels
at/i is it,
each other
zeros
transfer
root
the composite link transfer and therefore, function ij2itf\\. If the slope of W2 is gradually changed, the in Fig. 4.43(c) function cross the jto-axis as shown
and the
total
transfer
function
the
becomes
sum W\\ +
point
n.p.
-1.
does
not encompass
the
the
only
if the
m.p.,
one can
the
determine whether
diagram
the
Nyquist
critical
point
by examining
Bode
for Wi/W2.
tolerances
When
they
can
produce
large
functions are not negligible, of the parallel channel transfer variations in W\\ + W2. The sensitivities of the sum to the
components,
Wl+W2
dW,
W1+W2
Wt
and
dW2
become
unlimited
as
Wi/W-,
the ratio
should
hodograph
of
be required
the safety
sensitivities, margin
the around
LoopResponse
safety
123
as
point-1.
Analogous
to the
stability
margins,
as
the
phase
margin is defined
yjt,
amplitude safety margins, xmdxh A common two links is that one of the links practical reason for using parallel or better works at lower sensors) (actuators, frequencies, and the second link works them better at higher with Combining frequency selection filters generates frequencies. a link (actuator, or sensor) that is good overa wide frequency range. The composed link must be m.p. so that it can be included in the feedback transfer function loop. However, excessive selectivity of the filters can make the composite link n.p.
and the
with
shows the responses of the low-pass link W%, Wj and the high-pass link for the ratio W1/W2. It different selectivities. Fig. 4.44(b)showsthe Bode diagrams is seen that when the difference in the slope betweenW\\ and W2 responses increases, the Bode for the ratio steepens, the related lag increases, and the critical diagram phase point becomes enclosed by the related Nyquist diagram.
Fig. 4.44(a)
dB
f,
log.
sc.
//I
k \\Y\\
(a)
(b)
diagrams for (a)
Fig.4.44
In order to
Bode
Wz,
W,
and
(b) Wi/Wz
steep,
kind
the
Fig. 4.45(b).
are
sufficient while keeping the slope of Wi/W2 safety margins for W1/W2 can be shaped as in a Nyquist-stable diagram system, as in Fig. 4.45(a). Responses of this Then, W\\ and W2 can be as illustrated useful for systems with the main-vernier actuator arrangement particularly
preserve
Bode
described in
Section
2.7.
them the responses and then approximating with rational shaping functions is direct calculation of the channel transfer functions. Given the transfer function of the first link, the transfer function of the second link can be found as directly - W\\. This method works well if the links are precise (as when sensors' W2 = 1 readings are combined). If the links are imprecise (like actuators and different signal paths the and the is then the link parameter variations should through plant), high, selectivity be accounted for and sufficient introduced. safety margins
An alternative to
dB
wz
dB
sc.
f,
log.
sc.
-x
(a)
\\
0 -x
(b)
responses
f,
log.
for
for
W and
Wi
Wz and
shape
which
preserve
of Bode
/ W2
124
Example
LoopResponse
low-pass,
a
1
s +
a
function
=
the
is a high-pass,and
ratio
W2
s
is 90\302\260 at all
betweenthe
frequencies.
The
margin
is large,
but the
selectivity
is not
high.
the
Example 3. To improve
Butterworth low-pass
selectivity,
the first
link
is chosen
to be
a second-order
filter:
D.9)
The
second
link
transfer
function
is then
w2=i-wi
and
'
= 5E+4i)
s2+sj2
+ \\'
D.10)
the
ratio
1
W2
s(s
+
in still
Fig.
that
the
safety
margins
filters,
are less
than
in
the
higher-order
safety
margins
become
smaller. dB
dB
L-plane
20
20
10 0
///
10
7
180\302\260
-10
-20
90\302\260
-20
(a)
(b)
Nyquist
Fig. 4.46
(b) diagrams
for
W1,
W2
- W,
W1/W2
Chapter
4. Shaping
125
4.6 Problems
The
slope
at
the
crossover
frequency
40
Hz
would
is
in
(a)-6dB/oct
dB be
(b)-9dB/oct
if
remains the same down to this frequency? slope is constant at all frequencies?
2
is
the
feedback
at the
1.25 Hz
the
slope
if
What
the
Bode step and 4 if = 1/6, the asymptote passes the slope is -18dB/oct, x= 10dB, y -10dB level at 1 kHz, and the n.p. lag at 1 kHz is 0.5 rad; is -12dB/oct, the asymptote passes the OdB level at 5 kHz, slope (b) the asymptotic and the n.p. lag at 5 kHz is 1 rad; the asymptote passes the -1OdB is -12dB/oct, level at (c) the asymptotic slope 100 Hz, and the n.p. lag at 100 Hz is 0.5 rad; the -10dB level at slope is -24dB/oct, the asymptote (d) the asymptotic passes 50 kHz, and the n.p. lag at 100 kHz is 0.6 rad. What is the
(a)
length
of the
the
asymptotic
3 Sketch the
which
slope
phase lag
response
omitted,
and the
with
Nyquist
diagram
the Bode
-18dB/oct.
step is
Is the
of
system stable?
low-frequency
in
At
the
frequency
structural
resonance
4=120
and
Hz or
the
higher
there
is a
narrow
is
resonance peak in
completely
with
the
plant
gain response
plant
phase
at
this
frequency
sampling
the
be
therefore
gain-stabilized
at
the
frequency
of the
structural
resonance 4t.
Using that
the
fc
assuming
initial
slope
fa
-18dB/oct,
(which are
4.47,
of 4t
10dB
= 4fe
in
numbers
and
estimates),
similar
express
to that to:
4 as
shown
a function
Fig.
and Q.
with
Make a sketch of
(e) 50 dB.
loop gain
20 log Q equal
response
but
numbers 40 dB;
(a) 20
\\
peak value
dB
gain response
-12dB/oct
-10dB/oct
/st
frequency,
log. sc.
I xdB
20logO
-18dB/oct
Pig. 4.47 5
Feedback
Problem
bandwidth
limitation
due to
structural
resonance
The same
The
as
in
4, but
the resonance
the
uncertainty
range
starts
starts
at 170 Hz.
at 85
same
as in
Problem 4, but
resonance
uncertainty
range
Hz.
126 7 The
Chapter 4. Shaping
the
Loop
Response
is
crossoverfrequency
frequencies
over the
A, is 1 kHz, y= 1/6. The system up to &, with Bode optimal loop response. What bandwidth (a) [0,50], (b) [0,30], (c) [30,60]? is the
phase-stabilized
is the
8 (a) What
main
feedback in dB at 1.5 Hz if the crossover frequency is 300 Hz and the is -10 dB/oct? (b) What is the maximum available feedback in dB at 1.6 Hz when the feedback is kept constant at frequencies below 1.6Hz, the system is phase-stabilized with 30\302\260 stability and the crossover frequency is 300 Hz? margins,
slope
feedback
with
at 10 slope
the
andx = 10dB?
In
at the
beginning
Hz is 40 dB, and the feedbackshould at lower increase -10 dB/oct. What is the crossover What are the frequency? and the end of the Bode step if the step's length is 0.8 oct
10
stability
bandwidth 100 Hz, amplitude stability 10dB, phase margin no n.p. lag, the attenuation in the feedback loop is required to be large over 1.5 kHz where there might be flexible in the plant. Calculate what modes attenuation at 1.5 kHz is available in the loop response with a Bode step if the What is the dB/oct. dB/oct; (b)-18 asymptotic slope is chosen to be conclusion? to the shape of the weight in the function Explain the result by referring
a system
with feedback
and 30\302\260,
margin
(a)-12
Bode phase
11
gain
relation.
In a GaAs microwavefeedbackamplifier, of there are two gain stages, and the length the feedback loop is 1 mm. The speed of signal propagation is 150,000 km/sec.At is fid = 1 rad? Considering this frequency is the length of what as fQ, what frequency the Bode step? What is the available feedback over the bandwidth (a) 0 to 3 GHz, (b) 1.5 to 3 GHz, (c) 2 GHz, (d) 2 to 3 GHz?
Find
12
the
loop
frequency:
(hLrad/sec;
for the system with crossover transfer function and the prefilter (a) 0.2 Hz; (b) 6 Hz; (c) 2 kHz; (d) 6 kHz; (e) 2 kHz; (f) 6 MHz; (g) 2 MHz; in described Use the 1 rad/sec crossover prototype (I) 100rad/sec.
Section 4.2.3.
13 The actuator
and
(a) 4A0
(b)
s)(s +
(c)
(d)
- s)(s + 5)/[/A0+ s)(s + 10)]; + 6)/[s? A0 + s)(s + 11)]; (e) 2.72A0 - s)(s Find the that makes the loop compensator
0.6A0
example
()(
plant transfer
function AP
is:
)[(
)(
)];
transfer
function
the
same
as
in
the
studied
in
Section
4.2.3,
where
T(s) =
1 10C(s)\342\200\224z
s i
= \342\200\224r
Us3 +55s2+U0S+
^ z
36 83
1
x
-.s +
10
.
lO +
s2
s+
cutoff
10
with frequency
14
Determine
the
band-pass
the the
transform
from the low-pass optimal Hz; Hz; Hz; Hz; Hz; Hz.
range
to (a) [0,1] rad/sec to (b) [0,2] rad/sec to (c) [0,3] rad/sec to (d) [0,4] rad/sec to (e) [0,5] rad/sec (f) [0,1] rad/secto
bandwidth bandwidth the bandwidth the bandwidth the bandwidth the bandwidth
Chapter 4. Shaping 15
16
Draw
the
Loop
Response
127
Nyquist
for
diagram
Nyquist-stable with
A,
necessarily
to scale,
shape)
Initial
the
Fig.
4.19.
shown
analysis
engineerassumed (wrongly)
later,
configuration
larger
a low-order feedback
that
will
that
in the plant
hardware
in
configuration
will be larger in configuration A Therefore, he decided that configuration should be chosen. Devisea counterexample to prove that optimal shaping for the Bode diagram must be used for initial analysis as well. (Hint: Use a plant with a flexible
a better
controller
be
developed.
mode.)
17
the phase-gain chart in Fig. 3.42 (or the program from Appendix Using 5), calculate the phase response for a Nyquist-stable is: from 0 system whose loop gain response to 10 Hz, 60 dB; from 10 to 20 Hz, -50dB/oct; from 20 to 80 Hz, 10dB; from 80 to 320 Hz, -10 dB/oct; from 320 to 640 Hz, -10 dB; from 640 Hz, -18 dB/oct.
An
18
extra
management
level was
added to a four-level
the
management
system.
product
How
will
it
affect
the speed of
features
19 In a
(make a
accessing
estimate)?
market
and
adjusting
the
quantities
and
rough
the
like that shown in Fig. 4.19, 4 = 100 Hz, Nyquist-stable system with a response is and the 30\302\260, upper and lower gain stability margin stability margins are phase 10dB. Calculate the at the ends of the upper and lower Bode steps if the frequencies (b) -18 dB/oct, and the asymptotic slope slope at lower frequencies is (a) -12 dB/oct, is (a) -18 dB/oct, (b) -24 dB/oct.
The
20
the 0
dB levelat 200kHz,
and
the rest
is as
in
Problem
19,
21
unstable
some narrow 22
Two
can be equivalent^ represented as a stable plant with a feedback via the regular feedback loop the plant output to the plant input via path B\\ at most frequencies, but only by 20 dB larger over of the feedback system? range. How to approach the design frequency
plant
parallel
the
+
following
transfer
functions
respectively:
1000
(j: +
0 + 5H
(a)
8)
and
and
\"''
W2
0 +
40H +
+
100)
and
l-J
\"
3)(j +
10)O + 20)
(b)
1O)
6H
+ 10)
125)
0 + 50H +
=
W2
;0) =
1800
4H
+ 13H
+ 27)
+ 10)
0 +
(c)
25H + 4)
20H
0)
and
0
=
+ 50)
16)
W2
,w-
125
0 +15H
=
5H
(d)
Wx
0)
0 + 10H +
0 +
and
80H + 200)
link
W7
,0)
8000
0 + 6H +
20H
+ 40)
Is the
composite
minimum
W-\\{s) +
Wz(s) m.p.?
phase
23 Two
phase
links in
constant
gain coefficient k
to the
two
links.
128
find
Chapter 4. Shaping
the
the
Loop
Response
minimum
/c for the
total
transfer
function to
parallel
be m.p.?
to low-pass
24
25
Find that
transfer the
is 1. Is this
a high-passin
G(s)
realizable? two-port
the
Prove that if a transfer function of a linear passive of the signal source and the load, impedances other passive source and load impedances.
to selected is 5
is m.p.
function
with
some
passive
with
transfer
is m.p.
any
Answers
problems octaves
fc the below 40 Hz. Therefore,
1 (a) 1.25Hz
feedback
is 6
x 5 = 30 dB.
2 (a) The
length
3
frequency
= 1 kHz;
then, from D.2) fJk = 0.6x3 + 0.5 kHz. k = 0.435, and & = fJ2 = 0.22
= 2.3 (i.e.,the
step
(a) Since
= 1/6, the
to 50 Hz
the slope is
crossover.
from
=53dB. D.3+1)x10
(aI8log2(fc/fst)
= 4.3 oct down -10dB/oct. Thereare 3.32 logA000/50) Then, according to D.5), the available feedback is
= 20logi0aand/!)
/c/4>then
ft>=fst/2B0l09a)/18+2,
+
i.e.,
2]
f-st
fb
= 120; = 13.8881
Q = 10; fb =
fst/2*[20*loglO(Q)/18
The diagram
is shown
in Fig. 4.48.
r,
dB
40
\\-12
dB/oct
30
20
dB/Od c-10
10 0
2 25 .7 1.5
50 100
Hz,
.18.35
20 dB
-18
Fig. With
dB/oct
4.48
Loop response
Bode diagram
frequency
-10 dB/oct, disturbance rejection in dB at slope of the Bode diagram f </b/2 depends on the feedback bandwidth as 10log2(/b/*). % approximately At lower f < ftJ6, the slope can be increased to -12 dB/oct as shown by the frequencies to be employed dashed line. (In this case, a nonlinear dynamic compensator must assure global stability in Chapters as described 10 and 11.) When the tradeoff between the resonance frequency and the resonance discussing the available disturbance rejection at a meeting and quality (Q) of the object of control like with mechanical it is helpful for control engineers to have prepared plots designers, for two those shown in Fig. 4.49, exemplifying the available disturbance rejection structural resonance frequencies, fst = 50 Hz and 100 Hz. the
Chapter4. Shaping
m
the
Loop
Response
129
70
= 100Hz
ffl 70 \342\200\242o
60
= 50Hz L 81
\302\246\302\247
50
V\\VQ=30
\"
40
\\\\V/Q=
100
30
frequency,
Hz
i 20 1 10
dim
.751.5 3
\\55os
frequency \\ Hz \\ VV
.751.5
6 12
(b)
12
(a)
Fig. 4.49
Chapter
COMPENSATOR DESIGN
Compensators, functions.
in
software
or hardware,
are
commonly
built
having
rational
transfer
Bode diagram is piece-linear. The slope of the segments of the 6n dB/oct, n is an integer. The asymptotic where is used to Bode diagram for the compensator approximate the conceptual Bodediagram (which may include
An
asymptotic
diagram is
of
Bode diagramsis described. Lead and shown, and it is shown lag links are defined, their responses asymptotic to increase or reduce the slope of the compensatorBode how to use them diagram. A set of normalized plots is presented for a second-order low-pass functions having complex poles with different damping coefficients. The allocation of transfer function poles and zeros to cascaded links affects the recommendations are compensator dynamic range. This is demonstrated and
formulated
and
the the asymptotic Bode diagram immediately evident. an arbitrary constant-slope gain response
poles based
are
about
how
to
construct
a compensator
by
cascading
the
links of the
first-
second-order.
consisting of a parallel connectionof links can be made in such a that each of the links over a certain frequency range. This is a dominates convenient way to make steps on the loop response. A digital can be viewed as a modification of an analog one in which compensator the analog integrators are replaced by discrete trapezoidal integrators. The trapezoidal and is the conversions of the the z-transform introduced, integrator analyzed,
Compensators way
polynomial
coefficients
tabulated.
and it is shown that the Tustin The Laplace and Tustin transforms are compared, transform is adequately accurate for practice. A design sequence It is explained how is recommended for digital controllers. to block diagrams, equations, and computer code for the first- and second-order generate is presented with links. A complete compensator design example digital compensator linear and nonlinear the derivation of a prototype links, analog compensator including Tustin and computer code. transform z-functions, equations of compensator links, The effect of aliasing is described and the loop response is considered for the reduction of the aliasing errors with reduced penalty to the available feedback.
desired
frequency
response
of
the
compensator
has
chapters
frequency.
implementation,
in terms
In
of curves of
these
logarithmic
magnitude
imply
in
previous
logarithmic
general
a rational
curves
transcendental
the
of
approximation
to
ideal
transcendental
response
affects
s. For is almost of
the
always required.
The accuracy
of
the constant-slope
implementation
on the
directly
the value
available feedback. responses of the gain and phase Fig. ripples caused by the Chebyshev (equiripple) approximation of a desired constant-slope a rational transfer function. The function, by response higher the order of the rational the better can be the approximation be the ripples. and the smaller will Fig. 5.1(b) shows the relation between the ripple amplitudes of the gain and phase responses. In
130
Chapter
5. Compensator
Design
y)%,
131
average
gain
response
must be reducedcorrespondingly.
the
Fig.
5.1(c),
{.-plane
phase
lag
average
phase lag
f,
log scale
0
gain
12
ripple
3
amplitude,
dB
(a)
(b)
between diagram
(c)
the ripple (c) phase
Fig. 5.1
and phase Gain lag diagrams (a), relations amplitudes (b), and the ripples on the Nyquist
1. A 5\302\260 Example phase ripple amplitude, an increase in the average phase margin will therefore be reducedby response
force
E7180\302\260) For which
i.e.,
by
ripples,
will
average
slope
of
the
gain
x 12
dB/oct =
length
1/3 dB/oct.
of
the
typical
4 octaves
is marginally Fig.
seenin
Thus,
5.1(b),
the
will be 1.2dB is 0.75 dB as acceptable. The corresponding gain ripple amplitude and the peak-to-peak ripplesin the gain response are 1.5 dB.
the cut-off,
the loss
in
the
feedback
dB \302\26105
and
accuracy in the loop gain respc required the compensator need not be precise.
ypically
not better
better
than
the smaller the ripples and the order of the compensator, The higher feedback accuracy of the loop response. Typically, the designer can achieve of order 8 to 15. available using a compensator to 5 dB of the theoretically
the
within
the 2 dB
5.2
The
for
transfer
function
s~\302\260 is
s2,
expressed
as -20nlog<o, and the Bode plot line with the slope -20ndB/dec, is a straight = -6n dB/oct as shown in or -6.021n dB/oct
12 dB/oct
use of octaves is preferred do not provide the necessary resolution. The corresponding phase shift is
Fig.
f,
log.
sc.
constant the
-n90\302\260.
-6 dB/oct
Generally, of as
a rational
transfer
function
Laplace
variable s
can be expressed
Fig. 5.2
Constant-slope
Bode
diagrams
132
\302\253*\302\246\302\253
where
k is
a real
coefficientand
pairs.
the
zeros
sXi
and
the
poles
sPj
can
be real
replacing
or make
s by
complexconjugate
The
frequency
response is calculatedafter
-120 -
jco.
20
The
log
IL(/oo)l
= 20
log k + ?
+
20logl/to
2jt/2)/27Cfzl
sA\\
log
I;\302\251 jpjl.
gain
plots (Bode
zero are
diagrams) for
shown
transfer
functions
with
respectively
negative
the single
pole
real
20log
negative
201ogl(/a>
2rt/p)l
and
with
the
thin
single real
lines.
I2n/p/(;o) +
in Fig.
5.3(a),(b) by
3 dB
dB
dB
0
f,
f,
log. sc.
\\
/
1/4
\\
log. sc.
1/2
(a)
(b)
diagrams
(c)
pole
Fig.5.3
Bode
for a
asymptotic
(b), and
approximation
(c)
The responses can be approximated asymptotes, by their high- and low-frequency and by the thicker lines. These are two straight lines which have slopesOdB/oct of the to the frequency and which intersect at the corner frequency equal \302\2616dB/oct, or of the pole^. zero/j
shown
by
is replaced the expression (j(O + 2itf,) asymptotic gain, is whether real or imaginary. The error of such approximation at the corner, ldB one octave is 3dB in Fig. 5.3(c). The error shown away from the corner, and less than 0.1 dB at two octaves. axis. A convenient scale for the / or <o frequency The diagrams are drawn against is lOdB/cm, 1 oct/cm. the diagram drawing the piece-linear several real poles and zeros, asymptotic For a function having and bends at each by 6dB/oct. zero corner frequency Bode diagram bendswword at each pole frequency. downward, by -6dB/oct.
the
For
calculation
of the
its
larger
component,
Example 1,The
LQ<o)
asymptotic
Bode
diagram
+ 20)
for
the
function
can
be
drawn
as follows. First,
value
of the
frequency
is calculated
at
4 /00X2X2O = 4 = \342\200\224 = J,
joax
jcoxlO
j(Q
j
5.4.
i.e., the
gain
is 12dB
as
shown
in Fig.
133
of the asymptotic diagram at this frequency to the resulting slope corresponds of can is -6 the be drawn it dB/oct. Then, /'to, i.e., asymptotic diagram power by the at down at the the zeros, and \"bending\" response up poles, by 6dB/oct. The actual Bode diagram shown the asymptotic error by the thin line is obtained by adding
responses.
10
\302\246
16
32
transfer
Fig. 5.4
As
Asymptotic finding
Asymptotic
and
actual
Bode diagrams of a is
fairly
rational
function
seen
the
asymptotic
diagram
close
to
the actual
for
Bode diagram.
the
diagrams a rational
are
widely
design, and
purpose
a plot.
of
function
which
approximates
a gain
response defined by
is commonly verified by computer Bode shape of the actual diagrams For the of the numerator the coefficients and simulation. above example, polynomial known of the transfer function can be found from the roots denominator of the numerator and denominator with
The
rn
=
=
rd = [-0.2 -0.3
poly(rn);
[-0.5
-2 -20];
-10);
num
denum
and
the
Bode
be obtained with
bode(num,
denum)
the
or by using
command
f reqs.
5.3
As
Approximation
mentioned
in Chapter
response.
in shaping
a product of a rational function can be decomposed into and an functions of s: s~p = s~m s~q where p and q are real, m is an integer, and 0 < q < 1. The irrational function s~q can be approximated by a rational function whose poles and zeros are real and alternate the frequency axis as illustrated in Fig. 5.5(a). The Bode along in Fig. 5.5(b), The pole-zero spacings a to s~q is shown plot of a rational approximation and b result in an average slope of - 6b/(a + b) dB/oct, which should equal - q dB/oct.
constant-slope
irrational
134
Chapter
5. Compensator
Design
dB
s-plane
-K-O-
f, -*-O
H-O
Sr
log.
sc.
(a)
(b)
Alternating
Fig. 5.5
to s~m using
pole-zero
approximation
to s*
simple
the
gain
and phase
responses for a
an
rational
zero-pole
octave
apart:
T{s) =
E.1)
is nearly
The gain
-3dB/oct range.
the
slope
constant
frequency
at
over At the
a wide
20
gain
asymptotes,
45\302\260/2,in
corner frequencies, as transitions to the flat the phase lag is nearly with the Bode accordance
the -45\302\260
1
10 \302\246i
s i
10\"\"
10\"' Frequency
10\"
10\302\260
(rad/sec)
at the
phase
the
effects
-20 -40 10
Fig.
\\
\\
/
,.
1-\342\200\224_ 10\"
Example 2. A
example
approximation
was
extreme
following
is
by
the
10'
5.6
10\"
(rad/sec)
to
s~lB a
which
Frequency
generated
curve-fitting
program:
function
Gain and phase responsesof a with alternating real poles and zeros
+ 0.0005682^+0,000002178 + 2.234/ + L86b4 + 0.4276/ + 0.02954/ 0.4415/ ' E.2) C(s)= + 0.2007/ + 0.009201/ + 0.00010989s+0.0000001979 / + 2.462/ + 1.3037s4 Over
the
frequency
range
than
-2.007
This
dB/oct by less
high
0.05
deviates from the 0.01 to lOHz, the gain response remains within of the ideal while the 0.05\302\260 dB, phase
ideal
-30\302\260.
since the required accuracy for implementation dB or so. 0.5 is typically only systems compensators desired of can be used for approximation programs Curve-fitting computer out well. the this works most In however, Sometimes, cases, responses. compensator sensitive to the which too functions are transfer polynomial programs produce functions must be checked over by variations. coefficient Therefore, the transfer the software round-off errors and reflect the coefficients by increments which changing of the On the other hand, the tolerances of the hardware approximation implementation. of the poles and zeros as described in Sections 5.4-5.7, desired curve by the placement low-order links as described and of the compensator by cascading then implementation
accuracy
in
is rarely necessary
control
in
Section
5.6,
always results
in
a robust
design.
135
Lead
ideal
and
lag links
response
compensator 4. Computer
should be determined
from
by
subtracting
the
known
actuator/plant
Chapter
frequency response loop the iterative generation of frequency responsesmakes design of the and plant are compensator quick and effective. When linear models of the actuator can a trial compensator be carried out using in series with the available, the iteration
the
desired
response, as discussed in
actuator experience,
and plant,
purpose
until
the
will
desired
require
loop frequency
no more than blocks.
response is achieved.With
some
convergence
5 -10 iterations.
For the
of iterative
structural design, it
building
is best to regard the compensator as The simplest of these has the transfer
E.3)
2itfo
where function
frequencies of the
when
frequency
comes
the </z).
pole Fig.
first
the pole, respectively. This transfer the pole, i.e., the zero is at a lower function is called lag when the pole (fz<fp)- The transfer 5.7 shows asymptotic Bode diagrams and Bode diagrams for
zero
and
the
zero
precedes
functions.
t
0
f,
log.
sc.
(a)
\"N,
m-2
ca \"O
So
\\
N 10'
-6 10'
Frequency
20
10\"
10'
(rad/sec)
10'
10\"
0 X
V
Frequency (rad/sec)
/
a.
\\
? a.
10'
8-10
s
10\"
-20
y
10\"
10\"
10\"
10'
Frequency (rad/sec)
Frequency (rad/sec)
(c)
(d)
lag (b)
Fig. 5.7
Lead
(a)
and
Bode asymptotic
(c)
diagrams
lead
(s+0.7)/(s+1.4)
136
The larger the
frequencies,
Chapter
5. Compensator
Design
from the lower to the larger is the gain change the is lead (or larger phase phase lag). a lead link makes the loop gain Bode diagram locally shallower thus Adding the gain at low frequencies and locally the phase lag. reducing reducing Fig. 5.8 shows the use of a compensator to changethe slope -12 dB/oct of a double to the desired slope of-10 dB/oct with a single lead and with two leads. The integrator use of two lead links provides a closer approximation to the desired Bode diagram than could be achieved with just one lead link with a larger pole-zero separation.
pole-zeroseparation,
and the
the
higher
Tbefore
correction
lead (a)
Fig.
(b)
leadi
lead
5.8
Compensation
of a
doubleintegrator
with
(b) two
lead
links
thus increasing the loop gain Lag compensation steepens locallythe Bode diagram, at lower frequencies as shown in Fig. 5.9. As in the case of lead compensation, several are sometimes needed for better approximation accuracy. links lag
.Tdesired
Twith
gain,
dB
\\,
dB =
0.56a dec'degr
a lag
150\302\260
^
f,
aA
\\^
log. sc.
Fig. 5.9
Lag compensation
the
phase
integral
the
Before deciding to introduce further compensation one can use Bode's phase integral response, available in the feedback. improvement
desired
C.11)
-10
a system, the desired loop gain response is a straight line with slope which corresponds to constant 150\302\260 phase lag as shown in Fig. 5.10. The current gain response is somewhat shallower, and there is an excessive phase stability with the area a decade margin xdegr. The phase integral indicates that elimination of this will yield an additional 0.56a dB of feedback excess at lower frequencies. The trade of the excessive for can be made by margin gain phase larger low-frequency loop
Example 1. In
dB/oct
Chapter5. Compensator
5.5
Design
137
Complex
lower
the
poles
these steps need to be reasonablysharp. To implement sharp and are zeros diagram, complex poles required.Complexpolescan to compensate for the plant response, and to shape the loop gain over
Upper and
angles on
be
Bode
Bode
also
required
the
functional
frequency
gain
band.
and
The normalized
phase
lag frequency
complex
pole
pair
function
<\302\273\342\200\236
E.4)
s2
+Q
in
are presented
Fig.
5.11.
The magnitude
of the
function
E.4)
other
at the
is
first
? is
and
cancel each
the
the damping
coefficient.
lag, 1 yo.7
gain,
dB
10
-_
degr
/S
A^0.2
lag
180\302\260 \"
^^06^
1111
-10
90\302\260
: 1 0.6
I
-20
0.5
_-*-
Tl
1
\342\200\224 i i
iii
iii
0.25
0.5
4
a complex
5.11
Gain and
Bode
The
denominator
asymptotic
diagram
retaining
at
only
the
of E.4) at
co< oo0,and
the first
can
term
co >oo0.
E.4)
simple low-passfilter
third-order
be
obtained
by using
transfer
function
Example2. A
pole
link
low-pass
filter can
E.4). real
be obtained
The
by
cascading
the
a single-
and
higher
a link with
than
transfer
function
must be
used
of
the
peak of the
complex
the
to form
Bode
step
complex frequency of pole and ? should be chosen such that the the roll-off of the real pole. This methods will be
pole,
Example 3. The
difference
function
responses of functions
in Fig.
5.11 is a
E.4):
138
Chapter 5. Compensator
Design
This
function
of the
peak
damping.
IL& at the frequency equals to 1 at zero and infinite frequencies, and to ?\342\200\236 where s = j'oo0.When ^n < ^j, a notch response results.When t# > L&, a follows. The width of the notch the or on the chosen response peak depends Such have been used in the prefilter described in Section 4.2.3. notches resonance
the
elementary
the This
links of
link
the
compensator
are cascaded,
not
attention
should
be
paid not
to yet
junctions
so as
range.
is
the
of
links,
the
the compensator's impair the largest of which signals and the smallest is still substantially
to
dynamic
is
larger
noise
mean-square
implementation s +
amplitudes.
of the
1. Considerthe
transfer
function
s + 500
10
j+
E.5)
1000
of the two links. The asymptotic for Wi and Wi as a cascade connection gain responses are shown in Fig. 5.12(a). It is seen that the signals at lower frequencies are attenuated in the first link by 54 dB, and then amplified in the second link by 34 dB. This way of not the best since after the attenuation, the signal the compensator is certainly making the noise floor drops dangerously close to the noise level, and after the amplification
will
be
raised.
dB
34
dB
1000
-54
(a)
2*=
w.
f, log.
sc.
(b)
of two
Fig. 5.12
Assume
Gain
responses
transfer
frequencies is appliedto the input as shown at 1 Hz and at 1 kHz the signal levels Fig. as also that shown in Assume there is a disturbance source at differ, Fig. 5.13(a). 5|xV the junction in of the links. Such disturbances be caused noise or interference may by and in round-off errors At 1 the Hz, analog systems, by digital signal systems. amplitude is only 2 |xV so that the signal will be heavily corrupted with the noise.
with
in
various
between
the links,
Chapter5. Compensator
Noise
1mV
Design
139
.1mVat1Hz
1mVat1kHz
1mV
(a)
at 1kHz
Noise
(b)
1mV
1mVat1kHz
Fig. 5.13
It
Signal
levels
at link
same
junctions
transfer
for
the
responses
in Fig. 5.13
the
is
better
to implement
the
function
by cascading
following
links:
s+
.s
2 s + 500
1000
Fig.
E.6)
5.12(b).
+ 10,
The frequency responsesfor W3 and W4 are shown in have a much smaller dynamic range as indicated in Fig.
signal
5.13(b),
the
amplitude
@.2 mV
at
1 Hz)
remains
much larger
than
5|xV
any
links with excessive attenuation or gain at The general rule is to avoid creatine link to in the same the i.e.. poles and the zeros which are close to frequency, keep this the slope of the total Bode rule is followed, the link affects each other. When also simplifies iterative over a small range-which relatively frequency diagram adjustments
of the
frequency responses.
plant
integrator
Example 2. The
behave
is a
at
and
as a
not
single
less
must be
0.9rad/sec,
the
than
the
10 dB
loop
but
response
gain
must loop transfer function and gain stability margins frequency. phase 30\302\260. The crossover frequency must be not less than at frequency lOrad/sec and higher must not exceed
single
zero
integrator
Ms.
The
The
roll-off
be
-18
dB/oct
or steeper,
and
us
design
When
The
= 1 and C0b
of several
width
links.
the Bode
of
step D.2)
in Fig. 5.14 is composed of pieces shown with asymptotic Bode diagram -6 dB/oct, -12 dB/oct, 0 dB/oct, and -18 dB/oct. At lower frequencies, it makes - 6dB/oct. The at frequencies 0.15 to 2 rad/sec. the averageslopeis -lOdB/oct slope A pair of complex zeros at coc make the corner at the beginning of the Bode step. A real somewhat smaller pole at to = 2.8 and a pair of complex poles at a frequency than in Example 2 in Section <oc form a third-order low-pass filter (as explained 5.5) at the end of the Bode step and effect the desired -18 dB/oct. slope, asymptotic
140
dB 60 50 40 30 20
Chapter
5. Compensator
Design
.-lOdB/oct
10 0
2 i
.015
-10
-20
.25 .5
n
v\\^
..
16
n ..ic\\
.06
-30
poles
2 3
-18 dB/oct
Fig. 5.14
Damping
Asymptotic
Bode for
diagram
coefficient of
the for
0.5 is chosen
corner
the
complex
zeros
in
order
for the
gain
the
complex
resulting
seen in Fig. 5.11. Damping coefficient of effect of the real poles to compensate for the rounding
point as
transfer 2.8 s +
2.8. The
loop
function s2 +
is
T(s) =
The
2s-
2.8
four
s +2.4s
first-
compensator
of
must
or second-order
links. This
low, in
shows that
controllers.
example
of the
the order
function
of the
plant
transfer
function
is
the
order
compensator transfer
From the condition
be
reasonably
high
high-performance
that
at co
= %
= 1 the
asymptotic
loop
gain coefficient
k (Ixlxlx2.8x4xl)/(lxl.4x2.8x9xl)
the
= 1,
it was be
coefficient
\302\253 3.15.
By using
0 dB
the
Bode
diagram
After
to pass
close to the
2.8 *
1, k must
the
increased
multiplication
of the
polynomials
numerator
and denominator:
n =
4
=
conv([l
27.1040
0.42],[1
2 4]!
18.8160
11.2000
54.2080
d = conv(conv([l
d = 1.0000
the
6.6600
0.06],[1 1.4]), conv([l 2.8],[1 2.4 9 0])) 23.3960 48.5880 38.1125 2.1168 0
loop
transfer
function becomes
T(s) =
The
+ 18.8
+ s6 + 6.66s5
+ 48.6.S3
in
+ 381*2 + 2.12s
5.15(a).
loop
responses
are shown
Fig.
The Nyquist
diagram on the
L-plane
plotted
w
by
=
logspace(-l,
1);
[mag,
phase]
= bode(n,
d, w);
Chapter
5. Compensator
Design
141
plot(phase,20*loglO(mag),'r',
title('L-plane
set(gca,'XTick',[-270
in Fig.
-180, 0,'wo')
diagram')
Nyquist
grid is
shown
-240
-210
-180 -150
-120 -90]:
5.15(b).
L-plane
50 40
Nyquist
diagram
I
30
1\302\260
20
10\"
-50
10
10'
10 0
Frequency (rad/sec)
\302\246\302\247-180
-270
1
-240-210-180-150-120
\342\200\236
10
Frequency
10\"
10'
(rad/sec)
(a)
(b)
the
Fig. 5.15
Nyquist
diagram
(b)
It is recommended for it by changing students to play with this response, to modify the poles and zeros (or the coefficients of the polynomials) in order to get the feeling for the the zeros, and the polynomial of the response to the poles, coefficients. sensitivity For example, by increasing the complex pole damping coefficient the Nyquist diagram can be made more rounded; an n.p. lag can be added to the plant and the Bode step
made,
correspondingly,
wider;
by adding
complex poles or a notch, gain response at lower frequencies along the frequency axis by replacing 2),
and
the high-frequency asymptotic slope can be made steeper will also require lengthening which the step; the can be made steeper.The response can be shifted
s by as (as describedin Section the function by a constant. 4.2.3,
Example
along
the gain
axis,
by
multiplying
5.7
The shown
links in parallel as sum of the transfer of the elementary links Wj + W2 + W3. The poles of the compensator functions are just the The zeros of the of links. result from the the poles elementary compensator is 0 at that value of s at which interactions between the elementary links: the output the 0. sum of all the links' is outputs
may
be implemented
5.16. The
by
connecting
several
function
is equal
to
the
142
dB
Chapter5. Compensator
Design
\\^
n
1
f,
log. sc.
(a)
Fig. 5.16
(b)
Parallel
Parallel
connection
links'
signals'
(b) output
It is convenient to design the compensator such that each one of the parallel links the response over a certain This band, as shown in Fig. 5.17(a). frequency can be designed and adjusted one at a time. (This configuration provides way the links also for an option of placing separate nonlinear in the parallel paths, if required, as links 11 and 13.) At the frequency described in Chapters at which the link responses cross, addition of the links' transfer can be found by vector (i.e., at/12,/23, etc.,) the output on functions. the the difference between signals of frequencyDepending phase output the summed be adjacent channels, signal larger or smaller than the amplitude may of the amplitude components. a convenient Parallellinksprovide way of implementing Bode steps.
dominates
Example1.In
the
system
shown
in
Fig.
5.18(a),
the plant
is
an
integrator
Us. The
co
-v. 0
-i
Ss \342\200\242\342\200\242
-50 10'
10\"
10'
Frequency (rad/sec)
(a)
'-180
\342\200\224
\342\200\224--
\\ -270
10
Frequency
10
(rad/sec)
10
(b)
Fig. 5.18
and
(b) the
link
Bode diagram
- 4/(s2+ 4s) and the lowthe resonance is at four
pass
is the parallel connection of the The compensator filter C2= 5/(s2+ 2As+l6) with ? = 0.3. In the
C\\
filter,
Chapter
times
5. Compensator
Design
gain
143
is -lO.ldB.
the
crossover
frequency,
and
the
low-frequency
The loop
response
T(s)=
is
9s2
+29.6^
+
+ 64
+ 64s2
25.6.S3
in Fig. 5.18(b). It is shown lag at lower frequencies is too or in the common path.
the
Bode
This
step is well implemented, but the phase can be remedied with lead links placed in C\\
5.8
The
Simulation of a
PID
PID controller
function
of three parallel branches: Us,P, and Ds. The coefficients of the controller. A saturation link is commonly of the /-channel to improve the controller in the nonlinear performance will of operation, for large-level signals (this issue be considered in mode 10a This controller does not Bode is in not 13). implement Chapters step, optimal is most applications, but simple and as such, quite popular. with a flexible mode. We will consider an example with a double integrator plant is The The system block shown in 5.19. includes two CPI masses, Fig. plant diagram device viscous and CP2, a spring, and a dashpot friction). (a providing
controller
consists
the
transfer
Compensator
Fig. 5.19
and
Block
diagram
integrator
for a
a double
can
plant
The
and
simulation
be
transfer
performed
function
in
SIMULINK,
should
MATLAB is used,the
SPICE
for the
be first
allow
for
blockdiagrams
Example
derivation to be skipped (using the transfer function in Section ladder network analysis is described 7.6.1).
SIMULINK
1. In this example, we will use SPICE. In spite of a somewhat longer has SPICE to draw an equivalent schematic diagram, and the file using necessity input certain advantages: there is no need to generate a mathematical descriptionof the plant to voltage, electromechanical if we use the common analogies (force to current, velocity of the to an inductor with the inductance equal to the inverse mass to capacitor, spring equal to the spring stiffness coefficient, and the dashpot to a resistor with the resistance in detail in Section 7.1.1). is explained of the damping coefficient; the analogy inverse 13 in Fig. 5.20. The current to node is shown for the simulation The schematicdiagram the is calculated at node from 2) plant represents the force F. The position x (voltage (voltage at node 13)by integration. velocity
144
Chapter
5. Compensator
Design
Fig.5.20SPICE
The
output
model
for the
system
shown
in Fig.
5.19
in the compensator the paths pass through and the voltage on the resistor the sum of the summing resistor RSUM, represents of the parallel paths. The integrators are imitated outputs by ideal controlled current sources links loaded into capacitors. Saturation are implemented using opposite-biased diodesshunting a resistive load. currents 1 ?2
of the
three parallel
This diagram representsa simple of simulating the performance of the block way in in and it 5.19 does not describe the of an analog SPICE, diagram Fig. implementation will be in considered the next compensator implementation (compensator chapter). below. Included in the file but not shown on the The SPICE input file is shown 13 to resistors nodes 1, 2, 8, and picture are the high-resistance leakage connecting SPICE. as ground, required by
*** ES
PID
example 12 1
1MEG
Figs.
RSRl
RSP2
***
2
5
; input signal
leakage
summer
resistor
0 0 0 6 5 0
1MEG
leakage
resistor
GSAT
3 0.001
; saturation
RSAT
Dl
DIODE
DIODE
IK
; threshold
in I-path
=
@.7+VT1)*GI1/GSAT
D2
7
6 0 8 9
.MODEL DIODE
VTl
VT2
IV
7 IV
* **
Gil
0 0 5 1
CI2
0 0 8
RSP8
*
8 9
10
2
; I-path
,-
; integral coefficient
leakage
1MEG
resistor
**
GP
***
0 0
0
proportional
coefficient
GDI LD GD2
0 3 3
4 0 1
; differential
coefficient
** *
***
0 4 1
RS
summing
resistor
Chapter
GAl
5. Compensator
;
Design
coefficient
145
***
10
9 0
actuator
gain
RSATA
10 0 IK
12 0
D3
10 11 DIODE
10 12
; saturation
in actuator
D4
DIODE
IV
VT3
11 0
VT4
GA2
IV
13 0 0
10 1
***
force source
mass
CP1
13 0 5
RSP13
13
13
2
of
the
main
1MEG
LP2
leakage
mass
14
0.1
13
CP2
RP
12 0 0.5
0
14 15 0.02
0
resistor
body-
mode
GINT
CINT * **
2 0
V10
1
is
1
to
V2
***
force,
1
V13 is
velocity,
use
are
generate
position
frequency
position
responses
is
VTBST 1 0
AC
only
tested
when
when
** Pulse
*
.AC
DEC 20
10 0.1
frequency
responses
tested
delay
rise
fall
width
VPULSE
.TRAN
10V
;
OS
when
OS
transient transient
OS
500
responses responses
period)
500
.PROBE
.END Since
; when ; or
of the
tested tested
a system can be simulated using free of up to 25 nodes and available or PSPICE\302\256 from and Microsim. (In SPICE, the summers charge from Intusoft, can also be specified by algebraic of nonlinearities in most versions expressions; can t he transfer functions be their and also SPICE, zeros.) specifiedby poles
the
number
nodes is
presently
only
this
student
version of
SPICE which
allows
To plot the
closed-loop
response,
plot vdb
the
B),
ESUM
vp B).
second
To
plot
the
loop
response,
response,
connect
disable
input
vtest
to 0
and
then
plot
enable
vdbB),vpB).
To plot
vpulse
transient
with an
asterisk lines
and .AC
abscissa
and
and .tran.
To plot
linear
student and Running
the
Nyquist
diagram
with logarithmic
scales, changethe
0B
scale
to
make the
it vp
B).
is recommended
exercise. (a)
as a
phase
frequency
stability
response
margins
so that
can be the
f, log.
responses
the
sc.
(b) closed-loopfrequency
of the linear
links
(as
difference
between
different
signal levels and phases), input closed loop responsefor transient (c) thresholds. coefficients P, I, D and saturation be The loop gain response should
and output
similar
to
Fig. 5.21
Loop
gain
response
that
shown
in Fig.
5.21.
controllers
loop
filters
gain
low-pass structural
146
resonance
gain
stabilization
over
the frequency
Example2. A
in path
triple-pole
filter (two complex poles and one real) with the low-pass 4 times larger than the crossover frequency, is placed
plant.
of a
single
integrator
The
the
coefficient
loop
D is chosensuch
that
with
only this
P
it
the compensator
connected,
gain at lower
frequencies is -jedB.The
is where is chosen such that with only this path on, the crossover frequency must such that with only this path on, the loop gain be. The integral term can be chosen at the crossover has the high-frequency frequency is -jedB. The resulting response
coefficient
asymptotic
slope
with
the response
-18 dB/oct, and the lower-frequencies loop gain is lower than the crisp Bode step by about 5 dB. Bode diagrams and making MATLAB simulation asymptotic
student
that
of
is left
as
exercise.
Analog
many
and
digital
controllers
factors between an analog and a digital three system, may affect the choice are considerations and b andwidth, accuracy, important price. be remembered of When considering accuracy, it should that only the accuracies link the The the prefilter, summer, and feedback affect accuracy. path directly output and also of command feedforward links is much accuracy required of the compensator with less accurate elements. lower, so generally these can be implemented can be made very accurate and stable in time. For example, the Analog circuitry reference inside analog voltage source, resistors, and chopper-stabilized amplifiers are accurate to 7 or 8 digits. The dynamic of a voltmeters bench-type digital range to 23 bits. common op-ampis ljiV to 10 V. This dynamic range is equivalent In digital systems, the accuracyand the dynamic limited range are frequently by the A/D converter which is, typically, 12 to 23 bits. An dynamic range of the employed additional drawback of digital controllers is that the sample rate (typically, principal up to 1 MHz) and computational delay limit the bandwidth and the available feedback.
Because of
this,
feedback
loops with/b
be
the and
analog.
prices ease
Other considerations
A/D issue
are:
type
of a of
microcontroller
in
being
For
the great
majority that
of it
can be
determined
designed such
either type
of controller,analog
the
digital,
two
well,
and
and
choice
between
the
is
fabrication.
5.10
Digital
compensator
design
integrator
explained
in
Section
5.6,
the
for the
purpose of reducing
into
frequency
is
to break
compensator
several
reduce
the
dynamic range, required cascaded links, each link For a similar reason, regions.
signal
the
in digital
processing
(DSP)
to
and
as a
having
functions,
each such
Chapter5. Compensator
The second-order
p2s
transfer
Design
147
function
+pls
r
E.7)
using the
Ms
or
biquad,
can be
l/s
1
implemented with
analog
integrators
feedback
1/S
block
shown in Fig. 5.22 diagram of the (verification of the correspondence equation to the block diagram is left as a student
4 '
Fig.
Po
5.22
exercise).
Feedback
biquad
A similar
for
digital
operator,
Discrete
block diagram can be used of the biquad implementation must be implemented only the integration
trapezoidal
time
of a
implementation
function
transfer
in
discrete
steps
performed
signal
at
u(t)
sampling instants.
is sampled at
intervals
in Fig.
The
5.23. The
The
input
analog
output
v(f) represents
area which
interval
approximates
from the
sampling #n -1 to
integral
the
of
the
input.
increment
sampling
#n is
\302\246Ts.
E.8)
(n-3)Ts
(n-2)Ts
(n-1)T8
nTs
p\\__ pi
k Ts/2
i k 1/Z 1
(n-3)Ts (n-2)T
Fig. 5.23
Next, let
ZVn-l
ZHn_i
Trapezoidal
digital
integration z signify
multiplication
by
one
sample
period so
that
= Vn,
= Mn.
With
this symbolism,
as
148
Chapter
5. Compensator
Design
zv
transfer
r
function
and
the
of the
is
E10)
t\"T=Ft-
This
formula
is presented
as a
flowchart
in Fig.
5.24. Operator
z\021
can
be implemented
a sampledvalue and recalling it after the sampling time Ts, The biquad E.7) can be implemented by replacing digitally integrators l/s in the in Fig. 5.22 by digital flowchart An but flowchart can be integrators. simpler equivalent obtained by substituting into to and the E.10) E.7) replace l/s, resulting simplifying of z as a ratio of two The second-order expression to obtain a function polynomials. flowchart like the block in looks 5.22 but with different resulting Fig. diagram coefficients and with 1/z replacing l/s.
by storing
Next, three
\342\200\242 As
important
comments
the
need signal
to be
made.
seen
in Fig.
by
5.23,
discrete
input
is calculated
analog interval.
integration
of sampling value averaged over the interval while only at the end of the sampling interval, value in the middle of the sampling average
with
analog
integration,
digital
integration
delays
\342\200\242 While nonminimum
signal
by Ts/2,
feedback system is being designed,the delay Ts/2 can be treated as 4.2.2 and 4.3.4, this lag should phase lag. As mentioned in Sections not exceed 1 rad at the crossover Therefore, the sampling frequency frequency. \302\253 = such at least 6 times a high sampling should be 2ji/1 larger than/b. With /s 1/Ts
a digital
is quite accurate. integration frequency, trapezoidal 2 it needs at least to identify samplesper period is only feasible for sinusoidal signals with processing Nyquist frequencyf^l.
\342\200\242 Since
a sinusoid,
frequencies
digital
signal
less
than the
transforms
get an
additional
insight
into
the problem,
transform.
we
might
duplicate
the
results
by
of
the
previous
section
using the
Laplace
Since
1/z signifies
a delay
we T\302\247,
can
view 1/z as
the Laplacetransform
/s
of the
delay which
is
E.11)
z = exp\342\200\224\342\200\242
From here,
s=fslnz.
Function
E.12)
E.11) by in the
2ji/s of the left-hand plane of s, bounded maps the strip of width lines in Fig. 5.25(b), onto the unit radius disk of the z-plane shown of the s-plane maps onto the point A,0) of the z-plane, and Fig. 5.25(a). The origin onto the and the of (-1,0) /n/s, point z-plane. points -jnfs
the
dash-dotted
The Nyquist
frequencies
\302\261 mfs/2
of the
in \302\261j
the z-plane.
149
'\302\246\302\246 M Laplace
Tustin
s-plane
s-plane
jfsn/2
z-plane
-1
jiT
0^1
-J
\342\200\2240
-fsn/2
-1.274
1
I .
(a)
(b)
of (a) (c) Tustin
Fig. 5.25
Near
Mapping
and
the
with
s = fe
In z
origin,
Tustin
an exponent
\302\273
can be approximated
-x).
by a
bilinear
this
function,
i.e.,
when*
is small,
the
expBx)
+x)l{\\
In applications to
DSP,
approximation
is
known as
transform.
z-l
z+l
E.13)
i.e.,
E.14)
From
E.13),
the expression
for
the
integrator
l/s
is
s
This
l-z\021 2
is
that the Tustin transform uses E.10) signifying in transform shown trapezoidalintegration. Fig. 5.25(c) maps the entire left of s in as onto the unit radius disk the shown in half-plane Fig. 5.25(a). z-plane In practical control systems /b<0.1/s for the reasons cited in the ends of Sections and at all frequencies belowfi, the design uses only a 5.10.6. Therefore, in Fig. 5.25(a). Within this small part of the first quadrant of the mapping part of the the transform is of Tustin accurate. At the Bode frequencies step, from quadrant, quite of the Tustin transform, still remains decreased, 2/b to 4/b, the accuracy although of the loop gain response over this accuracy implementation adequate since the required expression
the
same as
Tustin
The
5.10.1
frequency range
also decreases.
150
Chapter
5. Compensator
Design
In fact, in application between to compensator design, there is not much difference the Laplace and Tustin The Tustin transform is and either one can be used. transforms, used most frequently. The Tustin transform at transform can be matched to the Laplace a specified frequency by pre-warping. of using The advantages are, pre-warping and the method will not discussedhere. be however, insignificant It is seen s and f<; are similarly from E.14) that z remains scaled up the same when or down; for example,when/s is expressed in krad/sec. in kHz, s must be expressed
For z-transform
the
equations,
the following
evident propertiesof
of z
the
multiplying
of s for s = 0, is equal to the transfer function transform function of s for s = \302\273, is equal to the Tustin a function of s by a constant is equivalent to multiplying
mapping
function
by the same constant; \342\200\242 the z-transform can be also found by s onto the z-plane, and then appropriately
the poles and zeros of the function the gain coefficient. scaling
of
Example 1. The
Tustin
transform
of the
lead
s + 10
with
sampling
Table 5.1 in
function
Section
s with expression 100 Hz can be found by substituting frequency for the 5.10.4 gives algebraic expressions the coefficients m =
E.13).
of the
of z.
Numerically,
210, a,
= 0.9762, ao
= -0.9286,
and bo =
-0.9048. The
function
ofzis
0.9762-0.9286/z
1.0 -0.9048/
z
same
Example2.The
n = [1
problem
is solved
with
MATLAB
by
d = [1 10];
5];
fs
100;
[nd,dd]
dd
= bilinear(n,d,fs)
% sampling
frequency
in Hz
nd = 0.9762
=
-0.9286
-0.9048
transform
1.0000
example
properties
values of the
is also
is also
With
previous
following. of s is 0.5;
for z = 1,the
transform
transform
0.5.
1.
transform
function
of s
The zero of the function E.14), the zero and the pole
pole
is -10.
Tustin
of the
of
z are
2A+s __JI
2fs-s
200-5 _
200+5
095122
Chapter 5. Compensator
\342\200\224
Design
151
2f-+s
2fs-s
200-10
200 +
10
= 0.904762.
Due to the finite accuracy of the the calculated values of the pole and calculations, the zero differ somewhat from the exact values. The errors caused by the calculation errors and by the fact that the Tustin transform is only an approximation to the Laplace do not matter much for the digital in the forward functions of the transform, path feedback loop. However,the error might not be acceptable for the links in the feedback or in the prefilter. In this is to use instead the command case, a good option path
feedforward.
5.10.3
Design sequence
the
Digital controlsystemscan
\342\200\242 Given
be designed as follows: feedback bandwidth required fb, the sampling frequency /s is chosen; > > and for better /s 10/b, commonly, performance, /s 50/b. \342\200\242 of the optimal response, a rational transfer function of the analog By approximation into second-order rational and broken appropriately compensator is determined functions (as described in Section 5.5). \342\200\242 For simulation and tuning in analog SIMULINK, or SPICE can form, MATLAB, be used. The sampling delay 7V2 is imitated by introducing in the loop an all-pass a pole at frequency /$/3. with by placing pair (s -fs)/(s +/s) \302\260r pole-zero \342\200\242 of z which correspond to the secondThe Tustin transform is used to find functions order functions of s. \342\200\242 The is simulated using a digital control software package (for example, system
or directly SIMULINK),
functions
the
in C
or
in
another
\342\200\242 The
of z
and
language.
or simulated
gain
and
on
a computer
(including
\342\200\242 The
nonlinearities).
stability
margins
are verified by
self-oscillation
increasing
loop
phase
lag up
starts.
Block diagrams,
of z
functions
can be
code.
The block
by
computer are
shown
in Fig.
5.26. Theseblockdiagrams
forward
1/z
IT
Mz
KpV
1/z
a0
(b)
for (a)
diagrams
the
first-order
link,
(b) the
second-order
link
152
Chapter
5. Compensator function
Design
block
the
transfer
for
the
diagram
(a) is
found
to be
2-r-
or
a'Z
a\302\260
E.15)
and for
(b),
a2+alz~X+aoz~2
\021
or
atz
E.16)
+boz~2
b-,
can
be obtained
function
by substituting
of s
E.13)
into
the
expressions
for
functions
of s.
For the
P\\s +
Po
the coefficients
Table
which
is bilinear,
are given
for
ao
in Table
5.1, where m =
function
2/s + q0.
5.1
Coefficients
bilinear
of z
ax
b0
(Pi2/a + Pa)lm
(-PiZfs
+po)lm
(.Q0-2fs)/m
For the
biquad
of s
p2s2 + pxs
2
+ p0
are given
the
coefficients
for the
biquad
of z
in
Table
5.2. of z
Table 5.2
Coefficientsfor
a\\
biquad
Dfs2P2+2/sPi
bx
+ po)/n
(-8fslP2+2Po)/n
Ws2P2-2fsp1
+ p0)/n
bo
(-$fs2
As
calculated
+ 2qo)/n
Dfs2-2/s
<7i+\302\253\342\200\236)/\302\253
4/sZ+<7i2/s + <7o
function
abeady
the
from
by
den
of
the
rational
given
numerator
[numd,
where digital
dend]
= bilinear(num, frequency. To
with
den, fs)
verify
f s filters
the
transform,
frequency
responses of
the
MATLAB
the
command
following
f reqz.
C code
For the
with
link
ao,
a\\, b0 renamed
AO
equations can
be used,
**
y =
r
r;
BO
using
first
updating
previous
component
r
= x
r;
/*
*/
Chapter
5. Compensator
Design
**
153
y +=
Al
r;
/*
**
adding
the
*/
E.17)
each cycle. The cycle starts with the new sample The variables are recalculated r that is stored in the previous value of the input. First the value of the variable cycle is used, then this variable is updated. The cycle repeats/stimes per second, controlled by are commonly initialized to zeros, and they must be either some loop. The variables static or global to keep the values stored to be used in the next cycle. For
y =
the AO
second-order * w
link,
Al
similarly,
the
following
code
can be
used:
rl
w
= x
- BO * r;
* w
r;
Bl
r;
/* using
/*
/* /*
updating
*/
*/ to
= rl;
+= A2
/* adding component
updating updating
r */
the
E.18)
output
*/
small
the
Mars
this delay,
i.e.,
includes
and has been done initially in the ^-domain. The controller is nonlinear, design + 1 and of two cascaded linear links, A saturation link in front C\\ C2. C\\ placed the makes the transfer function of the compensator on the signal level. When dependent level is below the saturation is the compensator transfer function threshold, signal is high, the compensator the signal transfer function is reduced to C2. (Cj + 1)C2.When The of such nonlinear dynamic compensators (NDCs) will be further operation described in Chapters 10 and 13. For small-signal function is amplitudes, the compensator
C=(C,
where
+ 1)C2
a single-pole
C\\ is
low-pass filter,
d
and
= 2.5/@.0833 a lead
link,
C2 is
154
Chapter
5. Compensator responses
Design
compensators
The asymptotic
gain
frequency
of the
are shown
in
Fig.
5.27.
dB
dB
30
20
10
n v/
x1
\\
.
f,
log.
sc.
50 40 30 20
1A 1\\J f,
-10
0.01
o!i
iS/\"
log,
sc.
-20
-10
O01
\\X
'1
Asymptotic
diagrams
Fig.5.28 Open-loop
of compensators
asymptotic
Bode
curve)
The lead
phase
C2 provides
phase advance
extra
and
partially
the following
and
lags: the
0.05 sec of
of robustness), rate analog loop. The path C\\ is parallel to the path with unity gain. At zero frequency, Ci becomes 30. The asymptotic case of in Fig. 5.28 for the loop gain frequency responses are shown both C\\ and Ct operational, and for the case of C\\ - 0 (lower curve).The Bode step is very for large time delay of up to 7 RTI, and to to compensate long because of the necessity
lag of up to
the
7 RTI (for
the delay
closed
reduce or eliminate
system MATLAB. The
frequency obtain
the
with
overshoot.
these
The
phase delay
After
of
analog the
was simulated
imitated
in
SPICE
and
in
at
by
an extra
pole placed
/s/3. the
several small
to
the
initial
desired
stability margins,
digital
design
proceeded
made to
digital
compensation.
The
controller C, =
C2 The
following
functions
compensator
Tustin
equations
were
obtained
from
the
analog
with the
transform:
E.19)
been rounded
to
E.20)
the required
in the
be
secondexpression can
C2 =
equations have
as
accuracy. The
rewritten
- 0.75/z). 0.9A - 0.987)/(l The be of the coefficient 0.987 should accuracy from 1 at lower frequencieswhere z approaches
high since this value is subtracted of the low1. Thus, for the accuracy the difference than 0.5 to better 6% coefficient be (i.e., dB), frequency gain 1 - 0.987 = 0.013must to 6%, i.e., to 0.0008,so that the number 0.8883 in be accurate E.20) should not be further rounded. in Fig. 5.29 (a),(b). shown to the flowchart Equations E.17) and E.18) correspond
rather
Chapter5. Compensator
Design
155
0.9
1/z
0.75/0.9 a
(a)
0.8883/0.9
(b)
Flowcharts
Fig. 5.29
corresponding
to equations
E.19), E.20)
The
of the
simplified
(of
the
in Fig. 5.30. The block diagram is shown higher-gain, low-frequency path; linear links Cj has saturation and a dead zone; a delay block; and a model motor with its analog control electronics). feedback
loop
block
link
in the
saturation
sat_out
-1000
0.15 + 0.15/z
+1000
mot_error
1-
0.9 - 0.8883/z
1 -
scaling,
saturation,
0.99/z
0.75/z
dead
zone
2.5/(s+0.0833)
(s+0.106)/(s+2.23)
Controller, 8 Hz
Plant
sampling
dur out
mot_des
model,
80Hz
235 + 235/2
mot_rate
sampling
1-0.68/z
1464*30/(s+30)
+=mot_rate/80
mbt_position
1/s, integrator
controller
Fig. 5.30
The C
Motor
flowchart
compensator
follows:
tdefine
.15
#define
PAR2
.99
#define
\302\246define \302\246define
PAR3
.9
,
PAR4
PAR5
.75
.987
#define
\302\246define
THRESHP
1000
THRESHN
-THRESHP
=
global
global global
double r
double double
d =
=
0.0;
0.0;
0.0;
u =
=
0.0;
0.0;
double
=
sat_out
>
THRESHP)
= 0.0;
/* saturation
sat_out
if
sat_out
mot_error;
*/
(mot_error
= THRESHP;
if d =
r
(mot_error
PARl
<
THRESHN)
sat_OUt
= THRESHN;
*
r;
+\302\246 PAR2
= sat_out
* r;
/* compensatorCl */
156
d +=
PAR1
Chapter
5, Compensator
Design
r;
u = d +
mot_error;
* *
v =
v +=
sampling
30 msec
-PAR5
+
PAR3
PAR4 *
e;
e;
/*
lead
e;
duration motor
C2 */
The variable
is the dur_out of 125 msec. The period rise-time. The motor transfer
rotation
of time
that the
is rate-stabilized is therefore
the
with
function
angle of
by
the
limited
s is shown
For
time the motor is on) with proportional bandwidth of the analog rate loop. The motor (plant)
is
to the
block.
in Fig.
5.30, under
the
computer simulations in C, a digital motor model was employed.The transfer function of z is shown in Fig. 5.30 in the block. The rectangular sample-and-hold was used for simplicity, and for better accuracy the sampling frequency for integrator the model was set to 80 Hz, 10 times than that of the compensator. The data in higher the motor model is updated 10 times after each update in the controller. This system shown in Fig. 5.30 is an example of a multirate system (although the controller itself is In different multivariable rates rates are faster controllers, used, single-rate). frequently for processing rapidly and lower for rates variables. variables, changing slowly varying 5.10.6
An
Aliasing and
converter
the
noise
a sample-and-hold (S/H) link, i.e., a device which this at its until value the time of the next sampling. signal samples keeps output An example of such a link is shown in Fig. 5.31. The switch the input signal by samples for a duration at the and holds short times. The the sampling closing capacitorcharges the value of the until next of the S/H The is processed sampled signal sampling. output to the and form by a D/A converter at the input then returned to the analog digitally is also digital). to the plant (when the actuator actuator, or directly
A/D
contains
and
noise
component
sampling
Fig. 5.31
Sample-and-hold
circuit
link
diagram
Fig. 5.32
and in
Aliasing
The
S/H
link is
as
such,
modulator.
Modulation
the
high-frequency
noise
the
produces frequency-difference frequency and its harmonics in Fig. 5.32. It is seen that on is illustrated This effect called aliasing signal bandwidth. to it is discrete at the basis of the information distinguish impossible sampled points, with between the low-frequency signal with / and the high-frequency signal frequency two important implications for the control design system here, frequency nf. From follow. of the high-frequency noise are addedto the baseband signal at the First, the effects of the A/D converter. output
works as an amplitude link by the sampling products that fall within the
S/H
Chapter5. Compensator
error
Design
157
Aliasing might introduce substantial the high-frequency by rejecting a high-order anti-aliasing noise, input filter is commonly installed low-pass at the sample-and-hold the to input
link
error
in the
A/D conversion.
To reduce this
->DSP
Antialiasing
filter
A/D
(or
A/D
systemsas shown
like
DSP
Noise
In closed-loop feedback systems that shown in Fig. 5.34, the highnoise sensor noise N causes the output frequency The noise is reduced filter. the anti-aliasing by
Fig.
5.33
in the
Anti-aliasing functional
filter
Noat
frequency band.
Fig.
5.34
Control system
with
antialiasing
filter
The filter selectivity is limited loop gain and input-output by its the effect of the of the antialiasing the attenuation filter at extent, closed-loop response.To a certain an increase of the gain of the digital by higher frequencies can be equalized of a prefilter in compensator (thus making the loop gain as desired)and the introduction the command path to reduce the inputoutput
closed-loop
gain.
into
the close
of
the
the loop
optimum
gain
response
which
is close to
looks
like
that
the
shown
is
in
Fig.
5.35.
Its feedback
bandwidth
wider
monotonic
Fig. 5.35
for
Bodediagrams Open-loop
of aliasing
line.
the
rejection
noise
Second, due to
Nyquist
aliasing,
gain of
dc
the
digital
filter
frequency
the
is the
same as the
frequency
gain of the
digital
compensator
with
low-
attenuation
the
analog
In
plant
these
near
situations, 5.10.7
Nyquist may result in large frequency the sampling frequency must be substantially
Transfer
section,
In this
the
effect
of digital
compensation on
the
158
Chapter
5. Compensator
Design
(LTV)
feedbackloop.A
be
shown
margins
linear is a digital compensator in Section 7.11, time-dependencies of and can make the systems oscillate.
linear time-variable
linear
link.
the
As
will
systems
can reduce
stability
input
output
fundamental
of output
Fig. Consider
5.36
Signal at the
output
of a
sample-and-hold
link
the case when the signal and output is sinusoidal. The input signals of the in Fig. 5.36. Let's define the with 12 samples per period are plotted gain coefficient in fundamentals as the ratio of the amplitude of the output signal of this fundamental to the amplitude of the input signal. It is seen that the magnitude
S/H
link
1, and
the
phase
sampling
frequency
frequency.
samplesper signal
circuit the phase
period
is only
two (the
Fig.
and
Nyquist
frequency
the
of
the
S/H
<j> is
is II-shaped
where
5.37, and
output
the input
signal.
Fig. 5.37
As follows
from
Effect
of the
phase
and
the
Fourier
analysis,
= 90\302\260, then
fundamental
output is is 1,
0
particular, gain
<|>
lag is
gain
the 90\302\260,
output
amplitude
<|>
coefficient
is 4/tc,
i.e., the
is 2.1
dB. When
approaches
gain
coefficient of
<(>)
uncertainty
gradually
can be
sufficient In plot
seen by
margins Fig.
comparing
in the gain and phase (due to approaches 0. The uncertainty of the as increases with the decrease sampling frequency, must be made stable with Figs. 5.36 and 5.37. The system
<|>.
5.38 are
the
stability
plane in this
on the
effect
of a
boundary and an example of a Nyquist well-designed LTI system. Considernext frequency. loop at the Nyquist
margin
the
Chapter
Oscillation usually
5. Compensator
Design
159
in
control and
is
periodical,
at the
plant
plant
output
systems, if it happens, is the shape of the oscillation close to sinusoidal due to the
/.-plane
-270\"
LTI
loop
filter be properties (this will further in Chapter 11). Because of the relations between the phase and amplitude illustrated in Fig. 5.37, and because of the extra 2.1 dB of gain on the fundamental, the gain of the LTI must be below the loop at the Nyquist frequency curves with maximum -v*:-2.1dB boundary centered at -270\302\260 and -90\302\260, to rule out an
low-pass discussed
-9O>
Nyquist frequency
Fig.
5.38
oscillation
with
at
this
frequency
with
resulting
any
possible
<|>,
boundary
jedB
margin.
The
penalty
in
the
on
transfer
uncertainty
available feedback is, typically, not if the Nyquist other hand, frequency
the part
which 90\302\260,
large.
should
On the
fall
at Nyquist
frequency
would
and
of the
why
Nyquist
diagram
which
the
is phase
slope
stabilized,
the
penalty
be up to
feedback.
would
the
require
reducing
frequency
of the
Bode diagram
high.
the
This is
5.11
sampling
Command
profiling
time-profile
is often
required
not
to
include
sharp peaks,
position
settling
time
is required to
be as short
as possible.
In these
cases, the
through
or
out, either by passing it angle step-command needs to be smoothed Bessel prefilter or by replacingit with a smooth time-function. The smooth rising of the command from 0 to q over the time - n/2) + l]/2. - 2{tlxf], or with q[sin(nt/x expressedwith q[3(t/xJ
a high-order
interval
[0,t] can
be
Example1.Assume
ezplot('2*C*(x/0.5)'v2
A
= 2,
the first
function
with
0.5])
smooth
digital
command
sampling frequency /s
wheren
can be expressed
with
function
(A/n)(l
z~{n~l)?
= xfS-
5.12
Problems
The
crossover
frequencies
constant-slope Bode
(approximately) (d) 20 Hz, (e)
peak
is 100 Hz. The system must 30\302\260. The crossover with margin
diagram
be
phase-stabilized
loop 10
at gain approximates
all
in
the
can the
feedback be
by
increasedat
Chebyshev
(a)
sense.
using
15
a higher-order
to
2\302\260?
ripples
are reduced
from
a real zero, an asymptotic Bode diagram was made By addition of a real pole and from 10 Hz to 30 Hz. What are the steeper by 6dB/oct over the frequency interval or pole and the zero frequencies?Will the new Bode diagram be more concave if the more convex? What happens to the diagram pole and zero are interchanged?
Draw
an
gain
asymptotic
coefficient
Bode diagram
10 at
for
the
function
co, i.e.,
(a)
0.5,
co = 0; zeros(in
having: in rad/sec)
1, 3, 6, and
poles
(in
co)
4, 8;
160
(b) gain
Chapter 5. Compensator
10 dB at co= 2, zeros(in co) 10 at f = <*>, zeros
f=200,
Design
2,5,5,
and poles
(in
co) 1,
3,20;
poles
(c)
gain
coefficient
(in Hz)
15, 30,
400, and
(in Hz)
60,100, 0, 10,
zeros
1600.
(in Hz)
cm.
poles
from
(in Hz)
Find
using the
octaves
rule
for
the
error: 3
asymptotic from
the
pole,
from the
pole.
function:
4 Use MATLAB to make Bode plots for the (a) T(s) = 100/[s(s+ 15)(s+100)]; + 100)(s + 500)]; (b) T[s) = 1000/[s(s (c) T{s) = 5000/[s(s + 200)(s + 6000)]; + 100)(s + 1000)]. (d) T[s)= 200/[s2(s
5
Find
function approximation of the constant slope 6 dB/oct, frequency range 1 to 10 Hz; 9 dB/oct, frequency range 1 to 10 Hz; 1 to 10 Hz; (c) slope 12 dB/oct, frequency range (d) slope 15dB/oct, frequency range 1 to 10 Hz; (e) slope 27 dB/oct, range 1 to 10 rad/sec; frequency 9 dB/oct, frequency range 1 to 10 rad/sec; (f) slope range 1 to 10 rad/sec; (g)slope dB/oct, frequency 12 dB/oct, frequency range 1 to 10 rad/sec; (h) slope 18 dB/oct, frequency range 1 to 10 rad/sec. (i) slope 6 dB/oct, frequency range 1 to 10 rad/sec. (j) slope
a rational
function:
12
Draw
(a)(s + 2)/(s+15);
asymptotic
+
Bode + 0.2);
diagrams
MATLAB
for the
leads:
(b)(s
(e)(s
(f)
0.1)/(s
(d)(s + 2)/(s+
(c)(s+0.5)/(s
+ 2.5);
4).
+ 2.72)/(s +
21);
MATLAB
Draw
asymptotic
for the
lags:
(b)(s + 1)/(s
(c)(s +
5)/(s 7)/(s
+ 2.5); + 2.72);
(e)(s +
(f) (s+16)/(s
(g)(s +
8 The
feedback
+ 2);
+ 4).
stability
8)/(S
phase
peaking 5.10)?
with
margin
is excessive
by
10\302\260 over
one
decade.
Find
the
lost
at lower frequencies.
must Find the
If
the
be 8dB,
polynomial
what
is
the
Fig.
corresponding
the
300 Hz.
plots
in
10
Plot
MATLAB
with
the
the function
normalized low-pass frequency response with a pair of coefficient: (a) 0.0125; (b) 0.125; (c) 0.25;(d) 0.5; damping
ip2ip
Use the
MATLAB
to convert the
transfer
function
to that having
the
Chapter 5. Compensator
resonance
Design
161
frequency 5 Hz.
11
Plot with MATLAB the normalized band-pass frequency response with a pair of coefficient: (a) 0.01; (b) 0.1; (c) 0.2; (d) 0.4; complex poles, with the damping the low-pass transfer function (e) 0.99 (obtain the response by multiplying by s). Use the MATLAB to convert the transfer to that having the function function Ip21p
12
with the normalized high-pass frequency response with a pair of Plot MATLAB coefficient: complex poles, with the damping (a) 0.02; (b) 0.2; (c) 0.3; (d) 0.5; the low-pass transfer function (e) 0.99 (obtain the response by dividing by s2). to that function Use the MATLAB ip2 lp to convert the obtained response having the resonance frequency 15 Hz. a series of 5 notches Plot at (a) 1 rad/sec; (b) 10 compensator
with
13
the
notch
rad/sec; (c)10Hz;
function
amplitude
(d) 1 kHz;
links:
centered
14 Breakthe
(a)
into cascaded
+ 20)(s+ 6000)]; 2)(s + 1000)/[s(s + 20)(s + 600)]. (b) 100(s + 0.1 )(s + 8)(s + 200)/[s(s (c) 5000(s + 1)(s + 2)(s + 1000)/[s(s + 20)(s + 6000)]; (d) 100(s + 0.1)(s+ 8)(s + 200)/[s(s + 20)(s + 600)]. (e) 5000(s+ 1 )(s + 2)(s + 1000)/[s(s + 20)(s + 6000)]; + 20)(s + 600)]. + 0.1 )(s + 8)(s + 200)/[s(s (f) 100(s
5000(s
+ 1 )(s +
15 The
of the plant is Ms, and the n.p. lag of the plant is 1 rad at m.p. component 2 kHz. The amplitude stability margin must be 10 dB. The asymptotic slope must be the level at 2 kHz. The the -10dB -18dB/oct, asymptote crossing loopmust have a Bode step and -10dB/oct constant slope down to 100 Hz. Design an analog
of compensatorcomposed
cascaded
links.
16
plant
and
of compensatorcomposed
parallel
requirements links.
as
in
Problem
15,
design
an analog
by the effect of the sensor noise.The loop gain the slope ft, and to provide the stability right margin, of the loop gain must be only -6 dB/octfor two octaves below ft. fln(ft) = 1 rad. Design the compensator for the following plant and feedback bandwidth: + 300)(s+1000)]; ft = 3 kHz; (aI/[s(s + + ft = 300 Hz; (b) 10^/[s (s 100)]; ft = 30 Hz. (c) 10^/Is (s + 3)(s + 10)];
is limited after
30)(s
18
Verify
that
equations digital
into on
the
diagram
in Fig.
5.22.
C
19
high-order
function
was implemented
links.
It
transfer
simulation
was
different
processors
or
simulation
using
different showed
breaking
sufficient
the
to
without breaking the that a single-precision different compilers gave slightly the nearly identical results. After
in
found
all
happened.
in s,
20 The
poles of an analogcompensator,
are:
(a) -3,
-6, -8;
162
(b)-12,-60,-80;
Chapter
5. Compensator
Design
(c)-13,-16,-85;
With
of the function of z using the poles fe = 50 Hz, find frequency MATLAB bilinear. (Hint: Each pole can be and/or command E.14) the function bilinear to the function 1/(s applying
sampling
Find
(d)-10,-600,-1500.
formula
found
by
21
the
Tustin
(a)C(s) =
transforms
from:
(b)C(s)=
=3(s (d)C(s) 22
7)/(s
+ 20), + 100)s],
fe = 10 Hz, convert to C(s) from: sampling frequency /(z) = @.2174 + 2174/z)/A (b) /(z) = @.1200 + 0.1200/z)/A = /(z) A.33 0.4444/z)/A For fe = 100 Hz, convert to C[s) from: sampling frequency (d) t($ = @.22 + 22/z)/A
(a)
(c)
- 0.74/z), -
23
for the analog plant P(s) = 50000(s + 200)/(s + 300), at frequencies below % approximately loop Bode diagram -10dB/oct. and the Assume h = 10 kHz, the aliasing noise is of critical importance, 10 dB and 30\302\260. Consider: and are, phase stability gain margins respectively, and asymptotic 4=1 kHz, a Bode step, monotonic response, (a) a version with slope-12dB/oct; with a notch at fe as in Fig. 5.35. ft, = 1.4 kHz, I Bode step, and (b) a version
a digital
compensator
with
the
slope
of the
24
Write
a program
in C
for
fi[z)
(a),(b),(c)
from
Problem 22.
25 Consider Example
2 in Section 5.6. Remove the Bode step. In the function T(s), and move the two remove the step-forming complex poles and zeros, real poles from co = 2 to the right until the guard-point phase stability margin becomes 30\302\260. will be the loop gain Where will these poles be? What at co = 10? Are the technical satisfied? specifications of the system with and (b) SIMULINK. P/D
26 Make simulations
with
controller
shown
in
Fig.
5.19
in Section
5.8
(a)
MATLAB
27
is being with retroreflectors scanning interferometer, a carriage a 5.39 to the of the via cable as shown in change lengths by Fig. is 20 cm, the position must be accurate optical paths. The carriage position range 0.1 mm, within mode with the within and the velocity, 3%. The lowest structural frequency in the 100 to 150 Hz range results from the cable flexibility.
In a
spacecraft
moved
a motor
163
beam 1
optical beam 2
motor
cable
drum
Fig. 5.39
In the block the compensator
Retroreflector carriage
5.40(a),
diagram
in
Fig.
feedback
summer,
and
are
digital.
digital
signals,
analog
100 Hz sampling
signals
(a)
100 Hz sampling
digital signals,
< j_
digital 500_Hz
signals, sampling
analog
signals
(b)
Fig. 5.40
The
Block
diagrams
of the
limited
carriage
100 Hz
control
options
since the calculations are with several other tasks. connected directly to the motor shaft, so the sensor The position is control is collocated.(A more accurate position sensor, a laser interferometer, the science of the carriage data. This for taking used to measure the exact position and is not shown in the pictures.) sensor is not used for closed-loop position control is of the motor driver. The sensor output The D/A converter is placed at the input is 6 bandwidth limited to in Problem 4 in the control As discussed 4, Chapter digital.
sampling
by
performed
the
frequency
is
to
time-sharing
basis
Hz.
Estimate
and this
D/A
the control and the available feedback bandwidth compare case and (b) when: the sensor data is read with a rather high are placed in the command converters and sensor paths; the
the
command
circuitry
summer,
sufficient?
accuracy
of the
Draw block diagrams. Consider the advantages and modes of the controller implementation.
analog
of these
two
164
Chapter
5. Compensator
Design
Answers to
6 (a)
selected
problems
The
diagram
is shown
in Fig.
5.41.
sc
dB
0
1
f,
log
-10 -20
Fig.5.41 14
(a)
Asymptotic
Bode
diagrams
1000)/(s
for the
5000(s
+ 1)/s;
(s + 2)/(s + 20);(s +
must is
15 The
the
frequencyfc
Bode
step
or o)b
that
ratio
0.35 kHz,
with
= 2.2 Bode
loop
is similar to
a
shown
wider
approximates
the general
5.15(a), 5.16
(Example
E.2),
50
-10dB/oct
\302\246so
40
30
20 10 0
2.2k
10' o
10
10*
tq
log.
scale
j? -90
-10 -20
8.8k 1.76k
|-180
L -270
\\
-18
dB/oct
10'
Fig.
5.42
Fig. 5.43
Bode diagrams,
co
in krad/sec
Bode diagrams
The expression
= 10
in
Example
1 for
the return
ratio,
.s+
s +
0.4
+ s +1.65 _s2+2As
T(s)
0.1 (s + 2J
+ 9
needs
to be modified:
must
(a) It
express
be
co in
from
1 to
2.2.
we
by
s/2.2. The
return
becomes
Chapter
5. Compensator
s2 +
T\342\200\2242
Design
165
r,(*)
(b)
s+
io s +
0.88
2.22
3.52s + 19.4
43.6
2.2
s
0.22
(s + 4.4)
+ s +5.28^
from 1.5 to 2.8, and must be increased Bode step frequency ratio be shifted the poles at the end of the Bode step must up 2.8/1.5 = 1.9times. Also, the two poles at 4.4 must be somewhat increased, say, to 5.5 (this is already shown in Fig. 5.40). The return ratio becomes
The
correspondingly,
T,
(s)
= 10
s +
s +
0.88
0.22
2.22 xE5/4.4J
(s + 5.5J ;;
~x
s2+10.7s+ 157 1
diagram
in
\302\246
be seen that the corners in the (It can the real poles and zeros of Tz(s).) Or,
asymptotic
Fig.
5.40
correspond
to
= 601
MATLAB
5s +
19.4)
(s2 +10.7
multiply
s +157)
the
function
is used to
polynomials
in the numerator:
a = [601];
ab
and
in
[1
conv(a,b);
0.88]; num =
c = [1
3.5 19.4];
conv(ab,c) g =
the
denominator:
d = [1
de
The
0];
e = [1 0.22];
def
[1
5.5];
= =
den
conv(d,e); conv(deff,g)
= conv(de,f);
deff
= conv(def,f);
[1 10.7 157];
resulting
return
ratio
is
601s3
2
+ 2632s2
+13510* + 10260
5200.4s2
s6
+ 21.9s5
+ 309.7/
for
+ + 2117.8s3
+ 1044.8s
function is plotted in with w = Fig. 5.42 the gain axis. The diagram is close to the axis is erroneously labeled in rad/sec since we frequency the bode command. The axis must be labeled in krad/sec. used, for simplicity, The loopphaseresponse in Fig. 5.42 does not yet include the n.p. lag. The lag can be modeled as described in Section add this 4.11, or instead, we can just is linearly phase lag (which proportional to the frequency) to the phase response in If we do this, we will see that the system is stable with the desired Fig. 5.42. stability
this
properly
scale
margins.
The compensatortransfer
T2 (s) -111 =
function
is
19.4)
6oi
P(s)
(s
E.22)
10.7s
+ 157)
and can
be presented as three
(s +
links:
0.88)
5-
(s + 0.22)(s+ 55J
C2(s)
(s
5.5)
166
Chapter
+ 2\342\200\224
5. Compensator
Design
C3(s) =
In
3.5s
+ 19.4
\342\200\242
$ these
+ 10.7s
+ 1570
in
functions 16
expressions of s in rad/sec
$ is
krad/sec.
To
convert
(if desired),
s should
are
functions
to
Three solutions
(among many
with the
possible)
given below.
Section
A)
for
We
might
start
compensator from
and
5.7 having
Ci = 4/(s2+ 4s)
the
Ck =
5/(s? + 2.4s +
16)
plant
1/s,
with
the
loop
response
9s
T(s) =
shown
C2(s)
+29.6j
+ 64 + 64s2 to widen the Bode step. This and increasing Ck 1.5 times.
s5 +6 As4
+ 25.6s3 be
can
The return
becomes
3.3
75
\\\\
10.8/+
37.9s+
52.8
s2+4s
This
s2 + 2As
plotted
+16
)s
s5+6.4/+25.6s3
+ 64s2
response
with MATLABcommands
=
n = [10.8
w
37.9 52.8]; d
step
[1
6.4
25.6
64 0 0]
;\342\200\242
logspace(-l,1);
in Fig.
bode{n,d,w) is
shown
5.44. The
length
looks
about
50
right.
\342\200\224
-^
\"\342\200\224-. ~\342\200\224-^_
10
Frequency (rad/sec]
^.
\\ \\
\\
10'
Fig.
5.44
Fig. 5.45
into
Loop
Bode
diagrams
Now,
a lead
With
must
be
introduced
to reduce
frequencies.
the
lead,
+
3.3(s 0.3)
l)
15 s2 +2As
Ss1 +4s)(j +
With:
+ \\6)s
nl
= conv<3.3,[
1 0.3]);
Chapter
5. Compensator
Design
167
during
iterations,
adjust
the the
dl
%
(try
=
also
conv([l
1.5)
zero
dld2
d
% % w
d2 = [1 2.4
=
during
iterations,
16];
0])
equal are
adjust
pole
conv(dl,d2);
n = conv(nl,d2)
vectors
= conv(dld2,[1
have
+ convG.5,dl)
bode(n,d,w)
ratio
of polynomials
1O.8*3 +46Als2
sb
+ 85.18s+15.84 + 86.9j
T2
(s)
6s1= + 7.4s5
+ 32s
+ 64*
shape is acceptable.The crossover now only to scale the response for s to s@.95/2200) = s/2316.
to
The plot is shown and in Fig. 5.45. Its plotted. on the plot is 0.95 rad/sec. It remains frequency the crossover frequency to be at 2200 by changing
B)
function
We
will
use
the already
obtained
solution
Problem
9. The
compensator
T2(s)
= 601
(s +
(j +
0.88)(j2+3.5*+
19.4)
E.24)
P(s)
0.22)(s + 5.5)
5\342\200\224r + 10.7
(s2
j +
157)
or
T2(s) = -HI
P(s)
+ 601s3
2632s2
+ 13510s
5 2117.8*
+10260 E.25)
+ 5200.4^+1044.8
should be
transfer
decomposed into
represents
a sum
of transfer
all
function
a link, and
the
links
might be several options for such decomposition. into the sum of partial fractions The function can be decomposed
T2(s)
P(s)
rt \342\200\224
ii r2ls
+ rn
r3ls + r32
s +
0.22
(s + 55)
s2 +
10.7s
+ 157
s The numerator of the fraction with a single pole can be found by assigning the resulting equation for the residue. the value of the pole and solving During this can be neglected. Generally, the side exercise, all other fractions in the right-hand of the fractions (including those with multiple poles) coefficientsin the numerators can be found by adding the fractions in E.26) which results in a ratio of polynomials that result from comparing the in s, and solving a system of linear equations in E.25). of s at specific powersto those numerator coefficients of partial into a sum can be decomposed With MATLAB, the function E.26) and calculation method is ill-conditioned fractions as follows requires high (the accuracy in the initial data): num
= [601
2632 13510
309.7
=
10260];
2117.8
5200.4
1044.8];
residue(num,
den)
168
Res
Pol
*
K = []
1.0e+002
0.1598
-0.1684- 4.44101
-0.1684
0.1598 + 0.2042i
0.2042i
-5.3460
-5.4940
-5.3460 -11.3430i
+
+11.3430i
0.13961
0.0172 -
+ 4.4410i
O.OOOOi
-5.4940
-0.2200
- 0.1396i a pair
of complex
real poles -5.5, Due to rounding errors, instead of the double poles appears, with small imaginary parts. The compensator transfer T2(s)
P(s)
function
is
1.72
5+
0.22
-16.84+ /444.1
5
+ 5.494
+ J0.1396
15.98 s2
;20.42
fractions
15.98;20.42
+
+ 5.346
- j\\1.343 s2 +
of the
'
5.346
+ ;11.343
type
\342\200\224
jb
+ jd)
of two
s-(c-jd)
(first-order to second-order) with
as real
is a ratio
polynomials
coefficients.
The
polynomials can
nuim_prod
den_prod
When
be found
=
follows:
+ b*d)) + d*d)]
d is
inaccuracy (for
the
double
can be
then, neglected,
num_prod
= [2*a
this
we
denjirod
After
= [1 (-2*c)
(-2*a*c)]
(c*c)]
small
the
imaginary
making
that
parts
compensator
of the transfer
T2(s)
P{s)
+ z\342\200\224
32j+634
+ 157
i + 0.22
solution
E+
55J
s2 +10.75
C)
In
the
to Problem
E+
=m
P(s)
0.88)E2
+355 + 19.4)
+ 10.75+157)
(j+0.22)E+5.5JE2 product
can be
of two
fractions,
T2(s)=
P(s)
With:
+ 19.4) E+0.88)E2+3.55
E+0.22)E+55)E2+10.75+157)
num
dl
= conv([l conv([l
0.88],[
0.22],
1 3.5
[1 5.5]);
19.4])
den = conv(dl, [1
10.7 157])
Chapter
5. Compensator
Design polynomials
169
the second
fraction
is converted
to the
ratio
of two
s3 + 4.38j2 + 22.48s+17.072
s4 With
+ 16.42s3 MATLAB,
follows
+ 219.414s2
the
(more
+910.987s+189.97
are used
E.29)
a calculation
function
digits
fractions as
conditioned
E.29) can
errors):
be decomposed into
and
sensitive
to
rounding
num
den
Res
= [1
=
4.38 22.48
16.42
17.072];
[1
[Res,Pol,K]
=
= residue(num, den)
Pol
219.414
910.987
189.97];
K =
0.3889
0.2072
0.3889- 0.2973i
complex
+ 0.29731
-5.3500 +11.3304i
-5.5000
[]
-5.3500 -11.3304i
-0.2200
0.0151
pole
fractions
of the
type
jb
a- jb
jd)s-(c-]d)
is
a ratio
of two
polynomials
with
real
coefficients
which can
be found
as
follows:
a = 0.3889;
b = 0.2973;
-5.35;
b*d))]
d = 11.3304;
d*d)]
0.7778*
the
compensator
transfer
f
function is
0.2072
T2(s) _
601 s+
5.5
0.0151
- 25758
P(s)
U +
0.22
* + 5.5
s2 +
]
preceded
10.7s
+ 157 J
links
which is the function of the parallel connection of + 5.5). by the link 601/(s There are many of the compensator's options be better suited for implementing multiwindow might
in
three
or followed
Chapter
13. and
24
(a)
The
Using
E.17),
y=10*r;
r=x+
1.667
r;
+= 16.67
* r;
Chapter 6
I
ANALOGCONTROLLER
This
IMPLEMENTATION
chapter
analog
are most often analog electrical signals, it is convenient command summers and the compensatorsanalog. circuits are considered: a amplifier Operational
differentiator,
of
issues
concerning
design and
outputs
implementation
of
and
the
actuators'
and economical to
summer,
make the
inputs
leads
compensator,
and
and RC
lags
in
inversion
and
noninversion
slope
controlled
compensators active
with
complex
in
is
poles,
in
computer
Basic types
compensators
described,
analog
compensators.
of
filters
that
circuits are
discussed.
are employed
the
explained.
tunable
feedback
system
domain
element
compensator
value
Switched
is
capacitor
briefly
an
example
band-pass
design.
Implementations
The
of dead
zone, saturation,
amplitude-window
circuits are
issues of analogcompensators breadboarding are TID, introduced, compensators, PID and with one variable parameter. compensators Methodsof loop gain and phase measurements are outlined. This is the last one in the introductory control course. chapter
most important
are surveyed.
Tunable
and
also
tunable
6.1
Active RC circuits
Operational
6.1.1
Industrial
actuators
electrical
amplifier
sensors
rule,
of electrical,
electrical
mechanical,hydraulic,
signals.
the
thermal, the
and input
other signals
produce, as a
are
output
Further,
Most
frequently,
also
electrical.
commands
are
commonly
generated as
can be
block
signals.
the
subtracts
compensator,
In many cases, these signals are analog, and the feedback summer fed back signal from the In such cases, the command. analog analog prefilter,
command
implemented
operational
path
main
links
building
the
amplifier.
100
an op-ampis typically
gain
to 120dB.
coefficient
Following
flat-response
drops
linearly
with a
unity
unity
gain
gain tc/2
bandwidth
bandwidth
the
closeto
up to
gain very close tofy/fap until of op-amp, in Fig. 6.1. Depending on the type 100kHz to 1 GHz. The amplifier phase lag is
a feedback
than
circuit added,
at all
the
system
the
is stable
loop
if
path
is less
tc/2
frequencies where
the
gain
are used
therefore
with
large
feedback
in
to make
anticipation
available gain
reduction.
must
be high,
of
The
gain
For 500
example, at 10 kHz,
required to be 50 at
10 kHz,
coefficient
of an
op-amp
feedback
of
10 is
op-amp gain
at 5
coefficient
with
no feedback
needs to
be at
least
puts/T
MHz.
170
Chapter6. Analog
dB
Controller
Implementation
171
\302\246\302\246\302\246\"'\302\246\302\246\302\246 r
.-6dB/oct
i \302\246 \302\246 /j log. i *
sc.
Fig. 6.1
Op-ampgain
inverting
frequency
response
amplifier
and
(dotted lines)
is shown in and Z% is the
The
Fig.
configuration
Z\\
of the
an op-amp signal
feedback amplifier
circuitry input,
6.2.
Two-pole
connects
source to
feedback
path impedance.
bandwidth
input
the feedback is large, the error where across the voltage small compared with the input voltage U\\ and the output voltage currents. l]%. Therefore, U\\ \342\200\224 I\\Z\\ and Ui = hUx, where I\\ and 1% are the input and output current of the op-amp itself is negligible, It follows that Next, since the input /2 = -l\\. the transfer function of the inverting is amplifier
Over the
op-amp
is
very
K=
The
-Zl.
input
F.1)
impedance
of the
inverting
amplifier
is Zx since at
that
the op-amp
node
input
the
voltage
is the
that and
The amplifier can be used as a unity gain inverter (when Z\\ as is shown sources, amplifier combining signals from different lines, so that the output signal is - (U\\IZ\\ + UJZm + UJZ^Zq. by the dotted Typically, \\Z\\\\ and I2y are chosen from 5 lcfl to 2 Mii. The impedance Za should not in the impedance and the consumed be too small or elsethe current power will be too not be too large since it reduces the big. The impedance Z\\, on the other hand, should noise whose mean square voltage input and increases the thermal signal at the amplifier is at room formula, temperature, according to the Johnson-Nyquist
i.e.,
it is very
small, so
this
potential
is very
close to
= Zq)
of
as
a summer
faced
by the
input
port
of
the amplifier;
it
is
the
parallel
and feedback
resistances.
6.1.2 Integrator
An the
and differentiator
function
inverting schematic
for
diagrams
integrator with transfer diagram in Fig. 6.2 the integrator are shown
a wide
-l/(RiC2s) be
are chosen to
in Fig.
6.3. The
slope of the
gain
is
-6 dB/octover
frequency
range.
172
Chapter6. Analog
dB
Controller
Implementation
OA
gain
,open-loop Input-output
gain
gain,
Fig. When
6.3
Integrator
gain
gain
responses is being
Fig. 6.4
Differentiator
gain
responses
connectedto
the right end of the two-pole Z2 must be the open-loop gain is the product of the op-amp + Z2). and the coefficient of the voltage divider R\\/(Ri gain coefficient of the feedback The loop gain is small at very low frequencies where the impedance well does not at these the integrator perform capacitor is very large. Therefore, the time is the is accurate when That not long. is, integrator integration very frequencies. the gain coefficient about the feedback At medium and higher loop is frequencies,
the open-loop
the
calculated,
ground.
Therefore,
f Ri+Z2
It is large
higher
and frequencies,
nearly
J?i
the
R\\
<
IZ2I =l/(coC2).
At
gain
and
decreases
as a
inverting
single
integrator,
stability
margin.
with
An
differentiator
can
openexternal
and
closed-loop
responses
Zi are
= \\l{<aC\\), shown
The The
with filter which, for the differentiator is a low-pass together some in the feedback loop. To provide the op-amp itself, produces a double integrator C can be introduced in the feedback loop in phase stability margin, a lead compensator in Fig. 6.5. at lower to reduce the gain front of the op-amp frequencies, as shown is much of the differentiator It is seen in Fig. 6.4 that the effective bandwidth but not This is one of the reasons smaller than that of the integrator. why integrators
feedback
circuit
differentiators
are usually
employed
in
analog
computers.
Differentiator
schematic
diagram
Noninverting
unity
configuration
shown in Fig.
The
gain
amplifier
6.6(a), or
the
voltage
follower
described
Chapter 6. briefly
in in
Analog
Controller
Implementation path
173
Section
1.3,
The schematic
Fig.
diagram
transmission
amplifier
configuration
+
6.6(b).
The feedback
function
transfer
function
is B
= Z]/(Zi
amplifier transfer Z,
is MB,
i.e.,
F-2)
(a)
Fig.
(b) non-inverting
6.6
amplifier
(b)
in both the inverting and The fed back signal amplifier non-inverting configurations this feedback loop stabilizesthe output is proportional to the output Therefore, voltage. disturbances and of i.e., makes the output voltage nearly independent of various voltage, in Fig. 6.6 is the output impedance of the circuits the load impedance variations. Hence, is large. low over the range where the feedback
6.1.4
The
and with
packaging
dynamic
from the
is limited from above by the output voltage swing, range of the op-amp and drift. The input noise is typically comparable the noise by input to several kilo-ohms thermal noise of a resistor of several hundred ohms below
series R\\ in
connectedin
amp input,
keep
feedback like
to the
Figs. 6.2
6.6(b),
do increase
the
these
resistances
small, especially in
op-amp
following
in
the
summer.
The input
voltage dc offset
the
to lmV
range, with
op-amp
thermal
internal (the parasitic dc bias) is typically to 10 uV/\302\260C drift in the 1 nV/\302\260C range.
the
lOnV
While
circuits are
the
tested, neither
will input,
of
the
input pins
initial
should
be
left
open or
open
pin
depend this
on the charge
impedance producing
of the
op-amp
will
by
Due
to the
confusion
for the
the
experimenter
desired
current
altering
the
readings
in
an
often
irreproducable
fashion.
larger
be the
consumption.
As a rule,
the
and consequently,
dc
consumed
in one case. The standard Op-amps come packaged as single, double, or quad in for 6.7. The the double and the are shown Fig. pinout is the same for the pinouts quad dual in line package (there also exist much (DIP) and surface mount (SM) package smaller
the
supply.
SM packages).
174
+VCC
Controller
Implementation
16nnnnnnn
1uuuuuuunft
T
+VCC
\342\200\242mj|^jyy|L
uuuu
SM,
same
plnout
-vcc
Fig. 6.7
DIP
-vcc
5.0mF, 100V
TOP VIEW
OA,
DIP and
Fig. 6.8
of mylar
Typical
size
capacitors
compensator.
all the
magnitude an
needs of
less
a typical
power,
analog
occupies
an order
than
of
space, magnitude digital microcontroller. an Breadboarding and testing such an analog controller takes,typically, order of magnitude less time than a with controller. so digital doing The values of the RC constants correspond to the poles and the zeros of the transfer can be large and the capacitors functions. For low-speed processes, these time constants
smaller
and
costs
order
of
less
becomebulky.
The
higher
are, however,
requirements
limited.
the
smaller
the
with
capacitors
the
in series
noise
op-amp
resistance several
zero
below
certain level,
the
feedback
not
capacitances.
size
megohms. Thus, for example,i? = at a frequency of /= l/BnRQ \302\253 0.16 Hz. The capacitance must in time, like be stable of mylar capacitors is shown in Fig. 6.8.
Typically, resistor values should 2MQ and C = 0.5 \\i? can produce
that
exceed
a pole
or a
of
mylar
capacitors.
The
typical
6.1.5
With transfer
Transfer functions
the
with
multiple
in
poles
Fig.
and zeros
6.6
feedback
functions
amplifiers
can be
lag
where
Z\\
and
Zi
in
are RC 6.9(a)
two-poles,
and (b),
multiple
real poles
and zeros.
Fig.
Non-inverting
and
compensators
are
shown
respectively.
(a)
(b)
lead (b)
implementation,
Fig.6.9
Inverting
Lag
(a) and
non-inverting
compensator
further
chapter.)
in
and (b). An inverting in Fig. 6.10(a) lead compensators are shown lag will be discussed in Fig. 6.10(c). shown (Design of these compensators to Problems 7, 8, and 9 at the end of the Sections 6.2.1, 6.2.2, and in solutions is
Chapter
6. Analog Controller
R2
Implementation
175
R3
R2
-VW-rAAAr
.Ri ^
BS
(a)
(b)
(c)
implementation,
Fig. 6.10
Fig. 6.11 approximation
(b),
and
lag (c)
of
inverting
shows
implementation
E.2) shifted to
cover the
band
from
R8
s~m
which
uses
C8 C7 C6 C5 C4
500
R7
563.9
123.7
R6 R5 R4
423.3
51.44
23.7
308.13
185.0
13.1
R3 R2
R1
39.43
599.0
C3
fi in kQ
9.87
54.53
CinnF
Fig. 6.11
Implementation
of transfer
band
from
1 to
100 Hz
implement
signal
employed
of
upper
path
B]
with
the phase-delayed
a broad
on the
Bode diagram.
dB
V ?
\\
f,
log. sc.
(a)
(c)
Fig. 6.12
The
Implementation
complex
feedback
(c)complex
poles
allows path shown in Fig. 6.12(b) for the the The amplifier using responses pair. gain feedback path Bu feedback path B2, and both, are shown in Fig. 6.12(c). feedback of a complex-pole paths is also shown pair using parallel Implementation for the 100 kV, of the compensator in Fig. 6.13. (This circuit has been used as a part a klystron for 1.6 MW precision power supply B% transmitter.) The feedback path at higher frequencies. At the dominates at lower frequencies. The path B\\ dominates bridged
in
T-circuit
implementation of a complex
pole
crossing
so that
the
of the
feedback
paths
have
pair of complex
conjugate
phase
the
176
Chapter
6.
Analog
Controller
Implementation
transfer function a complex factor closed-loop possesses Q pole pair. The quality in phase shift between the two paths. The difference can be depends on the difference series or parallel resistorsto the capacitors. adjusted by adding
._A/vvJ_ps.
with Compensator
parallel
feedback
paths
Active RC filters
6.14
the
transfer
a unity-gain
Sallen-Key
second-order
low-pass
filter
K(s) = +Q
,2
l( 1
F.3)
where
and
g =
co0(/?,+/?2)C2
This required
F.4)
of low-2
filter to
co0
is well-suited make
and
to
the in
implementation the
Bode
steps
frequency
elements
equations.
the damping
can be
For
chosen, and
example,
for
the
complex poles like those Sections 5.6 and 5.7. The pole are prescribed. Two of the circuit the remaining two can be found from the
resistor
when
values
are
initially
chosen,
C2 = l/tfflo^!
+ R2)Q], and
C, = l/(co02C2J?,/?2).
Fig. 6.14
Sallen-Key low-passfilter
feedback
to
Fig.
6.15
Multiple feedback
low-pass filter
A
multiple
sensitivity
second-order
parameter
low-pass
filter,
reduced
function
component
variations.
-1
F.5)
The low-frequency gain coefficient Ho is limited by the prescribed Q. Particularly, Ho must be chosen lessthan 100 when Q ? 1, and less than 10 when Q approaches10. of this filter become inconvenient when Q exceeds 10.) For this values element (The three calculated from values can be chosen and the remaining filter, two of the element
Chapter 6. Analog
the
following
Controller
Implementation
177
equations:
Table 6.1
F.6)
Chebyshev1 kHz 1
2
low-pass
filter
p-p ripple,
dB
F.7)
Ry=R2,
k?2
8.13 7.55
6.17
100
3.01
R2R3C
R3,kQ.
12.8 12.8
47
12.3
1.305
Cj.nF
68
12.6 220
K
QVc2
C2,nF
F.8)
4.7
4.7
4.7
4.7
0.956
1.129
1.493
/o
1.05
0.907 0.841
0.803
Table
6.1
with Ho
all
= -1
and
resistances
the elements' values for the Chebyshev second-order low-pass filter cut-off frequency. The filter the same when remains response are increased and all capacitances reduced by the same factor.The corner
gives
1 kHz
the product and Q, by of the capacitances, changing by can be changed by changing capacitances. The gain coefficient then adjusting the ratio of the capacitances to preserve the desired R\\ and Q and changing both capacitances by some coefficient to preserve <ti0. The shown in Fig. 6.16(a) is often filter. This is an circuit called a state-variable of a summer with resistors and two consisting computer adjustment analog gain to that shown in Fig. 5.22. The block diagram is similar The circuit can integrators. linear differential mimic second-order bandequations describing low-pass,high-pass, filters. This circuit enables reliable implementation of poles bandpass, and band-rejection and zeros with of using band-pass compensators with stateQ up to 100. (An example filters will be given in Section variable 6.4.2.) frequency
can be
ratio
changed
changing
the
of the
High-pass
output
- .
r*
Low-pass output
>/Wv
(a)
Fig.
'>
Bandpass
output
(b)
6,16
(a) State-variable
filter,
(b) twin-T
notch
as ICs, with only four resistors to be addedto are available all in which frequency, Q, and the gain. There also exist IC filters resistors are built in and are programmable or controlledfrom a computer port. These circuits combine the best of the analog and the digital worlds: they are easily and with sampling. do not introduce the delay associated they reprogrammed, element values for for and Programs calculating plotting responses frequency and filters available are from feedback, Sallen-Key, multiple state-space many manufacturers Semiconductor). (e.g., Burr-Brown, Harris, MAXIM, National + 2?co0 +co02) can be implemented with the twin-T A notch (s2 + (ao2)/(s2 bridge
set
the
178
shown
allow
Chapter 6. Analog
in Fig.
the
Controller
Implementation co0=
6.16(b). The
of co0and
allows
resonance
frequency
1/(RQ.
damping
adjustment
of
the damping
of
the
numerator
potentiometer
the adjustment
of
the
denominator
The variable resistors (which must be 0). The coefficient C, over the
different
to
range
0.01
to 0.16.
cascaded and
notches 1%
over
reject
resonance
while
by at
introducing
least 40
only
dB over
5\302\260 lag
range
\302\2611.4% of
the
two
nominal
octaves
frequency,
resonance.
at
the frequency
below
saturation
link when
can be
implemented with
arrangement
resistance
uses Zener
threshold
shown
on
diodes:4.3V
the shown
other
Zener.
in Fig.
small differential the voltage across the diode exceeds the threshold. The 5 V saturation in the figure results from the sum of the voltage drops across the open the Zener with inverse around V on the open diode of and 0.7 polarity, The resulting saturation with the response, gain coefficient of -2, is
the
diodes in
Fig.
6.17(a).
This
6.17(c).
zone output
(a)
* output
\342\200\2425
\302\246> ^
VCC-
output
V.
input
v\\
-VCC(c)
input
(d)
Saturation
Fig. 6.17
and
link
link
a dead
zone
(b)
link with its the input of a saturation by summing an the of such a and circuit, implementation output. Fig. 6.17(b) The is in dotted line indicates transmission shown signal resulting response Fig. 6.17(d). via the upper path, and the dashed line, via the lower path. The resulting characteristic is at the VCC level. By using different includes saturation not a pure dead zone-it thresholds and Zeners, characteristics with different dead zones and saturation resistors link
The deadzone
can be
formed
shows
inverted
Chapter can be
6. Analog Controller
Implementation
179
obtained.
it
Sometimes
windows
is
desirable
to direct signals
further
that
have
amplitudes
the
within
circuits
specified
shown
with
to
separate
outputs for
for
the
processing.
To
an extent
in
two
input
windows.
signal
three
on
the
signal
amplitude.
The
windows,
three outputs for further processing, circuit to combine signals via different shown in Fig. 6.18(b), can be designed in
similar
way.
Signal
amplitudes
IVtoVCC
Dead
zone 1
0.05,
1
0.05 to
Signal
1V
Saturation,
0.05
. amplitudes
below 0.05V
(a)
(b)
Three-window
Fig. 6.18
(a)
splitter
and (b)
combiner
Nonlinear dynamic links can be designed by combining nonlinear and linear links. and For example,rate can be limited by placing a saturation link in front of an integrator in Fig. 6.19. a tracking feedback loop with sufficient gain coefficient k as shown closing in the command path the plant from being included to prevent Rate limiters are often and also to reduce the overshoot in the control system velocity, damagedby excessive links will be given dynamic responseto large commands. Further examples of nonlinear
in
Chapters
11 and
13.
input
foutput
time (c)
VvV
Fig. 6.19
Rate limiting
(c)
follower,
(a) block
ramp
180
Chapter
6. Analog Controller
Implementation
6.2
Design
Cauer
and
and
iterations
Foster
6.2.1
RC two-poles
RC two-poles are widely used as components of analog compensators.Not every function can be implemented as an impedance of an RC two-pole but only one whose poles and zeros are real, these polesand zeros alternating along the real axis of the and the closest to the origin constitutes a part of R. Foster's s-plane, being a pole (this
theorem function
that can
LC
renders smallertotal
capacitance.
(a)
(b)
Fig. 6.20
Fig. 6.21
also states
that and
Cauer (ladder)
of f?C
canonical
of RC
two-pole
theorem
the zeros;
forms
two-pole
(Notice
system
that
Foster's
purely imaginary poles Chapters 4 and 7.) in any of the ladder can be implemented Also, any /?C-impedance function coefficients of a in Fig. 6.21. The element values are the (W. Cauer's) forms shown chain fraction of the impedance function. expansion in Figs. 6.9, and Cauer two-poles are employed in analog The Foster compensators
has control
alternating in discussed
6.10,6.11 and
Example
many
others.
the second,
an
op-amp
the first a series connections of R\\ and 1. Two parallelbranches, Cu and in the feedback of a seriesconnections of 1?2 and Ci, are often placed path The Bode the to form a compensator steeper. loop diagram making
frequencies
asymptotic
cozi
and
co^,
of the
the equations:
high-frequency
are expressed
by the
V(R2C2),
from
which
the
element
values can
be easilyfound.
can for the Foster form in Fig. 6.20(a) the capacitances and resistances In general, The be calculated by expanding l/[sZ(s)]into a sum of elementary first-order functions. branch with known elements in each frequency response of this two-pole impedance found can be first the In with SPICE. be found can MATLAB, by response R,Ci easily = = and then and the residues -l/(/?iCj), using r-, l//?j poles p-, calculating
r
= [rl
den]
r2
.. ri
[num,
= residue(r,p);
..];
[pi
p2
.. pi
..];
bode(num,den)
Chapter 6. Analog
Example 2. Impedance
Controller
Implementation
181
+ 2000)
s(s+500)
and
the
be
alternate, Foster
the zeros
elements'
are real,
values
they the
for
in Fig.
function
Y(s)
0.000001s1+0.0005
2100s1
sZ(s)
den(s) s2 +
components
+ 200,000
fraction
of the
partial
expansion
den(s)
The
- pi
s-
\302\246+ ... p2
MATLAB
code
num
[r, p]
[0.000001
=
0.0005];
den)
residue(num,
calculates
and the poles: -2000, -100. the residues: 0.7895xl0\026, 0.2105X10\026, in the fraction of Y(s)/s a term Next, by comparing partial expansion of a resistor and of a connection a admittance series capacitor
with
the
s/R we identify
Rx
R = = 1.266
the
resistors
and the
capacitors are:
= 4.75
M?2, C2 =
2.1 nF.
While
working be of
in the
and
element values R
forms
C, rather
it is often more convenient to think in terms of the than in terms of poles and zeros. In this case, Cauer
can
use.
circuit
Example 3. Considerthe
shown
in Fig.
6.22(a).
(a)
(b)
of (a)
Fig.6.22 Example
We use
in
an RC
impedance is
modulus dominant
response at lower
this
example
C2\302\253
The
capacitance
C\\
182
frequencies
Chapter6. Analog
where
f\\ its
Controller
Implementation
impedance
X\\ =
l/BnfC)
is much
R\\ =
higher
than
R\\. Starting
at
the
frequency
higher
where
X\\ reduces
frequencies,
starting
below
becomes
dominant. equals
and
At even
becomes
l/B7t/2C2)
enough
X2
R1+R2,
impedance
of the
small capacitor
the
to shunt
=
R\\
dominant.
Beyond
the
frequency/3
where
1/Bjc/3C2)
small,
equals R2,
capacitances'
impedances
= RJi^iRx
viewed as negligibly
identify
+ R2).
it is
it is
seen
that
easy to
the
elements
which need to
be
adjusted. increased at
needs
Example4. If
specific
the
total
impedance
of the circuit
in
Fig.
frequencies,
it is
/?i needs
done: at lower frequencies,Ci needs to be reduced; to be increased;over the interval I/2/3]. C2 needs to be reduced; at higher in R2 needs to be increased.In this way the loop response can be adjusted frequencies, the laboratory. The same method is convenient to use for loop adjustments with SPICE
to be
the
plot
simulation.
When
form.
the
final
version
of the
capacitors
convert
the
Cauer start
form with
some
experience,
it is
also possible to
using
the Foster
form.
6.2.2.J?C-impedance chart
A and
chart
capacitors
for calculating the corner frequencies and is shown in Fig. 6.23. Using the
for chart
laboratory
environment
where
and 10%, design).
the
accuracy
of calculation
need
not
be
the
far-away
The
chart design
for
compensator
With
design
questions
can be
instantly
what
1. If the source impedance Example will place is the series capacitance that
kfl is 100
and
the load
resistance is
total at
400 kfl,
contour 20 Hz,
resistance
is 500 kfl,
15 nF.
the
capacitance
must
the pole at 20 Hz? - Since the have 500 kfl reactive impedance
i.e.,
it
is
Example 2. If the
shunting capacitance at the the capacitance
source
impedance
the
is 20
pole
kfl,
the
load
impedance
is 20
kfl,
and
the
is 1 (xF, where is
pole
frequency
the
equals
pole
frequency?
- The
load
which
is
10 kfl.
Therefore,
it
frequency
is at
the
crossing
of the 1 |XF
line
and the
10 kfl
line, i.e.,
is 16
Hz.
design
the
of the
lead
the
that
200 Hz? -
is shunting
7nF.What
resistance
inverting compensators depictedin Fig. 6.10. of the in Fig. 6.10(a), what is the capacitance zero to be at 100 kfl resistor i?3, for the compensator with this capacitor to make needs to be placed in series
link
a poleat
1 kHz?
- 20 kfl.
Chapter
6. Analog
Controller
Implementation
1kHz
183
10k
.1
1Hz
10
100
100k
10MQ
1Mfl
100k
10
.01
.1
1Hz
lag
10
100
1kHz
10k
100k
Fig. 6.23
link
6.10(c), what
R2,
is the
capacitance
of
the
capacitor
Hz?- 7
of
is shunting
nF.
the
100
kfl
feedback
resistor
makes
for
the compensator
What
is the
resistance /?3that
link
a zero at 1 kHz?
- 20 kfl.
and
pole to be at
200
Example
5. For
shunting
the lead
capacitor
in Fig.
6.10(b),
the
is
the
parallel
connection
point
R4.
When
of the capacitor for the is the R3 = R4 = 200 kfl, it is 100 kfl. What capacitance for the resistance to be at What is the zero to 200 Hz? 7 nF. be at R2 pole compensator the same transconductance of the feedback 1kHz? This resistor must provide path at the is 5 times smaller than at the pole frequency, which this frequency as the T-branch is 5). Therefore, zero of the pole to the at dc (since the ratio transconductance In
of the compensators design in Fig. 6.10 is left as an exercise.
this
way,
is done
in
no
time.
Design
of
the
compensators
6.3
A
Analog
multiplying
compensator,
D/A
analog or digitallycontrolled
is an
it is
attenuator
converter
with
a digitally-controlled
command.
the
analog
worlds:
converter
the compensator is
by
analog, without
Fig. 6.24
for
digital
software.
attenuator)
D/A
(i.e., controllable
184
and /
in
Chapter
6. Analog
Controller
Implementation
implementation
converters that
controlled
transfer function P + Ils. There exist ICs for transfer functions with built-in D/A multiplying from an external parallel bus.
Multiplying
D/A
Decoder, latch
<*).
Decoder,latch
Multiplying D/A
Multiplier
Fig. 6.24
Analog
compensator,
digitally
controlled
can
a multiplier
control
Analog of an
multipliers
analog
signal,
be used to as shown in
change the
Fig.
gain
coefficient
of a
link
under
the
6.25
and Fig.
1.19.
6.4.1
Since
Switched-capacitor
circuits
the size of capacitorsin analog is limited by economy to considerations, circuitry the resistors must be big. However, when achieve the required large time constants, RC circuits are implemented as silicon active ICs, large resistors tend to occupy can be replaced by a circuit that substantial real As an alternative, estate. the resistor a small transfers the charge in small discrete steps. The resistor is imitated by charging it into the load using ah electronic capacitor C,/s times per second, and then discharging transfer switch. This method of charge (charge pump) is equivalent to a resistance R = l/(/sO. with transfer function 6.26 shows a integrator Fig. switched-capacitor
fsCAsC2).
dB
}U,
at 4,
at 4,
0
f,
log. sc.
Fig. 6.26
Switched-capacitor
integrator
Fig.
6.27
Change
with
in
the
frequency sampling
changing
response frequency
use switched-capacitor integrators, summers, Switched-capacitor active RC circuits is varied, all poles and zeros of the the and amplifiers. When frequency switching the frequency will transfer function response of by the same factor. Therefore, change scale without the switched-capacitor circuit will shift on the logarithmic frequency filter easy in Fig. 6.27. This makes the switched-capacitor changing its shape, as shown to tune. Bessel and filters, and switchedr Switched-capacitor Chebyshev, Butterworth,
Chapter
6. Analog
Controller
an
Implementation
185
capacitor
biquads
the
ground or to
6.4.2
As
VCC
external
parallel
bus or
by
connection
to
pins,
are available
from severalmanufacturers.
Example
of compensator
design
an example of the application of switched-capacitor circuits in control compensators, we consider a 3-input, control of a 3-output system for rejecting the vibrations a camera's focal sensors. The sensors are cooled cold by spacecraft plane finger to a cryogenic cooleras shown in Fig. 6.28. The connected thermally and mechanically cooler's vibration is counteracted by three piezoelement actuators placed orthogonally the cooler and its armature. This disturbance rejection feedback between is a system with zero kind of homing command. system,
Fig. 6.28
Control
loops
for
of a
cooler cryogenic
The modes'
by the flexible modes of the cooler armature. 300 Hz, although their exact values remain frequencies kept The unknown. modes' can be low so that the on the Bode damping quite peaks diagram can be up to 40 dB high. As can be calculated, if the feedback is as system implemented a low-pass system, the feedback of 100 cannot be implemented over a bandwidth wider
is
limited
are
over
than
5 Hz.
The frequency
is between operation computer in accordance with order to effectively reject the disturbances the system should be the band-pass type.
the
of
cooler
50
and
60 Hz.
The frequency
is
a spacecraft
the
the
system
parameter
variations,
the reliable
motor
with
3 Hz
system
of
the
cooler
as
adaptive,
adjustable.
without
the
substantial
of the feedback bandwidth is varies by 10 Hz. Therefore, the the feedback frequency response shifted along the frequency axis
can be
easily
implemented
by
the and
switched-capacitor is
shifted
constant
circuit. With the matrix, experiments show that coupling from the ith piezoelement to thejth sensor is less by an order of magnitude than the coupling from the ith piezoelement to the ith sensor. the three loops can be considered Therefore,
fairly
decoupling as an analog
matrix
with
independent.
Chapter 6. Analog
Controller
Implementation
the
three
version
and with
shown shallow
in
dB
f,
log.
sc.
Y (a)
Fig.
(b)
6.29
Compensator
the
frequency response
compensator
(a) and
block
diagram
(b)
is
diagram for
with
is shown
is a
in Fig.
shifts
6.29(b). Here, Wx
with
filter
quality
factor
have the
high-Qfilters
in
filter
quality
factor
3.
of \302\261180\302\260. These
filters seen
at frequencies
the
functional
band (approximately
low-g and
2 Hz
wide)
higher
and the
lower frequencies,the
diagram
channel
which
in is dominant
as provides
slopes
the
of the
Bode
smaller
phase shift
the
desired
Each
10 kHz,
stability margin.
of
second-order
bandpass
filter
second-order
switched
the
capacitor
from
IC.
was controlled
range
the
flight
filters was implemented using a bandpass The of sampling frequency, nominally to vary the central frequency, as computer
required, within
of 50 to
60 Hz.
6.5.1
Practical
Ground
performedby
and can be of analog compensators is simple and forgiving, a special background in electrical Still, some engineering. assorted hints and warnings are worth noting, as in the following. and noise, signal interference may result from improper Signal distortion, of a ground wire or a ground plane (a grounded of a The resistance grounding. layer is commonly very small, and for circuit is board) multilayer printed simplicity in most cases, but not is acceptable commonly considered to be zero. This assumption in all cases. Consider, for example,a power the schematic for the circuitry with supply shown in The a two6.30. includes a down-transformer, diagram Fig. diagram power
implementation
people
without
way
diode
rectifier,
a Fl-type through
RC low-passfilter
filter
to
smooth
the ripple
of
the
output
voltage,
The
and
ac
the
capacitors
the
first
capacitor.
winding
The
currents
flowing
via
transformer
several
create
voltage
drops
is relatively large, especially through tab of the the ground plane to the central are of on the ground that plane typically
|XV and
ground,
several
mV.
To reduce
should
the
voltage
variations
the
on the
analog
the transformer
tap wire
be
placed
close to
capacitors,
Chapter and
point
6. Analog Controller
and
Any
Implementation
187
second,
as
the
the rectifier
in Fig.
currents
ac
ground
shown
6.30.
extra
the
be
connected
grounds
in a
would
single
create
the
paths for
to flow via
ground
and to
produce voltagedrops.
VCC
Rectifier
ground
Fig. 6.30
Ground
for
voltage
regulator
Fig. 6.31
Grounding
for A/D
converter
In systems employing controllers, commonly, the actuator and the plant of a digital control loop are analog, The and the sensor in most cases is also analog. digital part of the with A/D sensor. The currents in the starts an converter the following digital loop than the lowest several orders of magnitude part of an A/D converterare typically larger should be made for the digital Therefore, analog signal to be measured. provisions currents not to interfere with the analog input signal. In particular, attention needs to be paid to maintaining ground configuration. proper over The digital currents should be prevented from flowing the analog ground and there of the analog ground would have producing voltage drops, otherwise different points the analog and digital different potentials. This is achievedby connecting at grounds
one point only.
within
Since commonly
converter,
the
point
analog
must
and digital
be the
grounds
are
already
the
connected
grounds
an
A/D
this
flows
as taken
shown
in Fig.
6.31.
also
The ac current
to avoid
between
via the
power supply
grounds. lines
The
be
connection
grounds
via power
power
supply
capacitors
shown
from
digital by
the
lines
should
it
must be eliminated. To do this, the blocking be connected to the proper ground points as
in Fig.
6.31.
part
In
to the
from
the ground
is commonly
the
capacitors
close to
analog
the power
IC
supply line. In
line.
part
placed
the
The
frequencies,
connect the VCC line large pulsed current are usually of the circuit, low-pass filters of the filters should be placed close to
IC
that
sufficient to consume
of
the
wires
might
introduce
ground.
Signal transmission
systems, long
In some control
connected
electromagnetic
transmitter with
the
cables.
interference.
output
sensors are far away from the controller and need to be The resulting communication link is subject to noise and of the asymmetrical transmission Fig. 6.32(a) shows signal
an
voltage
ground
Vt to
potential
asymmetrical
receiver
return
transmitter
wire. The
ground
at the input
various
to
the
potential
because of
ac
as the using common ground differs by Vs from the and dc currents from different receiver
188
Chapter flowing
6. Analog Controller
Implementation
sources
the
received
signal
through Vr =
ground
wire.
As a result,
noise
Vg.
forward
wire
return wire
return
wire/ground\"
(a)
(b)
Parasitic
Fig. 6.32
To
feedback
due to
common
ground
avoid
separate shown
errors caused by imperfect ground, is only connected to return wire which in Fig. 6.32(b). Precision amplifiers
instrumentation
better A
amplifiers. They
complete ICs.
are
amplifiers are used with a transmitter output as ground are called with differential inputs of three op-amps or, composed commonly
differential
the
at the
to the
amplifier with the gain coefficient of 2 can be built according for an schematic diagram in Fig. 6.33. The amplifier is an acceptable replacement half of does not exceed instrumentation amplifier when the common signal component the case. the VCC (so it will not saturate the amplifiers) which is commonly
yet,
2{V'-V)
10k
10k Fig.
*10k\"
6.33
Differential amplifier
sources small
Electromagnetic
the signal wires
in an analog
long
by
industrial
environment
in
into
signals
wires.
the
control
the
loop,
pair
links
the
difference
Twisting
of
external
magnetic
fields in each
the
of
the
wires,
and
these voltages
due to
their
opposite
polarity
cancel
each other at
input
to the
As
shown
interference
coils
is
rather
suppression of the
the
coil
with
high
the coil
in
impedance is small
directions
the
the signal
current
For
the
suppressing
two
opposite
producing
coil
Chapter 6. Analog
Controller
Implementation
189
(a)
(b) balun transformers to
(b)
(a) bifilar coil
Fig. 6.34
Using
to reject high-frequency
and
interference
and
reject low-frequency
medium-frequency
while
interference
using
used
receivers,
frequencies dc,
this
(baluns) can
method
be
as
asymmetrical shown
in for
Fig. 6.34(b).
Since transformers
containing
do
not
convey
is only
feedback
suitable for
systems
signals
not
dc
components
(like sensor
signals in
vibration suppression).
6.5.3
The
Some
Stability
and feedback
testing in an
issues
internal
the
op-amp
op-amps
frequencies
configuration
only
marginally
thus
capacitances
Fig.
the
feedback
introducing the
resistor in
margins.
is used as a follower. stable, especially at higher and inductances stray feedback in path as shown
6.35 commonly
provides sufficient
i
Fig. 6.35
Using in
a feedback the
resistor
Fig. 6.36
with
Reducing
the
effect
of cables
follower
on an op-amp feedbackloop
long
Amplifiers
are
often connected
input
the
Since
the cables'
and
impedances
shunt
cables.
the
cable
capacitance
instability the
the
resonances
in the
addition
cable can
of
the
op-amp
unstable.
and
The
input
can
by the
the
series
resistors
be resistor
at
the
input
output of
the
amplifier
in Fig.
into
resistor
output An tuned,
introduces
impedance. oscilloscope or
noise
and the
output
since
the amplifier
resistances
should
while
possible
tested,
can be form a
an
by
troubleshooted.
Without
misunderstood. For example,somepower at 50 MHz, if the wires connecting the the signal resonance tank amplifying
with/T
of only 2 MHz
and
can oscillate
itself
at
are
too long
their
in the
when a signal analyzer is used, this oscilloscope, small a only change in the gain and some reduction
manifest
power. (But,
the
190
Chapter
the
6.
Analog
Controller
Implementation
current
same time,
decreases.)
IC
gets
hot, the
the
power
the
supply
increases,
and the
output
signal
On the firmly
attached
breadboard, as shown
the
troubleshooting, to test
output, and some spare connectors The spare connectors will Fig, 6.37(a). at various nodes of the circuit. signals
input, in
should be
be
used
for
input
test points
output
50 n coaxial
cable
to
oscilloscope
flexible wire
oscilloscope
50H
(a)
Fig.
(b)
6.37
(a) Breadboard
reflections
the
at
with
connectors
and
(b) oscilloscope
matching
termination
Signal
measurements.
one on
cable from mismatched ends of a coaxial going to an oscilloscope the cable should be matched To eliminate the distortions, in Fig. 6.37(b) is convenient to have side. The test fixture shown the board. It matches the 50 Q cable and, at the price of attenuating the
of the probe 5 kfl which is 100 times, makes the input impedance for tasks. most sufficiently troubleshooting high While designing an experimental breadboard,it is a good practice to leave one of of changing the phase of the the for the purpose as an extra available inverter op-amps from that the sensor is the it is common sensor since signal output signal polarity quite not known or will be changed during experimentation.
measured
voltage
loops
over
by
from
some physical
plant,
especially
when
the plant
introduce
is
to
the
actuators,
or in
it
the
paths
gradually
and to reduce
the
rapidly
if
troubleshooting
options
systems
are tested.
6.6
6.6.1
Fig.
compensator of
+ Dqs/(s
plant.
a feedback
band-limited
system
with
a PID
compensator
co<q. Here,the
A
parameters
P, I,
and
D are
saturation
link is
commonly placed in
path approximating to be determined (tuned) for a specific of the integral term (and, if the plant front
differentiation
Us + P Ds for
Chapter is a
6. Analog Controller
in front
Implementation
191
double
13).
integrator,
also
of
the
proportional
term)
to prevent
windup
(see
Chapter
dB
l/s
p
qDs
\302\246
Ci
A
y
f,
log sc
C1
Fig. 6.38
s +
PID controller
block
diagram
Bode for each path of the compensator the entire Fig. 6.39 shows diagrams C\\ and The P dominates at midrange compensator. component frequencies, the component Us, at lower and the component Ds, at higher frequencies, Typically, the distance frequencies. betweenthe corner frequencies /ff and /pd is 2 octavesor more, and the compensator transfer function has two real zeros corresponding to thesefrequencies. The pole q in the is typically chosen to be from 3x27t/PD to 10x2tc/}>d. differentiator of a typical plant is convex, monotonic, and with increased slope at The Bode diagram higher
frequencies.
If the
The
plant
response attenuate
filter C-t is
commonly addedto
Bode diagram to have
with
a low-pass
the system
at
for
higher
frequencies.
concave
response of the
the
compensator
needs to
be adjusted
the loop
slope.
at
real origin and two or more additional near the Ds term at term dominates /b, frequencies, typically, poles over and the Us term at lower as shown in 6.40. frequencies Fig. 4/b, up to/t/4 frequencies Thus, P can be tuned for the feedback bandwidth, D for the phase stability margin (D-term the lags of the high-frequency poles of P and C2), and compensates phase advancepartially is used for at lower frequencies. When a step test-command /, for disturbance rejection P is tuned for the rise-time/overshoot D for the overshoot trade-off, closed-loop tuning, until it starts affecting the overshoot too much. and the coefficient / is increased reduction,
In a
system
a pole
the
the
at higher
dB
loop
gain
-6 dB/oct
f,
log
sc
For single
integrator
plant
\342\200\242\302\246-
For
double
integrator
plant
Fig. 6.40
Ranges of
dominant
terms
in PID compensators
192
Chapter6. Analog
Controller
Implementation
The PID controller for a double integrator plant uses the term Ds to reduce the of the loop Bode diagram at the crossover. When the plant has also several highthe PID controller frequency poles or a large n.p. lag, may be augmented by a fourth
slope
double differentiator. In fact, it is the industry standard for tunable controllers. The controller is easily tuned to provide robust and fairly good performance for a great variety of plants. It typically an acceptable transient response without provides or command feedforward. Several automatic based on tuning prefilter procedures tuning parallel
with
branch
a band-limited is
The PID
controller
very
popular.
the
are successfully and widely used. However, the performance of the optimal. With the same average loop gain at higher frequencies, the Bodeand prefilters can reducethe overshoot feedback, stepresponses provide larger
transient
response
controller
is not
6.6.2
In
TID compensator
PID
the
controller,
The
the vector
is larger by
diagram
at
the
each
Fig. 6.41(a).
output
3 dB than
is as
shown
in
Rg.
6.41
As
corner
frequencies
for PID
zero-slope F-path can be replaced by the tilted response T is a scalar tunable parameter. slope -2dB/oct, where of the transfer function s~m was already described in Section 5.3 and Implementation exemplified in Fig. 6.11. Bode diagrams for the T, I, and D paths' gains are shown in the band-limiting is not shown in the pole in the differentiator Fig. 6.43. (For simplicity,
in Fig.
6.42,
the
constant
gain
digram). dB
S//s
Dy Px>U
Texpl
/\\
/.
T
logsc
ho
Fig. 6.42
TID
controller
Fig.
6.43
TID
compensator
The
vector
diagram
in Fig.
at
the
components
forming the
output
output
signal
of
the TID
frequency
the
of the
signal
amplitude
is the
is sharper
the
similar
comer in the
comer
Chapter and
6. Analog Controller
Implementation
193
due to
the
slope
of the
T-term
gain
response,
the
controller
provides a better
loop
response.
Example whose the
1. Consider
PID and
a first-order
transfer crossover
function frequency
real Bode
pole
at 80
Hz. Limited
for the
therefore,
diagrams
in Fig.
6.44(a). The
controllershave
nearly
loop gain
with same
at higher
frequencies and,
half
the same
level
of high-frequency
is 4dB
than
larger
critical
frequencies
a Bode
of about step).
than
that
in the
the feedback
achievable with
dB
PID
PID
\\\\
TID
f,
log
sc
(a)
(b)
Nyquist (b) diagrams
Fig. 6.44
Bode(a)
and
The Z^plarie
is seen that
not
open-loop
the
PID in the
for PID and TID control are shown in Fig. 6.44(b). It diagrams and the phase margin is phase stability margin near/b is too large,70\302\260,
excessive
77D-compensator.
are
both
easy to
for
tune
when
control
of an
with
industrial
furnace
variable
supposed to be tuned
each
individual
given
to a high-order
compensator
a Bode
step.
6.7
Tunable
Bilinear
compensator
transfer
6.7.1
Plant
dependence
function
characteristics
of
an
the
telecommunication cable's attenuation on temperature. For the loop response to be for each of the of the environmental the intermediate values optimal parameter, for must be variable as shown in the block the diagram compensator resulting adaptive how the plant response varies system in Fig. 6.45 (and in Fig. 9.2). We assume we know the with environment so that cancellation of the changing (although not precisely, effects in an open-loop manner cannot be done).
194
Chapter
6. Analog
Controller
Implementation
\302\273cp Environment
Fig.
6.45
Adaptive
It
would
defines
system by only scalar parameter w. Here, w stands either for the variable transfer unilateral link, or for immitance of a variable two-pole. The function of linear Wiyv) is bilinear (a ratio functions) [1] and
both
coefficient a linear
(or immitance;
function
term
of
changing
of
one a
as
such
can be
expressed as
+W
F.13)
the variable impedanceof a two-pole, w\\ is the driving point the to which w If w designates the is connected. terminals impedance two-pole the transfer coefficient of an amplifier, then is the feedback path transmission -1/wj coefficient for this amplifier. to F.13) is shown The flowchart in Fig. 6.46. corresponding in Fig. 6.46 should The responses of the variable be compensator regulated not all functions of the form will do. For example,if F.13) smoothly. For this purpose, it is desired to gradually the slope of a Bode diagram from -6dB to 6dB, and change we to an and choose be a as differentiator, W@) W(\302\253>) correspondingly integrator, shown in Fig. 6.47, and only use a gain block w in series with the differentiator, then the with w to that of a differentiator response will be changed from that of an integrator a in the of from to is seen 0 as value, 6.48, but, frequency response large Fig. changed is not smooth. Win the intermediate position possesses a zero, i.e.,the regulation
If
w represents
between
dB
//s
>
w \342\200\224J
\\
Ds ->
Fig. 6.47
Block
n
t,
\\
\\
logsc
of a
diagram
of a
regulator
Fig. 6.48
Frequency
responses
regulator
regulation
can
with
called symmetrical
when
Bode
nominal
symmetrical
value
is
w
the maximum
relative deflections
of w
from
w0,
up and
cause
symmetrical
Chapter
6.
Analog
Controller
Implementation
the
(in dB)
property:
variations
in
Was
shown in Fig.
regulation
Q =
W(w0)
F.14)
dB 1/Q
r
d wto.
Fig.
6.49
of
Regulation
a symmetrical
frequency
regulator
Fig. 6.50
Flowchart
for
responses By substituting
and
symmetrical
regulator
this
expression
into F.13)
we have
F.15)
=
l+
W(w.)
(w/wo)Q
in Fig.
F.16)
regulator
The
flowchart
for the
of the
symmetrical
is shown
6.50.
The gain
201og|w|
changes
regulator
= (w/wo)
with
F.17)
w
gradually
second
component
0. The
0 to
<\302\273 as illustrated
variations second
in Fig. 6.49. The regulation of the gain response. It can the first-order term component,
wlw0
is exactly
be shown
regulation
that
for these
the gain
maximum
dominates to
for
extent
that
dependson
in
nearly
linearly
accordance
changing
available disturbancerejection of known plant parameter variations in adaptive effects systems (adaptive systems are in Chapter element can be used in place of the variable studied 9). Also, a nonlinear element w. In this case, a nonlinear dynamic link with desirable properties can be built. for enhancing the system Such nonlinear links can be employed in compensators performanceas will be discussed in Chapters 10,11, and 13.
more than 20dB. the loop Bode diagram changing compensator for the trade-offs between the system requirements, solving the output noise. It can be used to compensate the and
over
the
range
in the
196
Chapter
6.
Analog
Controller
Implementation
6.7.3
A
Hardware
implementation
Fig. 6.5l(a).
RC
hardware
implementations
The possible
are
shown
filters
in
Fig.
6.51(b)and(c).
-VW-HWV-
(a)
(b)
(C)
Fig. 6.51 (a) Symmetrical regulator implementation with (b) low-pass and (c) high-pass RC filters as 1/Q
The regulator responses with the filter are high-pass regulator can be used to vary the compensator response when Additional mostly at higher frequencies. examples are given in
shown
in
Fig.
6.52.
the
plant
response
11.7,13.5.
The varies
Sections
Fig. 6.52
Frequency responsesfor
the
symmetrical
regulator
Regulation of frequency responsescan be filters which can be made response) for However, using the filter response. gradual several coefficients which is less convenient.
impulse
performed
to
approximate
FIR
(finite
frequency changing
response
changes requires
To
and
to verify
Chapter
6. Analog
Controller
Implementation
197
is built, when the plant it can be measuredand the feedback loop tested. In all tested before the must be entire the first, cases, loop. compensator testing On the other hand, when the plant is inexpensive and easily measured, the or digital) can be designedwell directly in the laboratory while (analog compensator the and the elements the real with by measuring loop response adjusting working plant,
project,
or of analog compensators
coefficients be
in digital
compensators.
measured
when the
as
in Fig.
6.53,
tested, the
section
for
any
must be
chosen
such
this
section is
large enough
convenient
measurements
the
but
loop
not
such a
shown
signal.Typically,
in Fig.
is broken
to generate large to make it difficult the first stage C\\ of the compensator, as
6.53.
P \302\246?
tiki
|
Signal analyzer
Fig.
6.53
Breaking the
feedback loop
also depends on how easy is it control loops with separate in some systems, problem
The
choice
the
of the
load
to simulate
compensators
for
For
this is not an issue, but it can be a difficult or in magnetics. especially at microwave frequencies in the open-loop configuration Measurements of the open-loop are not response The feedback always convenient or even possible. loop transfer function measurements can be complicated feedback loops from the loop output to the loop input by parasitic at higher frequencies). Also, someplants cannot be used without feedback (especially could be or unstable, self-destructive, they dangerousto deal with. The control loops - however, need about such plants to be measured in the closed-loop configuration
perhapswith
Loop
in
reduced
feedback.
response measurements
configuration
the c,
that
the
closed-loop
require
system be
might
closed-loop
is not,
stable. If it
it still
input 1 i
i r
input
when the feedback be stable is reduced by an extra attenuator, i.e., the system is closed with smaller feedback.Injection of the signal
in Fig.
1 Signal
analyzer
Fig. 6.54
measurements
Loop response
with
into
the
feedback open-loop
loop
for
response
function
the loop
closed
the purpose
measurements with the loop kept closedis shown is the ratio of the signal at input 2 to the signal at 1 latter is to the \"reference\" of the (the input applied input analyzer). for the signal injection is shown A circuit in Fig. 6.55. The variable practical the loop gain, and the RC lead is used to increasethe test signal resistor allows reducing - as will be level at higher discussed below. The capacitance value frequencies C = 210\025//b places the zero of this lead at approximately 0.08/b, and the pole at 6.54. The
of the
loop transfer
198
approximately
Chapter 6. Analog
4/b.
Controller
Implementation
2k
rsn
Fig. 6.55
Summer
for
injecting
test-signals
into the
closed loop
If
includes
an an
analog inverting
compensator op-amp,
in
already the
with
injection can be implemented passive elements as shown using the op-amp as a summing
of
signal
a few
Fig.
amplifier.
6.56,
Fourier
and pseudorandom with fast subsequent Fig. 6.56 Signal injection using an transform (FFT) and averaging. already existing inverting amplifier Both methods are quite suitable for the loop measurements. At higher sinusoidal excitation is easy response frequencies,
implement shorter
to
and is time
appropriate.
At
low
frequencies,
FFT might
often take Still, low-frequency response measurements in when the is the or than test some desired, field, performed longer especially in operation needs to be shut down to perform the test. Part of the equipment normally is employed with constant amplitude of sinusoidal is that when the test-signal problem of pseudorandom or with constant spectral density signalsat all frequencies, signals, the dynamic range of the signals at the output of the loop becomes very large, since the loop feedback band and -20 dB at higher gain is many tenths of dB in the functional test. Then, the signal amplitude margin frequencies still of interest for the stability becomes too small at chosen so as not to overload the actuator at lower frequencies and data recovery from the noise frequencies, requires multiple runs and higher averaging.
of measurements.
An extra in Fig.
linear
link
with
introduced
the frequency, the gain increasing with at the signal analyzer generator
such as
output
that
shown
to
reduce
the
time
loop
output
required
measurements.
absence
the
of a signal analyzer,
loop
by-point,
at discrete
frequencies,
loop
with
a signal
can be
measuredpointoscilloscope.
two-input
The
output
input signal
is applied
the
of the
is applied
to one
of the
Y-inputs,
and the
signals
loop
be
seen on
scope
to the other K-input. The phase difference screen with sufficient accuracy.
between
the
can
Chapter6. Analog
Controller
Implementation
199
f,
log
sc
(a)
(b)
to be
response
corrector
the
measured
signal-to-noise
placed in
cascade
with the
correctorgain-frequency
signal source to
an addition of the circuitry shown in Fig. 6.58 two measurements. Here, loop response (optional) amplifiers increase the levels of the signals at the input and of the feedback loop. The output can be made to increase with in order to reduce the dynamic amplifier gain frequency of the range signals.
With
a sweep
generator and
a scope,
can
mechanize
the
Logarithmic
amplifier signal
generator
gain
lag
Yit
Saw tooth
Logarithmic
X,
frequency
generator
amplifier
Fig.
6.58
Set for
The
the polarity
two
single-supply
signals u2
Exclusive
sinusoidal signals
to and
comparators rectangular
u\\
as
illustrated
Fig. 6.59.
only
The
OR w3 is
serves
signal
nonzero
of the
input signals
value
is nonzero
of the \302\2534
shown
\302\2533
n\342\200\224n\342\200\224
in Fig.
is
signal
can
proportional
and
producing low-pass Butterworth active RC filter. is relatively can be identified When the plant transfer function simple, the plant often to its This method is employed by its response to the step function input. applied as is discussed below. for tuning PID controllers for chemical processes is going on open-loop, the output While the process is made steady by adjusting the command manualy. Then, a small input as shown step is applied directly to the plant
in
Mi. The
be
Fig.
6.60(a).
variable)
This as shown in
The
step produces
Fig.
an
increment
in
the plant's
time
written
ouput t&
(controlled and in
6.60(b).
parameters
are determined.
form
200
a[l +
further
Chapter6. Analog
l/(bs)](l + cs)/(l +
Controller
Implementation
are set to be: a = l/(rtd), b = 5td, c = tJ2, d = 4, and then csld) This adjusted experimentally for good closed-loop performance. open-loop and does not necessarily lead to good Ziegler-Nichols tuning procedure is not universal of PID controllers for all possibleplants. tuning
command
step\302\261
output P
Fig. 6.60
transient and
(a) block diagram A more generalapproach is of real poles and zeros, Matlab to obtain the same transient
a couple
plant
plant
model
with
a transfer
model real
function
having
with this
poles plant.
using
model,
a compensator
the desired
loop response.
6.9 Problems
(a)
Design
with
configuration.
system
the
power
in the inverting for a control compensator 1 kHz feedback bandwidth. Choose fr, and choose resistors such that does consumption by the feedback resistorfrom the 12 V power supply
an
amplifier
with
The
amplifier
gain will
using an op-amp
the
in
not exceed
3 mW.
0.2 mW.
2
with
(b) Do the
(a) Discuss
RC
same
for the
4=
100
kHz,
power
the accuracy of
implementation
of
a transfer
capacitors.
function
tolerances of resistorsand
for
schematic by- c,
by+c,
diagram
an op-amp
circuit
implementing
the
function:
(b)+ax+
(c)-ax+by-c,
(d)-ax+blydt-c,
- c,
Draw
schematic
diagram
for
100kiifeedbackresistor)
(a)-0.5x-0.2y-3;
the
circuit
implementing
(b)+2x+8y+0,2;
(c)-3x+6y+1;
(d)-4x+4jyc/f+0.3;
(e)-2.72x 0.5dy/dt
+
+0.1;
(f)f(-6x+0.4y-2)df.
Controller
Implementation
draw
201
a schematic
of decoupling 0.0443/
diagram
for
x = 0.5038*'+
+ 0.0772z'
y =
(b)
= 0.1x'
+ 0.6y'
+ 0.01z'
(c)
3x + 0.4y+0.3z
/=
x'
0.3x-2.1y+0.2z
= 2x+0.1y+0.1z
/=
z'= 0.04x+0.4y+1.9z
x'
0.1x-3.1y+0.1z
y-z
(e)
= x+
y'= ~x+ y+ z
z'= x-y+z
y'=
(f)
x\" =
-x+y+Q.5lydt+z
z'= xthe
x+ y+
6
7
Choose
(a)
10 Hz;
requiring
low
noise
in the
bandwidth:
Choose the type of op-amp to use when the and the frequency band of interest is: (a) 0 to 1 kHz; (d) 1kHzto 10 kHz.
In
100
up
to
3 W
100 Hz
to
the
compensators
(at
40 dB.ChooseRz
op-amp
configurations
higher find
in Fig. 6.10(a),(c),
frequencies
for
= 1 M?2
remaining
element
values
(a) pole /p= 5 Hz, zero fz = 10 Hz; (b) pole fp= 12 Hz, zero fz = 20 Hz; (c) pole fp = 300 Hz, zero fz = 1000 Hz; (d) pole fp= 15 Hz, zero fz = 40 Hz; (e) pole fp = 27.2 Hz, zero fz = 120 Hz;
(f) pole
fp
= 800
Hz, zero
fz
= 3000
Hz.
with
Find the
elements
Fig.
analytically
(start
resistors),
or
with
MATLAB,
or with
the
chart
9
in
6.23.
op-amp
link,
Use a
implement
non-inverting
with
ffc =
a lead
Hz,
fp fp
assuming
according to
gain
Fig.
6.9(b)
to
20
dB with
(a) fz (b) 4
= 100
= 300
= 50 Hz,
Hz;
= 150Hz;
202 (c) 4
(d)
Chapter 6. Analog
4 = 150 Hz,/p = 400 Hz; = 27.2Hz,/fp = 100Hz; (e)/z = 60 Hz, fp = 600 Hz, 4 (f)
Controller
Implementation
10
Use a
implement
non-inverting
op-amp
link,
(a)
(b)/p (c)/p
/p
a lag
assuming
with f?i =
Fig.
6.9(a)
to
11
Find
transfer
function
with
three the
with be -6 dB/oct.Designa compensator Use an initially the inverting configuration. Bode diagram, the in MATLAB or SPICE then (a) simulate response asymptotic and the positions of poles and zeros (if using and then (b) MATLAB) adjust calculate the elementvalues, or directly elements (if adjust the values of the circuit using SPICE).
and the
response
slope -4
dB/octover
using
poles range
the
be 26 dB,
gain
high-frequency
this transfer
function
12 Use the
op-amp
with RC
feedback
real
shown
pole and a
program
in Fig.
6.12(a)
zero,
and
a pair of
broad
notch,
simulations
13
Use the
Sallen-Key
FILTER1
(available
from Burr-Brown) to
following
filters:
= 0.3;
link with cut-off frequency of 200 (a) a low-pass second-order at 1 kHz; (b) Butterworth 3rd-order with cut-off (c) Chebyshev 5th-orderwith 0.4 dB peak-to-peak ripples
the
cut-off at 10 kHz;
(d)
Find
passband
and
Butterworth
filter
elements,
and
plot the
gain
response.
14
Using
multiple
from
Burr-Brown)
to design the
following
filters:
200
(a) a
? = 0.2;
passband;
gain
(c) Chebyshev
5th-order the
with
0.4
(d) Butterworth
Find
5th-order.
simulate
filter
dB peak-to-peak
filter
ripples
and
in
the
the
elements.
performance,
plot the
response.
15
Some
applications
anti-aliasing
the
contaminating
ICs filter the dc input to the output, without pass directly dc signal by the dc drift of the employed op-amp. For what are such filters especially suitable? a
16 (a) Implement
with
the
data
for
the
in
Section
Sallen-Key 6.7,
in Fig.
illustrated
6.14
in
Fig. 6.19(a).
(b) Do it
stability
Hz, main Bode diagram slope -10 dB/oct, gain slope -18 dB/oct. asymptotic Bode diagram, with the lower and the upper Bode (c) Designa Nyquist-stable loop at -10 dB dB and 15 levels filters. steps respectively, Sallen-Key using Use the FILTER1 program from Burr-Brown, or use MATLABsimulation for secondthe
loop
with
fb
= 500
margin
10 dB, high-frequency
Chapter
6.
Analog
Controller
Implementation
203
order 17
links
with
appropriate
program
damping.
to study
Use the
of
margin
FILTER1
exists
when
implement a
Bodestep.
using
Show
filter
18
Prove
that
the equivalent
simulate
with
resistance of a
the
chargepump
6.18
is
R =
1/(Cfe).
19 Use SPICEto
these
circuits
and
draw
in
Figs.
and 6.19.
Discuss
of the
how
to
make
simulations
the
MATLAB
SIMULINK.
the
20
(a) Using
impedance
(starting
plot in Fig.
6.23,
circuit
frequency
of the RC
from
directly plot plot
response
in
magnitude
of the
in
Cauer
form
Fig.
input)
on with with
response
circuit.
Using the plot in Fig. 6.23, find: of the parallel connection of 1 mF and 1 kfl; (a) where is the pole of impedance of the series connection of 10 nF and 10 kii; (b) where is the zero of impedance of 20 k?2 and 4 |xF at 300 Hz; (c) what is the impedance of the series connection needs to be connected in series with a 50 kii resistorto make a (d) what capacitor zero at 800 Hz; (e) what resistor needs to be connected in parallel with a 2 |iF capacitorto move the pole from 0 Hz to 30 Hz; connected in parallel to 100k?2 feedback (f) R and C for the series RC two-pole in inverting configuration; the transfer resistor of an op-amp function pole is at 200 Hz and the zero, at 800 Hz.
the
22 Choose ICsfor
circuit
in Fig. 6.58,
then
build
and test
the device.
23
Simulate
control (in
thrusters
with flexible
i.e.,
with
saturation
characteristic) 24
Fig.
6.12.
circuit
in
Fig. 6.12(a);
6.13. to solve
(c) Fig.
25
Problem 24.
Answers
to selected problems
1 kHz
gain
30 dB,
the closed-loop i.e., the open-loop gain = 750 kHz; ffe > 50 k?2, and R,
(a)
At
coefficient
is -25,
must
be
coefficient = 50/25
must
be 750.
Therefore, fr
> 750
x 1 kHz
=2
k\302\253.
by +5%, and of the changes impedance of a series feedback branch the coefficient increases 10%. The -5%, branch, by gain by, parallel approximately, the Because of this, the [0, -90\302\260]interval. angle of an RC impedance is within within or a capacitance of the impedance to a resistance of the modulus sensitivity (a)
When
204
6.
Analog
Controller
Implementation
less
than
1.
(d) The
summer is shown
in Fig.
6.61
R/a
c=im
Fig.
6.61
Implementation
diagram
in the
of function
is
-ax
in
+ bx
Fig.
[integral
of (y)]
- c
relevant
shown equation).
6.62.
The
resistances
are
20k
Fig.
6.62
Schematic a lag
zero
implementation
and
the schematic
in
Fig.
6.10(c)
frequency
must be
= 10
the
Ra
s 1 MQ.The
= 50. From here, f?3# Rz = 500 k?2, i.e., gain coefficient is 100/p/fz = R3. = 16 is from the condition 1/B %fzC) C nF found capacitance
10 at zero frequency, R1 = /V11 =45.5kO. (a) From the required gain coefficient At infinite the gain coefficient is 3 times larger (because the ratio of the frequency, pole to the zero frequenciesis 3), i.e.,it is 30. From this, the parallel connection of resistances f?i and fl3 is ft # R3 = fla/31 = 16.1 kfi and flb= 16.1fli/A6.1+ ft) =
25 k?2
extreme
so there is no need for a forward are designing compensator path from the equality found of calculations). The capacitance can accuracy = transfer function which of the of the the at compensator pole 1/(ffiC) f?3 frequency
(we
be
is the
0 = 21x10\"* F,
of
the
shunting
impedance
in
the
feedback
path;
C=20nF.
10
(a)
At zero
frequency,
the
gain
coefficient
is
At infinite fl2s306k?2. frequency, = (f?3 # R2 + f?i)/Ri. From 9.48 capacitance found from the
is
), wherefrom C = 400pF.
gain coefficient is 31.6/p/4 = 9.48. Thus, and f?3 = 477kQ. The here, R3 # fh = 848 k?2, condition that at the pole frequency R3 + Rz =
the
31.6 = (f?2+
ffi)/f?i
wherefrom
Chapter
7
I
SIMULATION
mechanical,thermal
topology
It
modeling mathematical
plant
systems
composed
hydraulic
elements:
elements and
of electrical,
the
is
value. The availablefeedback),the actuator output impedance needs to have a specific use of local feedback loopsto modify this impedance and, generally, the effect of feedback on impedance are considered, including parallel, series, and compound feedback.
Equivalent
the
block
diagrams
drivers, motors, and gears, to simplify Several issues are considered collocated and noncollocated control,
output
connection
connection of two-ports, like are developed for chain modeling and to make it structural. system for feedback control: flexible structures, important and the effect of feedback on the sensor noise,
noise.
to the equations describing are analogous system equations parallel links and parallel connection of two two-poles. These analogies allow as will the theory for two-pole connection to be appliedto feedback systems, developed be explored in Chapters 10 and12. The chapter ends with a brief demonstration of the specifics of linear time-variable systems. For a shortened control course, Sections 7.2.2, 7.2.3,7.4.2-7.4.5, 7.5, and 7.11 can be omitted.
of two
The feedback
7.8.2, 7.10,
7.1
Mathematical
Electro-mechanical
analogies
analogies
7.1.1
The
first step
the
in
simulating system.
latter
a system This
case,
describing
computer. topology
is to the
user
the system's elements and the input file. electrical and part mechanical, deal Control engineers with systems that are part such a system to an equivalent thermal, etc. Converting system containing only one kind of variable both the and described by only one kind of physical law can facilitate of the computer and the write-up preliminary back-of-the-envelope input file. analysis which were initially supposed to be allows the use of programs Also, the conversion as for control and like used the analysis of electrical circuits, SPICE, universal analysis simulation tools. between mechanical and electrical There exist several mathematical analogies which are those the most useful them, i.e., they preserve power, systems. Among into convert the product (voltage x current) the product (velocity x force).We will most often use the relating voltage U to velocity V, and analogy VOltage-to~velocity / to force F. current
In the describing of their
connections constitute
the
simulation
program
7.1and Example1.Figs.
is
7.2
the
show
diagram
seen
that the
topology of
replaced
specified
kj,
and
of this analogy. It are preserved, the inductors the capacitors, by rigid bodies
application
205
206
and
System
Simulation
'i
2 4
Fig.7.1
schematic
Electrical
circuit
Fig. 7.2
diagram
4, Kirchhoff's
schematic equations
correspondingly are
where
For
bodies
2 and
= 0,
where
F2 =
V2sM2.
equality
of
the sum
to
of
the
forces
zero
equality
zero
reflects
the
the
equality
node corresponds to the of equality into account D'Alembert's force). of the sum of the voltages to (relative potentials) about a contour to zero of the sum of relative velocities about the contour. Zero
of
currents rigid
to
zero
at a
at a
body
(taking
voltage of
inertial coefficient,
electrical
\"ground\"
reference.
most commonly translates the converts into inverse the mass, inductance into
coefficient. Generally,electrical converts impedance is the ratio of relative velocity to force, the mobility load by a given force is small**. and/or heavy
Table
zero velocity of the the viscous damping of the stiffness inverse into mechanical mobility. Since of a difficult to move mobility
to
of
7.1 summarizes
the
analogy
for
translational
and rotational
motions.
The 7.3(a). and a linear amplifier in
the active Example 2. Consider suspension strut diagrammed in Fig. a dashpot of a spring, viscous (a device providing friction), motor (voice coil) connected in parallel and driven by an electrical
with
the
information
obtained
the
from
are
the
force
sensor
(load cell).
and
The
not
To
accentuate
similar to
resistors as is conventional
the analogy,
springs in drawing
impedance\"
mobility.
is sometimes used to
the mobility,
and
Chapter
7. Linear
Links
and
System
Simulation
analogy
207
Table 7.1
electrical
Voltage-to-velocity
translational
rotational
voltage U (or
current
V)
relative velocity V
force
relative angular
torque x
velocity
Q.
/
Z =
power P= UI
impedance
power P = Ox
mobility
Z=V/F
Z=Q/t
body,
contour \"Lx
at a
about
node, 11=0
a contour,
at a
along
at a
rigid
= 0
along a sequence
ZAQ
through
a sequenceof
bodies,
connected bodies, of
inertia
IAV=0
= 0
capacitanceC
inductance
mass M
moment
fc)
l/(stiffnesscoefficient
l/(viscous
l/(angular
coefficient)
resistance
damping
coefficient
vibrations
strut,
B)
from shaking
of the
frequencies
of the
mobility
base should
is defined
be
prevented
ratio
the in
payload. velocities
For
the suspension
the
as the
difference
where
at its
ends to
the
not pass the vibration should should be low at lower frequencies in enough through. At the same time, the mobility of to the interest. for the motion of the base to be conveyed order Thus, the notion body of isolation and to the vibration of mobility is particularly design suspension applicable and without modulus of the with the mobility Fig. 7.3(b) exemplifies systems. force.
The
mobility
must be
large at
introducing
isolation
better.
Payload
IZI
\302\246active
mobility
passive
mobility
Load
I
cell
f,
Base
log.
sc.
(a)
(b)
suspension
strut
mobility
frequency
with
response
degrees
of mechanical For the analysis systems the electro-mechanical such as ball joints, using mechanical is still possible). For complicated
many
of freedom
at
the
joints it
analogy
(although
systems, specialized simulation programs of in the great majority FAST ADAMS \302\256 or SD be used However, should \302\256). (like with the deal with slides or control i.e., joints joints, pin cases, engineers only practical characterized each by only two variables, the position and the force or the angle and the to a joint of cascaded of a mechanical joint the analogy For these systems, using torque.
is of great help. electricaltwo-ports The voltage-to-velocity(i.e.,
current-to-force)
analogy
described
above
is
208
Chapter7. Linear
when
Links
and
System
Simulation
especially convenient
the
system
electricalmotors
micromachined
and
solenoids,
where
piezoelectricand
includes electromagnetic transducers like current creates a magnetic field which in turn electrostatic transducers (the latter are used in
the
analogy
shown in
Table 7.2
electrical
translational
V)
rotational
torque
voltage
current
U (or
/
force F
velocity
angular x
velocity Q.
P =
charge q
displacement
angle 9
power
power P=
impedance
UI
Z = U/I
power P=VF
Or
Y = through
inverseof
mobility
Y= F/I a
t /Q.
a
at a node, HI= 0
bodies,IAV=0
about
bodies,?AQ = 0
at
sequence of connected
a rigid
a contour,
at
a rigid
body, ZF = 0
coefficient fe)
body, Ix
stiffness)
=0
EU =
0
l/(stiffness l/(angular
capacitanceC
inductance
mass
moment
angular
of inertia
viscous
resistance
damping
B
7.1.2
The
heat
coefficient
heat
Electrical analogy to
electrical
flow
analogy
transfer
to
conductive
heat transfer
corresponding
is
shown
in Table
is measured
to 1.055
flow
for
Table 7.3
electrical
Voltage-to-temperature-difference
analogy
voltage
current
AT
flow
g
Zp =
power
P=UI
ATg
thermal
impedance
AT/g
at a body, ?g = 0 (not
heat
counting
accumulation
capacitance
capacitanceC
R =
in CT) CT which is
product the
of the
specific heat c
mass
resistance
dU/dl
radiation
Heat
as the
difference
Chapter
7. Linear it can
Links
and
System
Simulation
209
body
and
the
environment),
be represented by
equivalent
the
a nonlinear
including
the geometry,
area,
air flow.
to
The analogy is exemplified in Fig. 7.4 by an equivalent electrical circuit employed narrow view photocamera. simulate the temperature control of the Cassini spacecraft
and
Here, H%
secondary
Hj
heaters attached to
T2, the
the
secondary
and
T\\
represent
absolute
the
radiation
bodies'
into
specific heats
between free
thermoconductivities
of mirror. The capacitances are the products and the resistors characterize the masses, the heat sources the bodies. The nonlinear represent
and
mirrors and
0.5 x
the
case:
G2 =
VW
\302\253a^ ^2
^
a spacecraft
uc
^p
Fig.
7.4
for
photocamera
the
- the model also This circuit was simulated using SPICE incorporated and compensator. With this approach, the frequency and time responses without of the plant equations. derivation
driver
can be plotted
1. A
is filled
hydraulic system
with a
liquid
is exemplified
in
Fig. 7.5.
of
with
Here,
the
reservoir
at
of
each
volume vi node is 0.
v2 and
of the or else the system must as a system with insignificant, distributed The valve controls the liquid flow parameters). by introducing extra resistance in the pipe, or switching it on and off. The valve is operated by an fed from the driver of the controller. The plunger stem moves a electromagnet amplifier
pressure liquid in
h%
resistances
Rh Rz to
the
liquid
the
pipe
volume
mobility
Z^.
Controller
M
I
III
Ml 1/
\021 ^
Position
sensor
\"I- *1
Mechanical
Valve
load V2
J
Mechanical
Hydraulic variables
variables
Fig. 7.5
Hydraulic
system
example
210
and
System
Simulation
The dashed lines separate the mechanical variables.The power vertical dashed line. The hydraulic
on the drawing for hydraulic, electrical, and same to the left and to the right sides of the and mechanical to their diagrams can be converted electrical equivalents and connected an ideal transformer that the by preserves power and and the mechanical between the hydraulic provides appropriate correspondence variables. Then, this system can be simulated with a program for electrical circuits
is the
analysis.
An
electrical
analog
to a
hydraulic
system
is described
in Table
analogy
7.4.
Table 7.4
electrical
Voltage-to-difference-in-pressure
hydraulic
voltage
current
(potential difference) U
/
pressure difference Ah
flow
power
power P=UI
per sec,q
impedance Z = U/I
at
impedance Z = Ap/Ah
at a
a node,
U=0
= dU/dl
capacitance C
node, volume v
resistance
\"Lq
= 0
resistanceR
When
resistance
the
R =
dh/dq to h,
and
flow
of
liquid
in a
pipe is
laminar,
is proportional
the
R =
does
dh/dq
not depend
dependence
on h. However, in most applications, the flow of liquid of q on h is nonlinear, and the resistance is
is turbulent.
In
R==_
dq
ai)
q
The
devices.
design
problems
and
constraints
are
often
and
Example
hydraulic
2. Fig.
amplifier.
analogy
of (a) an
two
electrical
signal
passing a
zone in
singlepolarity
voltage
the
(which
branches,
each
operation).
A small
dead
i.e., when
quiescent mode, prevents supply the output currents of the combines signal is 0. The summer The input-output characteristic for the amplifier shown in Fig. 7.6(c) is not branches. a of large feedback contains dead zone. linear, and, particularly, By application quite the to shown is made much closer and in characteristic linear, 7.6) (not Fig. input-output times dead zone is reduced many (recall Section 1.7)., valve. The valve directs The hydraulic amplifier input is the position of the spool the liquid under pressure to the appropriate side of the plunger, thus providing output at the plunger stem. The dead zone be sufficiently large to reliably force should stop the the input the zone must be small enough for the signal is zero. Still, power waste when to be close to linear. characteristic input-output
input
current
in the
input
Chapter
7. Linear
Links and
System Simulation
211
\302\246\"
high
pressure
output
line
input
input:
output:
current
voltage
(a)
input: position
output: force
(c)
amplifier,
(b)
(b) spool
Fig. 7.6
(c) the
electrical amplifier's
input-output
difficult to implement in hydraulic amplifiers. The is different for different speeds spool valve amplifier of the action. When the output motion is slow, evena small opening suffices to provide full available but if the output motion is fast, a small nearly pressure on the plunger, to supply to the output is insufficient the liquid Thus, the input-output opening cylinder. characteristic is steep for slow motion, but the gain decreases for faster motions. These in the actuator variations limit the available accuracy of a nonlinearity and dynamics control and linearity can be improved by system using such an actuator. The dynamics local feedback about the actuator. This feedback can be implemented a using using on the application) with electrical sensor, pressure sensor (or a position depending a compensator, a power electrical (motor driver), and an electrical output, amplifier motor shaft. Such actuators are commercially moving the spool valve integrated available,and their input is an analog or digital electrical signal.
This
provision
is especially
of the
input-output
characteristic
7.2
Junctions
Structural
of unilateral
design
links
7.2.1
With
of subsystems which is composed are relatively structural design, the system large functional parts with rather interconnections between them. Structural simple design the analysis and design, and facilitates having several people work together simplifies for each of the subsystems are tailored on the same project. Since the specifications it the the such as to minimize (for overdesign prevents subsystems' requirements, for the links in the forward path can be much example, the accuracy requirements
relaxed
the required accuracy for the summer and feedback path links). It and trade-offs, troubleshooting. design verifying system performance, making simplifies for the subsystem the It facilitates redesigning since, as long as the requirements system, of the others. can be refined and redesigned independently are defined,each subsystem etc. For example, the The subsystems are composed of smaller subsystems, or connected in parallel. themselves are built from simpler links cascaded compensators the subsystems should be as simple as possible. Between The interface between in the block diagrams, the interface is the simplest: a single variable blocks cascaded link and the input of the following links. However, as the output of the preceding serves to include into the effects of loading, we have consideration in most links, physical link on the variable of the link. The of the the effects i.e., following output previous of described the notion effects of loading are conveniently using impedance.
from
212
7.2.2
Chapter
7.
Linear
Links and
System Simulation
Junction
variables
can be equivalently represented in Thevenin's and 7.7. or emf, /s is the Here, E is the open-circuit voltage, Fig. the free (unloaded) velocity, and FB is the brake force. When
source
current,
Vf
is
internal
depend
Zs is
small,
impedance
source
impedance
the output voltage (or velocity) does not and therefore is called source of voltage U is very large, the source is called source of
(a)
(b)
representations
(for
Fig.7.7
Thevenin
and
Norton
(b) mechanical
signal sources
the
voltage-to-velocity
of driving in the design While the notion employed point impedance is universally in mechanical mechanical of electricalcircuits, systems design, driving point impedance This is probably so because at a mechanical (or mobility) is used less frequently. 3 angles and than For example, two variables to deal with. junction, there could be more the 3 torques need to be consideredat a ball joint. Nevertheless, as mentioned before, with one are the simple ones, like a slideor a pin most common mechanical junctions are position (or rotation) variable and one force (or torque) variable. Thesejunctions The notion of two-node similar to connections of electrical ports. mathematically the analysis of such systems. facilitates mobility of the a preceding link (two-port) loaded at the input impedance Fig. 7.8 shows following
link. EL,
junction
is
(J
\302\246\302\246\302\246 \342\200\224
G.2)
and
the current
is
G.3)
zL + zs
t r
Driver
/
i\342\200\224i
U
Plant
Fig. 7.8
Variables
at
the
links' joint
For mechanical
systems,
Chapter
7.
Linear
Links and
System Simulation
213
vez, V =\302\246
G.4)
F=-
G.5)
zL+zs
the
When
UaE. lower
output impedance (mobility) Z$ is much lower than the input link, the effect of loading can be neglected Zl of the following (mobility) of an operational amplifier is typically For instance, the output impedance
driver's
than the
the
application
of voltage
feedback.
7.2.3 Loadingdiagram
The
voltage
across
the terminals of
the
signal
source
with resistive
load
shown
in
Fig.
7.9(a) is
U = E-RsI.
G.6)
actuator
Fora rotary
mechanical
(motor),
similarly,
the
angular
velocity
is
Q = as-Rs'Z,
where
G.7)
load) relative
angular
\\
?tf
is the
torque
(or stall
torque)
= Qf//?s>
the angular
0
brake
E
or 1
/, ort
\\
currem
/=(E-L0/W8
<b\"
u,\\l
|
\\
\\\\B)
D)
free
nl
/P=UI
/Z
voltage,
\\r
U
\302\253
S
ft u
C)
running
V
angular
velocity, Q
(a)
(b)
loading
(c)
diagrams
Fig.
7.9
for
(b)
an
electrical
inductive
linear signal
motor,
A) permanent feedback, D)
feedback
in Fig. 7.9(b) reflects equation The loading Resistance G.6). diagram shown Rs determines the slope of the loading line I=(E- U)/Rs- The smaller the resistance, the the line. The output UI varies with It becomes zero the load resistance. steeper power is small, and also when when Rh is very small RL is very large and, therefore, the current so that the output voltage is small. motor described magnet Fig. 7.9(c)shows the loading diagram A) for a permanent do not the motor linear call \"linear\" the term linear since motor is by equations (we motion The reservedfor translational curve a nonlinear motors). B) exemplifies loading with a flux winding. The slopeof this curve defines the differential diagram for a motor of the motor. The power, of the angular resistance and i.e., the product output velocity to the power in Fig. 7.9(b). the torque, is definedsimilarly
214
The
Chapter
7. Linear
Links and
System Simulation
of feedback about the motor application be cannot increased. feedback although, certainly, output power Large torque maintains the torque constant as shown does not depend on by the curve C). The torque the on the load, within the range of the and, therefore, does not depend angular velocity motor torque and velocity The of the motor with output mobility capabilities. torque feedback is large as can be seen from the slope of the loading line. The loading line for a motor with feedback is shown by the curve D); the output of the velocity mobility motor is very low. and motors, is an important parameter of drivers and Output impedance (mobility) its implications will be discussed in the next section.
loading
curve can
the
be changedby
transfer
uncertainty
Plant parameter uncertainty affects the accuracy of the closed-loop transfer function in two ways. First, directly: the variations in the closed-loop transfer function are feedback times smaller than the plant transfer function variation. the smaller Second, indirectly: the the is the that can be feedback variations, larger plant implemented - as parameter will be shown in Chapters 5 and 9. In the hypothetical case that the plant is perfectly known (the so-called full state feedback feedback is described in Chapter 8), infinite available. When, on the other hand, the plant is completely unpredictable (as in the extreme case described in Alice in Wonderland: \"-... you can balance an eel on the end of your nose\,") no feedback control can be implemented. the plant transfer Reducing is an issue of high in feedback system design. function uncertainty priority As will be shown in the examples below, the plant transfer function uncertainty mobility. Therefore, an output depends to a large extent on the value of the actuator with an appropriate output actuator must be used. mobility
control
two
The a plant whose mass M is uncertain. Example 1. Consideran actuator driving variable is the Let's consider variable) (controlled system output plant velocity. extreme
respectively.
the
mobility is much
of the
actuator
mobility
shown
in Fig. the
7.10 (a)
actuator
and
(b),
load mobility,
is much
can be
viewed as a force
mobility,
and
load
actuator
can be F
viewed as a velocity
V
1//W
->
Integrator
(a)
Fig.
(b)
7.10
Actuators
with
(a)
constant
force and
body
(b) constant
velocity
driving
rigid
plant acceleration
is a
the
force source,
the
plant
uncertainty
of M.
actuator
In
contrast,
when
plant
velocity
velocity
is a
the
plant velocity
output
equals the
velocity,
and the
application
transfer
function
is
simply 1.
the
The actuator
mobility
can be
modified by
of local
feedback
about
actuator.
Chapter
7. Linear
Links
and
System
Simulation
215
of this version Example 2. Considerthe plant depicted in Fig. 7.11. (The rotational of pointing a camera mounted on the end of a flexible boom system is the problem attached to a spacecraft.) The actuator is placed between the second body and the spring, and the position of the second body is controlled. If the actuator is a force source, i.e., its is very large, the suspension resonance does not appear on the plant output impedance transfer function response: the second sees the force F, and this force does not body only on the On the other a source actuator in a results hand, spring depend parameters. velocity profound resonance on the control loop response.
F
(orV)
L-Vk
(a)
(b) mechanical
(c)
its
Fig. 7.11
(a) Actuator
that
and
plant, (b)
equivalent
electrical
circuit diagram,
modification
in the circuit diagram, the order of the elements connected in electrical into the form (c) where one of the changed. Diagram (b) can be transformed terminals of the source E is grounded and the capacitor C\\ is floating (not connected to Similar modifications of mechanical diagrams the are not as evident. Conversion ground). from a mechanical to the equivalent electrical circuit might therefore simplify the analysis. attention also must be While choosing the actuator output impedance, paid to transmission from the base to the object of control, if this is a reduction of disturbance
series
can be
problem.
7.4
7.4.1
Examples
feedback
already
with velocity
considered
output
showed
feedback
is defined
output by made
has a
the
profound
effect
on
impedance.
What
The
measured
impedance
(mobility)
type the
is
by the
if
sensor, is stabilizedand
output not
equal
of the sensor used. to the command or voltage is stabilized, its internal (output)
the
sensor
voltage,
which
source
means
the feedback
system
is is high. If force feedback a velocity sourceis obtained. is employed, feedback and a linear combination of their force and velocity sensors are used, If both is called the feedback fed is back, compound. Compound feeedback is readings motion control systems. With in most biological and many robotic compound employed of the actuator and the of the control system at the joint the output mobility feedback, the can be introduced which makes smoother and load can be madeas desired, damping feedback interaction between various loops. A feedback loop about an actuator one measuring the force and the employed, the sensors are combined and fed back.A
sensor is 0, but very small). If a current current the a source, i.e., output represents a force source is obtained.If velocity employed,
is
depicted
other link
in Fig. 7.12. Two sensorsare of the velocity. The outputs measuring Z is included in the force sensor path.
216 The
with output
Chapter7. Linear
of
Links
and
System
Simulation
that
the link
must
have
the dimension
mobility.
V. Therefore,
the dimension
of Zis
of velocity so
it can
be summed
CA
return signal
vAf
U/B
L-
(a)
(b)
a linear
circuit
combination
Fig.7.12 (a)
Since the velocity and therefore the error
Feeding
back
of sensor
and (b) an
V
readings
equivalent
diagram
for the
junction
is small,
Z)]-
return
return
signal
signal
equals
F=U/[B(Zh +
The
the of the circuit diagram in same expression follows from analysis where the source with U/B Z is electromotive force and internal Fig. 7.14(b) impedance loaded at impedance From this that conclude we ZL, comparison large compound feedback makes the actuator output impedance (mobility) equal to the transfer function of the link Z. of the current and voltage at the junction In electrical systems, a linear combination can be obtained using Wheatstone bridge circuitry as will be shown in Section 7.4.5.
connection
the
where
(return)
the
current
in one network
can
current
impedance
in
second
wire, is
two-port
that
comprisesa single-directional
of
negative
of the
shown
in Fig.
7.13
an external
return
load
and a three-port linear system. Zl is the connected to the port with the output
impedance Z.
certainly
The feedback
depends
ratio
somehow
(examples TsT(Zi).
By
ratio
ZL=
ZL
0, the
return
3
Fig,
when
system
ratio is
The
input
can
of a impedance be calculated
feedback
using
7.13
of
Driving
a feedback
Blackman's
formula,
7@)+ 1
+ 7X\302\260o)
G.9)
where
Zo
is
the
impedance
proofs
without
the
feedback,
and
i.e.,
7.)
with
The
the feedback
formula
disconnected. (The
loop
the
are given in
Appendices 6
expresses
Chapter
7. Linear
Simulation
217
driving
calculate:
point
the
quantities
are
feedback,
and the
system is simplified
7.4.3
setting
load impedance to
0 or \302\260\302\260.
Parallel
feedback
The parallel feedback block is shown in Fig. 7.14(a). Here, the output of the diagram forward path, the input of the feedback path, and the load are all connected in parallel. to the voltage across the load. The fed back signal is therefore proportional This is why feedback is also called voltage feedback. parallel
(a)
Fig.
7.14
Parallel feedback,
(b)
mechanical
In a
reducing
the
load
disconnectsthe
loop
and makes
T@) = 0, and
impedance
(mobility) to 0
reduces
Blackman's
formula
to
G.10)
Hence,negative
can
parallel
feedback
perfect
reduces
voltage
sources,
feedback
described
in
1.5.
Such feedback is mechanical analog to parallel feedbackis rate feedback. It uses as a sensor a tachometer motor an optical Fig. 7.14(b). winding, The feedback makes the actuator a velocity sensor. encoder, or some other velocity of to the the the and source, input signal loading velocity proportional independent for in the motor which conditions. feedback can be employed, Velocity example, the tape in a tape recorder. The feedback maintains the tape velocity propagates
in
constant and
independent
A Y
of the
driver (i.e.,
tape tension.
with high input V is applied to
and
the
Example 1.
transconductance
YV).
The
impedance
from
output).
the
terminal is connected to the input terminal via a feedback two-polewith is Zs.The feedback The ZB. signal source impedance path transfer function, is no is connected to the current to the load YZS (when input output voltage, is Then, the output impedance of the amplifier
output
Z =
7.4.4
= (ZB+ZS)/(YZS
feedback
diagram
Series
A series
feedback
is shown
in Fig.
ports
are connected
218
in
Chapter 7. Linear
the load,
this
Links
and
System
the
Simulation
input is why
series:
the
output
of the
same to proportional
that
the
current
flows
through
of the
feedback path,
signal
so
ports. The
load
feedback
is
current,
i.e.,
to the
load current.
This
series feedback
to
is also
called current
the feedback
feedback.
In this
makes
impedance
\302\260\302\260 disconnects
loop
and
T(<*>) =
0, Then, Blackman'sformula
reduces
to
Z =
Zo[T@)+l].
G.11)
flux
winding
(a)
(b)
(c)
mechanical; the
Fig. 7.15
When current
(b) increases
series sources
it
impedance.
Nearly perfect
source
series
feedback. a force
kind
Such a
current
was
depicted
using torque
in Fig.
sources
1.29.
mechanical
systems,
in
or a torque
of force
source
can
be made
series
feedback are
from a commonly
providing
The
the
cable.
electrical motors, the flux winding is connected in series to the rotor as 7.15(c). The effect of the flux winding can be described by the following internal feedback mechanism. Increasingthe load, i.e., increasing the torque, increases the rotor current and, therefore, the flux winding current. This increases the voltage
In series
in Fig.
shown
drop
on the
flux
winding
and,
nearly
therefore,
constant
reduces
the
voltage
on the
the
rotor
winding,
thus
maintaining 7.4.5
the torque
and independent
of
load.
Compound
feedback
type
Compound
When both
feedback is the
17@I and
T@) +1
+1 7X\302\260o)
of feedback
when
both
T(Q)
and
the
impedance
T@)
B@)
G.12)
B(oo)
does
not
depend
on the
forward
path
gain.
feedback
at
differs
the
short
in
this
respect
from series
the
feedback.
the emf
or current
system's
circuit output
system's
impedance
systems, free
and
the
the
circuit for art amplifier with at the feedback diagram compound in Fig. 7.16. The output feedback at the input is shown is voltage connected to the input of the feedback path via the voltage divider /?], /?2-The current is sensed by the small series resistor /?3. The total signal at the input to the 5-circuit is
A output
1.
series
Chapter 7. Linear
approximately
Links
and
System
Simulation
the
219
is large,
UiR2/(R\\
to
from
the
rule
developed
feedback
according
directly
system
in Fig.
7.12, or
G.11),
the output
impedance is Ri(R\\
Fig.
7.16
the
output
an
The circuit in Fig. 7.16 is often referred to feedback since resistors R\\, R2, R3 and the output
constitute bridge,
as
implementation
impedance is connected
of
and the
feedback
impedance
to one diagonal of the B-circuit input, to another diagonal. In high-frequency bridge amplifiers, with Wheatstone or transformer is often employed to make the output bridges a cable, a filter, or an antenna. equal to 75 Q or 50 Q to match
a Wheatstone
bridge. The
load impedance
feedback Example 2. When compound employs angular velocity and torque the output of a servo motor imitates a damper of desired value. This way a and this motor is driving can be damped the control accuracy improved. flexible plant to use velocity and torque The drawback of this method is the need sensors which may rate feedback and a be relatively expensive. Using only a rate sensor with resulting driver with an is for most sufficient commonly amplifier appropriate output impedance sensors,
practicalapplications.
3. When power losses in a motor are small, the motor output mobility is - as will be to the of the driver electrical impedance output amplifier proportional of to the the shown in Section 7.6.2. Then, obtain motor, it is required output mobility feedback in the driver which sufficient to implement only amplifier, requires compound the better this method resistors. several The smaller the motor resistance, winding
Example
works.
at any formula allows calculation of the driving point impedance - which is Until now, we only considered the output port of the actuator it can be any other most for the control system designer.However, the important port, at a specified While the impedance for example, the input port of a feedback amplifier. at this port, and 7@) and feedback Zo is the impedance without port is being calculated, Blackman's
port.
specified are 7\\<\302\273)
the return
ratios
with,
respectively,
this port
open or shorted.
have
parallel
already
seen
that
the
load
impedance
affects
the
feedback
in the
cases of series
function
feedback.
Generally,
8):
the
return
ratio
can be
expressed as a bilinear
of ZL
) =
ZnT@) _JL_U
+ Z,
k_LZ#
T(o\302\260)
G.13.)
Z0+ZL
220
It
Chapter
7. Linear
Links and
ZL =
System Simulation
from
is easy
to check
that
when
0,
then
G.13),
T(ZL) =
T@), and
when
The feedback on the load makes it more difficult to design dependence systems where the load impedance is uncertain when or could the vary, especially plant is flexible and the resonance frequencies not well known. It is preferable are in this case to have the feedback independent of the load. The general condition for this is
= Z0,
G.14)
since
in this to Blackman's formula, and therefore from case, according T(Q) = T(\302\260\302\260), In order a local loop about to implement this condition, G.13), T(ZL)= T@) = T(\302\260\302\260). can be made. This loop provides the actuator the desired value of the output impedance of the actuator, this impedance as (mobility) being Zo for the main loop over the plant shown in Fig. 7.17. Sucha combination of local and main feedback is called balanced
bridgefeedback.
FVi %
*-zs }f
zL-* ,
Load
2
B
1
Fig.
7.17
Balanced
bridge feedback
two-ports
ofbidirectional chainconnection
of two-ports like electrical
the motors
Chain
two-ports or
connection
that can also be used as link depends on the load for the dynamos, gears, of an motor is affected electrical link. For the by following example, input impedance to the motor, and the gear input mobility is the input mobility of the gear connected
like
load
for a
affected by
its
load.
a pair
the
A general linear two-port is described by input variables and two output variables, like
of linear equations
equations:
relating
its
two
following
G.15)
by
the block
diagram
in
Fig.
7.18.
The inside
two-port
is represented
by four
unidirectional
Chapter
7. Linear
Links
and
System
Simulation
221
a1 I*
\302\2602
B)
'2
'1
(e)
/(zL)
r/Zs
1/21
1/2,
(f)
Fig.
7.18
Flowcharts
for
(b) a
(e),(f)block diagrams
of two-ports, of (a) a cascade connection series impedance two-port, (d) a ladder network; and voltage signal sources the ladder network with current (c) a
222
The conditions.
Chapter
7. Linear
Links and
System Simulation
be understood from the boundary that Hi = coefficient under the condition the is shorted. The coefficient b is the condition that the output 0, i.e., under port reverse direction that l\\ = 0, i.e., that the the condition voltage gain coefficient under left is under the condition that the conductance port open. The coefficient d is the output left port is open. The coefficient c is the input under the condition that the impedance
coefficients a, b, c, d can
a is
the
current
gain
output
port is
shorted.
electrical
Example 1. An
related flowchart h=
flowchart h=
are
two-port
consisting
of
shunting
impedance
Z\\ and
the
shown
and
in Fig.
UX=U2.
of the
two-port
are
li-{\\IZi)U2
2. An
shown
Example
electrical two-port
in Fig.
consisting
of series
impedance Zi
are
and
the
related
are h
7.18(c).
two-port
and
U^ZJt+U*
Example
7S with
3. A ladder
impedance
electricaltwo-port
Zs is shown
ratios in Fig.
loaded
at ZL and
excited
the
by
current
source
internal
7.18(d).
input
of the
output voltages to
currents)
for the
of 5
. Zi +z2 +z3
For numerator
(Zj
+z2)(z3
+z4
+z5)+z3z5
network
the
most
frequently encountered
and denominator dentr and denominators of the
dentr
consisting transimpedance
of
three
branches,
the
numtr
numerators
of the
branch
n\\
of the
impedances
numtr - nin^didjdi,
(when using MATLAB, vectors to be added).
an
= n%%
n$ + n\\ n-i
appropriate
number
of zeros
must
be
added flowcharts
in front
of the
The
the
flowchart
of
the network
resulting
can be
block
Zn,
obtainedby
is
cascading in Fig.
and series
current As
branches.The
flowing
diagram
shown
7.18(e);
and Zn. f/(Z,,), the voltage across impedance in the summers in the upper row represent KirchhofFs law for the currents the nodes, and the summers in the lower row represent Kirchhoff s law for the voltages functions can transfer Bode diagrams of the flowcharts about the elementary contours. 7.7. be obtainedwith SIMULINK using commands described in Section n of a link function is higher than the order of order transfer When the numerator In this case asn can the solution. not be able to find the denominator, SIMULINK might a. be added to the denominator with a sufficiently small coefficient With current and voltage summers, any circuit (not only the ladder) can be modeled if with a flowchart and modified, only a few links. required,by changing
through
impedance
is seen,
Example 4. In
source consisting
the
of
emf
replaced
by a
impedance
Z%. The
resulting
block
diagram is shown
in Fig.
7.18(f).
further
example
is given in
Appendix 13.12.
Links
and
System
Simulation
223
electrical
dc motor
is an electromechanical transducer.
motor
with
U characterize
to
the electrical side of the the mechanical load which is rotated In application to the motor,
model.
angular
velocity
Q.
equations
rewritten
%
G.15)
as follows:
can
be
Electrical
source =
kI-QJZm
(driver)
U =
and in
G.16)
in the
flowchart the
reflected Fig.
7.19.
Here, k is
conversion
the
Fig. 7.19
electromechanical
coefficient,
the
i.e.,
ratio
of the
when
is the
Q. = 0) to
mobility mobility
applied
measured reflects
current. As follows from while the electrical winding the viscous friction in the
first
is open,
bearings
is 0.
output This
of
the
rotor,
Zm= MB +
forward
Zl is the
path
l/(Js).
load
mobility.
The transfer
second
function
the
output
A.3)
of
the
link
k in
the
to the
input of the
link k
can be found
using
as
zL
_ zLzm
Z
l + ZLZm
This
is the
The input
r and the
impedance
parallel connectionof
voltage
the
load
and motor
voltage (The
mobilities.
drop reactive
typically
U equals
rl on
the
winding
resistance
the
back electromotive
is most
frequently
force kSl.
component
much
of
winding
neglected
since
it is
smaller
than
the
resistance, but in some cases this reactance must also be accounted for.) If the mechanical and the winding resistance are neglected, losses, the rotor inertia, is converted then and U = k?l so that t?2 = IU, i.e., the from electrical to x=kl power
mechanicalforms
In most
without
losses.
brushless motors are used with a applications, in accordance are switched with rotor. The stator (phases) windings magnet permanent of the rotor obtained from position sensors the information about the angle position basedon the Hall effect or from optical encoders.The encoder consists of a disk on the on it and several photosensors motor shaft with specific patterns placed on the printed The encoders to read the printed information. and separated by specific stator angles can alsoserveas angle sensors for the feedback path. The sensors are described in more detail in Section 7.9.1. ac current generated by dc motor can be driven A permanent by sinusoidal magnet ac controlled of the current are to ac inverter. The phase and the frequency by a separate the or the information about rotor angle a sensor either rotor feedbackloop, using angle extractedfrom the currents and voltages in the motor windings. of rotation causes k on the angle The periodic dependenceof the coefficient
low-power feedbackcontrol
periodic
diagram,
variations
in
the
motor
torque. To
model this
k path.
effect
branch
in the
includes
system's block
a multiplier
a parallel
branch
can be
added to
the
This
224 to whose
the
Chapter 7. Linear
Links
and
System
Simulation
the shaft angle is applied via the function afcsinmp, where a is of the the shaft is amplitude torque variations, <p angle, and n the number of A rotation. similar branch added in with the path 1/Zm in torque ripples per parallel can 7.19 be used to model the in motors. Fig. holding torque step is Higher power dc motors have both rotor and stator windings. The stator winding often referred to as a flux The motor can be controlled current the winding. by varying in either winding or in both windings. relative
second input
mobility
in Fig. 7.19, the motor output transmission from Q to x. The
the flowchart
of the
mobility link
Zou,
raot
can
the
be calculated
inverse
as
inverse
1/Zd,
which is
of the
mobility
output impedance
is
of the r)/^
driver
amplifier,
should be
connected from
U to
/. The
Zou,mo. =
(Derivation
(Zd +
G.17)
of this formula is requested in Problem and a small 21.) When r is relatively voltage driver is used,the actuator output mobility is low and the actuator approximates a velocity source.When the plant is driven by a velocity source, the angular is velocity constant and independent on the load and friction. The effect of r can be compensated using a small sensingresistorin series with the motor. The voltagedrop on this resistor is proportional to the voltage drop on r. By and applying it with proper of the driver this voltage phase to the input amplifying a an extra feedback amplifier (i.e., by making compensating loop), voltage at the output which has the same and opposite phase is created of the driver amplifier amplitude on the to thus effect of r. The sensing the r, voltage drop compensating compared should be temperature or some additional be added resistorshould circuitry dependent, of the to compensate for the temperature resistance. dependence winding be analyzed can and designed with Blackman's formula The same circuit by
with the output impedance equal to -r, thus amplifier making creating a driver Zd + r = 0 and Zoutmot = 0. in the compensating The feedback bandwidth loop is limited by the winding can be analyzed with the multiloop inductance. The system stability Bode-Nyquist of two-poles and/or with the Bode-Nyquist criterion for connections criterion, [2].
7.6.4
Piezoelements
Piezoelement
analyzed
actuators can
the
be
Electrical
using
following
equations:
source
dV
(driver) 1
I4] b
Mechanical
load
F = aU +
reflected
Fig.
7.20.
in the The
flowchart
shown
in
Fig. 7.20
output
Piezoactuator flowchart
coefficient
the
a is
of zero
velocity, to
measuredunder
It is the ratio
reverse
condition
the
incident
V
direction
coefficient from
to
is clamped. i.e., when the output voltage. The coefficientb is the / while the input is shorted. port
and
System
Simulation
under
225
that
of the
c
output
mobility
the condition
the
input
the
is the
that the
output
port
under the condition of zero output i.e., when velocity, the output is clamped. It is the ratio of the clamped force to the incident The voltage. coefficient b is the reverse direction transmission coefficient from V to / while the input The coefficient d is the inverse of the output mobility is shorted. under the port condition that the input is The is the shorted. coefficient c electrical input port port conductance under the condition that the output port is clamped.
The coefficient a
is measured
is clamped.
due
the
hysteresis
Figs.
hysteresis 7.19
and the piezoactuators possess some hysteresis Most and the piezoelectric material often, the properties. is small and can be neglected. If not, it can be modeled by introducing links (described in Chapter in the diagrams in 10) into the elementary links and 7.20.
ferromagnetic
gears
are typically are input impedances of driver high, i.e., the amplifiers amplifiers The amplifiers are characterized their transconductance voltage-controlled. by = Is/Ui with zero impedance load) or their coefficient YT (measured voltage gain = K EIU\\ (measured and with no load); here, U\\ is the voltage at the driver's input, t/2 is output.
amplifier
Evidently,
flowcharts
K=
FT
Zd where
in
Zj is
the
output
impedance
are shown
Fig.
7.21.
(a)
(b)
Flowcharts
(c)
driver
and at the the
amplifier
(d)
output
Fig. 7.21
Example
for
(c) a
(a), (b) a
driver, emf
with
impedance
E =
Zd,
motor
current
(d) a
voltage driver
the
angular flowcharts
load
1. In
output of
driver
U\\K.
The
or included
the obtained by cascading equations the motor in Fig. 7.19. With the motor mobility neglected to variations in the angular velocity Q. and its sensitivity
from
dQ.
Q=
l
and
It is
dependent
velocity
ZL
in the
the
ISOI
load
needs
mobility
to be
(which
includes
sensitivity
dynamics),
important
i.e.,
small. The
on Zd.
to choose and
implement Zd
properly.
The
sensitivity
it when
is
226
Chapter
+
7. Linear
Links
and
System
Simulation
small (recall Example 1 from 7.3, the description of the effect the effect of of r in Section 7.6.2, and the actuator impedance described in
IZa
H is
Section
1/n
> \302\273(T)
Section
A
7.5).
flowchart
with
Vn
for
the
an
turn
transformer
shown
ratio
the
electrical n is
(b)
for
and a
with
flowchart
Fig. 7.22
V.n
Flowcharts
for
velocity
transformer
and
(b) a
ratio n,
the
The resistance of resistance of primary winding being r\\ and of the secondary, r2, the total equivalent = is r For the + a mechanical friction the viscous r\\ rilr?. primary gear box, equivalent coefficient for the motor output motion is B = Bx + B^n2. The composite flowchart of a driver and a motor with an attached gear box is a cascade connection of the three corresponding flowcharts.
Fig.
7.22(b).
driver has voltage gain coefficient 10 and output impedance + Q . 0.25?2. The motor winding impedance is 20 0:0003s and the motor constant is 0.1 Nm. The motor rotor's moment of inertia is 0.02 Nm2. The gear amplifies the motor torque twice, i.e., the gear ratio, the load angle to the motor angle (or, the load angular to the motor angular is 1:2. The losses in the gear and bearings make velocity velocity), B = 0.01Nm/(rad/sec). The load's moment of inertia load is 0.2 Nm2, i.e., the mobility is 5/s. The model for the driver, motor, gear, and load assembly shown in Fig. 7.23 is a cascade connection of the models in Figs. 7.21, 7.19,7.22, and the load. driver and Since the output of the the of the motor winding impedance impedance in series, the model the value of the link are connected can be simplified by changing and + 1/0.25 = 4 to 1/B0.25 + 0.003.S) the link 20 0.003s. eliminating
Example
2.
The
friction
torque
Fig.
7.23
Block diagram of
actuator
cascade
connection
of
driver,
motor,
the
gear, and
plant
load
not J\\
Example 3. The
rigid: (which
inertia
of the
which is
of inertia
the
torque
the body
and
with
moment
reflects
J3
and
the motor),
with
an
antenna
via a
shaft
torsional
stiffness
of
Z
Therefore,
which
is the
input
51s in Fig. 7.23 must be replaced mobility the of electrical ladder impedance equivalent IT-type
load
Chapter
7.
Linear
Links and
System Simulation
three poles:
about \302\261;A/jb,(/,+
227
This
mobility
has
two
and \302\261j^k21J3 ,
poles 0L is
J3)/
JlJi
in
and 0.
transfer
will bring
a pair
of complex actuator.
poles
gear.
the
the
angular
velocity
mobility
of the
of the
output of the
These
damped
by the
output
7.6.6
Coulomb
Coulomb friction
friction
is modeled
on
by the
block shown
Vis
shown
in Fig. in Fig.
friction
force
FCouiomb
the velocity
7.24(a). 7.24(b).
Plant
F
V
lynamics
Coulomb
uoulomb
p^
k
f
V 1 ^Coulomb
friction
Coulomb
friction
3*
(a)
Fig. 7.24 Coulomb friction and characteristic
(b)
model
Fig. 7.25
Model
system
model is commonly incorporated in the plant model as a feedback path 7.25. In this composite to the plant, applied plant model, F is the force and the difference between this force and the Coulomb friction force is applied to the is also shown in When the is not a pure summer actuator 7.23). (the Fig. plant dynamics can be included in the model as force source,the inverse of the actuator output mobility link. a feedback path in parallel with the Coulomb friction In Fig. 7.22, the model with viscous friction B, Instead of this of a gear was shown a Coulomb friction link can be placed. The Coulomb block (or, parallel to this block), link can be also placed parallelto the link 1/2^ in Fig. 7.19. It is seen that when friction is small, the link 1/2^ will dominate and the effect of Coulombfriction be will Zja on the greatly depends negligible. It is seen thereforethat the effect of Coulomb friction shown
The friction
in Fig.
actuator's
surface
output
mobility.
1. When a rigid is dragged over another rigid body with a rough body causes oscillation (with some soft spring, Coulomb friction re-arrangement In this case the actuator's a violin). of coordinates, this is the case of playing output the force source. However, when is large, and the actuator is a nearly pure impedance occurs. no oscillation is that of velocity,evidently, source
Example by a
7.7
A
Examples
system
of system modeling
can be
in
of the system elements and the topology by in MATLAB and mathematical SPICE), equations (as (as of The use of flowcharts simplifies the organization many other computer languages). in the flowcharts The equations the mathematical description of the system. expressed via a graphical can be entered in the input file of a computer simulation program \302\256 and some other control software packages). interface (as in SIMULINK model
described either
or by
their connections
Example 1. A
SIMULINK-like
model
of a control
system
using
a brushless
dc
228
Chapter 7. Linear
motor
Links
and
System
Simulation
permanent magnet
is shown
in Fig.
ideal
7.26.
motor
torque
Voltage
driver
command back
Motor
winding
Motor
Product
Plant
<p
constant Friction
dynamics
1/s
emf
position
admittance k3
constant
(mobility)
feedback
Motor
model
Quantizer
[f
k4
Fig.
7.26
Block diagram of
a control
system
The system includes an input with voltage output, a voltage a compensator summer, driver as a voltage controlled source of voltage U, a brushless permanent dc magnet with a position motor with motor constant k, a plant model, specified mobility, a friction a quantizer (since an optical encoder used as the angle (angle) feedback including the and cogging as periodic and the of motor variations models sensor), torque t the The is on angle <p. applied to the plant, the output dependencies output torque
force is subtracted from the driver's angular velocity is Q.. The back electromotive output voltage U, and, divided by the motor winding resistance r, produces the winding motor current /. The torque t is the ideal by the motor torque (current multiplied the are variations, constant) from which cogging torque, and friction torque torque the output to the input signal. The subtracted. SIMULINK can provide time-response to SIMULINK analysis tools (signal source; oscilloscopes; plotters; multiplexers are not shown in Fig. 7.26. Their use is described in the provide data for the workspace)
manuals.
inport
the
can be found
\"Connections\"
as
follows:
disconnect
attach
library)
bode
to
the
command
outport
to
loop
and
type
in the
MATLAB command
; response
window:
[A-,B,C,D]=linmod('file_name')
(A,B,C,
by
D, 1)
applying
can be
obtained
the same
matrices
program
is
feedback
of the
A,B,C,D
8.
of system description are illustrated with an 2. The two methods below A with a in coil actuator of shown 7.27. voice isolation a vibration Fig. system example and load cell sensoris placed between two flexible bodies with mobilities Z\\ Zj. The of the voice coil should reduce source is on the second body, and the actions vibration has sensitivity the vibrations of the first body. The load cell together with its amplifier and the is characterized coil 1V/N, The voice by the coil resistance r = AQ. = a 3 N/A. The is lossless downk coefficient's electromechanical coefficient equivalent with the turn ratio of 3 (the ratio of the primary to the secondary transformer windings).
Chapter
7. Linear
Links
and
System
Simulation
229
Fig. 7.28
electrical and
shows
to
the
the All
equivalent currents
Body 1
schematic
diagram.
left
voltages
of
the
vertical
electrical
Load cell
in amperes
line,
and
volts;
of
the
they
newtons
and
represent velocities
cell
to the
VC
an
ampermeter,
voltage be
in this
source. coded
Fig. 7.27
input
Vibration
isolation
system
case, a
current-controlled
The schematic
into the
file
of SPICE.
Loadcell
electrical
side
Voice coil
mechanical
side
Fig.
7.28
Equivalent schematic
a flowchart
diagram
for
a vibration
same
isolation system
It can
driver
description
Zout
for
output
the
system.
be used, for
amplifier.
with
SIMULINK.
Here,
is the
impedance of the
force
to be
by
vibr
velocity
of
body
second
Fig.
7.29
Flowchart
feedback
system
of
The software,
depends
on
the
and,
availability
simulation
on the
system links,
to a
the driver designer's personal preferences. If, for example, amplifier and should not be changed, the compensator C is implemented then probably flowchart simulation with SIMULINK designer is a mechanical engineer, will take less time than simulation with SPICE. If, however, the driver needs amplifier with the compensator, the compensator to be designedand optimized is simultaneously is an electrical engineer, then the design and probably analog, and the designer is easier to perform using an equivalent simulation electrical schematic diagram and
SPICE.
230
Chapter
7. Linear
Links
and
System
Simulation
7.8
Flexible
structures
of a that are
lossless
the
system and poles of a driving imaginary and alternate frequencies, there could
point on
zeros
impedance
of a
lossless system
zero and
responses
in Fig.
7.30. At
frequency
purely at infinite
the jco-axis,
a pole
as
or a in
IZI
IZI
be either
are
zero.
Mobility
where IZI is falling, and 90\302\260 where Figs. 4.36, 7.31. The angle of the mobility is -90\302\260 is rising. The low-frequency reflect and the high-frequency asymptote asymptote either or inversely proportional to frequency. It is seen that being proportional
of non-dissipative
flexible plants
exemplified
in
Fig. 7.31(a),
the
high-frequency
asymptote by by
is shifted the
springs
asymptote
the
from the low-frequency rigid body mode, i.e., by which are considered stiff
is
the at
The
by All
high-frequency
the other
body to bodies
which
incident
are disconnected
from
very
this
body
since
large
at high
become
s-plane
121,
dB log, sc.
dB
f, /,
log, sc.
yrx
(a)
Fig.
7TYX
(w
a lossless
of
7.31
scale: of a lossless system, logarithmic Driving point impedance (mobility) and a zero at infinite (a) having a pole at zero frequency frequency, and a prominent (b) with zeros at zero frequency and infinite frequency,
suspension mode of
the
It
asymptote
can
be
calculated
by the square
commonly depends on the actuator drives a massive on a spring, the pole-to-zero of the sum of the masses
smaller body, asymptote.
the
closer
pair lifts the high-frequency the zero This ratio to frequencies. pole in the flexible mode. If, for example, an mass participation a small additional mass is main from which body suspended ratio of the flexible mode equals the square root of the ratio to the mass of the main of the body. The smaller the mass and the smaller is the in the shift is the pole to the zero
that each
additional
zero-pole
ratio
of the
to the left of the jco-axis. As a Structural the poles and zeros displaces damping of IZI become smoothed. result, the peaks and valleys on the frequency Still, response the the losses in mechanical can beso small that without dampers peaks systems special reach 40 and even 60 dB over the smoothed responseof the mobility.
7.8.2
Distributed
Lossless distributed
structures
structures
be approximated
by
can
lumped
element
structures
with a
large
Chapter7. Linear
number
Links
and
System
Simulation
231
of elements
as shown
in
Fig.
7.32(a)
and (b).
(a)
F,x
1\342\200\224
(b) z
If
AAAr
AAAr
AAAr
f,
log so.
Fig. 7.32
(a) Distributed
structure,
parameters,
with
lumped
Correspondingly,
an
a distributed
infinite
number
zeros,
as illustrated
far
in Fig.
7.32(c).
These polesand
signal and the high-frequency
parameters,
signal
can
reflected
resonances are
in
and therefore,
physical
in uncertainty becomes a criticalfactor 4. as has been discussedin Chapter The wave impedance (mobility) (mobility) is the input impedance extended so that no signal reflects at the far end and returns structure to infinity lossless distributed structure The wave impedance of a uniform the input. resistance
the
of the incident interference of the structure. The frequencies of structure sensitive to small variations of the uncertain. This are to a large extent systems, bandwidth the the of available feedback, limiting end
as producedby
of is
the
back to
the
= p 1/y/kM , where k
The
and
are the
stiffness
and
the
mass
of
structure.
plot of
at
IZI
in logarithmic in Fig.
units is
commonly nearly
about
the wave
impedance as shown
the
7.32(c).
at some resistor (or, if end means loading the structure to the wave impedance the with mechanical, equal impedance (mobility) of the structure as extending to In this we can think of the structure. case, (mobility) the structure the wave of and the equaling input impedance (mobility) infinity,
Matching
far
at
a dashpot)
impedance (mobility).
the signal source and the structure is provided when at either end Matching mobility of the structure. can be considered a result of resonances of the structure fully damps it (since the if at either end no of the structure, and of the waves reflected at the ends interference no resonances take place). reflection occursdue to matching,
Matching
between
the
signal
source
output
mobility
equals
the wave
Example 1. A
panel
sun.
attitude
making
solar motor constant k is employed to rotate a spacecraft to the direction to the / to keep the panel perpendicular wave resonance frequency is ft. The spacecraft quarter This can be achieved this resonance. can be improved by damping control by the motor output equal to the solar panel wave mobility mobility approximately motor
with
p. The driver.
desiredmotor
output
mobility
can be
created
by
compound
feedback
the mobility using the We calculate In electrical transmission lines, the phase
voltage-to-velocity
electro-mechanical
is 2%fx(lc)m
unit
where x is
At
the
length
and
are
the
inductance = nil
2itfIx(lc)m
per
length.
the quarter
= 4xfT.
Then,
the
wave
impedance is p = (llc)m =
wave resonance,
232
l/DcxfT).
inertia
Chapter
7. Linear
Links and
System Simulation
which
The
J.
ex is
the
full
capacitance
and
of the line,
driver
is analogous
to the
moment of
Hence,
p = l/DJft)
the
the actuator is a pure source of force or current), and the (or torque, sensor is connected to the same port of the plant but reads the variable which is related to the actuator variable by the plant driving point impedance (mobility). The transfer function is in this case the plant driving point impedance or admittance plant
feedback
(mobility or
mentioned
the
inverse
of mobility).
was
already
in Section
point
4.3.6.
impedance (mobility) of a passiveplant the function is constrained within
are the
The driving
real
(p.r.),
and the phase angle of of p.r. functions (Properties the controller design and
reviewed
in Appendix
simplifies
stability
provision.
actuator operator
in Fig. 7.33(a), the shown Example 1. In the mechanical arrangement source and the sensor measures angular velocity d%/dt (or a linear torque the velocity, such as position or acceleration).
is a of
Shaft
, Zs
Load
(a)
(b)
is a
(c)
case
with any of the sensors, is collocated torque source, control of collocated back signal; (b) block diagram control; (c) the of the actuator is finite; control is is considered in Section 7.8.4; the output mobility sensor collocated when sensor <pi is used and is non-collocated when <j>2 is used
the fed
In the
shown
in system.
Fig. 7.33(b),
the
the
plant
transfer
P =
<p/t
is the
of
the the
mechanical same
Since
the torque is
be
before
and after
<p2 is used. with
shaft
flexibility,
will
remains collocatedeven
if there will of the torque
when
the sensor
(The control
moment
not
be collocated
the
an additional
rigid body
substantial
of inertia at
point
application.)
to
the
structure have several may ports of a passivelossless is not constrained. As functions phase shift of the transfer this shift reduces the available feedback. phase be placed and the actuator cannot always The sensor
driving
point lossless
mobility,
transfer
functions been
between
different
the
has
shown in Chapter
4,
For example,
exactly at the same location. for might be placed closer to the load. accuracy, force (or torque) source, an ideal the actuator If the plant were an ideal rigid or body, as shown in Fig. 7.33(c), the control is the control would still be collocated. Otherwise, collocatedwhen the first sensor is used and is not collocated, i.e., the actuator and plant
better
control
the
sensor
Chapter
7. Linear
Simulation
233
when the second sensoris used.In this case, the as an approximation of the reality, the only valid a limited bandwidth. over approximation only being frequency With of the shaft connecting the motor and the load, to the flexibility respect the arises between of the mechanical structure and frequently designer misunderstanding the control loop designer about the of the statement: \"Higher meaning frequency structural than the frequency range of operation.\" The modes are much higher structural soundness over the working designer is mostly concerned with the structural frequency
transfer
function
is
not,
generally,
p.r.,
control
can be
called
collocated
range and
bandwidth
might
underestimate
only
factors: (a)
stiffness, the
the
is proportional to
must
shown Trying structural
the
root of
the
and
be many
times wider
than
functional
mode frequency structural (b) the control feedback loop band of the system (as has
as
been
as inexpensiveand
structures
lightweight
as possible,
within
with
structural
modes
falling
the
feedback bandwidth which the control system from achieving prevents This is why the control system designer/dynamicist needs to be involved
high
structure
the
design
changes
required
must
able
to
to evaluate
the
real in
available
system
feedback. Introducing
performance.
structural
damping
greatly improve
control
The dampers
can be built
the The
eddy
structural
currents.
Using
modes.
Coulomb friction, using allows a substantial dampers dampers are, however, relatively
using
system
cost,
weight,
and dimensions,
the
dampers
hydraulic energy dissipation, or reduction of the effects of and to constrain the expensive, must be well justified by the
j available
performance improvement.
7.9.1
For
Motion
sensors
7.9.1.1
position
Position
(or
and angle
sensors
sensors
angle)
commonly
employed:
and
(c) accelerometers.
variables' measurements, three categories of (a) position sensors, (b) rate (i.e., velocity)
sensors,
are
sensors,
and
For position
angle
the optical
linear laser
variable
interferometers,
differential and
provide
with
with the
position
accurate potentiometers
resolution The
are universally
0.5\302\260.
moved can tap mechanically by the plant of 0.1%. Less reading accuracy and linearity used in small servos for radio-controlled toys,
LVDT
shown in Fig.
windings:
7.34(a) measuresthe
the
position
of the
plant
the
of
with
respect
to
two
opposite and
phases applied
windings to
providing detector
which
a signal
from a
output
voltage.
is a
to a
of
this
voltage
and
the generator
the output
of
the
which
detector's
234
output
Chapter 7. Linear
is proportional
Links
and
System
Simulation
from the central
to the
third
winding
displacement
position.
plant
sincrt
__j
LJ
. \342\200\236
Synchronous
detector
coscct
(a)
(b)
Position
Fig. 7.34
sensors:
(a) LVDT,
(b) resolver
The maximum stroke of common LVDTs is from 0.1\" to 1\" with pretty good of precision LVDTs can be 1 rnicroinch. There also exist linearity, and the resolution ICs are available which all rotary versions of the device. incorporate Specialized necessary electronics. The resolver shown in Fig. 7.34(b) is a rotating transformer. It has two stator and two rotor windings. an ac signal is applied in To a pair of these windings windings can From the signal induced on the two other windings, the angle of rotation quadrature. be determined with high accuracy. The optical encoder was already briefly described in Section 7.6.2. The encoders can be absolute, with complicated which at any time give on the disk patterns optical about the shaft angle, or incremental, with of full information patterns simple black incremental be and lines. The encoders must accompanied alternating transparent of the counts. incremental encoders Quadrature by some electronics keeping track have two 90\302\260-shifted readers. This improves the accuracy by a factor of 2 and also gives of rotation. Interpolation of the data from the readers information about the direction
additionally
improves
twice
accuracy.
phases
target, The
and
of the
and
incident
reflected
from when
a mirror
interference
the
distances with
use modulated
The
counts
interferometer
less
laser light with the the fringes of the can measure large
nanometer
light
Less accurate
precision
expensive
interferometers with an
beams.
star
tracker
is a
small
telescope
equipped
image
recognition system.
7.9.1.2 Rate
The
sensors
most often
is a
the
tachometer
and the
the
gyroscope. The
can
tachometer
be only a windings in certain rotation angle tachometer is winding the tachometer is proportional to the motor angular velocity. In contrast to the resolver, able to detect the angle of rotation when not the rotation irate is very low since in this is below the noise level. case the signal on the tachometer winding The a a position servo loop. An electrical is with rate-gyro gyroscope winding
mounted on
the
same
shaft
as the
on the motor's rotor or stator; separate tachometer winding brushless motors which are disconnected from the driver during The emf on the intervals, can be usedas tachometer windings).
motor
Chapter
7. Linear
Links
and
System
Simulation
235
generates a torque
the
in position of the gyro to the base. The current of the is proportional to the base winding output signal gyro; this current velocity (i.e., the rate of the base rotation). The rate signal is analog. A/D angular the data interface with the rest of the system, but it loses some conversion simplifies For these reasons, it is common to use both information. the analog higher-frequency and digital outputs the gyro. from preserving
the relative
is
the
7.9.1.3
Accelerometers
use
The accelerometers
devices.
electromagnetic,
piezoelectric,
magnetic
piezoresistive,
proof
and
tunnel-effect
In an
spring.
coil
Motion
of
the base
relative to
the
the
proof
mass
surrounding
is mechanically
a servo feedback loop which by This force creates accelerationnearly electromagnetic proof applies to the base the mass acceleration so remains still relative to the base. The proof equal force in accordance to Newton's second law is the measure value of the compensating
is kept
constant
force to
the
mass.
of
the
the
acceleration.
a suspended proof mass and, via a servo loop, kept constant this force by some (e.g., current in the coil or a voltage of the acceleration. An example electrostatic of force) serves as the measure producing in Section an accelerometer control loop is given 11.9. A set of three accelerometers can be used to determine of the vector orthogonal the inclination a of vehicle. force and, therefore, gravity
There
position
exist many different types of which is measured by force. The signal producing
of accelerometers using
sensor
some
the output data is post-processed, motion are interchangeable: when sensors allow us to translate suitable integrations and differentiations between rates, positions, and accelerations. The principal difference between them is their dynamic accuracy domain characterization, their noise or, with the frequency characteristics, spectral the mean square error can be calculated The noise and power density responses. by of the spectral density with linear frequency of scale over the bandwidth integration
interest.
an accurate steady state value of the position, but Position sensors typically give the decreases when For it takes position changes rapidly. accuracy example, to identify dim stars in a star tracker, so considerable time to accumulate enough light of the spacecraft on which that this sensor cannot react fast to the position the changes star tracker is mounted. On the other hand, gyros have drift (slow and gradual change in and therefore do not determine the position the reading caused by device imperfections) accurately after some time passes from the initial setup. Gyros are worse in position than the star trackers at frequencies from 0 to 0.01 Hz, but get better at determination higher frequencies. At even higher frequencies (say, from 15 Hz and up) the gyro noise
their
accelerometers
become
superior.
sensor
noise
spectral
density converted to
236
Chapter
7. Linear
Links and
System Simulation
dB
position
sensor/
/
\342\200\224\"\302\246\"
accelerometer, f,
rate sensor
log sc.
Fig. 7.35
7.9.2 The
Frequency response of
of feedback
sensor
noise
normalized
to the sensor
input
Effect most
common
the
(which is
first
noiseis commonly
A feedback
of
the
error
amplifier
and of
noise
sensors. The
loop
the
reduces
the
and
the
change
and
ratio of
to the
the
noise at
signal-to-noise
the
system
often
convenient
to examine
ratio
feedback.
the system is a caveat here: when is compared with and without performance the system should not be changed in any other aspect. Particularly, when the effect of the sensor noise is calculated, the transmission coefficient from the output to the system output sensor should remain Therefore, the feedback loop unchanged. should be disconnected betweenthe system not between the output and the sensor input, in Fig. 7.36. and the feedback sensor output path. The differenceis shown
feedback,
sensor noise
(b)
Fig. 7.36
As was
Disconnecting ratio
the at the
feedback
system
1.1.2, the
loop while (a) preserving the the ratio output, (b) changing
signal-to-noise
mentioned in
disconnecting
Section
preserved
system
while
the loading for the disconnected ports must be feedback path for appropriate comparison of the
with
and without
feedback.
Chapter7. Linear
Links
and
System
Simulation
237
an
amplifier
feedback
path
from
the
the
emitter
input
of
the
stage
to the emitter
of
stage.
by
The
feedback
R2=
the signal-to-noise ratio not of change in the feedback, but because in the input contour the resistance because and increases which reduces the signal increases the noise. When the feedback is eliminated by ratio improves /?i = 0, the signal-to-noise setting
\302\260\302\260. This reduces
loop can
be
disconnected
setting
since
contour
in
this
case
the
resistance
Fig. 7.37
an emitter
Amplifier
with
path
in
the
input
feedback
decreases.
onto
the
are.loaded If, however, both disconnected ports of the feedback path the the that each sees when loads feedback is to closed, port path equal or without the feedback. noise ratio remains the same with
loads
signal-to-
7.10
7.10.1
Mathematical
Feedback-to-parallel-channel
Fig. 7.38(a) = (T+l)E=FEas
here it
follows
U
'
CAP
\\ET
CAP
m
(a)
T
(b)
between with
system paths.
this
paths.
The formulas
feedback
and
A.1), represents
the ratio ElU. When 17*1\302\2731, then introducing the channel \302\253 In all the this way, features of the feedback U*> ET and UJU -\\IB. A.1), equations A.2), and A.3) are apparent. This can be employed to analyze or simulate of system (a) when responses analogy this system is unstable and system (b) is stable. We will use this analogy in Chapter 12.
A.2), the
and A.3)
remain
valid
for
two
system
When
which has no
I2\"+1I>1,
of
7.10.2 Feedback-to-two-pole-connection analogy the A.2), and A.3) also describe A.1), Equations of depicted in Fig. 7.39(a). The transfer functions
Ohm's
signals
the
law.
voltage
the
U\\
applied to - U2 U\\ = U
second
reflects
the
first two-pole produces two-pole voltage drop U2. summer in the feedback loop.
applied
to the
in the two-pole connections links in block diagram (b) recite causes current /, and this current
The
contour
equation
238
Chapter
7. Linear
Links and
System Simulation
u
r>\\f
iP Lj?j
I
(a)
(b) (a) a
Fig. 7.39
This
Analogy
between
large
the
feedback
second
condition
two-pole
result,
is
that
\\Z4\302\273 Il/J^l,
i.e.,
the
impedance of
the
first
two-pole.
As a
the
transmission
calculations: /= U/(l/Yi of a system with large the feedback path transfer function. The can be employed to analogy electrical two-poles for stability analysis in Chapter 10.
the current
is much larger in magnitude than the impedance can be second two-pole neglectedwhen considering to the + Zi) = UlZq. This is analogous closed-loop is the input divided feedback where the output
of
by
use
the
passivity
condition
will
of a
use
network
of
of feedback
systems. We
this
analogy
time-variable
links
(LTV)
When
are described
the
by
linear
equations
the
signal
applied
to
input
of
to might
necessarily sinusoidal,and
componentsare applied to the link input, LTV links of digital compensators this section we will consider Mathieu's
d 2yldt2
which
of a linear time-invariable harmonics. When several sinusoidal contains intermodulation products. the output In 5.10.7. have already been analyzed in Section
higher equation
+ (a
+ 2.ecos(r))y
=0
an LTI
G.19)
is representative
this
e = 0,
with oscillation
the
system
LTV systems that might be encountered in practice. If lossless resonator,the solution being a sinusoid is on the 4a . The solution boundary between selfangular frequency and the exponential decay. The time-variable coefficient2ecosfchanges a behavior: some combinations of e and lead to solutions which are
of some
equation
describes
exponentially system. A
rising
instability
with
time,
stability
and
other diagram
combinations shown
equation
The
Ince-Strutt
into
the
areas
of
Stability and
in the
plane of the
parameters.
is shown in Fig. 7.41(a). system described by Mathieu's equation 2ecosf certain of the signal harmonics in the LTV link Intermodulation produces to the at its these Addition of passing COnJpOBgnts components signal through output. at the summer's output. When the the LTI link a alters the phase of the signal the coefficient ? is large, the system is unstable with nearly all possible a, as seenfrom feedback
stability
diagram
in Fig.
7.40.
Chapter7. Linear
Links
and
System
Simulation
239
(a)
(b)
by Mathieu's
(c)
equation
Fig.7.40 Ince-Strutt
An
Fig. 7.41
diagram
resonators
electrical
circuit
equivalent
to
the
feedback
system
is shown
in
the
diagram
in
equivalent
mechanical
system,
frequency
in Fig.
of
7.41(c). The
time-variable
resonator. This pumps the the resonator. For example, on is preserved, the voltage is reduced while the charge when the resonator capacitance to the is increases the capacitor increases and the stored energy (the energy proportional can be changed and the energy pumped frequency square of the voltage). The resonance of mass of the swinging resonator into the pendulum body up (c) by moving the center and down. LTV links depends on the phase The phaseshift for the passing signal in periodical while of the incident signal. Therefore, conditions, the worst possible stability analyzing This all possible case needs to be consideredamong signal. phases of the incident of the the link shift. in the However, results in some uncertainty uncertainty range phase when available feedback. the reduces transfer function Therefore, potentially loop the When LTI plants, it is generally appropriate to use LTI compensators. controlling in the 5 or in in digital described like are LTV Chapter systems systems compensators of a certain in search for a maximum where the compensator parametersare varied is reduced. feedback performance index, the available can be chosen to be LTV a controller about an LTV plant, To increasethe feedback less the loop transfer function is in such a manner that dependenton time (i.e., when the
periodically changes on average over the the
length
the resonance
of the
cycle,
in
or
out of
plant
gain
increases,
the compensator
variations
gain
In adaptive rate of
in the
9),
LTV,
than
the
but
typically,
the
compensator
in time is
the
chosen much
dynamics
the
lower
the rate
dynamics
of changes
that
the
critical link
part of the
feedback
system
(i.e.,
limit
are
and affect
substantially
analysis
stability
margins).
In this
case, the
links
for the
purpose of stability
from
can
be considered
LTI. Such
links
called
quasi-static.
the
current
LTV links. We
stability.
will
use
this
approximation
can
be seen
as
analysis
of process
Chapter7. Linear
Links
and
System
Simulation
1
2
Why
is
it convenient
analogy?
to preserve power
while
choosing
the
type
of electro-
electromechanical
variables are at
(b) a pin,
(c)
positioning system, planes (e.g., one plate sliding arbitrarily of two electrical circuits, (e) a two-wire junction circuits, (f) a three-wire junction of two electrical of two electrical circuits. junction (g) a four-wire
an x-y
(d) sliding
on the
3
4
What
are
the
equivalents
thermal
of Ohm's
law
for
translational
and rotational
mechanical
systems? For
What are the equivalents of Kirchhoff 's laws and for heat transfer systems? analogies)
Draw
the
electrical
and
shafts to
6
Plot
Fig.
7.42(a),
analog circuit for the rotational system in Fig. /&, and for the thermal system
responses
the
in
the
or equations Derive the function equations Lagrange using or use SPICE. to an equivalent electrical circuit, and use MATLAB, corresponding (d) Same as (c)for the case Ji = 10, Ji = 24, J3 = 2, to = 0.01, Aj. = 0.02.
(e) TJP
for
system system
the
system
of transfer functions: in Fig. 7.42(a) for the case Mi = 100, to = 2, A4 = 5; in Fig. 7.42(a) for the case Mi = 50, to = 0.2, A4 = 50; in Fig. for the case Ji = 20, Jz = 3, Js = 12, to 7.42(b)
= 0.1,
the
system
in Fig. 7.42(c)
for
the
case
flT
= 2.72,
C=
100.
1 **.
M,
V, 2
(a)
(b)
(c)
systems
Fig. 7.42
7 8
Draw
Examples
of dynamic
an
equivalent
electrical
G.2)-G.5),
circuit for
show that
cooling
if
a power = 0,
IC with
fe,
a heat
sink. Zl = ~, U =
/ as
Using
equations
4.
then / =
and
when
E..
In
Fig.
7.9,
the loading
U)/Rs-
Express
function
of
a.
plant
10 The
is
actuator output
MATLAB
a rigid plot
mobility
to
What is the
plant
is 0.01. The friction coefficient body, M=50kg. The viscous Use is (a) 1 (rn/sec)/N; (b) 5(m/sec)/N;(c) 10(m/sec)/N. the frequency response of the actuator together with the plant. transfer function uncertainty at 10 Hz? function
11
The
plant
transfer
is the
ratio
of the
force appliedto
Chapter
rigid
7. Linear
Links
and
System
Simulation
output
241
is (a)
actuator with
12
body,
1/(siW), 20
kg < M
< 50
mobility
to plot
uncertainty?
the frequency
response of the
with
1(rn/sec)/N;
plant.
What is the
a
response
kg
The
rigid
body, 20
output
< M
actuator
for
mobility
to
plant. Make a
of the actuator,
conclusion
cases
about
stiffness
mass
of the
plant
actuator
impedance
on the
13
formula
to
the
calculation
of the actuator
output
mobility
in
14 Calculatethe input and output impedances of the circuits is 10,000, its input the amplifier's voltage gain coefficient
output impedance
initially,
diagrammed impedance
in Fig. is
circuit,
7.43;
disregard
this
simply add
low. For circuit (d), while very the impedance R3, calculate resistance to the obtained result.
is
calculating
the
of the
simplified
(a)
(b)
(c)
of feedback
(d)
Fig. 7.43
15
Examples
amplifiers
the main Fig. 7.44.
Determine the
the
plant)
loop about The driver's output is small for voltage drivers and large for current drivers. output mobility (at the load) for cases (c) and (d).
output
mobility
of
the
feedback
feedback
16 The
in
output
impedance
of the
feedback
amplifier
shown
in
matched
these
to the
resistors
in
50 Q.load. Find the resistors R\\, Fk, and R$ such that are not to be excessive and at the same time the
the
of
the
circuitry
direction
of the
feedback
path
is
not
too
large (make an
engineering judgment).
17
combinedto
output
actuator
mobility
provide of
is 1 V/(m/sec), the force sensor gain coefficient sensors The sensor are in volts). outputs are feedback about the actuator. What is the large compound the actuator? What are the outputs of the sensors when the
gain
coefficient
of
both
output
is (a)
242
u
Chapter
7. Linear
Links and
System Simulation
u
Motor
Shaft
A
Motor
>->
Rigid
plant
n.
i i.
Gyro
Optical
angle
encoder
(a)
'Shaft
U Motor Load
(b)
-Shaft
Motor
Load
Tacho
meter
Load
al
Load
cell (C)
cell
(d)
Examplesof
mechanical
feedback
systems
ratio is of a translational actuator is 40(m/sec)/N. The return mobility + the is a force sensor is employed (i.e., when when 100/(s 30) output only ratio is (a) 300/(s + 200), (b) 30/(s + 10),(c)8/(s+ 0.3), when clamped). The return no load is connected to the actuator). (i.e., when only a velocity sensor is employed Plot the Bode Find the the load is a 20 kg mass. function when loop transfer
diagram.
19
In
the
specifications
V/sec\021.\"
of
brushless
in Fig.
motor,
what
it
is
written: parameters
one
\"M
= 72ozxin/A,
ke = 0.5
they
Make
a good
flowchart
guess about
these
are, and
k.
how
correlate
with the
7.19 where
there is only
20
impedance magnet motor has k = 0.2 N x m/A. The driver output the free run angular load mobility is fli. = 0.8 (rad/sec)/(Nxrrt), 100 rad/sec. What is the voltage of the source? The break torque? Rs =
is
k= 0.1 Nxm/A,
k = 0.24
N
x m/A,
25 n, flL Rs = 6 Q.,R\\_
(d)Sarne
S2f
for
rad/sec.
k= 0.5 Nxm/A,
= 850
21
22
the
output
magnet
mobility of a
electrical
motor.
a flowchart of
of
a
emf
permanent
10Nm per 1 A
the load mobility negligible.
the
current
and output
in
the
winding,
mobility
the
the
output
motor that produces torque of resistance 10Q. being of the motor when the source
winding current
impedance (i.e.,the
impedance
is 0.12
(rad/sec)/(Nm),
is 2
the
motor
A, are
23
Draw
load
connection of a
driver,
a motor,
a gear, and an
inertial
the
voltage
gain coefficient 5
and
the
output
impedance
0.5 ?1.
Links
and
System
Simulation
243
is 2S2 and the motor constant is 0.6 Nm. The motor Nm2. The gear amplifies the motor torque four times, to i.e., the gear ratio, the load angle to the motor angle (or, the load angular velocity the motor angular is 1:4. The losses in the gear and bearings make B = velocity), 0.04 Nm/(rad/sec). The load's moment of inertia is 0.4 Nm2, i.e., the load mobility is 2.51s (rad/sec)/(Nm).
resistance
rotor's moment of
inertia
is 0.5
gain coefficient 30 and the output impedance 5Q. is 30 Q and the motor is 0.15 Nm. The constant motor rotor's moment of inertia is 0.15Nm2. The gear amplifies the motor torque ten times, i.e., the gear ratio, the load angle to the motor angle (or, the load angular is 1:10. The losses in the gear and bearings to the motor angular velocity velocity), make B = 0.08Nm/(rad/sec). The load's is 0.05 Nm2, i.e., the moment of inertia
the
voltage
resistance
load mobility
is 20/s
(rad/sec)/(Nrn).
24 (a) Design a control for a motor similar in Fig. to that shown 7.26 where system is 4, the plant resistance function is 55/s, the transfer k=0.3, the motor winding sensor is 12 bit encoder, the torque variation model path is 0.1sin49, the cogging model path is 0.05 sin 49, and the crossover frequency is 12 Hz. (The values are in Use a current driver. Use SIMULINK. m, kg, sec, rad, N, Ohm.) Design the compensator and plot Bode and Nyquist diagrams with the function linmod. (Make the design using a PID controller and the prototype with Bode step given in Chapter in position time commands 4.) Plot the output history in response to step- and ramp for initial part of the responses and for estimation of the scales, using different the ramp command. Study the effects of Coulomb accuracy of the velocity during and the motor torque variations on the accuracy and viscousfriction, the cogging, of the output and position velocity. k = 0.2, the sensor is a 16bit encoder, the torque variation (b) Do the same when is sin the 0.06 89, path cogging path is 0.02 sin 80, the crossover is 20 Hz, and the driver is a current source. k = 0.9, the sensor is a 10bit encoder, the torque variation (c) Do the same when sin the is 0.04 160, path cogging path is 0.05 sin 169, the crossover is 6 Hz, and the driver is a voltage source.
25
26
What
of a
What
between the driving is in common linear system: the poles, or the zeros,
are
point
impedance
and the
transfer
functions
or both?
the
Can
properties
the
of the
when the following
driving
system?
negative?
derivative
of the
What
happens
of
not zero?
impedance
27 Indicate
(a)(s2+2)(s2
which
the
the
be
an
of
a lossless
two-pole, and
+ 4KS2 + 5)s]; (b) (s2+ 2)(sf+ 3)/[(s2 + 40)/[(s2 + 3)(s2 + Sis]; (c) (s2 + 2)(s2 (d) (s2+ 4)(S* + 40)s/[(s2 + 2)(s2 + 20)]; (e) (s2+ 4)(s+
the
path
MATLAB:
40)s/[(s
+ 2){i
28
Will
feedback
system
parallel.
output
change
when
the
29 (a) A
the
capacitor
an inductor
are connectedin
What
is the
equivalent
of
return ratio?
Chapter7. Linear
Links
and
System
Simulation
the parallel connection of a about (c) Same question about the parallel connection of a
the
capacitorand
resistor
a resistor;
and
an
inductor.
is the
system
composed
of two
function
parallel
for the
what
analogy
to
31
What
is the
condition
How
connection feedback
of two
theory,
twousing = 1.
32
Redo
the
equations
selected
and block
problems
in
diagrams in
Figs.
7.38
and 7.39
for
the
case
of B
Answers to
are small, we can directly motors relate mechanical electrical and the two-port variables at the opposite port, to the output impedance of the preceding output impedance is nearly proportional and its input impedance is nearly to the input impedance of the link, proportional
good to
following
link.
(a) Three
diagram
freedom)
and three
torques
must
7 The
shown
in Fig. 7.45.
capacitances
of
The collectortemperature
one the
be
below
certain
temperature,
is
they
during
need
resistance of radiation
the heat
SPICE
sink
by the
collector
case
heat
sink
r-AAAr-rAAAn\342\200\224i
radiation
c
Fig. 14
T^
T l\\
convection
7.45
Electrical equivalent to
heat sink
Z= ffe/10,000.
can
27 (a) The
impedance.
poles
alternate, therefore
function
be a
driving
point
Chapter
8
I
INTRODUCTION
TO ALTERNATIVE
DESIGN
METHODS
OF CONTROLLER
and compares them with the methods This chapter surveys several important design Bode approach presented in the previous classical chapters. The methods discussed in law control this use linear time-invariable compensators and produce linear chapter index. These alternative methods may which is optimal according to some performance of them are readily and software be encountered in industry, packages for many of the basic ideas. here is cursory, with brief developments available. The treatment
8.1 QFT
The
term
Quantitative
contributor
feedback
to
theory
by
Isaac
Horowitz, theory
the major
for, QFT. QFT relies on domains, uses prefilters and frequency simplified relationships the desired to closed-loop loop compensation responses, considers sensor noise provide and provides sufficient Most of issuesand actuator nonlinearities, stability margins. these issueshave already been addressed in the previous chapters of this book. The QFT theorists aim to extendthe Bode methods to handle performance issuesmore precisely, and they augment them with somewhat different problem additional formalizations, and extensions time-variable and to cover MIMO cases, linear statements, plants, between
theory. (Some of his contributions in this book.) QFT is a frequency-domain the basis to be a part of, and methods
the
control
design
have
methodology
the
and
time
nonlinear problems.
For simplicity we consider the QFT design of a single-loop The tracking system. an acceptable set of input-output transfer functions which design begins by determining This set is defined by upperand lowersatisfy the tracking performance requirements. bounding frequency responses. The idea is to design loop compensation and a prefilter so that the input-output transfer remains function for between these bounding responses all possible plant variations. (Disturbance parameter rejection requirements can be handled the loop compensation and a prefilter can be implemented Since similarly.) with the focuses on the variations of the closed-loop gain negligible uncertainty, design due to plant parameter variations. The QFT specification for the design of the loop takes the at form: each of a certain set, the compensation following frequency C0j in the closed-loop gain variation should not exceed a^ dB for all possible plants defined the of the The tolerances are the ax uncertainty ranges by plant parameters. gains C0j. spanned by the upper- and lower-bounding responses at the frequencies To the specification, it is first necessary to calculate the plant transfer satisfy function for all possible parameter values at each of the frequencies C0i. With the allowable the transfer function maps to an area on the parameter variations, plant to be P-shaped and the same at all frequencies in the example L-plane, which happens shown in Fig. 8.1. The shape is characteristic of the effects of parameter variations on the plant transfer function is referred to as the plant and actuator is (The template.
included
by in
the
shifting
the on
location
transfer at each frequency is defined function to a location. With the template in a particular plant template proper the Nichols chart, the gain curves indicate whether the in IMI variations
plant.)
The compensator
245
246 satisfy
8.
Alternative
Methods
design requirement. If not, the template is shifted until the difference the minimum and maximum gain is exactly a,. In the example shown in variation is 6 dB. Supposethat the tolerance is a\\ = ldB. From Fig. 8.1, the original gain the lines on the Nicholschart it is evident how the template must be shifted. There is a continuum of such shifted templates which the design requirement, and the edges satisfy or cornersof the shifted templates with minimum closed-loop gain form the minimum
between
performance
in Fig.
8.1.
Fig.
8.1
Nichols
chart
forming
the
performance
boundary
B(coi)
For each
boundaries Fig.
of the
frequencies
Ofy
at which
the
the system
L-plane,
S(cOj) must
be plotted on
as
shown
8.2.
L-plane
gain
180\302\260
phase
Fig. 8.2
An
additional
high-frequency
With
bound is included to
in place,
the
guarantee
system
stability
and robustness.
the
boundaries
next
step
is to
search for a
Chapter
8. Alternative
Methods
the
247
rational
compensator
transfer
minimum
function
such
that
loop
gain at each
of the
frequencies
the
a>i will
be just
over the
performance
boundary.
At frequencies near
zero-
and higher, the compensator gain is shaped to follow the stability boundary. The design is performed by trial and error or by using specialized software. Finally, a is which corrects to achieve the the desired prefilter synthesized response input-output is negligible.) the prefilter's uncertainty contribution (Remember, response. It can be shown that a solution to the QFT the always exists, although problem feedback the bandwidth be best resulting may unacceptably large. Generally, design is while the taken as that which has the smallest feedback bandwidth minimum satisfying
dB crossing
boundaries. departs
QFT design
Bode
philosophy
from
the Bode
approach in
the
following
areas:
while satisfying the (feedback) approach performance constraints on the high-frequency due to plant features and loop asymptote the and noise. inverse variations, QFT parameter high-frequency pursues problem of providing the minimum the feedback minimizing acceptable performance while is just rather bandwidth. The QFT-designedsystem is not the best possible, but
is to maximize the
and disturbance rejection response reason: the cost approach for the following between differential controller and the very best available is The controllers differ with the cost of the system. compared generally insignificant resistors and capacitors or a few lines of code, and perhaps a few by several only of work by the control engineer (if he uses the Bode days approach). Improving the on other components of the control law might also relieve some of the requirements This may in the entire system better and cheaper to manufacture. device, making of next affect made the the of the turn decisions about generation development to reduce the It makes little sense to lower the just system. system performance identifies the constraints on the feedback bandwidth. The Bode approach and determining later the bandwidth rather than minimizing bandwidth upfront, it is still too high. there is little whether the difference, (Whatever philosophical well trained in QFT can resolve these trade-offsand design doubt that engineers good enough to
satisfy
the
closed-loop
specifications.We
prefer
Bode a substandard
the
high-performance
\342\200\242 The
controllers.)
nominal
QFT
worst-case
the performance design is focused on satisfying the and plant parameters, neglects optimizing not
the
multiple
than
be an
plotted,
QFT
is far more
complex
stable
Bode
QFT and
handle
time-variable,
with
8.2
Another
methods poleplacement
the
plane
the
roots
The multiplier
method root-locus uses plots of the and to design of the loop gain coefficient
exists root
location
in the
the
complex
constant
loci
to choose
loop the
compensation. open-loop
from
An transfer
by computer.
248
Example
Chapter 8. Alternative
1.
Methods
Consider
lead
a control
poles
system
with
plant
30).
P(s)
= 100/s
actuator
100/(j +
With
100) and
the loop
T
compensator
just those of
origin
open, the
+ 3)/(s+
are
the
= CAP,
this
i.e., a
and
poles at -30
analysis, coefficient
double pole at
-lOOrad/sec.
-80
For
suppose k in
that there is
which
a
is
variable
gradually
gain
the loop
increased
coefficient
1.
As
the
gain
move
-120
-
closed-loop
-40
be
\302\246 -80
coefficient
past the
value
of 1. In the
example,
into
when
k reaches
3.56,
some
gain
stability margin is
to
the right
half-plane. The
root
for
robustness
system is
margin
are
margin
still
determine
the
loci.
and
The
even
guard-point
from
stability
is
not.
phase
stability
margin
this
the guard-point
the
phase
guessedthat
distance
of the
is where
roots
jw-axis
would
practical
very
be a
close
good
the
of is
not
counterto
jco-axis
fact,
but
system
is quite
robust
It is also not
it is zero
evident from the root locus whether the system is well designed. In not. It would be instantly seen from the Bode diagram that the pole and the in the compensator are in wrong and the phase and gain guard-point places,
stability
The
balanced.
design proceeds by trial and error, searching for compensation and a suitable loop gain which brings the closed-loop poles into desirable locations on the system is examined for a locations? the s-plane. What are desirable Usually pole is of the closedor which that the \"dominant,\" meaning step-response pole pole pair this these poles. the a with or resembles of system just pole loop system step response sufficient into areas on the with The is to move dominant the s-plane design goal poles the transient be with sufficient distance from the origin for to and fast, response too close to the to excessive not (The overshooting. joo-axis) prevent damping (i.e., is not factored other system poles into the design.) Meanwhile, possibility of a prefilter
must
be
monitored
the
for stability.
makes
When
system label
is
discussed
the precise location of the an a priori decision about as is referred to sometimes although this pole-placement, poles, of MIMO often reserved for state-variable feedbackcontrol systems as will be below. A common choiceis to place the closed-loop poles in a Butterworth designer
the method
filter configuration.
allow the is that it does not of the root-locus design method inadequacy is the best available. In how close the to to addition, judge system performance designer no convenient rulesexist for designing problem good high-order compensators. Another disturbance is the complete lack of visibility into rejection. Finally, low-frequency is difficult from to determine in the nonlinear mode of operation system performance the root loci. (As we shall see in Chapters 9 -11, the Bode and Nyquist diagrams enable of these Because the to deal effectively with common nonlinearities.) designer
A
major
Chapter8. Alternative
deficiencies,
The
Methods
249
is not recommended for control system design. the root locusmethod locus method can be valuable for the analysis of the effects of certain on and on the variations stability, nonminimum-phase lag in the link parameter several links Sections 3.13 of and 4.5). Also, (see parallel minimum-phase composed root locus plots make very impressive presentations for high-order systems that have methods. been already designed well using other root
8.3
From
State-space
the
methods
control
classical
perspective,
transforms.
linear Of
control
transfer
by
course
of
equations.
system
by
equations
into a set of first-order of equations can be transformed intermediate variables where necessary. The introducing
following
state
space
x = =
Ax +
Cx,
B(u + r),
(8.1)
(8.2)
is the input or control A is The square matrix of the system without the dynamics and and plant). B is the control-input matrix,
of state-variables vector (column) and y is the vector, r is the reference, output referred to as the system matrix. It describes
where x is a
(or states),
vector.
feedback
(i.e.,
be
C is the
It may
output matrix.
to think about helpful A would be nxn,
how
dynamics
of
the
actuator
a SISO
n
system
would
fit
into
this format.
The
order of the combined system actuator/plant transfer function. The control-input B would be a column matrix matrix of length n the scalar which distributes control input among the state derivatives. The output matrix C would be a row matrix of length n which reassembles the scalar (which is a output the representation function of time) from the states. Note that is not unique, but depends on the choice of states.It is customary to try to choose states that to some correspond
matrix
where
is
the
system.
the
notation is that it is easily generalizedto multistate-space the matrix dimensions. For example, a twosystems by changing B that is nx2 and an output matrix input three-output system would have a control-input matrix C that is 3 x n. The feedbackloopsare closed when the second component in (8.1) is added to the state vector. In state-space formulation the control u is a linear combination of the
multi-output
states:
m
= -Kx, gain
(8.3)
matrix.
where K is the
The closed-loop
system is then
described
by the
equations
x=
y
(A
BK)x
+ Br,
(8.4)
(8.5)
to
Cx.
To be more
can allow
the
general,and
to
conform
to the convention
directly
adopted
by
MATLAB,
matrix
we
D
control
affect
the
output
by
introducing
the
and
250
rewriting
y
Chapter 8. Alternative
(8.5) as
=
Methods
Cx +
Du.
of the
(8.6)
feedback
system is
shown
in Fig.
8.4.
Fig. 8.4
block State-space
diagram
of a The
feedback system
open-loop
The open-loopsystem x = Ax
y
corresponds
to u
= 0 in
(8.1).
system becomes
(8.7)
= Cx.
the
(8.8)
open-loop
plant is
the
pure
double
integrator
1
(8.9)
that
the actuator
transfer
function
is
unity).
The open-loop
system
could
be
represented
y
as follows:
x,,
(8.10)
x,=x2,
(8.11)
x2=u.
(8.12)
is the
Hereu
= 2,
vector consistsof a position-like and a velocity-like state x = [xi and A, B, C, and D are as follows: 0 1
input and
is
the
output,
both scalars
(functions
of x2f.
time).
The state
Per our
notation,
0 0
B=
is
we
C=
important
Z)
(8.13)
since
systems
are
A,
had
manually
entered
command
the
B, C,
The
following
would
in represented this way and D matrices for our then produce the open-loop
frequency responseplot:
bode(a,b,c,d,l)
Chapter
8. Alternative
Methods
know
251
that
the
The last
response case has
argument
is
output
letting
(all
of the
we're
case)
to
first
to output). This may seem like a lot of overhead of a calculate the frequency the matrices are response double-integrator. Fortunately, other For instance, the usually created by programs. block-diagram-oriented SIMULINK has a function which creates the appropriate A, B, C, and D linmod, only one
input
and
analysis:
= linmod('model_name')
the
gains
kx
and
k2 are commands
obtainedusing
the
MATLAB
frequency
system
appropriate
connections
in the
SIMULINK blockdiagram
The state-space closed-loopdesign problem is to choose the control matrix K to the desired closed-looptransient with the (We response, might already disagree an of such since the desired is not approach obtaining closed-loop response practicality the only nor the main purpose of closed-loop control in practical systems.) for choosing K, some implications Before we discuss the possible of the strategies An implicit assumption is that the states x are be noted. notation should state-space somehow availableto be plugged into (8.4) and fed back to the input of the system. For this is often referred to as full-state feedback.In a typical control reason (8.4) of sensed system, the order of the actuator/plant combination exceeds the number must be estimated states outputs, making full-state feedback unrealistic. The missing the available ones; this is discussedin the next section. Another feature of the using is that it does not allow compensators state-feedback framework whose order exceeds In our example above, (8.4)restricts the compensator the order of the actuator/plant. = + A is to function to consist of a single unrealizable zero: work-around k\\ k2s. C(s) to include some as is the state vector of the dynamics, compensator typically expand version of the PID. done to add integral control in the state-space is inherent A with the to the more insidious state-space approach problem the linear matrix rather than a of a set of differential representation system by equations functions. This draws the designer's attention from the block diagram of transfer away elements of the control system, along with their limitations and imperfections, physical and focuses on matrix algebra. instead with The state-variable can be to various degrees mixed conventional approach
obtain block diagram
design methods.
block attitude
Example2. The
position x (or the
body
diagram
in Fig.
many
for
control
rigid-
of
angle)
the
in
space
parameter uncertainty.
sensor
the
those
in
having
these
systems
quantization
actuator
and
noise. The
force
the
is
considered
rigid, the
control), integrator.
acceleration is proportional to
transfer
function
A is
a constant,
the
252
Chapter
8.
Alternative
Methods
*\302\246 k.
HZ
\302\246\"\302\246com # i , I 1 j , I 1 I 1 I 1 I
XE 1
_ Ag
\\
*-_
K
r--|
!
I jV
m
encoder
, i ' x
]
I
I
plant estimator
Fig.
8.5
control
its
SISO
position,
(b) and
velocity,
and
(c)
obtained
by
The positioncommand xcom, and the velocity are forwarded with differentiation, appropriate
and
acceleration
commands
gain variable
coefficients estimates
Lv,
position,velocity,
A
acceleration
summing
the
points.
plant
plant
estimator
(filter)
sensor.
generates
The
the readings are related to the The Bode C.13). responses integral phase lag responses gain by of Lp and smaller than that of La. The filter bandwidth of U, is wider than the bandwidth cutoff must be sufficiently low to extensively attenuate high-frequency frequencies sensor noise components, but not too low since, first, the filter distorts the output signal the filter phase lag reduces the available and the disturbance feedback second, and,
noisy
of
the
transfer
functions Lp,
and
La are
rejection.
The errors in
plant
position,
variable
estimates
and acceleration are formed velocity, from the signals arriving to the summing
by
subtraction
of the
reduced output
is seenthat
when
the
0. When
acceleration
error
the velocity error is also 0, the is is also 0, the signal at the actuator input
of C-i is
0. This
control
as multivariable.
on Example 2:
feedback loops one loop at
are coupled. Still, the design can be made by iterative lowa time, since, first, the compensators are typically the differ in bandwidth: and, second, the three loops substantially the of the velocity that bandwidth of the position loop, and loop is wider than bandwidth of the acceleration loop is still wider. \342\200\242 that When the plant is flexible, the compensators' than order must be much higher in the the of the PD compensators shown block diagram, but order higher this design. compensators are not easy to fit within \342\200\242 The in the feedforward paths in practice as lead differentiators are implemented
three adjustments, order (PD),
links differentiator actuator \342\200\242 The the
whose
limit
approximate the responses frequency the required over frequency band. The the useful bandwidth of the feedforward,
response
effects
of
the
ideal
in the
of
saturation
with source actuator (using a driver high output impedance) simplifies On the other hand, a velocity source (a motor driven analysis. by a driver with the low output accuracy, system especially when the plant impedance) may improve is flexible with Coulomb friction.
torque
Chapter
8. Alternative
Methods
253
links
The controller
windup
can
be augmented
transient
with inclusion
response
of
nonlinear
to reduce
the
and
to
for large-level
commands.
one
only
and
the
is
formally
since it has
only
sensor,
position, can
rate,
be equivalently into
follows
and better
the diagram the diagram
complex
Fig.
8.6(a)
Fig.
into
8.5 can
the
equivalently
transformed
diagram
in Fig.
8.6(b)
which
in Fig. 2.1 (the loop transfer function about the plant is the same in these diagrams, the sensor function without the feedback, i.e., with and the input-output transfer The diagram in Fig. 8.6(b) includes only two transfer function S = 0, is the same). are defined by the designer: the linear links whose transfer functions independent and feedforward feedback the path. compensator in Fig. 8.5 cannot be superior of the system shown Therefore, performance with a or a feedforward path. to a conventional system prefilter well-designed
(b)
Fig. 8.6
8.4
Single-loop
equivalents
(a) and
(b)
of
the
block
diagram
shown
in
Fig.
8.5
LQRandLQG
of
the
so called
system
modern control
literally,
theory is
scalar
to
take
the state-space
which
control
set
up
some
K which
functional
and features of the closed-loop system, is optimal for this index. One such approach is to minimize / of the state and control history for the system's step response:
the desirable
matrix
quadratic
J =
where
!(xTQx +
\302\253=o
uTRu)
dt
= min
(8.14)
the matrices Q and R are weighting matrices. It is assumed that the desired state is x = 0, but the initial condition is non-zero, so the matrix the state Q penalizes R penalizes error in a mean-square the control effort, sense. Similarly, the matrix i.e.,
254 limits
Chapter
8.
Alternative
Methods
The
equation.The
the
controller
by
solving
a matrix regulator,
Riccati
and
quadratic
methodology
Although
is referred
software
to as
matrix
LQR.
available to solve the matrix Riccati equation and thus to design a control K, it is not advisable to attempt of the control system using the LQR methodology alone. This is becausethe features the performance are not captured in the LQR framework. There system which constrain has been no mention of actuator disturbance saturation, rejection, or robustness to plant is to judiciously The only reasonable possibility choose the variations. parameter to determine the matrices and run the software R, Q weighting LQR \"optimal\" gain matrix K, and then examine the resulting control system using classical frequencydomain analysis. This generally entails several iterations. is crippling. A The inability in the LQR framework to address nonlinearities common design strategy is to increase matrix R until the largest the control penalty wise since does not result in saturation of the actuator. This seems expected transient can result in windup for an LQR design. The actuator saturation or even instability since to achieve the specified implications for system design are disastrous, the actuator will be oversized to maintain linearity. performance, If the LQR framework As mentioned previously, full-state feedback is not practical. be continually is to be used for practical the missing states must estimated problems, from the available measurements. that the available measurements are linear Suppose combinations of the state variables. If the measurements are perfect,and the plant model is perfect, the remaining states can usually be reconstructed by repeated differentiation. In fact, the entire with To make the future of the state can be predicted certainty. be has to estimation the non-trivial, augmented by process state-space formulation in sensing and modeling. An analytically tractable approach is to errors introducing assume that the measurements are corrupted by white noise, and that the actual plant The in the white noise input. noise differs from the plant model by an additional w. The noise added to to as the sensor noise and denoted measurements is referred and denoted v. Note that w and v the model is referred to as the process noise, plant the are generally vectors. Let the measurements be z, so that description system becomes
is readily
determine
the
optimal
gain
Bu+Gw
z
(8.15)
(8.16)
noise
Hx +
the
v,
plant
where G is matrix.
distribution
is to
matrix
and
is the
measurement
be propagated
as
xE=AxE+Bu+KE(z-HxE),
where
(8.17)
the can
Kb
is the
estimator
second-order be found
white mean
to as
LQG. When
combined
the linear-quadratic
Gaussian, or
controller,
between
the
with an LQR estimates are used in conjunction as is referred to an regulator. LQR/LQG approach was to resolve the trade-off intended LQR/LQG regulator theory
these
the
Chapter 8. Alternative
sensor noise and
the the
Methods
255
disturbance
rejection.
not
robustness when
issue,
it does
provide
the
Since this method by itself does not address best solutions to most practicalproblems.
However,
well (say, with 1% accuracy) and the feedback pretty bandwidth is limited by the sensor noise, LQG provides a loop response which is well in area of the crossover the band. be This can later modified shaped frequency response with classical methods for better disturbance rejection at lower frequencies. The addition of the loop transfer (LTR) method to the LQG allows recovery the plant
is known
system robustness.The
of
the
LTR
method
recalculates
time
the
domain
frequency
domain
system space, method, and allows adjusting the responses to provide the desired process of such design is however not simple, and the quadratic for stability analysis on the basis of the closed loop response.
designed
in state
with
stability
norm is
not
8.5
/7o\302\260, ^-synthesis,
and
linear
matrix
inequalities
The state-spaceapproach to control system design and the state-space performance indicesare difficult to use during the conceptual G. Zames, who initiated the Hx design.
in model that the processes of approximation building and obtaining is do not commute [45], i.e., input-output box) formulations (black and state-space the framework for uncertain (practical) system preferred modeling, models should came into picture only as internal models at the level of computation and at the level of implementation of control systems. The of control system designhave advanced to been already aspects computational the when degree they cease to be critical for the design of most practical systems.
method,
state-space
often
said
model
However,
building and
the
system model
and
designing the
optimal input-output
structure
a challenge,
physical
are easier
to accomplish with
via
presents
engineersshould
ports, instead
systems
the
as sets
systems
of
interconnected
of
the
of linear matrices.Mathematically, into the sets of local mean separating the system variables the and, (at the blocks' ports) variables, global typically, is much less then the number of the local variables.
mathematically in sets
number
of
the
global
variables
For the
aspects
input-output
formulations,
than
more convenient
the
time-domain
are
in
in
many
Chapter
with the two-ports, linear black boxes can be described by the matrices of their transfer functions and impedances (mobilities), and the entire system, as a conglomerateof and nonlinear multiports interconnected via their ports. linear domain method. It solves in of the classical frequency design Hx is an extension solved with Bode approach: are one the two problems that sequentially operation
feedback bandwidth with related of the available shaping of the loop and distribution and higher, over the frequency region of crossoverfrequency 4. as was described in Chapter over the functional of the available feedback bandwidth, to multivariable control such that it is directly The method is formulated applicable
maximization
response
systems.
The Woo
norm is an
norm
extension
of a
vector
in
the
Hilbert
space. This
synthesis. The
H^ feedback
design
method
256
frequency
Chapter8. Alternative
With
Methods
sources to the system output. responses from the disturbance are first Hx method, frequency responses of the disturbance rejection functions. The weight functions define at which frequencies specified with weight disturbance rejectionshould be higher than that at other frequencies, and by how much. The weight functions should be calculated from the known disturbance spectral densities. For the functional feedback the same as bandwidth, the norm on F is nearly
the norm on T.
Since it
with
is not
easy to properly
shape the
may
crossover
area
can been achieved with ^.-synthesis which combines the Hm in an iterative The method introduces into design \\i-analysis u-analysis procedure. the loop special links that imitate the plant uncertainty. It is required that with these links added, the nominal should be still stable and perform well. system is the method of linear control system design.It optimizes The //, design method the system without attention to the system global stability. performance paying special of this, the Hx design often results in Nyquist-stable are not Because systems which becomes stable and can burst into oscillation after the actuator overloaded. absolutely are either making several iterations The solutions to this stability problem by relaxing the weight functions such that disturbance and the rejection requirements modifying do when the stable which is to be of absolutely type, easy resulting loop response will be is nonlinear controllers that better, designed system single-loop, or, by using should be controller methods also studied in Chapters 9-13. The nonlinear design state in the nonlinear to further performance employed improve or optimize the system overload of operation when certain commands or disturbances the actuators. and many other linear control and stability The //\342\200\236 control analysis problems can be The LMI is the algebraic formulated in terms of linear matrix inequalities (LMIs). that is set matrices of a of a linear of combination symmetric given problem finding in areas as such diverse find outside of LMIs definite. control, positive applications
and
the
method //\342\200\236
lead to an overly
combinatorial
recognized
efficient
that
optimization,
estimation,
and
statistics.
it
Although
only
it
has
long
been
LMIs
are
important
in control,
interior
was
of
the
algorithms
increased
on
the
point
methods)
has
Chapter
ADAPTIVE SYSTEMS
adaptive control
is to use an the available feedback. One remedy the of the compensator, the transfer functions about the plant. and the feedback prefilter, path on the basis of accessibleinformation can used for the adaptation, the adaptive controllers On the basis of the information uses sensor readings of environmental into three types. The first type be divided on time, etc.) and plant parameter dependencies pressure, (temperature, parameters the dependencies factors law. to correct the control these environmental (Obviously to the command or a priori.) The second uses the plant must be known response to disturbances to correctthe control law. The third type uses the control loop response law. specially generated pilot signals to correct the control of adaptation the schemes substantially The first and the third types improve The at a much slower rate than the control control when the plant processes. changes If be useful when the command profile is well known in advance. second method can this is not the case, the second type result in a system with may rapidly-varying a formidable problem. whose stability analysis represents parameters is easier to identify in the frequency It is shown that the plant bands where the feedback in the main loop is not large. This identification provides most of the available in the system performance. benefits is provided for adaptive for flexible plants, for A brief description systems and noise reduction, and disturbance for dithering rejection systems. Examples of
Large
plant
uncertainty
law
reduces
which
changes
adaptive filters
9.1
Plant
are
described.
Benefits
parameter
by
of adaptation
uncertainly
reduced
estimation
a plant
can
function
be
the
as
P'.
of
the
the
used for
and
to reduce
adaptation
the
output
error.
The rate
path,
are defined
some
law.
output
error
is contributed to
disturbance error
sources
parameter
uncertainty.
Increasing
2, the
reduced
an
is two-fold: the (P'<=P) Correspondingly, the benefit of good plant identification. feedback can be increasedby appropriate to the compensator C, and the modifications can be made closer to the ideal. When plant parameter variations are large, prefilter the system performance. the plant is identified first are called indirect. the plant in Example 1. Assume gain varies by 20 dB in a loop designedas shown is limited resonances, by sensor noise and/or plant Fig. 9.1. The feedback bandwidth maximum available feedback bandwidth is the one /b </bmax- The loop response with when the the and the plant plant gain is largest. When gain drops, the feedback disturbance rejection reduce and the of the output to plant sensitivity parameter
adaptation
can
significantly
improve
Adaptation
schemes
where
257
258
variations
Chapter9. Adaptive
increase.
gain
Systems
compensator
the
loop
To alleviate the problem, and the gain can be monitored plant for the loop gain to remain gain coefficient continuously adjusted equal to of the case of the maximum plant gain. This is an example of indirect
adaptation.
20 dB
Fig. 9.1
Example
to increase
Loopgain
responses
with maximum
and
minimum
plant
gain
loop the
in the functional
stable previous example is designedas Nyquist band. When the plant the decreases, gain
Therefore, only
stability.
the to
and disturbance
the
3. In the plant, a real pole position can go down from Example by a factor of four initial position at 2/b. The phase lag increases correspondingly and the system can in the burst into oscillation. To counteract this pole motion, a zero can be introduced function transfer after the close to the and, identification, compensator kept pole plant positionto cancel its effect. The accuracy of the pole position identification need not be 5% of the pole magnitude, the resulting very high: if the zero-to-pole distanceis within will be less 0.5 dB. than uncertainty loop gain the
Example 4. In
plant
the
previous
example,
flexible
contemplated
identification
mode
with high
of
Q is
the
a complex
uncertain.
this
a
case,
if the
compensation
plant
pole
with
needs
might
be difficult
than
plant
which
Indirect
tune
adaptive
do
the
not use
plant
identification
explicitly,
but merely
the
compensator
to improve
there
closed-loop
performance.
For tuning
the most
many adaptive algorithms. performance is most often used: the time-response parameters are measured and P-, /-, and are adjusted correspondingly. The algorithms D-coefficients of the controllers typically are smooth. The typical for such adaptive work well as long as the plant's responses goal control is improving the to the commands in the system where the plant responses and the higher-frequency disturbance are not parameters improving varying slowly, the to variations. or tolerance fast system parameter rejection plant
Time-domain
exist
Chapter 9.2
Plant
9.
Adaptive
Systems
259
Static
and dynamic
presents
adaptation
no problems and can the be performed rapidly when function on the is environmental variables well-known dependence plant variables and the environmental are measured accurately. Such an adaptive control in The is and is shown 9.2. and then the identified, system Fig. plant compensator functions are Such a is transfer sometimescalled adjusted. gain prefilter process An of such a system has been given in Section 7.4.2. Commonly, example the environment than varies much more slowly the main control loop dynamics, i.e., the
identification
of the
transfer
scheduling.
loop dynamics
adaptation prefilter
is quasi-static.
can
the
Therefore,during
the
system
analysis,
be assumed loop
and
main
of
and
the
Knowledge
of how
plant
depends
on environment
Plant
\302\253-
Adaptation
/-
drivers
identification
Environment
Plant
disturbances
h
regulation
effects
Fig.9.2
The rate of the and by the rate of
plant the
Prefilter
and
compensator
identification information
critical when
rate
and
also
of noise the
rate of adaptation
limited
by
Increasing
the speed
with
of the
adaptation
makes
LTV systems
of such
requires
rapidly-varying (as
parameters.
disagreeablefeatures
increasing
we have
seen
in
an
the adaptation dynamic and leads to These systems, generally, have several in Section 3.12). Stability analysis example
and
the
systems presents a
stability
the
formidable
problem,
ensuring
feedback)
than
the
laws are commonly designedas quasi-static, adaptation in the main control loop. In this case, the main processes
system.
much
loop can be
designedas an
9.3
LTI
Plant
transfer
three
function identification
methods
Fig.9.3
used with
plant
illustrates
for the
plant
transfer
function
identification
that are
indirect
adaptation:
environmental
1. Using
transfer
sensors of
function
the
variables
and
the known
that
dependencies of the
normal
on these variables.
and output signals
2. Using
operation
input
of the
sent
plant
of the control
system as the
be
result and
of commands
sufficiently
identification
to introduce
as not
purposes. substantial
260
Chapter 9. Adaptive
Plant
Systems
Adaptation
law and
identification
drivers
and signal
pilot
Environment
processing
signal
disturbances
Fig. 9.3
The are
Adaptive its
with plant
identification
plant
corrupted Plant
The measurements
the
accuracy
and
speed of the
error
adaptation.
of large feedback where the is ill-conditioned over the bandwidth the pilot signals must are small and therefore be very small. and makes the and on the sensors' sensitivity This increases the requirements accuracy, the feedback are the where is identification Also, large relatively frequencies complicated. of the control slow. Further reduction identification low which makes the plant process can be achieved more economically error components at these frequencies by using in Chapters 10 and 11. as nonlinear dynamic compensation, explained is well-conditioned over the of plant identification In contrast, the problem small of feedback and feedback, i.e., from fi,/4 up to ranges negative frequency positive maximization. The plant bandwidth This bandwidth is for feedback 4fb. important benefits and is relatively easy to over this frequency range provides tangible identification since at these frequencies the pilot signal amplitudes can be larger and the implement can be much faster. measurements
identification
frequency
components
9.4
Plant
might
especially
improve
torque
the
control
when
the plant is
velocity
flexible and
sensor
uncertain.
For
example,
when
the
actuator
and the
the
angular
are
is that of a collocated in a structural plant transfer function system with flexibility, At higher do not exceed 180\". variations the and phase passive two-pole impedance, as shown in the to of due shaft, Fig. 9.4, actuator-to-plant flexibility frequencies, however, in the plant transfer two poles in a row follow and the control ceases to be collocated
function.
Plant
identification
allows
unwanted
function
has
zeros to
poles.
dB
TiexiDie snan
Plant's Actuator
inertia
1
-4-
Sensor
(a)
Fig.
(b)
9.4
(a) Plant
with
flexibility
and
(b)
the
uncompensated
loop response
Chapter 9. Adaptive
For this application, using needs to be plant response
modes. frequency
identified
Systems
261
domain
only
identification
is also
in
since economical
the
the
at higher
frequencies,
vicinity
of the
and
structural
N.p. translation
spacecraft,
by the
parallel thruster's
paths
of the
position
signal
propagation,
propellant
such as that
slosh
of
rotation
and the
the
in
the tank
of a
example)
can be
removed from
identification.
higher
feedback loop by the addition of The n.p. lag increases with frequency, and the bandwidth of positive i.e., within frequencies,
main
and
frequency
feedback.
We
conclude
and
that
most negative.
for the
flexible plants
over the
n.p. plants,
band
the
plant
complicated
beneficial
where
positive or small
9.5
The
Disturbance
disturbance
and noise
rejection
the can be improved by using adaptive loops within rejection allows as diagrammed in Fig. 9.5. The disturbance identification modifying the loop gain response under the limitation of to match the disturbance spectral density, Bode integrals C.7), C.12). The disturbances can also be compensated in a feedforward manner.
compensator,
Adaptation
Disturbance
identification
disturbances
drivers
and signal
processing
Adaptive
compensator/actuator
Fig. 9.5
Loop responseadaptation
for disturbance
rejection
with narrow pass comb-filter, i.e., a filter Example 1. Using an adaptive multiple of a periodic of substantial feedback at the harmonics bands, allows the provision disturbance as shown in Fig. 9.6, instead of broad-band feedback with the response shown in both of the responses by the dashed line, the feedback being limited by the Bofle integrals. Such a filter tunes by tracking the disturbance /a using a PLL, a frequency
frequency-lock
loop
(FLL),
or some
other
adaptive
algorithm. dB
dB
f,
log. sc.
f,
log. sc.
Fig. 9.6
Loop gain
Bode
diagram
with adaptive
equalizer
diagrams
bandwidths
262
Example
control
Chapter 9. Adaptive
2. Diagram which uses
by
Systems
system
bandwidth
spacecraft
is limited
photocamera
A) in Fig. 9.7 was found optimal for a spacecraftattitude reaction wheels in the tracking regime, when the feedback the of diagram was also used for a gyro noise. (This kind
was limited by control where the feedback bandwidth temperature noise of the temperature sensor.) Diagram B), on the other hand, is closer to the for the regimes of re-targeting of the attitude the feedback control, when optimal bandwidth needs to be wider for the and the gyro noise is of small Therefore, importance. best performance, the of the loop response can be changed from A) to B) by an shape
the
quantizing
adaptation
process.
A
Example 3.
sensors the
spacecraft
attitude
control
system
are
using
star
tracker
and gyro
attitude
is shown stars
in Fig.
corrupted
by the
noise represented by
particular
the signal from the star tracker Ns, Nq. At any moment, depends on the are in view, that happen to be in its field of view. When several bright stars are easily recognized and when compared with the star map in the computer memory, they the signal-to-noise ratio of the tracker becomes excellent, but when the camera turns in a is noisy control direction where no bright stars and the attitude exist, the tracker output the in the should more on the In the latter the bandwidth of filter case, depend gyro. feedback path from the star tracker must be reduced. A Kalman filter (a widely used the mean this task algorithm minimizing adaptation continuously. square error) performs
sources
Star tracker
Kalman
filter
Gyro
Fig. 9.8
9.6
Without
Adaptive
control
system
with a
Kalman
filter
in the
feedback
path
Pilot
pilot
signals
and
dithering
systems
relies on
which the
responses
feedback
system's
are
all
far
from
of
signals for
plant
identification.
and
with plant identification is a there trade-off When are used, specially generated pilot signals. always pilot signals of the between the accuracy of the plant identification which increases with the level and the at the the error themselves introduce system's output. pilot signals, pilot signals When the plant must be faster. This requires changes rapidly, the adaptation increasedrate of information transmission by the pilot signals, and the pilot signals must
less
with
passive
active
identification
have largeramplitudes
and/or
broader
spectrum.
the
When only the constant multiplier of and this change is slow, a sinusoidal pilot suffices region and very small amplitude amplitude pilot
generated signal
can
in
the
system
is changing, coefficient of the plant in the with crossover the frequency signal to identify the plant The smallaccurately. on the command. be superimposed Or, the pilot signal can be oscillation of small itself by self-oscillation. High-frequency gain
Chapter9. Adaptive
amplitude
Systems
263
is called
dither.
dithering
system
block diagram
is shown
in Fig.
9.9.
4_
Fig. 9.9
The Nyquist and
Dithering
control
system
shown
Bode diagrams dB
L-plane
for
the system
are
in Fig.
9.10.
dB
*\"*\"*\\
dithering
dithering
system
-180\302\260
system
phase
conventional
\\V,
system
frequency
'\302\246 too-
sc.
conventional
system
at
(a)
(b)
and diagrams
system
oscillates
at the
where
the phase
gain
In a
conventional system,
at this
frequency
the loop
must
be
sufficient
frequency
provision
gain stability margin. In the dithering is OdB which allows an increase in the loop 3 times additional of, approximately, rejection frequency
system,
gain
of
the loop gain at this 8 to 10 dB, i.e.,a the the disturbances within
by these
functional
range.
in order for the feedback loop needs to be adaptively adjusted For this the dither is selected by a to small. oscillation remain purpose, amplitude filter, and compared with filter, amplified, rectified, smoothed by a low-pass band-pass is dither and the reference, the error, The difference between the measured a reference. in the forward and continuously regulates a variable attenuator amplified and slowly the main loop gain so that the varies loop. The attenuator path of the main feedback reference. The dither level as small as the becomes dither Q compensator loop of the law resulting in the desired time-response adaptation implements the desired
The
gain
in
the
of the
adaptation.
This
receivers
described
the
automatic
level control
system for AM
264
(In some systems,the actuator nonlinear link.
Chapter
9. Adaptive
Systems
dither
signal but
These
systems
attenuator,
larger
error
introduced
the loop gain by partially saturating the are simpler since they have neither a dither their performance is inferior, with smaller range and reduced by the dither, power available from
reduces
actuator
to drive
the plant.)
controllers
use
linear
As the
are links, also called linear filters, which filters, symmetricalregulators describedin are given below. implementation examples
varied
Chapter
by
7
filter
links,
compensator
the
is
shown
in Fig.
9.11. It consists
weights,
of
frequency
response of the
adaptive
any
be obtained.
output
Fig.
9.11
Transversal
adaptive
filter
as
a compensator
(defining
The
adaptation
weights
are
adjusted
can
by an adaptation
performance
algorithm
the dynamics
of
the
loops)
on the
works
basis of the
well
sharper
error
produced
by the
performance
are relatively
estimator.Sucha system
This
be classified
as a self-learning system.
required
system
when
the
frequency
with
responses
resonance
bends
and responses
modes
would
too
many
sections
filters can be made with Example 2. Adaptive example in Fig. 9.12. The first balanced pair of modulators
modulators, with
frequencies quadrature transfers the input signal from baseband to higher modulators quadrature signal is filtered by filters C(s), and the second pair of balanced The balanced quadrature modulators are used here to returns the signal to the baseband. The input-output cancel most of the parasitic intermodulation products. frequency carriers. can be varied by changing C(s) and using multi-frequency responses useful for rejection of periodic non-sinusoidal These adaptive filters are particularly
disturbances.
Chapter
9. Adaptive
Systems
265
COS CO?-
sin
(of
Fig.
9.12
Adaptive
filter
with
modulators
Chapter
I
10
PROVISION
The
OF GLOBAL STABILITY
path
actuator,
feedback
limit-cycles,
and
The
Nonlinear
plant
nonlinearities
are
reviewed.
Concepts
stability,
are
developed of
stability,
system
stability
of linearized Popov
dynamics
absolute
10.1
In
analysis
stability
global
control
appliedto
penalizing
the available
compensators
Nonlinearities
nondynamic
of the
current
and plant
link, the
the
current
input-output
value of
It
input
variable
of the output variable depends only on the values. and not on its previous The link has no
memory.
saturation, relay-are
represent output
is fully
characterized
characteristics
hard shown
and in
function. Several examples of the by the input-output links-hard and of nonlinear nondynamic smooth and three-position dead zone, dead zone and saturation, smooth and (d) respectively.These nonlinear links Fig. 10.1(a),(b),(c),
typical
properties
of
actuators.
output
output
01 input
output
0
, input
-e.
-ed.
ed input
input
(a)
(b)
(c)
of nonlinear
(d)
links:
zone,
dead
Fig. 10.1
Characteristics
(a) soft and hard saturation, (c) dead zone and saturation,
link
nondynamic
(b) soft
and
hard
(d) three-position
relay
A
nonlinear
nonlinear
operator
input
small and
can be placed in the feedback path to implement an inverse as in 10.2. When the feedback is large, the error e is shown x(y) Fig. + e approximately equals the signal fed back, y(x).
y(x)
Fig. 10.2
Example
Inverse
operator
Fig. 10.3
Logarithmic
amplifier
feedback
error is
266
a semiconductor 1. Putting an exponential link (using pn junction) in the in Fig. 10.3 produces a logarithmic link. If the path of an op-amp as shown = - i. The of iia is about 104, and the current small, the /,\342\200\236
input
range
range
Chapter
output
10.
the
Provision
of Global
Stability
267
a factor
voltage
u is
4. Therefore,
feedback
path
of
68dB, when
i,B
the
input
signal
to
the
For
small.
the
error
- i to
when
be
small
relative
to i,n,
the
the y limit
is small and
the feedback
feedback
iia is
the feedback
conditions
(i.e.,
when the loop gain is largest Bode assuming the loop slope is diagram bandwidth becomes 6.8 octaves smaller for the smallest -lOdB/oct, the feedback iia. To counteract this detrimental effect and to keep the functional bandwidth feedback wide enough when with time, a nonlinear with the characteristic link iia varies that in to the feedback can installed in inverse be the forward approximately path path which will increase the loop gain and the feedback bandwidth for low-level signals.
stability bandwidth for
The
the
largest
i;n).
Therefore,
turbulent
nondynamic were
nonlinearities
are
the heat
are
radiation
and
mentioned
in Section
3.1. These
the
static
nonlinearities
can
link's
be
inputwith
characterized by
output
function.
In
the
a
input
link
kinematic
nonlinearities,
and
the
the
example,the
a robotic
shown arm
ratio
in
elbow angle
motor dependson
in Fig.
by a elbow
rotational angle as
Dynamic nonlinearities
those depends previous
(b).
(b)
arm
are
where
the output nonlinearly on the current and the variable. of the input values
in
and
They
will be studied
Section
10.7 and
13.
most
frequently
the
encountered
time
where x'(t) is
268
Chapter
10.
Provision
of Global
Stability
x'
x'
: x
(a)
Fig. 10.5
(a) nondissipative
(b)
(d)
second-order system,
attractor
origin,
cycle
for an
limit cycle
in
for an oscillator of
signal
Self-oscillation
but
physical
non-conservative
nonlinear
This
systems is initially
of periodic
aperiodic
often
asymptotically
cycle systems,
approaches periodicity.
sinusoidal
type
system
with
circularlimit
In
which
Fig.
many
describes x(f)
in
oscillation.
are
by
shown
10.6(a),
is rich in high harmonics, as, for example, in the oscillations 10.6. When, for example, the signal is triangular as in the limit cycle takes a rectangular as in Fig. 10.5(d), with the rate x' shape
Fig. jumps.
changing
instant
ILL
time
time time
time
V
(a)
(b)
(c)
oscillations
(d)
harmonic content
Fig. 10.6
A
Periodic
with high
each surrounded with its system cycles, might possess several limit conditions within the basin of attraction in the phase space. Initial limit lead to different initial conditions attraction lead to this limit cycle. Different and initial lead to some conditions might stability. cycles, is stand-alone limit cycle and the basin of attraction of a feedbackloop which The as such to facilitate and nonlinear linear unstable can be modified with compensators an in with other the feedback A13.13). loops(see example stabilizing system does not arise in control systems of moderate Aperiodic oscillation usually it in Because of this, we will not consider near the border of globalstability. complexity in feedback this book, although oscillations do some engineering happen aperiodic
nonlinear
own
basin
of
systems such as in
improperly
designed
microwave
VCOs.
control Phase plane can be utilized for the design of low-order systems. For relay lines example, when the variable x needs to be constrained by a < x < a, the switching on the phase-plane define the conditions for the relay to switch, x = a and x = -a drawn on the phase plane. and the x time-history is derived from the trajectories
Chapter
10.
Provision
of
Global
Stability
269
10.3
Stability
Local
10.3.1
The
linearization
stability Lyapunov
First Lyapunov Method for with differentiable characteristics. can be determined on the equilibrium
increments,
analysis
systems
the
system small
basis
of the
i.e., locally. electrical arc, neon lamp, or the with an external dc bias voltage on u as The differential dc resistanceduldi 10.7(a). depends Fig. branch between the 10.7(b). The resistance is negative on the falling
nonlinear
Example 1. Considera
output source
shown two
two-pole
(an
of an u
in
op-amp as shown in
Fig.
with
in-phase
current
feedback)
bifurcation
points.
bifurcation ;
points
nonlinear
falling
two-pole
S branch
(a)
Fig.
with
(b)
10.7
Nonlinear
two-pole device
dependence
(a)
(b)
of
S-type
current-on-voltage
According to
two-pole
the
First
Lyapunov
Method,
the locally
linearizedimpedance
the
m-1
Z(u,s) =
the polynomial coefficients functions of u, can be used to determine the system is unstable when the contour impedance which stability. The system is locally Z(u, s) has a zero in the right half-plane of s. Assume it is known from experiments that the falling branch such a device outside is passive, and therefore the coefficients ao,b0, am and bD are positive. Assume that it is also known that on the falling branch the device is stable if connected to a current
with local
source,
i.e., Z(s)
has no poles in
dc
the
right
half-plane.
The
differential
resistance
of the
two-pole is
' } _\302\253,(\302\253)
bo(u)
the characteristic
in
Fig.
10.7(b)
coefficienta0,
pass
through
branch, point
270
Chapter
both
10.
Provision
of Global
Stability
and
circuit
become
negative
hand,
on the
am and
falling
branch.
by
On the
other
ba are determined
the
high-frequency
and capacitances), and remain positive branch. the numerator of Z must have a0 negative, root. Therefore, when the is shorted (connected to a voltage two-pole contour impedance has a zero in the right half-plane of s, and the system will use this result in Section 12.3.
(by stray inductances With am positive and
behavior on the
source),
of
falling
the
a positive is unstable.
real
the
We
The
stability
First
Lyapunov
Method
justifies
using
nonlinear
the
Nyquist
and
analysis
to determine
whether a
solution
system
is stable
where
the
signal
the
deviations
locally-applied
from a
the
are small.
For a
system
be big,
sufficient.
Nyquist
Nyquist-stable
and Bode
stability
conditions
are
methods of locally, i.e., while the deviations can but not necessary
Bode
first
In particular,
stable
when
switched
Global stability
that
when the time increases, remain within an finite and then, are and lower called boundaries zero, approach envelope upper asymptotically is called vanishing. The system asymptotically globally stable (AGS) if its are vanishing after excitation. Time-exponents \302\261ae'kt,k>\\ are responses any vanishing used for the boundaries. commonly envelope Asymptotic stability with such boundaries is called exponential stability. all possible initial conditions, as opposed An AGS system remains stable following a conditionally is conditions to stable which stable following some initial system, but in which some other initial conditions Well-designed control instability. trigger a must be be AGS. to test whether However, directly system is AGSone would systems is not feasible. to try an infinite number of different vanishing signals which required criteria. This necessitates devising convenient practicalglobal stability One such criterion is the Second Method. Lyapunov It uses the so-called which is a scalar function Lyapunov of the system function coordinates, is equal to zero at the and nonzero) outside (i.e., origin, is positive definite positive of the origin as illustrated in Fig. 10.8 for the case of two coordinate variables, and has negative time derivative. The V continuously function decreases with time and approaches the origin. As the result, each variable approaches zero and -jo.8 Lyapunov pjg, the system is AGS. function example The Lyapunov function is often constructedas a sum of a and an integral of a nonlinear static form of the variables function quadratic system is the an function appropriate Lyapunov reflecting system nonlinearity. Finding simple when the system is low-order and the stability margins are wide.Unfortunately, finding the function for a practical nonlinear with a high-performance controller is, system
Signals
are
initially
whose
typically,
difficult.
10.4
Absolute
stability
Many practical
(actuator)
feedback systems
consist
of a
linear
link
-T(s)
and
a nonlinear
nonlinear
link
that
can be well
approximated by
a memoriless
(i.e., nondynamic)
Chapter link
10. Provision
of Global Stability
271
vie),
as shown
in
Fig.
10.9.
e
T
Fig.10.9
Feedback
system
link
with a
nonlinear
Fig.
10.10
nonlinear
to
be
absolutely
stable
(AS) if
is
AGS
with
any
v(e) constrained
by
A0.1)
0<
v(e)/e< 1
in Fig.
the
as illustrated
soft
saturation,
the
three-level
relay
belong to
10.5
class
of nonlinear
characteristics defined by
Popov
Analogy
criterion
to passive V.
10.5.1
to
the
the
two-poles'
connection
the
The criteriondue to
absolute
M. Popov
is based on
that has
Parseval's
theorem
obtained
stability
criterion
been
previously
Method. The Popov criterion can be readily applied to the Lyapunov of their and is in developing defined instrumental responses, systems frequency by plots controllers with improved performance. can be understood through the mathematical The Popov criterion analogy between the and of the feedback connection electrical to Section 2.10). (refer system two-poles which in response to current Considera nonlinear inductor i creates magnetic flux
Second
q\302\247(i), where
coefficient
shown
has
the
some positive as 4p(i)H > 1 in Fig. 3(a). Since the flux the same sign as the current,
q is
and qi\302\247(\\)l2
dt
energy
stored
in the with
inductor
also a nonlinear
is positive. Consider
resistor
the
dependence of voltageon current - i. The u = \302\247(i) power dissipated in the resistor ui = /(<K0- 0 is
positive
(a)
(b)
<)>(/) and
for all
/.
this the
(b) an AGS
circuit
dissipate
i.e. the
time
Z(s) (that is positive real) in impedance The resistor and the 10.11(b). Z(s)* draw and Fig. two-pole Since this energy cannot become negative, the energy stored in the inductor. be overdrawn from the magnetic cannot field, the current i decays with energy
shown
in
and approaches
272
The voltage
the u
Chapter
10.
Provision
of
Global
Stability
to the
in the
circuit in Fig.
equations
related to
upper
branch,
dt
U = L = A
u and + qs)
/=L
L<t>(i)
i, the
voltage
+qs L0(i)
the
- /.
The current,according to
Ohm's
equation
for the
the
lower
branch,
is
i=--L-u.
describe
the block
diagram (a) in
Fig.
10.12.
HZ
qs +
1/[1-2(s)]
(a)
mil
(b)
As
1/A + qs)
-t
-1 (c)
(d)
feedback
systems
the link -1 can be viewed as the feedback the -1/Z(.s), path for the link can in the direction the be to that of converted (b). Next, reversing diagram signal in (c) where the function v is the inverse of <|>. Notice propagation generates the diagram in (c) is equivalently redrawn that such v satisfy condition A0.1). The diagram with conventional clockwise signal transmission in (d). as The feedback system shown in Fig. 10.12(d) is described by the same equations is AGS. linear links in and therefore The return ratio of the the circuit 10.11 passive Fig. of the loop is
T(s) = [Z(j)T(s)
the
1]/A
+ qs).
A0.3)
v and the linear link of a nonlinear link Therefore, a feedback system consisting is AGS if T(s) is representable in the form A0.3) with any p.r. 2{s). In other words, is AS if there exists a positive system q such that the expression
Z{s)= {\\+qs)T{s)+\\
is positive
A0.4)
real (p.r.).
frequencies
T(s)
should
have no
poles
in
the
right
half-plane,
and
at
all
A0.5)
of Global
Stability if the
273
absolute
stability
criterion
follows:
A0.5)
loop and
system
there
exists
a positive
q such
that
is satisfied
frequencies,the
is AS.
a system To check whether satisfies the Popov criterion, one might the Nyquist plot + for can be such that the a found A qs)T(s).If positive diagram q Nyquist diagram for the system is AS. A + qs)T(s) stays to the right of the vertical line \342\200\2241, The Popov criterion but not necessary for AS) is more is sufficient (which restrictivethan the Nyquist criterion (which is necessary but not sufficient for AS). Instead of the Nyquist equivalent Bode diagrams canbe used. diagram,
Example
1.
Consider
a system
with
a loop
cut-off
with
is
flat
at lower
in the
shown
in Fig.
11.13(a). By multiplying
loop
function
is
-60\302\260. The
nearly real
the
factor 1 + qs with q, so that the Popov large the function A + qs)T\\s) with the angle from
is positive
factor's
to +90\302\260
at all frequencies,
and
the
absolute
dB
degr
dB
f,
log sc
\\
--90
/, log sc
Fig.10.13 Loop
for which
for (a) an AS system and (b) for a responses AS cannot be proved with the Popov criterion
with
roll-off slope of Fig. 10.14(b). The limits. for the Therefore, phase shift of the Popov factor A + jqta) is within the 0 to 90\302\260 the shift of the in in is on the the brackets roll-off, A0.5) expression frequencies phase This system therefore falls into within the 150\302\260 to 240\302\260 and A0.5) is not satisfied. limits, and the gap between the Nyquist the Popov criteria, the T-plane and no judgment can be passed on whether system is AS.
lOdB/octand
Example
2. Considera band-passsystem
with
the
associated
phase
shift
of
as 150\302\260
a low-frequency shown in
Example 3. In a Nyquist-stable
be real
in
and
system,
T must
less
Fig.
than
11.14.
affect
does not
less criterion.
-1,
Nyquist-stable
some frequency as shown At this frequency, since T is real, q T is since the left side of A0.5), and the inequality is not satisfied. Hence, the Popov systems do not satisfy
than
-1 at
Fig.
10.14
Nyquist-stable
system
274
10.5.2
Chapter10.Provision
Different forms of
the
of Global
Stability
Popov part
criterion
function.
Condition A0.5)
equivalent
qs
uses the
change
real
of a
The
condition
form which
makes use of
whether
Bode
diagrams,
criterion:
which is
an
to 7is)
this
does
follows
not
Z(s) is
imaginary.
From
the second
form of the
the system
is AGS if a
real positive
q exists
+qs)T(s) + 1 + qs
is p.r,,
i.e.,
isp.z.
A0.6)
+jq<a)F(jGi)]\\
be
< nil.
established
A0.7)
by plotting
whether the
Bode
relations, deciding A0.7) (R&T, plane Nyqulst Popov criterion uses the modified is vertically compressed at drawn on this plane, the Nyquist coImT). When diagram lowerfrequencies and expanded at higher frequencies. Condition A0.5) can be rewritten as ReT(/o>) - q<olmT(jGi) > -1 or
the phase-gain
third
and, A + jq(o)F(j(o)
The
form
of the
[Re <
\"
T(j<o) + 1].
\"
A0.8)
=,\"
the
\"
sign
replaced the
by point
A0.8)
Fig.
10.15. It
Therefore,
passes through
inequality
the the
(-1,0)
the Popov
is AS if
in Fig.
line
shown
in
A0.8)
is satisfied and
system
a Popov line
10.15 is
can
be
left
diagram on the
by the plot
modified
shown
plane.
AS.
modified
Nyquist
modified
plane
If 1 '1
Nyquist
plane
Fig. 10.15
on modified
Popov
line
Fig. 10.16
can
On
Nyquist plane
of this diagram a judgment the basis that a limit cycle with fundamental U can be made about but no judgment whether the system is AS.
10.16 neither
only
guarantees
the system is stable nor that the the absence of certain types of oscillation. can take place if a Popov line can be self-oscillation that relate to the of the modified Nyquist diagram
indicates that
Fourier
of
instance, periodic
in Fig.
more
oscillation
with
fundamental/i
cannot
criterion
circuits
exist
the
system
represented
using
10.16.
circuits than that in
and
Fig. 10.12,
can
be extended
several
complex
including
various
nonlinear two-poles
several
Chapter
10. Provision
of
Global
Stability
275
passive two-poles. It was proven, in particular, function A +j'g%)/A +j(Oq2)replacing the Popov
that factor
is valid
with
the
10.6.1
Low-pass
system
with
maximum
feedback
criterion or Bode and Bode criteria of most practical
The Popov criterion is not a tool in everyday use like the Nyquist diagrams. Its major application is to prove that the Nyquist established for linear systems also guarantee absolute stability nonlinear those with maximized feedback. systems, including The low-pass with Bode optimal cut-off is AS. This can system
the Popov
larg
second factor.
the \\lqx
Popov
\302\253 1
criterion and
and employing
+ q\\s)/(l
\\lq2 =
4o)c, the
inequality
A0.7),
as
F +
+ j(8qx)l(\\
Fig.
+j(Oq2)i
< n/2,
is satisfied,
as seenin
10.17.
dB rad
-n
-argF
-\302\246n/2
s^_^_argA
+/oagr1VA
f,
log sc
Application
of Popov
criterion to
feedback
Bode optimal
low-pass
cut-off
system
with
maximum
maximized over a large with the feedback a band-pass system relative with in cut-off the band, high-frequency region and phase stability margin yn frequency and in as in It is seen that the low-frequency shown (b). Fig. 10.18(a) y\\K roll-up region, = = 0 and y, the combination of y 0.5 satisfiescondition i.e., arg(l +jqca)T varies A0.7),
only
from
-rc/2
to iz/2, if stability
value
\\lq
is
chosen
close
the
in
to
the
mean
square
frequency
of
yt S
the
passband.
Therefore,
can be
= 1/6 y\\
proved with
does well
little
Popov
criterion
design. to the
only
when
1/2.
However,
the
of
practical
large to
requires
satisfy
the
criterion
imposes
loop
impairment
an extension
narrow-band
of
the
gain
to lower
system, phase
frequencies.
the
criterion Popov sufficient stability margins, jil80\302\260 and jl80\302\260, exceed
the
In the
requires
90\302\260. Satisfying
band-pass
and
that the
with
roll-up
using
cut-off
stability
margin
this
compared
reduces
maximum
available
feedback
optimal
of
y/6
in the
band-pass
276
Chapter
10. Provision
of
Global
Stability
dB
7-plane
rad
20log[A+/fflqO\"]
20logA+/oagK
6dB/oct^/
n
/\\n
\"\\arg[A+/(
^/y
\"^
\\
-12dB/od
n/2
\"V^
\\
f, log
sc
\"Ss
-nil
(a)
6dB/oct
(b)
Fig. 10.18
Band-pass system
analysis
with Popov
criterion
the
bandwidth,
deficient
the smaller
filtering
feedback
the
limited
Popov
by the
factor
properties of
A +jqca).
For
As
narrow-band
band-pass
systems,
sufficefor
although
phase of a
stability
margins of it/6
at
higher
and lower
relative
has
link, regardless of the system with a saturation not yet been proven theoretically.
with
nonlinear
dynamic
compensator
not
AS
when
dynamic
nonlinear
compensators
links.
built
of linear
link 1
and
non-dynamic
In of
the
the
system
10.19, the
function
nonlinear
- v(e) in
a dead
it
the link
local of the
feedback
NDC
uses
so that linear.
1For
v(e)
v(e)
as the
represents
nonlinear
the AS analysis,
measured We denote by Tp the return ratio for the plant by 1 (and the link 1 - v, by 0). Then, when v(e) is saturation, as T?IP. When is expressed function for small level signals G. return ratio in the NDCs local loopbecomes the
when the
the
the
v is
replaced transfer
very large,
Actuator
Plant
Fig. 10.19 Feedback system with nonlinear and link 1 - v in the feedback path
link v
of the
in
the
actuator
NDC
of Global
Stability
277
system
signal v. For the sake into the one shown in of stability analysis, the system can be modified equivalently one link v. The linear links within the dashed nonlinear Fig. 10.20 which contains only of its transfer function as linear link. We denote the negative envelope form a composite be the must return If satisfies the TE (equivalent ratio). TE Popov criterion, system
input
in
Fig.
10.19
signal
depicts
e and,
two output
identical
nonlinear
links
globally stable.
Fig. 10.20
shown
Equivalently
transformed
system
containing
in
a single
10.20
nonlinear
link
v
as
for
TE, the
diagram
Fig.
is further
redrawn
Fig. 10.21
From
the output
this
Calculation
of
TE using
looptangent
transfer
to both
paths
from
diagram,
the
of
nonlinear
negative
of the
function
A0.9)
Given _ T TE and
TP, the
NDC
linear
link transfer
function
is
\342\200\224T
i+rE
From
A0.10)
the plant
A0.10),
feedback is
rE).
states Eq. A0.11)
(io.il)
feedback is
feedback
in the
that
the plant
product
NDC
areas
and the
in the G and
feedback
the
local feedback in the system. Therefore,the equivalent should not overlap or else T%, loops
of the
278
the positive
plant
Chapter10.Provision feedbackin
the
of Global
Stability
will be excessive and the phase stability margin in the in each loop is substantial, the small. If positive feedback crossover than the of Tv(jo)) must be either much smaller or much larger frequency crossover frequency ofG(j<o). We can see the advantage as follows: in a conventional of a system with an NDC
plant
loop, correspondingly,
system,
T? must
satisfy
the
Popov criterion.
criterion,
weaker
but
in
system
with an NDC,
the
only
requirements
are that Tf
satisfies the
be
Nyquist
criterion,
and
that
TE,
defined
leads
by
to
flexibility
section. is no need to maximize to the full extent the disturbance rejection there Commonly, while the stability specified keeping stability margins, or maximizing margins while In these there still remains cases, providing specified disturbance rejection response. somefreedom in choosing the responses for G and TE. This freedom qan be utilized for the provision of desired transient for large level signals. For a large-level responses
shown
signal, a unity
the dead
zone in the feedback path of and the system becomesa tracking link,
the
NDC system
can be with
replaced approximately
transfer
by
the loop
function
A0.12)
G + l
and
guard
saturation
in
the
actuator.
Such a
system
has
response
without
this,
an overshoot if
Bode
the
point
must
phase
be
stability
rather
margin
is 90\302\260 or so.
To achieve
will
the
A0.12)
crossover
shallow
frequency.
Examples
derived
frequency
be
interval
demonstrated
section.
The equations
system
for
the block
the
diagram
for
in
Fig.
shown
in Fig.
in
10.22 where
feedback
actuator
but
10.19 are also valid for the as the the same nonlinearity
function
v(e)
the
NDC
path
larger signal.
the
nonlinear
link
in
the
NDC by
a factor of k
lower-order
compensation,
the disturbance
remain
substantial,
systems
compensation
cases, improving
and
transient homing
responses system
and the benefits of NDC and in the following Examples 1-3 such benefits of nonlinear to illustrate dynamic in some with rather steep Bode diagram, and, to large commands.
rejection
Example 1. In the
the
diagrammed
The
and
NDC
the
in Fig. 10.23, v(e) is a saturation, forward path transfer function TVIP ratio for return small-level signals plant
Tpare
of Global
Stability
279
2(.s
+ 0.5)
s(s + 2)
+ 0.5)
2E \342\200\236
Fig. 10.23
The asymptotic lead compensation. with nyqlog function np = [2
Block
diagram
of a
system
with
an
NDC
for
for
TP shown
Nyquist
diagram
simple 10.24(b)
Fig.
Bodestep
2
toolbox described
0];
Appendix
A14:
1]; dp = [1
nyqlog(l,np,dp)
Nyquist fV
diagram,
x marks
dB
40
60
50
Up
\\
30
\\P
m 40
-12 dB/oct
20 10
.125
130
CO
o. zo
\\
-6 dB/oct 0
\\
\\ Ve
; h
Onj
.25
'
-10
.s^.^-s/iogsc
(a)
/
dB/oct
^\\\\-12
-240
loop
-210
phase
-180
shift
-150
-120
-90
in degrees
(b)
diagrams
and (b)
L-planeplots for
Example phase
1 (A)
margins
The
is
37\302\260 and
general
Consider
small signals), the guard-point (for transient response has 43% overshoot. rules for selecting TE and G have been formulated the closed-loop
TE and
stability 10.7.2.
in
Section
G.
TE:
(A) We
start
the design
by a
guessed responsefor
s(s +
2)
a
As
shallower
with
shown
such
is discussed
10.24 his response mergeswith TP at higher frequencies but has lesser phase lag. The system at lower frequenciesand, correspondingly, slope in this system are stable;process a TE is AS (and even the processes stability a TE, from A0.10), such in the next chapter). With
in Fig.
280
The asymptotic
Chapter
10.
Provision
of
Global
Stability
for these in Fig. TE and G are shown are in with the L-plane Nyquist diagrams plotted Fig. 10.24(b) following includes the previously shown line for plotting Tp):
diagrams
Bode
10.24(a).
np = [2
ne
ng
1];
de
dp
[12
2
2;
1;
gtext('TP');
The
dg =
[12
[1
gtext('TE');
link
nyqlog@.5,ng,dg);
in the
gtext('G') %placelabels
feedback
path
zoom off
NDC is
with
mouse
transfer
function of the
s +
of the
GP_
2
2)'
function
T?
+2s + (s + Q5)(s2
2(,y +
S
The large-amplitude
loop transfer
2
A0.12)
0.5)
i2
s5+4s4
The
response
6s3+5s2+2s'
of a
expected
shown
closed-loop
transient
are not
acceptable.
the NDC
retaining
forward
path
link,
we interchange
the
functions
for
them
1
rE=\342\200\224^
and
s(s
the
+2s
+ 2)
are still
function
s(s + 2)
satisfied since G
link
in and
equations
A0.9)-A0.11)
TE enter
these equations
the
of the
the
feedback
path of
NDC
rp
2s + i 10.24) are
not
smaller
The for this TE (i.e., for G in Fig. stability margins for the system to remain AS (although version (A), but sufficient function is The large-signal loop transfer A0.12)
than
in
process-stable).
Tp
2E + 0.5)
This
and the related closed-loop response are plotted response is shown in Fig. 10.25(b); it has The closed-loop step-response Fig. 10.25(a). the overshoot in the nonlinear that overshoot. These linear system responsesindicates will commands be small or non-existent. to in regimes response large
frequency
in no
of Global
Stability
281
10'
Frequency
10\"
10'
Time
10
(sees) (b) large Example
\342\200\242
(rad/sec)
(a)
Fig.
10.25
for responses (a) Open-loop and closed-loop to large step commands in response (b) transient
signals
1
and
the system transient Indeed, responses and shown in Fig. 10.26 demonstrate that
to step
NDC
commands obtained
the responses.
with
SIMULINK
improves
1.5 1
1.5 1
1.5
1
0.5 0
10
(a)
0.5 0 y
20 10
0.5
0
20
10
(c)
20
(b)
1.5 1
1.5 1
1
0.5
0.5
10
20
0.5 y 0/
0
10
\"\302\246s^
20
-0.5
10
20
(d)
(e)
(f)
1, case (A): Fig. 10.26 Transient responseto unity step command in Example with threshold of saturation and dead zone set to, respectively, (a),(b),(c) - systems where threshold is set to 0.1; 0.2; 0.5; (d) system without NDC; (e) windup in the system 0.2, and the NDC feedback path disconnected; (f) actuator output for (a) In the
(a),(b),(c)
(d), for
is large,
approximately
45%.
In
different
threshold,
saturation
The
the smaller
percentage windup
with the unity command and step of the command to the saturation
when
the
feedback
path in
282
of Global
Stability
the NDC is disconnectedand the actuator overloaded by a relatively disturbance large or command. The effects of the NDCs on the transient for large-level signals response will also be considered in Chapter 13. shows that the actuator output is constant some time range and over Fig. 10.26(f) then to zero. This of the actuator output indicates good utilization rapidly drops nearly
power capability.
The
system
exhibits
performance
overshoot
absolute value
overshoots
of
the
is
homing
systems:
(percentwise)
the
Large
occur
in the
in the
responses to large
disturbances.
The
performance
can be
higher-order
in
compensation.
Fig.
return
Example
function
of the
and
is shown
10.27.
ratio
The
are
transfer
small-signal
Tp
2s2
0.1
feri i
2s2+1
.2S+0.1
s3-
-> 1/S-l
2s2 +1.25+0.1
\\G)
\342\200\224
s4+2s3
i.e.,
GP/TP
4-
2E+0.5H+0.1)
-10#27
Block
d'a9ram
of a
system
with
an
NDC
s3(s+2)
As seen on
the
asymptotic
Bode
frequencies
The system
than
that
in Example
Nyquist
diagram in Fig. 10.28(a), I7>l is larger at lower 1 and therefore providesbetter disturbance rejection. is for shown in TP diagram Fig. 10.28(b), the system
-18dB/oct
50
Nyquist
70 60 50
diagram,
x marks
w=wb,
+ marks
octaves
. Tp
in Example 1
\\
\\
40
\\
30 20
-12dB/oct
ffi 40 \342\200\242o
V
\\
V
k
\\
\\
10
\\
\\ ,
.0625
.125
.25
t,
log SO !70
I
-240
loop
/
-150 -120
-10
(a)
-210
phase
-180
shift in degrees
(b)
Bode
Fig.
10.28
(a) Asymptotic
diagram
and (b)
L-planeplots for
Example
Chapter
10.
Provision
of Global
Stability
low-order.
283
Let us considerthree
(A) With
choices
of TE and
G, keeping them
the same
+:
as
in case
A of
Example 1, G is found
.
from
A0.10)
as
asymptotic
NDC
2=1 sincethe
GP
local
in Fig. 10.28(a). The TE and G are shown For large-level signals,the system is Type 3 is loop is Type 2. The NDC feedback path transfer function
the
10.28(b).
@.6s+0.05H+2)
T?
The large,
(s2 + 2s +
system
2H
+ 05)(s
+ 0.1)
'
is globally
stable
as a shown
but
it does
not
qualify
large-amplitude
(B) With
the
signals (not
functions
and the stability margins in the equivalent system are to good homing system becausethe transient responses here) are far from the best possible.
TE(s) and
52O2+25
+ 2)
becomes
the NDC
GP
feedbackpath
2
,\"
+
T? The
type
5E + 2JE
of
0.5H
+ 0.1)
2E +
0.5H + 0.1)
still
2s2
+ 1.2s
+ 0.1'
the system for large-level signals is (not shown here) step commands
3 - 1\342\200\242= 2. The
deserve
function
transient
responses
adjusted
improvement.
is further
(C) The numerator of the NDC feedback path transfer to improve the transient by trial and error, in order response command.With NDC feedback path transfer function
GP
to a
large-amplitude step
1.65 +
0.16
1.25+ 0.1'
2
G0.16
GPT?
Tp
1.65 +
~
0.16
2
*
+1.65+
T?
252
+1.25+
0.1
53+252
G +
s(s
_i_ 1
54 +
253+ 252
43
+1.25
+ 0.1
OAs2
+ 0.1
43
+0.165
284 The
of Global
Stability
Fig.
in are shown Bode large signal open-loop and closed-loop diagrams With such diagrams, the transient shown in Fig. 10.29(b) has no response in Fig. 10.30 becomes overshoot, and the nonlinear system transient response shown in Fig. 10.31, where the crossover for T% is shown satisfactory. The Nyquist diagram = 0.65. The a>b system is AS. frequency
10.29(a).
20
TO
0 0.8
O-20
-40 10'
\302\246\302\2470.6
o I
-90
-requency(rad/sec)
<0.4
\\ 0.2
-180
10'
10\"
101
5
Time
10
(sees)
15
20
(b)
and
Fig. 10.29
(a) Bodediagrams
(b) transient
response
for
Tp/(G+1
)[1+TP/{G+1)
x marks
60 50
1.5
m 40 0.5
|30
|
10
response in
20
20
*\302\253>
nonlinear system to
2, case
-10
(C),
'0 -240
loop
SIMULINK.
in degrees
Fig. 10.31
diagram
for
Te
the system
the
Example 3. In
with a
To
Examples1 and
plant.
2,
consider
double-integrator
retain
the plant
transfer
loop
return
ratio
same as
before, let us
and to
retain
multiply
NDC
forward
path feedback in the NDC, let us path by 1/*, The system with the Ms2 is therefore AS. the modified NDC same and and has the G and TE, plant the However, since the NDC reduces type for large signal amplitudes by system's of poles of G at dc, the output transient responses to large-magnitude the number step transient must be assured in commands undershoot. When good large-signal responses the for nonlinear T& should be made steeper. Acceptable system, the Bode diagram
functions
2 by *,
the
same
internal
Chapter
10. Provision
of Global
Stability
285
performance
can be obtained
with
+0.1s
GP
1.5s3 +
Better
transient
responses
than
can be
actuator's
achieved
threshold
by
making
saturation
zone
in
the
NDC
the
somewhat
system
smaller
the
of
not
in this
case
analysis
large signalswill
functions.
responses.
given
more valid,
might
and
the disturbance
rejection for
transfer
the
be of
importance).
low-order
and
3 use
be
explicit algebraic
4 or
examples from
use graphical
calculated
representation
for
gain
The related 4, or
phase responsescan
the
methods
in Chapter
programs
Appendices for G
lOdB
14. After
rational
this,
the responses
compensator
Tp/P can be
the
approximated by
and
functions.
cut-off
4. Fig.
10.32shows
stability
diagrams
+ 1 as Bodeoptimal
of
with
8Hz,
30\302\260 of
resulting
in 40dB
functional
over the
attained
feedback
The
amplitude stability margin 10dB of feedback over the bandwidth [0,1]. Tg is chosen with only The more than 90\302\260. and having the phase stability bandwidth, margin in the II of the 40 dB available 50 dB exceeds \\TP+ single-loop AS
phase is Nyquist-stable
margin,
system.
system
and AS.
dB
80
dB
40
20 0
.5 1
-20
Fig.10.32 Bode
for the At lower
AS system of Example 4
the
diagrams
diagrams 6
AS system of Example
dashed
found
responses function
approximation
by
the
can be
as described
in Chapter
6.
in Section phase of an
of the low-pass 10*6, a band-passtransform smaller that 90\302\260 does not satisfy the stability margin The band-pass transform NDC resolves this problem.
of the
Bode
diagrams
shown in Fig.
10.32 producesan
in
AS
band-pass
system
with
50 dB
of feedback.
Example 6.
optimal
The
Bode
plot
for TE displayed
and
the
Fig.
10.33 stability
is chosen
as
the
Bode
cut-off
the
with 40
dB of feedback
without
30\302\260 phase
feedbackin
AS system
NDC
is 40dB.
286
of Global
Stability
A Nyquist-stable local loop in the NDC is chosen to reduce the loop crossover the area of positive not to fall upon feedback frequency in order for the area of positive is 80 dB in the feedbackin the TB loop. The Nyquist-stable feedback operational plant an NDC frequency range, much larger than 40 dB allowable in the AS system without
These
attention
was
paid
to the
with
can be improved
feedback
closed-loop
transient
responses.
the command
feedforward technique
loops.
dynamic
approach
will
compensation
be
improve performance of AS systems. to designing nonlinear feedback systems with discussed in the next chapter.
NDCs
10.8 Problems
(a)
Make
cable
the
cable;
attenuation
to the
passive
two-pott
imitating
the
(b)
voltage-to-frequency
converter.
of a span of a coaxialcable(the a square root of the frequency) using from a D/A make an A/D converter converter from a frequency-to-voltage
2
3
What is the characteristic of a feedback system with a high-gain input-output forward path and a feedbackpath where (a) saturation (b) dead zone is placed?
Figure
out the
spectral density
x and
plots
(Fourier
transforms) the
limit
in
Fig.
10.6.
Find the
point-to-point
correspondence
between
in Fig.
x'.
phase
signal is
limit cycle curves for (a) a triangular plane with different front and back slopes.
What
of an amplifier characteristic of the output feedback, if the amplifier gain coefficient is 20, the feedback is divider consists of two 10 k?2 resistors, and the power supply voltage What external load resistance makes the circuit stable?
the
current-to-voltage
with
in-
phase
voltage
voltage
\302\26110 V?
(a)
Is the system with saturation AS if + 10)(s + 200)s]; T(s) = 100(s + 3)(s + 6)/[(s + 200)s]; (b) T\\s) = 100(s + 2)(s + 16)/[(s + 20)(s = + 1 + + + (c) 1\\s) 300(s 200)sj; )(s 5)/[(s 100)(s (d) T(s) = 300s(s+ T)(s + 5)(s + 5000)/[(s + 100)(s + 120)(s+ 130)]. Bode diagrams or use computer generated Bodediagrams, (Draw asymptotic apply the Popov criterion.)
Are
and
8
9
the
by a
A
systems
from the
By a
it
previous problem
three-position
stable
AS
when
the saturation
link
is replaced
relay?
judgment
system
Is
globally
(yes, no, or no
a
can
nonlinear
link v(e) is
equations: v- il2\\
the
(g) e = 5v,
I v\\ < 1,
(a) v =
link non-dynamic e?/2;(b) = i/V2; (c) v = e3/2; (d) e (h) v= 5&, (I) e = v + 0.25v* 0) e
replaced
by
= v3^; = v+
described
(e) v25; (k)
v =
range
no solution
outside this
range.
Chapter 10
287
and
characteristic of the nonlinear link obtained the negative of a three-position relay link.
parallel
11
an AS system with an NDC, with fb= 1 kHz, using the design prototype or SPICE simulations. Plot the 1, Fig. 10.24(a). Make MATLAB Example time to step-function input of small and large amplitudes. responses
Design
AS system with an NDC, with fb = 140 Hz, using the design prototype or SPICE simulations. Plot the 2, Fig. 10.24(b). Make MATLAB Example time to step-function input of small and large amplitudes. responses the
when driver
in
output
12 Designan
in
output
13
Using
block
the is
NDC, of the
down the
and
saturation
link
for the
the
maximum
output signal
14 What is the meaning of the word \"asymptotic\" AS, AGS. Can an asymptotic Bode diagram diagram,
in the
be
used
15 Research project:
with the a Nyquist-stable system for a plant specified by the instructor, Design with saturation in the actuator. bandwidth specified by the instructor, feedback to the signal Apply a large-amplitude vanishing Verify the design with SIMULINK. and observe the self-oscillation. input, following system's \342\200\242 100 in the loop after the compensator. a link with gain coefficient Introduce \342\200\242 Introduce local feedback about this link that makes the main loop response AS-type. Introduce a dead zone into the local feedback path. \342\200\242 this system to a single-loop Transform system. Modify the linear links if equivalent^ the Popov criterion. for the system to satisfy necessary
\342\200\242 \342\200\242
Study
linear
the
links
\342\200\242
Compare
rejection
(b) PIDresponse.
to commands of different shapes to improve the responses. the disturbance rejection of the designed an NDC and with of an AS system without
responses
if necessary
and
amplitudes.
the
Modify the
disturbance
system with
(a)
Bode
step
response
or
16
Research
project:
Do
system in the
with a
three-position
the
previous
problem
nonlinear
for
a link
appropriate
compensator.
same
link
17 Research project: Do
characteristic of the
as
in
in
Problem
nonlinear
the
e =
with
the
equation
prefliters
and
feedforward
paths
Research area:
Designof
nonlinear
links.
diagrammed
following
Fig.
conditions (c)
criterion:
Ls =
the
with
two
identical the
U\\
U =
U (e) U = 2.7L,
Popov
288
Chapter
10.
Provision
of Global
Stability
*\302\251\342\200\224>$-*
[->
ih
(H-
Mh
Fig.10.34 Feedback
Answers
system
to selected
sketches
problems
spectral
density
The
of the
for the
oscillations
are
shown
in Fig.
10.35.
Illu......
frequency
(a)
Fig.
frequency (b)
10.35
is
frequency (c)
for
frequency
(d)
Spectral
depicted
density plots
oscillation
shapes
in Fig. 10.6
6 The
Fig.
in and the characteristic is shown linear mode of operation can be calculated with Blackman's formula as R = fl0F(\302\273) = A - 10J0k?2 = -8kQ. When the voltage is saturated, and the output exceeds VCC which is 10 V, the amplifier resistance is Ro = 20 k?i (we assume the remains amplifier impedance output it is saturated). The system is infinite in the linear mode of operation and while the feedback. stable when the load impedance is 0 sincethis disconnects certainly real zero. The negative impedanceon the falling branch contains a positive
circuit
in Fig. 10.36(a),
impedance
10.36(b).
The
output
in the
-10
(a)
(b)
with in-phase current-to-voltage
7 (a) The system is AS, as can be proved with or any of the other equivalent conditions.
= 0.1,
using
MATLAB
to verify
A0.7)
20
The
answer
is (c)
since
in
this
case
outputs
are,
therefore,
nonlinear
stability analysis,
one of the
nonlinear the input to both identical the same. Therefore, for the link can be removed.
links is the
purpose of
Chapter
11
DESCRIBING FUNCTIONS
Stability
to well-designed control
when applied accuracy having low-pass filter properties. is simple and convenient. In this chapter, function (DF) stability Describing analysis DFs are derived for most common nonlinear links: saturation, dead zone, three-position formulas are derived and used in the design relay, and hysteresis. Simpleapproximate
analysis
based
on harmonic
balance providessufficient
feedback
loops
of
nonlinear
controllers.
link is described. A bang-bang controller with a hysteresis are introduced. The responses characterize \\so-f and iso-E the responses of DF on the signal amplitude and frequency. dependence Nonlinear dynamic compensators are the links that provide phase advance for A loop is analyzed which includes an NDC and an additional large-level signals. nonlinear link (actuator). Stability margins for such systems are defined. of one An NDC can be built nonlinear and several linear links. are Conditions discussed for maximizing the advance for large-level signals. NDCs are phase described nonlinear channels and with nonlinear local feedback paths. with parallel It is known that SISO and MIMO Nyquist-stable provide systems larger feedback thus the disturbance is conditional when rejection. However, their stability enhancing the only nonlinear links in the systems are the saturation. NDCs eliminate actuators' in such limit transient for large cycles systems. NDCs also improve responses of process For command amplitudes and reduce the effects all these instability. for purposes, NDCs can be built in the same configurations as the NDCs designed
nor complex - an analog NDC stability. NDCs are neither expensive be made with an op-amp can and 5 to 10 passiveelements,resistors and A capacitors. to program. for lowering the system So, there is little excuse digital NDC is trivial performanceby using only linear controllers. Nonlinear interaction between local and common loopsis reviewed, and the reader is warned about practical cases where such interaction can lead to a limit cycle. The effects of harmonics and intermodulation on the system and stability accuracy are discussed. The chapter ends by describing the procedure for testing whether the system is AGS.
provision
of global
11.1.1
feedback
Harmonic
balance
analysis
is unity transmission about the (limit periodic self-oscillation cycle) the after about the same to any i.e., loop, passing loop, signal must return chosen cross Since be in Fourier section. can form, initially periodic signals presented each harmonic of the return signal is the same in amplitude and phase as the harmonic of the feedback loop. This condition of the signal at the beginning is called harmonic
balance.
Since
cannot be
presence
the
harmonics
interact
cannot
in the
consider
nonlinear
links,
the
in
used here.We
the
superposition
isolation
principle
the others.
a single harmonic
equality
from
For each of
harmonics,
to
1 should this
of
all
other
harmonics.
balance
Although
generally
when
procedure
the
cumbersome,harmonic
analysis
is simplified
289
290
justifiably
truncated
Chapter
11.
Describing
Functions
this
to a
To establishwhether
diagrammed real poles.
a typical
of
is possible,
let us consider
feedback
system
Example
with
1. The feedback
an integrator
in Fig.
type
The compensator has a real gain plant k (the compensator is not optimally coefficient The loop phase lag reachesn designed). at A when the 0.5 Hz. self-oscillation takes frequency place loop gain coefficient exceeds 1 at this frequency, which happens when k>ll. The self-oscillation initially link in the loop, the signal stabilizes until, due to the saturation grows exponentially with some specific amplitude and shape.
two
(a)
(b)
diagram
output
(c)
shapes
link
of a
and
at (b) the
of the
saturation
link
shapes
of the signal
particular
v(f) at
values
the
Fig. ll.l(b)
self-oscillation
for three
of output of k. When
the
the
saturation
are
illustrated
in
the
gain
is barely
sufficient for
to
to occur,
larger
k, the
the
saturation
loop
only
gain
link and v{f) becomes nearly When k is trapezoidal. coefficient 20 or more, v{t) becomes nearly Fl-shaped. of the
saturation
large enough
make
the
Because
odd
harmonics.
approaches
v{t) is symmetrical and, therefore, contains symmetry, THe amplitudes of the harmonics increase when the shape of v(f) In for is this case, the Fourier series v(otf) rectangular.
+
(l/3)sin
time, as seen in Fig. 1 l.l(c), the signal e(t) at the input to the nonlinear This happens because v(i) is nearly doubly integrated by the loop linear links. As the result, and second derivatives are continuous. e(t) and its first Another is that higher harmonics of v(t) are effectively filtered out by the explanation linear links. In fact, e{t)doesnot differ much from the low-pass properties of the loop's sinusoid. Because of this, the cross section at the input to the nonlinear link is, the one simplifying the stability generally, analysis.
At
the same
link
looks
smooth.
11.1.2
During
the
signal
of
e(t)
at
the
input
to the
nonlinear
nonlinear
link
is not
its harmonics
in the
element
contributes
exactly to the
V of v(f).
V
of e(f) on
typical
to
be small and
nonlinear
harmonics the effects of the higher we generally expect of feedback control systems' features because of the following linear links:
However,
link
characteristic
on V.
negligible effect
This
that fair
small-amplitude for
harmonics
of
common
types of control
Functions
291
links.
of a properties the conjecture
filter
T(i(O)
possesses is called
attenuating
filter.
the
return
signal harmonics.
of a
filter
smooth
for
a periodic
a system, arg
then, due to
Bode phase-gain
control systems well-designed self-oscillation appears in condition of the the average steepnessof
the
with
such
relations,
the phase
oscillation
T(j(o) =
diagram
harmonic
where
third
Bode
attenuated
fundamental
in
by
121og23
= 20dB
of
dB
relative to
the
third
loop.
Since
the
\\
\\
the
i i \342\200\22419 dB \342\200\224
harmonic
we
conclude
third harmonic is 30 dB (i.e.,30 times) lower than the fundamental. The higher in harmonics v(t) are even smaller, and they are attenuated even more by the loop linear links as indicated
in
-12d
B/oct\\
, ,
\\
28 dB 34 dB
\342\200\224
\\
f,
log-
sc.
3fo5f
J
higher links
Fig.
11.2.
With looking
the whether
conditions at
the
the
(a)
and
(b)
satisfied,
Fig. 11.2
harmonics
Filtering
fundamental
only
and neglecting
by loop
linear
harmonics
system
the slope of the oscillation is met then harmonic analysis must harmonics of the signal e(t).
11.2
a good estimate for is stable, and for the value of the stability margins. is not steep and the of the loop links gain response due to nonminimum phase lag or due to phase lag
gives
involve
When,
phase in
however,
of links, several
condition also
nonlinear
not
only
the
fundamental
but
Describing
stability
function
analysis
Using harmonic
simultaneously in
by several
the
U.K.,
and
in
1948,
for nonlinear control systems was suggestedalmost scientists - in 1947 by L. Goldfarb in Russia and by A. Tustin by R. Kochenburger in the USA (who introduced the term
Germany
V
\"describing
sinusoidal
function\")
the
The ratio of
signal
complex
link
applied to
input
to
E of
the
H(EJ<o)=V/E
a complex the describing function can be different attenuation number, describing the signal are of the function defined describing imaginary parts
In
A1.1)
at different
general,
frequencies,
shift.
and
real
it
is
and phase
by
The
and
Fourier
formulas
as
Re H = \342\200\224 Jv
%E
1 2*
o
sinaw d(ot
A1-2)
and
Im H
1 2* %E o
Jv
dtot cosom
A1.3)
292
When
its
Chapter11.Describing
the characteristic of is zero. When, further,
to
the
Functions
nonlinear the
link
output
harmonics
negligiblecompared
is, approximately,
the fundamental,
system
T(j(O)H(E,j(o)=l
A1.4)
A1.5)
or
CO).
(When account.)
the characteristic
illustrates
is asymmetric, the
two
dc
signal
component
needs to be
taken
into
Fig. 11.3
DF H(E)
ways
to do
and inverse
through
dashed lines.
The oscillation
Fig.
DF l/H(E)at
conditions the
a specific
critical
The trajectories formed by the E are shown by frequency and varying become satisfied when the DF A1.4,11.5) when the point in Fig. 11.3(a), or, equivalently,
stability
analysis.
11.3(b)
intersects
the
Nyquist
plot.
/.-plane
y
{.-plane
(b)
(a)
DF and
(b) inverse DF
DF appears to be with not depend on frequency, analysis inverse for is typical the DF is different at different which easier. However, frequencies the with and nonlinear nonlinear systems dynamic compensation, systems multiloop DF method is more convenient. direct linear link with link by an equivalent the nonlinear DF analysis replaces
H
does
when
transmission
function
difference integral
is that H relationships
depends on E, and
do
not
generally,
the
superposition
principle
in a
Bode
apply.
The
integrals
can
be appliedonly
11.3
modified
form, as shown
in Appendix
4.
Describing
characteristics
11.3.1
Exact
expressions
Characteristics
of hard
saturation,
of dead in Fig.
with threshold
a dead
is es,
zone, and
and the
of dead
293
V
\302\246e. o
es
(a)
Fig.
(b)
11.4
saturation
(c)
of (a) saturation,
zone, and
(b) dead
(d)
Characteristics
with
zone,
(c)
dead
the inputs The characteristics in Fig. 11.4 are symmetrical. Therefore, when to the the outputs are symmetrical, are sinusoidal, do not dc contain i.e., components. is not shifted in time relative to the input. The the links' DFs are real (the Hence, output DFs have no phase shift). These DFsdo not depend on frequency. Let us derive the DF for a dead-zone link. The input and the output for the signals e is positive, dead-zone link are shown in Fig. 11.5. When the output is 0 as long as E <
links eA,
i.e.,
when
the
output
angle
is sinew
<of
< arcsin(ed/?).
e&IE
Therefore,
the
angle n arcsin(ed/?).
up
to the
input
output
Since the
output
input, the
is
the
not
shifted
in and
time the
relative imaginary
to the
part of
integrand
words,
since the
A1.3) with
in
is an odd
the
function,
becomes only
function
0.) Therefore,
DF can be found
integrand
A1.2).
and
Because
the
is an
even
function
is symmetrical,
Fig. signals
we can
and
take
multiply
arcsin(e,j/?) to ji/2
H = \342\200\224 J
\342\200\224 %\\_
nil
sinatf-\342\200\224
GM-smcorcoscof
2
+ \342\200\224COSGW I E
eA
~iKl2
or
n [2
arcsin\342\200\224+-i- cosl
eA
eA
IE
i.e.,
71
This When
for
0.
the signal
E > e&.
parallel
piece-linear
characteristic
can be obtained
by
connecting
k0 in
294
with
Chapter
several links with dead zones e6U shown in Fig. 11.6; here,a, b, c,... are obtained as the sum of the DFs of the
followed
paths,
constants.
be
is a
linear
function.
*.
\342\200\224\\
e ft
\342\200\224\302\273
*3
(a)
(b)
Fig. 11.6
of links
with dead
(b)
characteristic
the
For example,
subtracted given
the
link
DF is
DF
for
from by
1. Therefore,
the
saturation
DF
equals
rt
TtE\\
{E
actuator
A1.6)
(\"forward,\"
output
in
Fig.
11.4(d),
the
v(f)
with
shown
the
in
11.7.
-1
(a)
Fig.
(b)
11.7
Output signal of
of the
a three-position relay
for
(a)
E = 1.05 and
the describing
(b) E = 1.5
function is
The
amplitude
A1.2)
H=
or
\342\200\224
*'2
J sincotcfaw
4
TC
=\342\200\224cosarcsin\342\200\224
eA
,
EJ
295
TJ
%E
A1.7)
When
EU&
is large,
the second
component under
the
square
root can
be neglectedand
relay
H = D/ji)\302\253<i/?. Describing
in
functions
for saturation,
three-position
are plotted
Fig.
11.8.
signal-to-threshold
10
15 20
ratio, dB
25 30
1
.5
-5
-10
-15
CD
TJ
.1
c?
CO
o>
u_
.05
.03 1
10
function
20 30
dead zone, and
Fig.11.8 Describing
When
characteristic
position
for saturation,
relay
three-
E is only slightly the pulses are short, the fundamental of larger than 1, then and oscillation cannot take is small, the loop gain for the fundamental is small, when DF is close is more likely to take place in practical systems place. The oscillation As seen in Fig. 11.8, the relay DF is maximum when E \302\273 to the maximum. 1.5. In this
v(f)
case,
the
pulses
are
rather
wide as
the
shown
in
Fig.
11.7(b),
the harmonics
accurate.
in
v(f)
are
therefore
DF analysis of a
is
sufficiently with
loop
Example transfer
analysis
system
a three-position
relay
and
the
T =
50,000E + 500)
,s(s+20H+ 100J
in Fig.
and the inverse DF plot are shown in 11.9. The Nyquist diagram direct DF is in The at which The Fig. 11.9(b). Fig. 11.9(a). analysis presented frequency the return ratio phase lag is 180\302\260 is 5.1 Hz. The loop gain of the linear links at this is 5.4dB. From the diagram in Fig. 11.8, for the DF of-5.4dB, the signal-tofrequency of the inverse and the direct DF analyses threshold ratio is 2, i.e.,6dB.The conclusions are, certainly, the same: the system can oscillate with the signal amplitude about twice
is
shown
296
the threshold, and
the
Chapter
11.
Describing
Functions
frequency
of oscillation
20
(.-plane
\342\200\236
^-*
15
10 y*^
-200\302\260 -5
^-~f
i '
diagram
tS-DF
'
(b)
Fig. 11.9
Nyquist
diagram
and
the (a)
a three-position
11.3.2
a system
with
Approximate
formulas
DF
is conveniently
approximated
by
or H
Dl%){ElesTl
'l
121(E/es)
- D/ti -
lH.27(?/esr*
A1.8)
\302\273
- 0.21(Eles)\"
with the error smaller than 0.1 dB. Calculations can be further simplified by omitting the second term in A1.7) which rapidly vanishes for large E. It contributes less than 2dB; 0.6 dB; 0.35dB correspondingly for E larger than, es; 1.5es; 2es. respectively, be replaced The link with the dead zone characteristic of Fig. 11.4(b) can by a saturation link. Hence, the DF for parallel connectionof a unity link and an inverting the dead zone link for E > ed is
H\302\253 1
- 1.27(E/edTl
\\-4 + 0.27(E/edy
A1.9)
link
with
characteristic
including
by
can be represented
an
parallel
is link
inverting
saturation
link
\\-<1
the
threshold
eA. Then,
for
Eg [ed,es],H is as
1.27[?/(es-ed)f or
in A1.9),
and for
-0.27[(?/esr
E > e%
-
H A saturation
- {0.27/[l
a saturation
,-4
(edle&L]}(E/es)
linear
a rate
link
L,
threshold can be made by cascading link with frequency-dependent in Fig. 11.10. The threshold link, and a link \\IL as shown
s1 over L(s) approximates
a
is
esIL(/'co)l.
For example, if
the frequency
limiter. In a
similar
manner,
a link in
which
the
width
can frequency-dependent
be
made.
VI
Fig. 11.10
Nonlinear
link
with frequency-dependent
threshold
Functions
297
Hysteresis
the output/input characteristic of smooth saturation with hysteresis. The output vif) in Fig. 11.1 l(b) is found while the branch vi by using input e(t) is rising, and branch of the output relative to the input v2 while e{t) is decreasing. The time delay indicates that the DF must have a negative imaginary component.
\302\246E\\
(a)
Fig. 11.11
(a) Output/input
and
(b)
characteristic time-history
of smooth
input
saturation
the output
with
hysteresis
of the
and
is
= arcsinFrom
Imff
A1.10)
A1.3),
]mH
\342\200\224 f v
dsincot.
nE o
After
replacing vi(e),
by E~lde(t)
and
taking
the integral
of
the
output
from
-E
to E using
to -E
l
using
v2(e),
we have
-E
I v2de
2 %el
H =
Jvi\302\253fe +\342\200\224t
I %E'-e
E (V,-v2)<fc
J \342\200\224j
-\342\200\224
A1.11)
and
the
into
substituting
A1.11)
axgH
nEV
Fig.
A1.12)
V~
Example 1. In
11.11,
0.7E and
S =
0.3. Therefore,
= -arcsin-0.3
Example
in Fig.
\302\246\302\246 0.14rad.
2. The Schmitt
trigger
has
a rectangular
area
11.12(a). The characteristic for the backlash caused For the backlash, the by air gaps in gears. The for the backlash time-history signal amplitude. in Fig. 11.13. sinusoidal is shown
shown link
hysteresis characteristic, shown in Fig. 11.12(b) is typically of the hysteresis depends on the output when the input signal is
298
Functions
e
time
^7
(a)
(b)
trigger
Fig. 11.12
Example 3.
signal
If
width
of the
the
backlash is 2,
as that
3.6\302\260.
e = input,
amplitude is
nearly
same
i.e.,
of
eliminate important
man-machine operator's
the phase lag reduces the available efforts are always made feedback, or decrease backlash in gears and machinery. the backlash Reducing even for manually tools and equipment (like lathes) becauseof operated feedback and visual sensors and tactile loop via the operator's
to is
the the
brain
operator, or
else the
(compensator).
overshoots
actions
or
of the system
the
becomes unstable.
Example 4. Hysteresis
which feedback
links
frequently
shown
the
saw-tooth
loop
signal
generator of
an
is composed
inverting
The
u&
feedback oscillating loops of is 11.14 Fig. representative. The with transfer function -\\l{R^Cs) integrator of the shown thresholds Schmitt trigger input
in
used
in
= \302\261 [R\\/(Ri
+ R2)]
the
power
voltage.
[-u&,
The
integrator
output
is constrained
within
dead
beat
(or dead
band)
\302\253*].
(b)
u2
(c)
'A'
_ t
t
dead
[band
signal
histories
output
output
and
(c) the
integrator
Chapter
11. Describing
Functions
299
When the output voltage of the integrator at u^, the arrives from -VCC to VCC.After the switching, the integrator output constant rate VCCI(R?,C) until the next switching occurs. (V/sec)
trigger begins
The period
is therefore
T= 4(uth/VCC)i?3C
The
output
4JR1i?3C/(J?I
+ R2). They
with
gain
signals'
of rising and falling are the same in Fig. 11.14(b). in to an additional resistor R4 in series 7?3 adding parallel one direction the resistance will be smaller and the integrator
rates
by
larger, thus
increasing the
rate.
11.14 that the linear link and the nonlinear link each lags the signal Fig. the signal comes back in phase after passing about the loop. It is also seen that the analysis of such a system the harmonics cannot be neglected, i.e., DF during be used: if the sawtooth analysis cannot at the input to the Schmitt is signal trigger the phase lag in the Schmitt replaced by its fundamental, trigger will be less than 90\302\260 and the condition of oscillation will be not satisfied.
in
seen
that
by
90\302\260 so
Example
shown
5.
An
on-off
(or
actuator
in Fig.
11.15(a).
The
temperature controller is
with
hysteresis
which
can
be implemented either
employing within
as
electromechanical
device
the
or electronically,
single
for
plant
example,
oscillates
transfer
a Schmitt the
trigger.
The temperature of
integrator
dead
supplied by
the
heater,
and radiation control accuracy but frequency cannot be chosento actuators consumes someenergy
band. The positive temperature rate on the power depends and the negative rate (the cooling rate) depends on the heat conditions. the dead band is, the higher The narrower is the the higher also is the oscillation The oscillation frequency.
be and/or
excessively wears
in the physical high since each switching out the contact mechanisms.
step _
command
I 1/s
(a)
(b)
controller
Fig. 11.15
and
(b)
its output
time-response
control
the When the plant in this feedback system contains extra high-frequency poles, rales. For example, switching can be done law is often augmented by additional earlier not in the instant the output approaches the end of the dead band, but somewhat The an inertia. of such on-off in time or position,to counteract additional accuracy plant is to the wellfor inferior sufficient controller, although typically many applications, is drivers. When the width modulated actuator controllers (PWM) using pulse designed not does on and off with sufficiently high electrical, switching frequency present a the cannot be fast and is when and PWM common. However, switching using problem, losses causes noticeablepower losses, as when switching (or propellant gas thrusters on not develop instantly), bang-bang control does and off, since the thrust of such thrusters
may
be
preferred.
300
11.5
Nonlinear
links
signals
As
mentioned
before,
DF is
E and @
(or f).
Nines)
are shown
in Fig.
dashed
lines. The
shown set of lines can be used for the stability by the solid lines. Either analysis. If no line passes over the critical the system is considered stable. For the iso-lines point, shown in Fig. 11.16, argDF increaseswith E. The system is stable because the loop a link that provides includes a certain phase advance for large-amplitude signals.We will call such links nonlinear The AS dynamic compensators (NDCs). analysis and design of the NDCshas been already introduced in Chapter 10. In this chapter we will employ DF methods.These methods allow certain NDCs which cannot designing be analyzed or designed with AS methodology.
E=o
f,
log. sc.
(a)
(b) and
Fig. 11.16
From
(a) iso-f(solid)
lines
iso- E
iso-is lines, iso-E Bode diagrams can be drawn as shown in 14 can be used to plot the functions described in Appendix (MATLAB that these iso-is for some typical We should keep in mind, however, NDCs). diagrams The Bode relations can only be Bode diagrams do not uniquely define the phase shift. at all frequencies used when constant E causesthe DF of nonlinear links to be constant so that the DF can be equivalently replaced by a constant-gain linear link.
the
Fig.
11.16(b)
Example 1.
parallel
a simple with
proportional-integral
(PI) NDC
using
connection
of a linear
link
a nonlinear
link. Because
output
of the
E
saturation,
the
upper
channel
contributes
relatively
are iso-is
less to
shown Bode
the
when
increases.
The
an NDC
is
shown
in Fig.
DFof
in Fig. 11.17(b). Consequently, the NDC diagram of the loop gain of a feedback 11.17(c). E increasing
f,
log, sc.
f,
log. sc.
(a)
(b)
with
(c)
iso- E
Fig. 11.17
loop
(a) NDC
parallel
channels,
and
can
its
(b)
iso-E
Bode diagrams;
phase
shift
be calculated
Chapter11.Describing
This example
Functions
301
rather
shows that
an
effective
NDC can
be
implemented
that
in
using
iso-?
Before the
loop
of NDCs. diagrams is convenient for certain practicalclasses on the NDC design,we first consider the NDC performance concentrating which also includes another nonlinear link, the actuator.
Bode
simply,
and
11.6
A
feedback
including
actuator
an NDC
are
and
separated
is
L.
shown
For
analysis
the
loop can
be cross-sectioned at
ratio
with
input
The loop return links as shown in the figure. to the NDC, either to the some test-signal input some of the actuator with E2. amplitude NDC L
DF
some
Eh or to
input
->
Actuator
loopwith
by
two
linear
nonlinear links 1, as
when \\T\\ = different, the iso-/ lines for Ex and E2 have a common point 11.19. This can be seen by considering = 1 is satisfied with the condition 171 some that L-plane = if the E1C and E2 = ?20 Then, specific values of E\\ loop is broken at the input to the NDC and ?1C is applied to the input of the loop, the value Exc returns to the cross-section, and the value ?2c appears at the to the actuator. the loop is broken Also, when input to the actuator and at the input E2c is appliedto the \\ of the to this crossthe value J E%q returns input loop, \\ section, and the value ?1C appears at the input of the f\\-\\ NDC. In both cases, the same signals appear at the L of both nonlinear links, and therefore, the loop inputs : I i DF is the same and the loop phase shift is the same. Hence, these two iso-? lines intersect when 171= 1. 11.19 Iso- f lines in
shown
in
Fig.
X2
The
nominal
guard-point
phase stability
margin,
Fig. system
a links
with two
nonlinear
therefore,
does not depend on the position of the can be seen with the gain this cross section. However,someconfusion stability margin: on the cross-section chosenfor examining the loop. stability margin depends seemingly is that at the input to the NDC, since in this case, uncertainty The proper cross section in the when plant gain reduces by adB, the plant affects ratio: directly gain loop return then the Nyquist diagram and the iso-/ lines simply sink down by a dB. Therefore, in the is satisfied. stability margin Fig. 11.19, just exactly two nonlinear links The accuracyof DF analysis suffers when the loop incorporates in this case the linear still low-pass links separating since them, although, commonly, selective as the linear link in the loop with a single nonlinear filters, are not as frequency in the loop is large and the Bode diagrams of the link. Nonetheless, when the feedback are are reasonably steep (they is Nyquist linear links quite steep when the system
Chapter
This
\302\26120\302\260. uncertainty caused by the harmonics typically does not exceed can make the entire difference large: generally, such uncertainty between an unstable and a high performance system. However,using DF enables an of a of more than advance 120\302\260. easy design Therefore, simple NDC providing phase even with the \302\26120\302\260 the NDC gives the phase advance no less than 100\302\260 error, phase which is certainly better than no phase advance at all, and is adequate for most practical
stable),
range
seems
applications.
11.7
For
NDC
an
with
a single
NDC
with
DF
and
a single
nonlinear non-dynamic
link
DF
depends
on w as
ratio
of
two
linear
functions, i.e.,
H(w)
bilinearly.
+
A1.13)
w
+ N of s.
where M and N are somefunctions When the signal amplitude from 0 to \302\260\302\260, H changes changes
arg(M/W).
must
be
w and Hiyv) changes. When w changes M/N to 1 and therefore aigH changes by To maximize the phase advance N and the NDC, -arg M produced by arg made as large as possible.This the bounded is, however, angle by continuity
changes,
from
considerations.
in the
smooth.
in
modulus
in H are and in w, the transitions amplitude most critical values of w, from this point of to either IMI or IM, as shown in Fig. 11.20. For these
signal
The
the
N)
is %, the
correspondingly, w + N) of this H becomes point, neighborhood this excessively sensitive to w. To avoid neither with a tc/6 safety situation margin, M\\ nor \\arg N\\ should be allowed to exceed \\grg
numer
or
denominator
Fig. 11.20
2%/3.This
enough
A.
requirement
limits
the NDC to
4ji/3, i.e.,
which 240\302\260,
Vectors (w+
with
M)
and
(w+N)
in Fig.
minimum
moduli
implementation
is shown
of
11.21(a).
branch
(Notice
that
when
w js
beginning upper (b) exemplifies signal becomes negligible.) Fig. 11.21 a hjghrgain with the gain coefficient k and a dead zone, and M = 1/5, N = s. amplifier for large-amplitude the NDC reduces This signals. Fig. 11.21(c) phase delay by 180\302\260 = is M a saturation link with when the case used, s, N=l/s over the exemplifies in advance for large-amplitude a 180\302\260 of interest, resulting phase frequency range
branch
the
signals.
Chapter11.Describing
Functions
303
1/N
-1/A/
(a)
1/s
I
S
i
1/sm
(b)
s
(c)
Fig. 11.21
NDCflowchart
full
(a)
and
block diagrams of
path, the 240\302\260,
(b), (c)
a
forward
To shift
path
the
phase
path only
over the
in
available
forward
range
with
w, a
parallel
shift
and
When
the
iV
NDC includes
zero,
a parallel
a feedback
path, i.e.,
120\302\260
either
M or
is
the available
phase
iso-/
must
not exceed
- which
most applications.
In
addition the
to frequency
and iso-?
responses
responses, iso-w
Bode diagramscan
used.
These are
signal
at the input amplitude after replacing the nonlinear can be further responses nonlinear element, and the
Example
w
measured while maintaining constant the value of the to the nonlinear can be calculated element. Such a response with a constant The iso-/ and iso-? element linear element. the set of iso-w responses, DF calculated for the using element. signal amplitude at the nonlinear
shown in Fig. 11.21(b), k= 10. Calculate and plot values of kx(DF of the dead zone link): 0.1, 1, and
1. In
the
NDC
the iso10.
Bode
diagrams,
for three
The
in
SPICE
Fig.
is shown below, and simulation input file uses the in Fig. 11.23. 11.22. The iso-w Bode diagrams are shown **** ch9exl.cir for iso-w simulation of NDC **** n.22
schematic
diagram
Figs.
11.21(b),
*** input
G2
2
2
0
0
0 1
1
1MEG
integrator
1
summer
C2
***
R2 2 0
feedback
3 5 5
G3 3 0 7
R3
2 1
***
G5 R5
kDF path: 0 0 3 10
0
G5 = .1,
1, or 10
inverting
the
C4 4
R4
***
G6 R6
1
1MEG
4 0
*** feedback
forward 6 0 4 6 0 1
5 1
summer,
output
is VDBF)
path
304
G7 7 0
C7
Chapter
11.
Describing
Functions
0 5
1
1MEG
R7 7 0
***
VIN RIN
.AC
1 0 1 0
DEC
AC 1MEG
20
.001
10
.PROBE
.END
Fig.
11.22 increase
SPICE model
for
iso-
w response input
With
the
the
increase
of w,
plot
gradually
changes
i.e., from
with that
the of
a double
to the
gain
NDC,
response.
Correspondingly,
n to
Fig. 11.23
When
block
Iso-w
Bode
diagrams
the
and
summer is nearly
is an
integrator,
at all also,
gain is large, the where loop frequencies the feedback decreases with
the loop
signal
amplitude
after the
input
gain is large,
frequency.
since the
11.8
NDC
with
parallel
the
channels
parallel
Simpleexamplesof NDCswith
the /-channel
paths
are the
PID controllerwith
in
saturation
in
(or
in
low-frequency
channel,
as described
Chapter
6) and
the PI
controllershown
in Fig.
11.17.
with
are
in Fig. 11.24(a) The feedback system includes an actuator NDC with two parallel channels. Nonlinear non-dynamic links link with channels. The first channel starts with a saturation
placed
unity threshold, and the When the signal is low, the loop transfer amplitude the input signal amplitude is less is 7oi = C\\AP. channel is off when function The second becomes overloaded. In this case than takes over when the first channel 1, and a saturation link as shown with 7o2 = CylP. The NDC can be equivalently implemented in Fig. 11.24(b).
second,
with
unity
dead
zone.
305
(b)
(a) Feedbacksystem
equivalent
with
two nonlinear
elements
element
in
the
NDC,
diagram block
with a
single
nonlinear
in the
shown in
NDC
in Fig.
11.25.
Fig.
11.25 (a)
are
easier
to implement.
e(t)
(b)
(c)
NDC configurations
more
iterative
design
of the
by
compensator can
plotting
be
performed
by
Bode plots, or
/-lines
on the
7-plane as
A)
B)
--1.5
C)
D)
E)'
log. sc.
Fig. 11.26
Intervals
on
E-axis
and on the
a system
306
An iso-/line for
Chapter
11.
Describing
Functions
TQ2H2(E)
A1.14)
piece
in
is displayed
A1.7)
in Fig.
11.26. We
the
can examineit
of E
and
A1.8)
first second
for
intervals
shown
the
On the
The
interval, interval,
E<\\ where
and T=
r0!.
short. Over this interval, ?\342\202\254[1,1.5], is comparatively from 1 to 0.8, and //2 increases from 0 to 0.25 as can be verified with the is curvilinear, and its exact shape is not plots in Fig. 11.7. This segment of the iso-/line for the stability important analysis. On the third interval where Ee [1.5, es]the expression reduces to A1.J3)
H\\ reduces
T01 +
Tm(l
- 1.27/E)
of
A1.15)
line aimed at the end of the iso-/ line can be
short, and
piece
of the
iso-/line presents
vicinity
a segment
a straight
boundary,
vector
Tw.. In
the
of
the
stability
margin
approximated by
On
deserve
the
the
side
of the Ee E>\\
fourth
interval
in Fig.
11.26.
is curvilinear,
does not
detailed
analysis.
interval
On
T=
the
fifth
.5es
1.27T0l/E
+ 127Tm/E=
+ TQ2)/E l.27(TQ1
and
A1.16)
the
so that
is straight
at this
directed
we can
margins.
concludethat
frequency,
plot
Fig.
11.24
sufficient
stability
Example
the
L-plane
with
Nyquist
the
diagram
and
iso-/lines
measured
designed
f
method
presented
in this
section. The
dB
-60
\302\246\302\246
^^095
MHz
ma \302\246I\" i
. r
\\ 1 .
1
\342\200\242
-270\302\260
90\302\260
Fig.
11.27
an
experimental
system
11.9
In
NDC made
practical
many
links the
same as
We
that
for
saturation,
is nonzero and with the signal level. changes saturation links.A typical case is presented in
nonlinear
will
call
Fig.
11.28(a).
while
but the phase such links dynamic in the The phase shift signal
not
varies
with
the signal
\\H\\
level,
the
output
amplitude
after
of the
composite
link, do
vary
the
Chapter
11.
Describing
Functions
307
V Nonlinear
y
link
dynamic
e
(a)
(b)
(c)
saturation
Fig. 11.28
Fig. large
Dynamic
11.28(b)
although
forward that
implementation frequency,
of dynamic and
the
saturation. Here,
the
the
\\K(j(O)\\
is
the
B is
real.
When
signal
describing
is small,
the
closed-loop
transfer
is -IIB.
When
signal
is large,
function phase
of the
becomes Still
lag is, the phase lag increaseswith the signal level. links K(/a>) and B. For another version is shown in Fig. 11.28(c) using similar As the signal amplitude gets small signal amplitudes, the link transfer function is K(j(o). much larger than the dead zone, the dead zone DF approaches feedback is 1, large The and is limited as if saturation. the introduced, by phase shift of the signal output the That link will then be determined by the feedback is, phase lag reduces with path. the signal level. This link is especially suitable for nonlinear dynamic compensation. from 0 When the linear link loop gain is high, and the dead zone link DF w changes shift changes to 1, the DF of the link changes from -\\IB to K, i.e., the phase by in Section 11.7, arg (KB), i.e., by the angle of the local loop phase shift. As indicated this value This value is sufficient for most applications. must be limited to 120\302\260.
of K(j(o).Th&t
the feedback
becomes negligible,and
Example1.Consider
in Fig.
11.29, with B
is
the local feedback path as shown for B has constant -8 dB/oct, slope diagram = V and zone link DF w are 200. Since the dead and K -120\302\260), this relation does not depend on frequency, the full set of iso-V either one can be same as the full set of iso-w diagrams, and an
NDC
with dead
zone in
s4\302\256 (i.e.,
the Bode
analysis.
200
mm^ \342\200\242\342\200\224 e 1
Fig. The
11.29
Example
of an NDCwith
dead
zone
in the
feedback
path
lines
in Fig. 11.30(a), and the iso-V Bode diagrams for the NDC are shown in Fig. 11.30(b). The shown look as of the main loop on the L-plane might cycle.
iso-V
system
has no limit
308
Chapter
dB
H=0
46
f,
log.
sc.
(a)
Fig. 11.30
with the
(a) Bodediagrams
of the
equivalent
NDC shown in Fig. 11.29 linear links, and for the main loop is shown
are
in
Example 2.
tunnel-effect
Fig.
11.31 (a).
mass and
the
the
soft
springs the
by
mass is suspendedon
electrostatic uses
etched
of silicon.
proof
mass
is regulated
and lower
mass
position.
tip
current
flows
between the proof mass and the upper a tunnel effect sensor to measurethe proof between the proof mass and the sharp tunnel
forces
effect
gradually using
when brought
distance
capacitive
small. The proof mass is between them is sufficiently an additional feedback loop of the tunnel effect vicinity tip by not shown in the picture. The voltage on the lower plate equals
can
voltage,
the
upper
plate
voltage is
to the
bias
20,000,000 (s+4,900)(s+98,000)
120(s+855)(s+18,400) 200
S+200
tunnel
20,000,000
current
(a)
resonance
mode
suspension
\\
(c)
accelerometer
block
diagram,
model
(b) compensator,
Chapter To achieve
be
11. Describing
Functions
309
made
frequency
the desired accuracy,the feedback in the proof mass control 100 than dB at larger frequencies up to 5 Hz. The feedback is limited the /b by (structural resonances) of the proof dynamics
3 kHz.
current
loop must
crossover
mass
and
value
tunnel
current
width
the gap
bigger
The
than
Globalstability
the exponent of the inverse of the tunnel sensor gap. The is 6 but when the gap is smaller, the gap approximately angstroms, is exponentially larger. Since in this case the derivative of the current to tunnel sensor gain coefficient) increases,the loop gain becomes (the nominal. an NDC, such a system Without would not be globally stable. is provided in the local feedbackpath. by an NDC with a dead-zone
is
of the
mechanical
plant might
quality
plant
factor
with
of the
such
with
frequencies
than
in
model
for the
SPICE
Fig.
is shown (a Zener
of the tunnel effect sensoris diode) since the characteristic For low-level also does the not conduct, and non-symmetrical. signals the Zener compensator response is determined by the lower feedback path. Two seriesRC circuits the feedback path provide two leads sufficient phase stability shunting giving margins over the range 200 to 3000 Hz. The and the Nyquist Bode for signals of diagram plot in SPICE are shown small amplitudes in Fig. 11.32. simulated
element
was
to
dB
L-plane
i 10
\\
100
1k f, log. scale
(a)
Fig.11.32 Accelerometer
When
(a)
Bode
diagram
threshold,
diagram the
the signal
exceeds
is
the
Zener
opens
and
upper
Bode
feedback
diagram,
path,
by
which
an
frequencies
increases the phase stability margin at frequencies below200Hz, substantially and the transient response of the closed since the loop which is important improves of the tunnel sensor is about 15 effect very narrow, only angstroms. In acquisition range
experiments,
approximately
reduces
reduction
compensator
gain
at lower
reduces
the slope
of the
the system locks rapidly conditions whatever the initial are. Two additional examples of a dead zone link are given incorporating
into
the
tracking
of
mode
and
remains
stable
applications
NDCs
with
local
feedback
in Appendix
13.
310
11.10
Let
Functions
hysteresis
Clegg Integrator
as
in
us
two alternatives to
Negative hysteresis is a reversed directions of the arrows hysteresis effect can be achieved
incident
with characteristics
Fig.
on the
by
branches of
the
characteristic.
at
switching
as shown in Fig. 11.33. Sucha link introduces for signal phase lead up to 90\302\260 of certain link does the not with small However, signals amplitudes. pass signals and it is very sensitive to the signal and shape, and to the noise. amplitudes, amplitude more and able Negative hysteresis links are rarely used since NDCs are simpler, robust, to provide much larger phase lead.
output \\ input
\342\200\224
the output
specific
Fig. 11.33
A
Negative
hysteresis
shown in Fig. 11.34 consists of a a full-wave rectifier (i.e., absolute value with saturation M. link), a high-gain link realizing the sign operator, and a multiplier The instantaneous is determined of the output signal amplitude by the upper channel in Fig. 11.33(b). The sign of the output signal is defined by the sign shown vi(r) output of the lower channel output. is voat(t) = the composite link output Therefore, signal as seen in \\vi(t)\\ v2@ 11.34(c). sign Fig.
splitter,
Clegg
links
Lx
1/ out
, out, fundamental
sign
v2
(a)
Fig.
11.34
when
(a) Clegg Us
and
Integrator
and
(b) its
signal histories
gain
In
without
particular,
L\\ =
this
la
= 1,
the
integrator
decreases
integrator,
introducing
When
the
90\302\260 phase
lag
of a conventional
the
linear
hope
Fig. 11.34(b).
method
idea
was
expressed
possible.
that
this
would
circumvention
of
A large-
harmonic's
fundamental.
interference
with
and
output
of
the
Clegg
Integrator.
lag
This
the
the
produces
the
large phase
of the input
for
This
high
sensitivity
shape
signal (also
Chapter
Functions
311
practice.
disadvantageof negative
fact, the Clegg reader that such
Integrator
hysteresis) and
the circuit
In
negative
hysteresis
are described
found
here only
to
inform
the
ideas
have already
been exploredand
not particularly
useful.
11.11
Saturation
feedback loops
are located in the local and links common loop, a local loop is often employed its characteristic. Local feedback to linearize in the
control
feedback
it
saturation, since
amplitude.
makes
characteristic for
up
the
actuator
is hard
to the
when the feedback is limited by stability is saturation. When it is not, a predistortion memoriless nonlinear transfer characteristic link could be installed at the input to the actuator to make the total nonlinearity the actuator or a local feedbackabout could be introduced. saturation, The value of the local feedback varies with the signal level. Interference of local to understand. loop with the main loop is important about the actuator in the block diagram Consider an example of local feedback Fig. 11.35.
Hence,
the
in
Fig. 11.35
When
system
Local(actuator)
actuator
and
common
loops
with
saturation
the main
loop is disconnected
the
at
is stable
(when
loop
sections can be used for the stability loop closure has been described includesa nonlinear dynamic loop,
with
either of the cross sectionsA) or B), the is properly designed). Either of the cross
analysis (the Bode-Nyquist criterion for successive in Section 3.4). In both cases, the resulting loop in one case, with parallel in the other case, channels,
These
The nonlinear dynamic links can be analyzed as we did with NDCs. feedback. links may introduce phase lag in the main loop that can result in a limit cycle. For example, when hfii is s~m and B is real, the actuator's overload results in the reduction of the local feedbackand in the introduction of a 120\302\260 phase lag in the main To an an extra NDC with a lead can be introduced 120\302\260 oscillation, loop. prevent phase
local in the
loops, at either
common
of the
the
cross
Another
problem
signal the
the
impedance
depends on
impedance
or
of
the
driver.
This
voltage impedance
the
feedback
actuator
loops are
driver
feedback
output
is affected by
correspondingly or driver
312
Chapter
Example
11. Describing
Functions
actuators:
1. A typical example is using current drivers for magnetic windings of the voice coils, reaction wheels of spacecraft attitude control systems, flux for electrical power generators, solenoids, etc.,as shown in Fig. 11.36(a). The winding current of the driver is proportional to the driver's output input voltage due to large local current feedback; without this the driver amplifier would be a voltage feedback, to the coil current, the transfer amplifier. Since the output force (torque) is proportional function of the actuator is a real number and the phase lag is 0. (Back emf does not affect the output when the signal source impedance is high.) However,when the driver is overloaded and the gain in the local feedback loop vanishes, the driver's output becomes a voltage, and the actuator impedance drops, its output output force becomes an of this voltage. In other words, overload introduces an extra into integral integrator the main loop, and can trigger a limit cycle. To prevent this from happening, an extra link saturation can be placed at the input of the driver, as shown in Fig. 11.36(b), to limit the signal amplitude at the driver's input.
y
back
Driver
emf
Current
sensing
resistor
(a)
(b)
feedback extra
driver
for inductive
its
loads
saturation
link at
input
NDC
discussed for
in multiloop
was
actuators decoupled,
systems
most often have individual is to a large extent and the plant than the others. Still, the coupling
and might cause instability, especially resonances and due to the plant nonlinearity. Let us consider the two-input, two-output
exists
the
coupling
due to system
some
the
plant
structural
feedback
with of
shown
in
Fig.
11.37.
This system can be, for and y directions because neither to x nor to y.
substantially
example,
an x-y
the
positioner,
coupling
in
between
orthogonal
the x
of, say,
Although
a resonant mode
plant
the
payload
the
that is
main
gain coefficient
the
larger
than
the coupling
the
coefficient,
direction
this
example,
let us
that
consider
kc.
loop
the
main
coupling
consider
coefficients,
each
is stable
shown
and
robust
absence of
be
the effect
system
of
coupling
on the
coupling. Then,
to see if
easier
we
block
diagram as
11.38.
313
>0
\302\253^-
kb\302\273
Fig.
11.37
The
Two-input,
results
two-output
system
Fig.
with
11.38
coupling
in a
composite link
the transfer
in
parallel
When
close to
nonlinear
the plant transfer coefficient. the feedback in the x-loop is large, if the feedback is positive, the But kc2.
with
mode
the
composite
link
gain
of
become positive
uncertainty
at any
x-actuator
the
the feedback
additional
can
crossover.
must
To ensurethe
the
necessary
robustness,
margin
resulting
reduction
will
even for the required to the individual loops, certainly do no harm the the the individual quite opposite, they will loop performance!). When improve x-actuator becomes overloaded, the NDC introduces some phase lead in the x-loop; this eliminates positive feedbackin this loop and reduces the composite link gain. Hence, the with the NDC, can be reduced in and stability margins y-loop performance can be without robustness. improved sacrificing not
actuator they
or
an
NDC
must
be
11.13
Harmonics
Harmonics
and intermodulation
the effects
error.
the
11.13.1
DF
us consider the
the
analysis
neglects
resulting
of harmonics
on
the output
case of the incident signal amplitude far important which are the dashed lines. The output indicated levels, exceeding v(f) by is clipped most of the time. The third harmonic in e(t) delays the 0-line crossing of e(t) of v(t). This results in an extra phase lag for the fundamental of v(t). The and, therefore, in control Harmonics with conventional lag could reach 12\302\260 loop gain response. systems than the third also contribute to this effect, contributions are higher although their be larger smaller. Therefore, phase stability for the iso-/ lines should by margins for the linear state of the phase stability margin than accepted approximately 15\302\260 Fig. 11.39 shows
saturation practically
operation,i.e.,for
the
Nyquist
diagram.
314
Functions
fundamental
(b)
Fig. 11.39
Accounting with resonant
pure
Effect
of the harmonics
fundamental
time while
delay
for
the
might be
loop
important
studying
with
systems
large
Bode
diagram
without
and systems
the
delay
When
in which
the
loop
phase
lag can
loop
reach n
loop
Bode
diagram
being steep.
Bode
diagram
for
modes in the plant exemplified satisfactory at all frequencies except for those
with resonance
At
these frequencies,
change
the
effect
is not monotonic, as in feedback systems in Fig. 11.37, DF analysis is still quite whose third harmonic is relatively large. of the third harmonic must be calculated since it can
the
gain
produce a
or 40\302\260 in the phase shift for the fundamental up to 30\302\260 must be some extra margin provided by reducing Accordingly, phase stability in Fig. 11.40. in the region close to/0 as shown steepness of the Bode diagram of
/o. the
dB
dB
f,
log.
sc.
f0
3/L
\\ , f, log.
0
sc.
(a)
(b)
Open-loop reducing
Fig. 11.40
with
Bode the
a flexible
mode (a)
and
gain
at the third
the
harmonic frequency
robustness
After
the
DF
analysis
and design,
system
must be
verified
with
computer
simulation.
11.13.2
Intermodulation
/j
only
\302\261 nf2.
two Fourier components with different frequencies, Application of a signal having in not link to a nonlinear results the the of output signal v(t) containing and/2, input with the harmonics of/t and/2, but also intermodulation frequencies mfi products
Chapter For
11. Describing
in
Functions
315
components
large-amplitude low-frequency is very typical for audio When the is the in information contained the signals. signal clipped, high-frequencies would be preserved if the components over the time of clipping is lost. The information are first separated lower-frequency and the higher-frequency components by a fork of and then combined at the output after filters, low-pass-high-pass amplification by separate amplifiers. In this case, nonlinear distortions of the low-frequency components will not affect the high-frequency intermodulation. i.e., will not produce components, in the speakers can be reduced by using separate (The intermodulation speakers for
shown
example,
the signal
Fig.
11.41
with
and
small-amplitude
high-frequency
components
higher
and
lower
frequencies.)
(a)
(b)
signal by a
by link
a multicomponent
with
saturation
(b)
pointing
can
be affected
wind
disturbances,
and
the latter
both
lower-frequency,
higher-amplitude
components
higher-frequency,
Similar kinds of disturbances occur in vibration isolation components. For large-amplitude, low-frequency vibrations not to cause the actuator, after two different actuators for two to stop rejecting high-frequency disturbances, clipping, bands of disturbances can be employed. separate While audio to hide the high-frequency noise of the recording, it is important of the signal are head and the amplifiers. When magnetic high-frequency components large, the noise is not noticeable, and the high-frequency gain should be large for better are small, the When the signal high-frequency components signal reproduction. reduce the noise that otherwise bandwidth should be reduced to would be amplifier
lower-amplitude
actuators.
clearlyheard.
This is performed by specially IC's. function designed The IC's In control systems, similar can occur. problems designedfor as can the control well. serve processing system purposes
audio
signal
11.14
The
Verification
of global stability
lead to periodic balance at some frequency does not always For such self-oscillation to persist, the process of selfdisturbances is stable, by definition, if vanishing process from in parameters of the oscillation (in the amplitude, for example) cause deviations a limit cycle the solution which exponentially in time. This condition signifies decay and is illustrated in Fig. 11.42(a). If the deviations from the periodic solution grow and the limit cycle as shown in Fig. 11. 42(b), the process is not stable exponentially,
condition
of harmonic
does not
take
place.
316
T-plane
(a)
Fig.
(b)
11.42
(a)
Limit
cycle
solution
and
(b) unstable
Fig.
11.43
periodic
For
iso-/lines causingtwo
cycles
example, in a system with saturation and the Nyquist diagram shown in three related to the cross the critical point. Fig. iso-/lines frequencies/i,/2) and/3 From these the limit cycles are associatedwith and fa, and the three, f\\ frequencies solution at frequency as follows. f2 is unstable. This can be shown Consider the limit with frequency/3. In this case, illustrated in Fig. 11.44(a), cycle the saturation DF reduces the loop gain such that the equivalent Nyquist diagram and passes through shrinks 1. An extra increase of the signal level reduces the the point The critical occurs outside DF, and the Nyquist diagram shrinks further. point -1 then of the Nyquist which of s. Then, the is the mapping of the left half-plane diagram to the frequency of oscillation has a negative real component, exponent corresponding the signal and the if the level the other hand, amplitude reduces. On signal gets smaller, DF increases, the Nyquist the critical inside the diagram point Nyquist expands, appears is the mapping of the right half-plane of s, and the signal starts rising. diagram which starts the Therefore, deviations of the signal amplitude from the equilibrium amplitude toward of the the of equilibrium. exponentialadjustment amplitude process
11.43, T-plane
T-plane
Res<0
Res>0
Res>0
(a)
diagram
when
the
frequency
(a)
k, (b)
with
with
pointing
at instability
the
of
this
process.
Therefore,
similar results, but the to the conclusion, f2 leads opposite if the oscillation at frequency f2 is
gives
created, this
limit
signal
deflects will
practically,by
cycle
a jump),
from the solution (and very rapidly, i.e., exponentially and into the basin of attraction of some of the limit cycles, gets be further in next Process will studied the proceed. instability
chapter.
global stability
the
involves
application
of a
step-function most
or
command
input.
Such a test
discovers
of
the
hidden
317
limit
cycles,
but of
not
always suspected
all of
them.
must belong to the basin conditions cycle, the initial In should be chosen other the initial conditions words, cycle. close to the conditions that will exist during the limit cycle. Such a test uses bursts of in and of various frequencies, such as those illustrated oscillation, of large amplitude all limit and even this test not discover 11.45. might cycles, Fig. Although, theoretically, a limit cycle is triggered by only a where a counter-example system can be imagined is good enough for testing stability a set of bursts of oscillation special key-signal, using limit of attraction
the
To discoverthe
limit
of practicalcontrol
systems.
ft A f
a .....
Fig.
11.45
Signals
to excite limit
cycles
during
a global
stability
check
added
and
is gradually estimate the stability extra phase lag and/or extra gain margins, to the linear links of the loop until self-oscillation starts, and these extra phase and gain stability margins. values are considered to be the phase gain
To
11.15
Problems
loop
The
transfer 1000(s
function is
+ 600)/[s(s + 20)(s + 50)(s+ + + 400)(s + 500)/[s(s + 10)(s+ 40)(s
300)(s
(a) T= 200(s+
(b)
100)];
80)];
T=
+ 30)(s + 600)] 200,000(s + 100)(s + 400)/[s(s+ 10)(s + 15)(s + 20)(s + 1200)]; + 800)/[s(s (d) f= 1400(s + 600)(s + 272)(s + 550)/[s(s + 12)(S + 30)(s + 80)]; (e) F= 180(s T= 2500(s + 1000)(s + 1200)/[s(s + 30)(s + 80)(s + 180)]; (f) + 550)/[s(s + 30)(s + 32)(s + 3000)]. (g) T= 5,000,000(s+ 500)(s What is the frequency of oscillation (approximately), if there
(c) T=
is a
saturation
link
in the
If
loop?
there
conditionally
is a dead-zone link in the loop, is the system stable, unstable, stable? If it is conditionally stable, how to trigger self-oscillation?
or
What
is the
symmetrical
3th,
5th,
and
7th harmonics
in
the
n-shaped
During
and
(b)
4
in a feedback control system of the Bode diagram is constant, 7th harmonics at the input to the saturation
oscillation
the
slope
where the loop phase how much smaller are link relative to the fundamental?
lag is
the
180\302\260
(a)
5th,
fundamental is very sensitive to the shape output's to the input signal, and use is as a counterexample function in all (incorrect) statement that describing analysis gives sufficient accuracy situations. Are the outputs of nonlinear links of common control very systems sensitive to the signal shape?
Invent
link
a nonlinear
harmonics)
whose
(i.e., to the
of the
DF
analysis
might
fail to
are
accurately estimate the frequency of oscillation small over broad frequency bands. Why
in systems is this
failure of
318
small
Chapter11.Describing
importance
the
Functions
for
control
system
saturation
designers?
when
Find
value
of DF
threshold
Fig.
is (a)
for
the
(c)
25 dB
(d) 4 times
(e) 8 times,
amplitude
to
the
in
using
the
chart
11.8.
7 Find the
value of DF for
zone when the ratio of the signal amplitude to the the chart in (d) 3 times (e) 5 times, using
of DF for a three-level when the ratio of the signal amplitude to relay is (a) 5dB (bI5 dB (c) 25 dB (d) 5 times (e) 10times, the chart using
9 Do
Problems 6-8
amplitude
using
approximate
formulas
for describing
link
functions.
the threshold
10 The signal
at the
123
input to
saturation
with
0.12345
to 1230;
from
314
to 628. How many times does the DF about what should be the accuracy of the
11 The
12
Write with
signal 123
(a) from
an
amplitude to 1230;
at the
input
to
a link
with many
0.12345 times
(b)
from
2.72
to 7.4.
How
amplitudes
approximate more
DF which
threshold,
is valid
for input
link
sinusoidal signals
for the
with
threshold threshold
1.3; 2.3;
saturation saturation
threshold threshold
3.3; 5.
180\302\260 at
is and the phase 13 The linear looplinks' gain is (a) 25 dB; (b) 10dB;(c) 15dB, some What is the ratio of the signal amplitude to the threshold frequency. If the saturation link during self-oscillation? loop contains a dead-zone link, the ratio of the signal amplitude at the input to the link to the dead zone?
in the what
is
14
Plot
the
transfer
function
MATLAB
and
T =
(c) T=
+ 600)(s+ 15)(s + 20)(s+ 120)]; (d) 7= 140000(s 800)/[s(s+ (e) T = 1800(s + 272)(s + 700)/[s(s + 12)(s+ 35)(s+ 75)]; + 22)(s + 80)(s + 160)]; (f) T= 2500(s + 1200)(s + 1200)/[s(s + 650)(s + 550)/[s(s + 16)(s + 32)(s + 300)]. (g) F= 600000(s
+ 10)(s+ 35)(s + 80)]; 10000(s + 400)(s + 550)/[s(s + 400)/[s(s + 10)(s + 30)(s + 600)]; 20000(s+ 100)(s
saturation,
with threshold
1, for:
15 The
signal
area
of the
amplitude
one half
of the
of the sinusoidal input of the product What is the output signal fundamental.
(a) transfer
DF?
Find the current-voltage characteristic of (b) input. Discuss the stability conditions.
dead
the
Schmitt
trigger's
function
17 Calculate the
beat
zone
oscillation
in
the
system
in
Chapter
11. Describing
the
Functions
= 100 kiQ
319
and Rz =
Fig.
11.14 and
where the
VCC = 12 V,
Schmitt
R3
200kfl,
18
Calculate
the
the oscillation
the coolinglossesare200W,
the oscillation
pre-amplifier
gain is 1, the
period
in
the
on-off
system
shown
in
Fig. 11.15
Btu/deg.
if
the 10\302\260C,
heater
and
payload
thermal capacitance is 2
power is 2kW,
Is
symmetrical?
corner
when
19 Calculate
To (c)0.05.
the
Fig. 11.17(b)
what
plot frequency (the frequency of the zero) in the is (a) 0.5; (b) DF of the saturation link at all frequencies of the signal amplitudes do these DFs values
the
in
0.1;
the
correspond?
20
In
the
nonlinear
signal-to-threshold
the
if
21
22
Will
NDC
in
Fig.
11.25(c)
substantially
with
MATLAB
the iso-E
with
Bode gain
of 1 <
the
diagrams
with
and
the
phase
threshold
with
diagrams
of the
approximate
for
the
link in
link
Fig. 11.17(a) for the range to 2. Mark the plots equal for DF.
E< 100,
values
saturation
of E
calculated
formulas
shown
in Fig.
phase responses
the
MATLAB
or SIMULINK.
24
In the NDC shown in the block diagram in Fig. 11.29, B = 20/(s iso-V Bode diagrams zone (for each polarity) is 1.5. Plot iso-wand and the approximate expressionfor the DF of the dead zone link.
+ 20), and
using
dead
MATLAB
25
(a) With
SIMULINK, plot
SPICE,
iso-
(b)
Using
plot iso- w
for
the
NDC shown
in
in
Fig.
11.31 (a),
the
NDC shown
Fig.
11.31(b).
26 The
and a saturation link. composite link is a cascade connection of an integrator The local feedback about this link makes the link gain response flat. composite When the saturation link becomes overloaded what by a large amplitude signal, extra phase shift will be introduced in the main loop? Is this situation dangerous from the point of view of making the system not globally stable?
27
is flat and whose phase shift is zero over the band of gain response the feedback path an integrator. interest, is enlooped by local feedback, being When the link is overloaded extra shift will by a large-amplitude signal, what phase be introduced in the main Is this situation dangerous from the point of view of loop? the system not globally stable? making
A link, whose
28
29
Nyquist-stable
system
by
is made
computer ratio T= + 3000)]
globally
stable
must be
used to verify
return
simulations
conditions
stable?
+ 600)/[(s + 10)(s 20,000,000(s + 500)(s+ 550)(s stable in the linear mode of operation? Does the system have a limit cycle if there is a saturation link in the loop? At what from frequencies is the phase stability margin equal to zero (read these frequencies is the loop gain obtained with MATLAB)? What at these frequency responses What is the frequency of the limit cycle? What is the value of the frequencies?
33)(s
320
saturation DF if
of the the
link
Chapter
11.
Describing
Functions
system
if
oscillates?
oscillates? system the signal at the input to the saturation link? to the system to discover the limit cycle?
the
nonlinear
What is the shape of the signal at the output What (approximately) is the shape of What kind of signal should be applied
with of the
Nyquist-stable
system
an
NDC
in
with
parallel
Compare
versions
with
different
sequences
system
links
the
channels. feedback.
31
Compare
with an
NDC with
local
of the
links
in
the
local feedback
paths.
32 Research project: Design a Nyquist-stable globally-stable system approach and with the DF approach, and compare the performance.
with the AS
Answers to
1 (a)
selected
problems
shift
of
if
saturation
the
DF is
occur
at the
frequency where
argT= -tc,
happens at f = 4.2 Hz, while the the loop, the system is certainly The loop response can
simulation
zone
link
in
by
be
use
obtained
simulation
with MATLAB,
or
with SPICE.
employing
a chain of voltage-controlled current sources. RL two-pole to obtain a function zero, at a with the zero to value, or. to implement a function pole, parallel RC two-pole with C=1 and R equal to the Inverse value of the pole. The file for the open-loop SPICE schematic diagram'is shown in Fig. 11.46; the input
SPICE,
When
Each
loaded at
a series
is
Fig.
11.46
Schematic diagram
for
SPICE
open
loop simulation
*ch9ocl.cir
*T
condition
open
200(s+300)(s+600)/[s{s+20)(s+50)(s+100)],
G2
0 1 200
L2
G3
1 0
1
zero at 300
loop
zero at 600
L3
R3
G4
600 0 3
R4
0 0.05
pole at 20
C4
0 1
G5 R5
0 0 4 1 0 0 02
5
pole at
pole
50
G6
R6
C5
C6
at
100
01 6
1 1
G7
0 0
integrator
Functions
321
1
100
de-floating
resistor
1 1
0 AC 1 0 1MEG DEC 20 1
; source
loading resistor
.PROBE
.END
Use
a cursor whether
to
find
the
frequency
gain
-180\302\260. Check
With a dead zone in the loop, the system is conditionally the limit cycle stable, is zero. To excite the selfbeing at the frequency where the phase margin oscillation, a single pulse or a burst of oscillation at frequency 4.2 Hz should be a applied to the closed system input. (If it is desired to perform this simulation, and dead-zone link a summer should be added to the input file, and the loop should
the loop
vdb
equals
be closed.)
6 (a)-3dB
7
(a)-9dB
(a)-4.5dB
Chapter
I
12
PROCESS INSTABILITY
In
asymptotically
process-stable
(APS) systems,
increment
any
infinitesimal
causes process only an infinitesimal and sufficient APS conditions require commonly practical
of the
margins
the
stability
increment to the input output process. The necessary to be much larger than those
used.
requirement
The APS
contradicts
feedback
maximization,
output
and the
process
majority
of
values only to be bounded. The acceptable certain boundaries on the Nyquist diagram, necessary and sufficient way by appropriate sizing of the stability boundaries. This is an of the frequency domain approach to nonlinear important advantage system design The bounds for process test are found for sinusoidal instability signals. The of between the amplitude of the input sinusoidal relationship signal and the amplitude the fundamental of the error is hysteretic. is gradually As the input amplitude increased, to the error amplitude increases smoothly then continues until the error jumps up and increase very slowly. If the input amplitude is then gradually the error and the reduced, at remain almost the same until the input amplitude is reduced to a certain value, output which point the error decreases (again, by a jump). This phenomenon is called jump and the thresholds of the resonance. on the T-plane specify the values Boundaries
control systems
are
not
APS
- the
effects of the
need instability of process can be reflected into instability for in a so they can be easily accounted
jumps.
when
in control systems with saturation by a jump, may originate The second subharmonic only system is varied continuously. and occurs in systems nonlinear elements with asymmetric characteristics, comprising of common values, the subharmonic originates smoothly. With margins stability subharmonics do not show up.
a parameter
of the
12.1
The
Process instability
output
increment in the input if an infinitesimal in the Process increment output. instability growing in the output manifests itself in sudden bursts of oscillation or jumps signal. These to the output error and need to be limited. therefore phenomenacontribute A system the output is said to be process-Stable when processes are stable for all conceivableinputs. In accordance with the First Lyapunov Method, stability process of the linearized time-varied) implies stability locally system. (generally, In most cases, process instability is not a critical design issue. However, during feedback with, testing, and troubleshooting process instability and systems, experiments and subharmonic oscillation the associated nonlinear phenomena like jump-resonance the process instability conditions may occur and can be very confusing. For this reason, and need to be well understood. manifestations
process
is considered
unstable
triggers a
finite
or exponentially
12.2 Absolute stability of the outputprocess The in Fig. 12.1 (a) is said to be absolutely process-Stable system
process-stable
(APS) if
link
it
is
with
any
characteristic by
of
the nonlinear
memoriless
v(e)
whose
differential
322
Chapter
dv
12. Process
Instability
323
0<
\342\200\224
<1.
A2.1)
monotonic
de
For example,the
A2.1).
characteristic
illustrated
in Fig.
12.2 satisfiesthe
condition
1
(a) j
h 7Is)
e
(b)
Fig.
12.1
and
Feedback system
its equivalent
(a)
Fig.
12.2
nonlinear
Characteristic
link
differential
of the
(b)
with limited
gain
The system
ReT(/0))>-l
A2.2) we
To prove
this shown
statement in Fig.
deviations
linear
the
feedback link
nonlinear
for
by
time-variable
link
the
gain coefficient
g(t) = ~.
In
dv
de
with
accordance
A2.1),
Vg(t)> 1.
The
in
the feedback system and the two-poles connection discussed electrical the in Fig. 12.3(b), shown circuits, (c). yields equivalent Since F(s) = T(s) + 1 is positive real, the two-pole in the lower part of the circuit in Fig. 12.3(c) is passive.The two-pole l/g(t)-l, although time-variable, is resistive and i.e., energy-dissipative. Hence, no self-oscillation can arise in this system. positive, the system in Fig. 12.1 is APS if it satisfies conditions Therefore, A2.1) and A2.2). (Notice that the analysis is valid even if the linear links in Fig. 12.3 are time-variable. criterion for LTV feedback systems.) Therefore, A2.2) stability gives a sufficient in some sense necessary for APS. If Condition is not only sufficient but A2.2) A2.2)is not satisfied, i.e., Re T< -1 at some frequency CO, then there can be found (a) function v(e) satisfying and (b) some periodical input with the some A2.1) signal fundamental CO, that together bring forth an unstable it can output process. Particularly, be shown when v(e) is saturation, and the input is a Il-shaped periodical that signal in the input with frequency renders a jump in the CO, gradual signal amplitude change
Section
analogy 3.10.2
between
output
signal amplitude
[9].
324
Chapter
12.
Process
Instability
(b)
(c)
real
gain
Fig. 12.3
Feedback
system
with time-variable
coefficient
(b),(c)described by
g(f) (a)
the
same
equations
The condition A2.2) restricts the position of the Nyquist diagram as shown in 12.4 and at This the not to exceed 90\302\260. limits the Fig. requires phase lag large loop gains reduces the available feedback. slope of the Bode diagram to -6dB/oct and thereby In practical systems not satisfying the APS condition, typically instability process does not contribute then much to the output error, and is only when the actuator saturated unusual is applied and a rather command to the input. On the other hand, excessive process The required feedback instability is not acceptable. T-plane between
certify
lie somewhere
To
evaluate
the
the
and
should
systems,
appropriate
test-signals
for
-1; 1
be
selected
among
For
with the
those
large
typical
practical
inputs
the systems
jump-resonance
where
can
the relative
(described
V Fig. 12.4
Restriction
jump values of
section)
as
the
figure
of the the
APS
12.3
Jump-resonance
and
The amplitude
functions
the
shape of
the
at
the
output
periodical
signal
and whether
generally are
on
the
multivalued
of the
parameters,
depend on
increasing in
depend
prehistory.
input
Particularly,
might
signal
was arrived
gradually
be
or
gradually
the
input in
signal amplitude.
Jump-resonance
Fig. 12.1(a) excitedby
can
observed input
the
nonlinear
feedback
system
sinusoidal
is
gradually
increased,
at a
in
u =
infinitesimal
output
signal
in
(b) shown
increases
of the input, from the amplitude v(f) to change by a jump from the time-response (a) to of the fundamental 12.5. As the result, the amplitude Fig.
increase
by a
jump.
causes
down
input
amplitude
of the input starting at a value biggerthan U\" down from the time-response (c) to the timeis reduced by an infinitesimal to increment,
Chapter12.Process Instability
at
325
U= W
at U=U\"
time
at
U=
at
U=
U'-O
time
0
(b)
u
(c) signal
down
(d)
up
jump
Fig. 12.5
after the
jump
Shapesof
up
the
output
(b); before
the
the
jump
(a) and
down
(d)
in in
Fig. Fig.
for
jumps
the
can
be found
same Using
initially
analyzing
the system
e(t)
relationships the DF
as the
feedback system
approach, we assumethat
~ E
sin (at.
When
the
addition
U =
of
the
2Esin(ytt/2)
i.e., arg T is -165\302\260, vector small, margin is rather say 15\302\260, channels the two parallel generates a collapse of outputs = in the region where VITI E. This is exemplified in Fig. 12.6.
stability
of
(b)
Fig.
12.6
of (a) dependence
Output signal
amplitude
for equivalent
U on
E, and
(b) vectors'addition
redrawn
The dependence U(E) in Fig. 12.6 is single-valued. The inverse operator E(V) a falling branch over the in Fig. 12.7 is three-valued. This plot comprises interval of bifurcation marked dark. When U passes U\" (U',U\") between the points value afterwhile being gradually E from to the increased, Eb\" jumps before-the-jump the-jump value ?,\", and when U is reduced to U', then ? jumps down to EJ. The proof that the solution on the falling branch is unstable with a real positive pole the signal was given in Section Since the system is unstable, rises exponentially 10.3.1. the arrows in between the two stable solutions as shown by Fig. 12.7. -jumps In the system with saturation, only the jumps down can be large. From the curves in on the loop amplitude ?\342\200\236' depends Figs. 12.6 and 12.7 it is seen that the after-the-jump in and The are 12.8. These curves calculated phase. plotted Fig. gain dependencies allow one to specify the required stability margins from the values of the allowed jumps, from the observed and while to calculate the stability also, experimenting, margins
jumps.
326
Chapter
12.
Process
Instability
60
Fig. 12.7
of the
Three-valued
dependence
input
Fig. 12.8
values
Lines of equal
down in with saturation
of jumps
amplitude
a system
Fig.
in feedback is such that the curve U(E) in systems when argT a minimum. This takes place within certain intervals. On frequency the in Fig. 12.9, the area is traced where the dependence plane E(U) has three (?/,/) solutions. At the lowest and the highest the limit case occurs of U' = U\" frequencies, = and 0 with zero-length dU/dE branch. The jumps can be caused falling by varying either U or /or both.
jumps
The
12.6
occur
possesses
frequency
frequency
Fig. 12.9
Amplitude-frequency
areas
Fig. 12.10
Jump-resonance
when
of three-valued
amplitude U
signal amplitude similar to that shown input signal amplitude is kept constant. Such first the of resonance tanks with nonlinear were observed responses during study in described cores. Because of the inductors analogy having ferromagnetic is described by the of an inductor and a capacitor Section 3.10.2, a parallel connection
in Fig.
same
margin
the return ratio with equations as a feedbacksystem is small (although it is nonzero due to the inductor is prominent. saturation For feedback systems with dynamic [9] that the after-the-jump amplitude
and therefore
with
the
jump-resonance
(including
those
NDCs),
it can
be
shown
E'=-
111
A2.4)
sup I Ml?>1
Chapter
The
12. Process
Instability
327
denominator
=
This
IMI
can be readily found the iso-/ line on the Nichols chart. by plotting is exemplified in Fig. 12.11. On the iso-/line, IMI of 3.5dB is maximum, i.e., 1.5, hence ?a' = 0.85.
0\302\260
Fig.
12.11
of I Ml on
measure
require
the loop
imitating
Fig.
observing
responses in RF and MW feedback the port of the open feedback loading loop the impedance of the disconnected port as at various frequencies can be found margins
configuration
and
using
the
plot
in
Fig. 12.8.
observed in the attitude control loop on the the attitude excited of solar control panels' Nitrogen have oscillation in the which structural mode. panels large-amplitude periodic high-2 The gyro bearing nonlinearity lead to jump-resonance in the gyro loop. This in turn lead amount of the to the panel attitude control thrusters consuming an abnormally large The rectified the in the control was loop. propellant. problem by reducing gain
has
Mariner 10 spacecraft.
Example 2. Jump-resonance
been
thrusters
12.4 Subharmonics
12.4.1
As
only
Odd
subharmonics
shown
will be
become
below,
the
subharmonics
in
low-pass
systems
with saturation
could
excited subharmonic frequency co/n is phase stability margin This rather small. of the Bode loop gain the Therefore, implies a steepcut-off diagram. to the nonlinear link consists of the lower frequency signal at the input mainly E sin (at + ?sbsin(G)f/n). components: whether odd subharmonic oscillation is possible with either small or Let us examine the saturation threshold is 1. of ? and ?Sb \342\200\242 We assume big amplitudes with both E and E& being so small that E + E& < 1, the subharmonics Evidently, since in this case the system are not observed behaves linearly. link is saturated If E > 1 and ?sb \302\253 1, part of the time the nonlinear by the signal. at the
if the
328
For small signal
linear
increments
Chapter
12.
Process
Instability
to its input, the link can be seen as an equivalent given a element the sampling with one, time-varying pulse frequency co. Considering the subharmonic as the input increment, the is the product of increment output and the Fourier expansion with the fundamental CO which JSsb sin(ciM/n) frequency characterizes the pulse element. In this product, the component with the frequency co/n can be generated of the Fourier series. Sincethis only due to the constant component is real, the nonlinear link does not introduce in the loop any phase shift for component the subharmonic.
the of the input are manipulated signal parameters slowly and subharmonics may only originate nonzero by a jump, with steadystate amplitude E (this is called hard oscillation). On the other hand, if E& \302\273 1 and E < E&, the input to the nonlinear link can be as shown in Fig. 12.12(a). This signal is clipped at the levels shown by dashed lines, and the output of the saturation link shown in v@ accepts the shape of trapezoidal pulses, These are shifted in some subharmonic the due to 12.12(b). Fig. pulses phase by angle ? sin or. If this angle exceeds the phase stability at the frequency of the signal margin and the loop gain at this is more than 1, a steady-state subharmonic, frequency subharmonic oscillation may be excited by creating appropriate initial conditions.
Therefore,
when
continuously,
the odd
subharmonic (a)
(b)
10
20 30
40
odd
Fig. 12.12
Third
subharmonic
mechanism
Fig. 12.13
subharmonics
It is
the
third-
and for
systems
control
shift is less the phase are subharmonics displayed higher-order the stability margin is always phase
observed.
than
in Fig. bigger
The boundaries for 12.13 [9]. In practical than n/6, and odd
Second
subharmonic
can
The secondsubharmonic
link
be observed
greater
only if
the
characteristic
of the are
loop
nonlinear in
is asymmetric,
the
subharmonic's
saturation, system values of the signal amplitude that correspond to different subharmonic the figure, the second in Fig. 12.14 [9]. As seen shown from than are 30\302\260. in the where margins greater phase stability generated systems self-excitation second subharmonic Unlike odd subharmonic self-excitation,
existence
subharmonic
is,
the
wider
the areas
which
the boundaries
of the
are
is not
can be
329
Soft
either
gradually
trajectory
changed
entering
along
the
can of
any
domain
be the
steadily
that
zero,
without
jumps.
We
single-loop
neither subharmonics
may
the
conclude
in
real
danger,
10 20
/.-plane Fig. 12.14 subharmonic second with single
since
windup
y180\302\260
meeting
and
the
mandatory
requirement
for
substantial
eliminating
jumpexcludes
for
boundaries
existence
saturation
in
resonance
automatically
system
polarity
the subharmonics.
12.5
Nonlinear
dynamic
dynamic
compensation
compensation
can
Nonlinear
sacrificing links
make
the system
the
the
available
feedback. The
with
conversionof
process-stable without
with two
nonlinear
system
to an
is as well
in
Section
equivalent system applied to designing NDCs to satisfy the process 10.7.2 describes a process-stable system with large
one
nonlinear
12.6
Problems
the
1 Provethat
same
systems
in the
block diagrams
with
in
Fig.
12.1 (a),(b)
are described
by
the
equations.
4 = 1, the phase stability the slope of the Bode diagram below Is this & is -10dB/oct. If not, what must be the slope for the system to be processsystem process-stable? stable? Approximately, what will be the change in the feedback at 0.03 Hz? with system is 30\302\260 and margin
In
saturation,
crossover
frequency
3 Isa system
(a)T=100/(s
with
(b) T= (d) T=
(e) T=
(f)
saturation + 0.01)?
APS
2)]? 3)]?
if
(c) T=123/(s+0.21)?
T=
Prove
validity
> F(A\302\273)
of
the
following
equivalent
forms
for
condition
A2.2)
of APS:
Re Re
A2.5)
A2.6)
>0 1//=(/\302\251)
330
cos
and
T( ico)
\\M(j<o)\\=
1
>
A2.8)
F(j(o)
shown
a system
responses
zone
drawing
7 On
Nichols
the
minimum
value of
for
after
of saturated output?
8
(a) 6dB,
is the
value of E
is
The down
(approximately)
is 20dB in a system with saturation at some frequency.The is 2 times, (b) 1.5times. What the phase stability at this frequency?
with
jump margin
In
system
subharmonic
to be
saturation, observable?
what
must
be
the
stability
margin
for
the
fifth
Chapter
13
MULTI-WINDOW
Since,
CONTROLLERS
nonlinear controllers perform better than linear NDC controllers, generally, interest. We already considered the design of NDCs design methods are of profound AS and DF approaches. In this chapter we consider the NDC design from using yet another controllers. angle, as multi-window composite nonlinear controllers consist of linear high-order controllers and the Composite means of transition between the linear controllers according to some participation rules. Each of the linear controllers is a local linear to the optimal nonlinear approximation controller. The size of the regions wherea singlelinear controller is operational and the laws are discussed complexity of the elementary control Multi-window control makes transitions between the elementary linear controllers on the basis of the amplitude of the error. It is relatively simple to implement and than linear controllers. providesmuch better performance a big difference the transition it makes between the elementary controllers, During to be put on is \"cold\" or \"hot.\" Hot controllers are those with the whether the controller to the signal. This eliminates large transients caused input connected by the initial on of the controller. switching is the large and/or long overshoot in nonlinear systems. It often in occurs Windup The widely the systems with a large integrating component in the compensator. used controllers include nonlinear links the signal into different anti-windup directing paths, depending on the signal level. The acquisition and into the tracking problem is that of, first, finding and locking it. To perform each of these two tasks the target, and then, precisely tracking optimally, control law cannot be the same: for acquisition, the control bandwidth must be larger smaller. but the feedback can be much The transition between the two laws must be linear compensators via gradual in order not to de-acquire the target. When combining multi-window nonlinear it is important to guarantee that the combined transfer summer, function remains m.p. This can necessitate using more than two parallel branches and
windows.
Another
typical
application
to
for the
multi-window
controllers
Several another
examples related
controller to a new controller in an industrial environment when the manufacturing should not generate cannot be stopped. The switching process disruptive transients. issues in multi-window controller design have not yet been investigated, and Many remain as to how to make the best use of such controllers. many questions The ends with a brief discussion of command feedforward in a system with chapter multi-window controllers.
problem
is the problem of
presented.
between
switching
the
existing
controllers
10
and
11 that some nonlinear controllers perform The optimal controller is, in general, nonlinear. controller can be For a small region in the variable space, the nonlinear optimal linear approximated well by a linear controller. For an adjacent region, another can be designed that would be optimal over this region, and so on. The design controller arises of integrating these locally-optimal linear controllers into a therefore, problem, was
demonstrated
in Chapters
much
better
than
any
linear
controller.
331
332
composite
Transitions
Chapter
nonlinear
13.
and
Multi-Window
Controllers
controller
the
providing
smooth
transitions
linear laws.
between
the
control
rules
transition
defining
interval
set
of participation
be
characterized
participation
illustrated
13.1. Over
some
of the
of a
variable or
a condition,
controller
action
is
the
sum
actions of the adjacentregional control and at the ends modes, of the modes (or conditions, or actions) takesplace. The transition rule can be linear and expressed as
action
of the
interval
only
one
= A
- k)xaction\\
+ kxaction2,
transition the
A3.1)
interval. transitions
where when
the the
scalar actions
laws are
as
illustrated the
Commonly,
precise
long as it
is monotonic,
13.1(a). A smoother rule functions of the participation shape not too steep, and not too shallow.
Fig.
interval
is
illustrated
does
transition
rrr
variable
or condition
variable
or condition
(a)
(b)
functions
Fig. 13.1
In general, the smoothness
Participation
of control
laws
in
composite
controllers
a monotonic shape of the participation functions does not yet guarantee that the of the transition different actions. It is also required between that the action control laws in combined of the mix well, i.e., adjacent particular, This is not always the controller. controllers exceeds that of each individual adjacent case. For example, even if someresiduethat needs to be cleaned out can be removed by with either an acid or a base, an acid and a base should not be used as a mixture electrical a a reactive content. For of variable current, gradually regulation changing should not be combined can be used, but these elements capacitor or a variableinductor link should not A low-pass in series or in parallel since they might produce resonances. be carelesslymixed in parallel with a high-pass link or else notches and n.m.p, shift
might
result.
into several discrete steps, transition logic controllers break each smooth different laws. Since these control the total number of regions with control laws. regional regionsbecomevery small, fuzzy logic control can use low-order can be based on phase-planepartitions, and on passivity control Hence, fuzzy design In fuzzy logic controllers, variables need to be many theory expressed in state variables. sensed and processedto define the boundaries of the regions. controllers? What region size is optimal for composite the are to There two making regions small.The first is that the control advantages enables which smooth in become the laws similar, very adjacent regions might is The second between them without taking special precautions. transitions advantage that the linear controller can be of low order, and the phase plane can be used for the,, such As claimed controller analysis and design. advocates, logic by some fuzzy when controllers can be designedeven by those ignorant of control theory. However, Fuzzy
This
increases
13.
Multi-Window
Controllers
333
of
the
regions
is large,
the
number
large.
Correspondingly,
the number
modes
for changing between the control controller design and the designed On the other hand, higher-order
of boundaries between them becomes and instruments of decision-making algorithms becomes very large. This complicates the both
controller. linear
broader number
control laws can be made to remain nearly than low-order laws. This reduces the number of
For
the
design
of
the regions should be between frequency domain methods should be used.The partition and application of caution also defined in the frequency domain. This approach requires 4 to provide good blending of the regional control in Chapter certain rules discussed is not difficult the regions. Nevertheless, this approach laws at the boundaries between and leads to economical and controllers. nearly optimal summation For controllers designed in frequency domain, A3.1) may cause rule nonminimum logarithmic transition lag. In this case it is worth considering phase
log(action)
higher-order
not
the
phase
plane
but
= A
- k) \\og(actionx)
+ k
\\og(action2),
A3.2)
i.e., multiplication
action
= action\\
x (action?!action^.
A3.3)
the
following,
we
output
will
consider
controller
is
the
of the
other
logic controllers,no
low. As
shown
of the nonlinear controller. The input single-input feedback summer, i.e., the feedback error. Unlike fuzzyand variables are employedto modify sensors the control
the output of a nonlinear by N. Weiner, operator can be approximated by of linear the input signal to a bank various operators, and then combining links can be products of the linear operators' outputs. In other words, nonlinear dynamic of linear dynamic links and nonlinear static links. The approximated by interconnections make a small subclass of such multi-window controllers links. Although relatively
applying allows for much richer varieties of the input-output simple, this subclass relationships than those of the linear Multi-window controllers perform significantly better system. than linear controllers, do not require of and (i.e., design implementation high accuracy are robust), and therefore allow some rules of thumb suitable for the developing In spite of the subclass simplicity, conceptual design and the designtrade-offs. rigorous methods for the such of controllers are yet to be developed,and synthesis strightforward in practice by repeating the computer the initial As design is further optimized analysis. we concentrate on the applications, the presentations in this chapter are not rigorous and rely largely on examples and simulations. The signal components of the error can be divided into several sets bounded by in Fig. 13.2(a). The windows two-dimensional windows shown the frequency divide the time-response behavior) and the amplitude spectrum (or, equivalently, range. Within a regional linear controller (compensator) is employed. each window,
334
Chapter 13.Multi-Window
Controllers
\">
frequency
\342\200\242* time
>
frequency
\302\246
Fig.
13.2 The multi-window the choice of the linear the error amplitude and
control
controller
concept:
defined
Fig.
13.3
Diagonal windows
by
frequency
content
controller
The
multi-window into
nonlinear
partitioned components by the linear operators nonlinear functions. This number of useful nonlinear The regional linear
performance condition
can be implemented as follows: the error is into the different windows, processed falling components and the results added up or combined of the windows, by is referred to as multi-window, and a great architecture can be cast in this form. schemes control
controllers are
with
optimized
using phase
Bode
minimum
behavior
as integrals is employed as
frequency.
the the
blending
the
the
adjacent
the
regions
between
threshold
differing
rules
in
Due
to
this smooth
nonlinearities
exact
shape of
the
participation
used
to implement
saturation
transition
the
of
chosen exact.
to be
of
hard
type,
and the
the
need
not
be
A strong correlation exists in many systems between the error's amplitude and the as shown in error frequency content so that the errors fall into a set of diagonal windows is a stochastic force with 13.3. This is the case, for example, when the disturbance Fig.
flat the
and causing the body displacement with density, applied to a rigid body of the frequency, and when a to the density spectrum inversely proportional square the is in limited force command chosen consideration of available displacement profile the actuator. the signal components that should from Due to this correlation, go to a can be selected or by the frequency (the order either by the amplitude specific window is further discussed in Section of the selection 13.5). The controllers for these systems spectrum
can be composed
functions
of
for
pre-
Suchcontrollers
amplitude
windows for
and non-dynamic
splitting
and/or
provide
performance
compensators
of practical
compensators. The
low
large
low-
processed
by the
regional compensatorwith
gain; the low-amplitude signals are processed with higher frequency The are widely employed, in particular, two-window controllers gain. in and schemes, tracking systems, and in Nyquist-stable acquisition
low-frequency in anti-windup
systems
for
provision of global
The discussed
multi-window in
and
process
compensator
stability.
is nonlinear
whether
dynamic.
are
And
conversely,
combination
Chapters
10 and
with
11,
they
made as
channels or controllers.
as
links
nonlinear
local feedback,
can be
viewed
as
Chapter
13.3
The with
13.
Multi-Window
Controllers
335
Switching
sharpest the
Assume
between
to a coldcontroller
switching,
feedback
rules are the instant between the controllers. Even switching the transition between the regional laws can be made smooth. the inputs of several linear controllers are connected to the output of the summer as shown in Fig. 13.4(a). The controllers are \"hot,\" i.e., they process
participation
A
simple
switching
function
one of
actuator.
the
are
hot,
or some nonlinear law can be used to choose of all or some outputs to send further to the and if the difference between the controllers is
to
not excessive,
switching
output
signals
between
them
will not
some
extent
similar,
and
command i\"
\302\273(
(a)
(b)
(a)
Fig. 13.4
On
both
Switching
between
\"hot\"
controllers
and
(b) to
inputs,
\"cold\"
controller
the other
which other
hand,
when
a nonlinear
but
the
outputs
are
the
permanently
connected
to the
actuator
as
shown
its
controller
has been
When
in Fig.
13.4(b),
time
is
\"cold,\" and
this
output
someconstant.
but
the actuator
input is switched to
can
controller
\"hot\"
controller,
result.
The following
example illustrates
and
the
problem.
system
with
a single-integrator
plant
two
switchable
in Fig.
13.5(a).
Fig. 13.5
Switching
between
controllers,
(a) at the
input,
(b)
at the
output
336
The much
Controllers
an
integrator.
larger
feedback
output
but
smaller
feedback
responseswill
connected
Switching a certain
discussed of the
in Section
outputs
13.5). The
occurs
compensators
to
feedback summer
so that
when
permanently
the
compensators
magnitude
are
\"
hot.\"
between
the compensators'
the error
frequent
achieves
threshold value, with some hysteresis to avoid forth. In Fig. 13(b), a similar is here the shown but system to a cold compensator. The saturation are -100, thresholds the thresholds are 0.1, 0.2, and the output switches between 1 and 0. The switch engages the upper path when 1 is applied to the switch when 0 is input, and the lower path |i
switching
back
and
hot
switching
occurs
the
from a
hysteresis
link,
g for
systems in the
transients
while
both
time
with
,,.,. the
by the caused
'
It is
are
small
with
the
cold
compensator
are large.
anti-windupcontrollers
of a system with saturation and large-amplitude steps can be as shown in Fig. 13.7. The overshoot for the input step is excessive and large-amplitude - this is called persistent
time-responses
to small-
J,
\302\247
phenomenon
windup.
The
windup
can be
time
many
times
longer
than the overshoot in the linear for operation (i.e., the overshoot of smaller amplitude). command
Windup
mode of a step
Rg 137
in
Transient
response
r,near
mode
is
typically
two
caused
factors:
combination
of
in
the
a by error
actuator
(|Ower curve)
(upper
and
saturation.
windup
curve)
integration
return
integrator
the
compensator
and the
signal
from
and therefore
being
prevents
the
error
signal
During the initial when is still low and the error is large, the compensator integrates the output applied, be compensated When the time comesat which this integrated error would the error. by this does not for of in the linear mode the return large happen operation, signal commands, since the return signal is reduced by the actuator saturation. Therefore, it error. the integrated The error to compensate take a long time for the feedback might state after some time does the output signal drop to the steady \"hangs up,\" and only
compensated. value.
The saturation limits the in the compensator accumulated is after the step command period
Example 1. We
a single-integrator
in Fig.
will
illustrate
shown
plant,
in Fig.
with
13.8(b).
Chapter
13.
Multi-Window
Controllers
337
Compensator
dB
|
\302\273(TI
ifr
0.51s
-i
>\302\251-*
Actuator
2/E+2)
Plant
1/s
0.5
1^X2
(a)
(b)
and (b) the
connection
Fig.13.8 (a)
path, and a
As following
System
with saturation
loopasymptotic
Bode
diagram
The compensator
seen
includes a
link
parallel at
with a pole
function input
the asymptotic Bode diagram, ratio), the closed-loop (return function to the error, and the transfer
from
a unity of an integrator and gain The crossover frequency is 1 rad/sec. must be stable. The loop transfer the system the transfer function from the transfer function, to the input of the actuator are, respectively: 2 rad/sec.
_ m
n
2s + l
s3 +2s2
n +m
+2s +
error
command
1
F
s3+2s2
n + m
si+2s2+2s
+ \\
actuator
input L\342\200\224,,
command
without
=Ms=>
Is1 + s
-,
s +2s
5
+
2s +1 the
The time-diagrams obtained with in are shown saturation It 13.9. is the seen that Fig. signal at the actuator input has a large
MATLAB
step
command for
this
system
1 -5
peak.
plant
The
output
response
overshoot follows this peak with of the about 90\302\260 because delay
integration.
Clipping
the saturation
actuator
windup.
the
Fig. 13.10
response
shows
to
when
output
the
step-function
the
-0.5
command
windup the length
saturation
\302\2610.25. The height
Time(sees)
the
and
of
Fig. 13.9
Time-responses
of a
linear system
the
overshoot.
338
Using the DF explanation for the as follows: Actuator
function
Controllers
the
qualitative
goes reduces
phenomenon
the thus describing loop gain shifting the down. The crossover equivalent frequency is overshoot resulting long, corresponding to this low crossover frequency. The value of the the loop phaselag. When on windup depends
saturation the
the
-1
time
phase
windup
stability
is practically
large
when The
margin is more than 70\302\260, nonexistent, but it is the stability margin 30\302\260 is or can be
nonlinear
pig.
system
smaller.
windup
link
reducedor eliminated
dynamic
for the Time-responses 13.8, solid line; with added saturation with threshold 01 'n *ron* of the integrator in the line dashed compensator,
13.10
in
Fig.
by
employing
compensation.
in
For
of the
saturation
with
saturation
shown
level 0.1
in Fig.
front
example, integrator
placing an extra
in
the
compensator
dashed line. on the idea of The of the explanation wind-up phenomenon can be also based and overload the actuator intermodulation: large component amplitude low-frequency the it from remedy suggested by this components; prevent passing higher-frequency and higher-frequency is channels for analysis processing lower-frequency using separate signal components. in a PID system is commonly reduced or eliminated by placing a saturation Windup
produces
the response
13.10 by the
in
front
output
integrator, the
or by
resetting
the
integrator,
i.e.,
by changing
its
rise-time.
in analog used In Fig. 13.11, two measures are shown which are widely In Fig. 13.1l(a), the diodes the windup. (or Zener compensators to reduce or prevent limit the maximum voltage on the to the capacitor in the integrator diodes) in parallel the the maximum charge in it that can be accumulated during and, therefore, capacitor is shown: reset transients to a step command. In Fig. 13.10(b),the option the capacitor is shorted for of the step-command, with the application simultaneously certaintime (close to the rise-time) to prevent the built-up charge.
(a)
(b)
with (a)
Fig. 13.11
Analog
integrators
reset
switch that
Another method of the windup in Fig. 6.19 in the command path. is sometimes A saturation link Fig. 13.12, with a larger threshold a three-window makes the controller
elimination
a rate
limiter
like
shown
in
than
of the
in front
This
Controllers
339
l/s
S
k.
r>
Ds
Fig.
13.12
Saturation
links
in front
of the
/- and
P-paths
diagrams
in Figs.
the
13.2
and
13.3
indicate
whether
particular
frequency order
selection
ambiguous since
selection in
they
do
not
Often a
Fig.
is performed the
first.
in
is required.
two
This order is
types
block
diagrams
multi-window
13.13
which
exemplifies
of
architectures
for
compensators.
'->HP
(a)
(b)
compensators
Fig. 13.13
saturation
gain
Multi-window
with parallel
channels
with in the
dominates
low-frequency
eliminating
at
lower
frequencies.
channels. In such compensators, low-frequency channel since this channel's At large signal the saturation link levels,
parallel
compensator link
reduces
reducing
threshold
gain,
the
and the
or
in
windup.
Placing
with
of the /-path commonly reduces the length and the height of the is not critical. Placing a dead-zone value of the threshold in element channel with k < 1 reduces the phase front of the high-frequency lag at large signal amplitudes, which helps to eliminate windup and to improve the transient response. When link follows the fork the saturation linear filter fork (a filter is a filters for splitting or combining combination of low-passand high-pass low-frequency
front
overshoot.
The
and
signals,
diagram
in
this
case
low-pass
the
LP\\
and
in Fig. of the
13.13(b),
amplitude
the
left
can be
regulated
in some cases, while the However, the time of the overshoot remains.The of the overshoot reducesnicely, overshoot can be reduced to say, only time. 1%, but the hang-off can last a long (In a version of the controller described further in this section, the overshoot of 1% lasted 1 temperature In some applications, small is acceptable, but not in all hour.) amplitude windup
adjustments
saturation
threshold.
value
applications.
340
Controllers
The block diagram in Fig. 13.13(b) shows an architecture of mixed order of nonlinear windows and filter forks. The best architecture of a PID controller with anti-windup depends on the sort of command the controller must to and also on the nature of the disturbances. respond When the only command is a step, placing the saturation first will prevent the accumulation of integrated error that causes if there is largeHowever, windup. short random noise, and the low-frequency of this amplitude, pulse-type components
the integral term needs to be functional to reduce the static error but the is not effective if the peaks are being clipped by the saturation integration In this case it would be better to lower the of the preceding the integration. amplitude a low-pass filter (or an integrator) in front of the saturation link. pulses by placing When the error signal can be arbitrary, the best performance (in a minimax sense) of the two strategies, i.e., the saturation link could might be provided by a combination be sandwiched between two low-pass filters. of an Here, two options exist: (a) half can before the be and the other half or after; saturation, (b) using two integration placed links - one before first-order the nonlinearity, to cut off the higher frequencies using a and one off with a zero the after, single pole, cutting low-frequencies, compensating
noise
are substantial,
pole of the
extra
first
link.
These
Fig.
13.14.
The pole/zero
the saturation
level,
the
two
compared
only
with
the
linear
PID
controller.
(For
half-
one
additional
knob.)
,-0.5
,-0.5
s+
a
a
(b)
s +
(a)
Fig.
13.14
the
Possible
used
/-path implementations
for
anti-windup local
These
NDCs and
Fig.
for the
nonlinear
feedback
shown
in
in
13.15 11.
can be
with
designed
shown
the
describing
function
approach as described
in described
Chapter
The NDC
in
Fig.
13.15 can
also be designed as
approaches.
Chapters
10 and
12
the
absolute
stability
Fig.
13.15
Anti-windup
NDC with
local
feedback
13.6
Acquisition
and tracking
those
used
in homing
the
missiles, are
a pointing
maneuver object.
is large, and when the of mode when the error is small. An example acquisition/tracking type is which a rapid retargeting a in for control system camera, spacecraft-mounted form a mosaic image of the to is followed by a slow precisescanning pattern
error
mode
Another
example
is clock
frequency
acquisition
in
the
phase-locked
loops
of
telecommunication systemsand
synthesizers.
13.
Multi-Window
Controllers
341
regime,
signal is large,
the
controller
in
should be
wide, as shown
the
Fig.
the system is in the acquisition should respond rapidly, i.e., 13.16(b). In the acquisition
as indicated
the feedback
mode
it is
howeverthat
large, since the error is big and even with a small maximum available power to the plant. In gain in the compensator, the actuator applies the feedback bandwidth needs to be reducedto reduce contrast, in the tracking regime, the output effects of the sensor at lower frequencies noise, but the value of the feedback to minimize the jitter and the tracking error. should be maderather large
loop
gain be very
acquisition \342\200\224~~L^
dB
30
> ^ intermediate
tracking
20
tracking
>w
10 0
eg
log. scale
-10
(a)
(b)
time-history
and
(b) acquisition/
the
determination
the
mode
and
for
tracking
transition
responses excessively
during large,
of the optimal frequency responses for the acquisition is straightforward, guaranteeing smooth transient from to tracking is not trivial. The transition can acquisition
mode
in
the
output
and
in
the
error
signals.
If
the
transients
are
de-acquired. The transition between the responses as shown in can be made by switching windows: the small errors are directed to the tracking Fig. 13.5, or by using nonlinear A special compensator, and the large errors directed into the acquisition compensator. care must be taken to ensure that all intermediate frequency responses of the combined channel are acceptable. An improper intermediate response might result in an unstable or a in with small and, therefore, would produce largesystem, system stability margins
target
amplitude
can be
transient
responses.
showing
As an example
the
importance
of paying
weighted
attention
to
the
the
intermediate
and
response
in Fig.
be
the
sum
A3.1) of
acquisition
13.16(b):
k smoothly
varies from
acquisition
0 to 1. As
the
the
transition
from acquisition
the
mode
response
gradually
two
sinks,
tracking
response
two
frequency
functions
at
this
frequency
therefore 180\302\260;
equal, increases.
the function
transfer
T has
zero in the right half-plane of s. (The conditions for the transfer function Wt + W2 to become n.m.p. when each of the channels W\\ and W2 is m.p. were given in Chapters 4 and 5.) The nonminimum reduces the and in result phase lag phase stability margin may self-oscillation. the system The transients generated while passes these values of k can be big and disruptive, even causingthe target to be lost. For example,in a modification of the system in Fig. 13.5 where the compensators'
342
outputs
the
Chapter 13.Multi-Window
are combined
avoid
Controllers
via nonlinear
windows,
the overshoot
and
reached 500%.
the slopes transients, more than by 9 dB/oct
although
To reliably
Bode two-window
of diagrams controllers.
a linear
better
than
phase lag not regional responses should Hence, the two-window still does not allow controller,
and
the nonminimum
excessive
of
in
different
controller,
substantially
for responses
acquisition an
controller
in
using
intermediate
implementation
done
of the
with
best possible
dashed line
a three-window by the
shown
Fig.
16(b).
The
continuously.
appropriate
One
responses can
for this was
regulation
the
be
also
obtained Sections
by
changing
the response
method
described in
6.7.2,11.7.
Example
1. With
function
l.l(j+0.25H+2)Q+3)(s2
+5^+64)
s(s+05)(s+7)(s2 + 10s+100)
and
the
intermediate
return ratio
250E+0.3)
s(s+0.005)(s2 +1Qs
the responses
+100)
return
ratio
Tare shown
in
Fig.
13.17.
50
CD \302\246a Mi
*
\302\246I \302\246 \302\246Ml
\\
-50
10
10\"
101
Frequency
(rad/sec)
-270
10
Fig. 13.17
10
Frequency
10
(rad/sec)
10
Responses
for
smooth
transition
from acquisition to
tracking
Chapter
13.
Multi-Window
Controllers
343
force
13.7
Time-optimal
Time-optimal
control commanded
control
1
upper
limit
betweenthe
using has
y^
position
\\yelocity
with limited force or power. It for the control that to be timeproven the of the actuator action optimal, magnitude must be maximum all the time during the transition of the output variable between the limits. For example, shifting a rigid body with a
an
actuator
been
time
force
lower force
Fig.
limit
13.18
force actuator
in
minimum
time
requires
relay
the force
controller.
of the
position
profile shown
between
in Fig.
13.18.
controller is a
and
the
the When
the positive
negative
plant
It switches the action on, off, and on the at appropriate instants depending for the switching cannot be is uncertain, the timing values,
exactlycalculated
A stable
switch infinite
actuator gain
considerable errors. and the open-loop control entails of an uncertain control closed-loop large-feedback plant cannot employ a element with a preceding since this actuator is equivalent to a saturation in advance,
linear
A
link, and
in
practical
systems
the loop
over
gain
cannot
be infinite in a
at all
frequencies.
with obtain
good
approximation
to a
closed-loop time-optimal
the
must
controller
saturation the
requires
using
best
the
practical
achieved chosen
the
wide bandwidth.
be kept
system In order to
the
between
achieved
loop
bandwidth.
the
using
an
Chapter
be maximized under feedback bandwidth, the feedback must a windup. This requires the system globally stable and without controller as was shown in NDC which can be implemented as a multi-window controller can also help reduce the settling time. 10. Using a multi-window of keeping
For
controller
very
most common
suffices. like
practical problems
pointing
of
time-optimal
the
control,
required
two-window
be necessarywhen
settling
error is
small,
in beam
optical telecommunication
systems.
13.8 Examples
The 1: Despin Control for S/C Booster Separation. booster Example spacecraft is stabilized by spinning from the booster, the spacecraft at 85 RPM. After separation shown in Fig. 13.19(a) is despunby a yo-yo to about 2 RPM. (The yo-yo is a weight at When the spacecraft is the end of a cable wrapped severaltimes around the spacecraft. released and released from the booster the is also the rocket, begins unwrapping weight is separated cable. When all the cable is unwrapped, the cable from the length the takes most of the rotation The and momentum.) spacecraft, yo-yo away remaining thrusters. about spacecraft spin needs to be removedby firing Spinning of the spacecraft the z-axis is unstable since the spacecraft is prolate and not absolutely and symmetrical, will the spacecraft tumble. the despin when left for some time uncontrolled, Therefore, of large conditions after the separation, should be fast. Because in the initial uncertainty with various and spin rates and different positions types of coupling between the axes, and at the same the controller design for the despin function must be made very robust, After the despin is complete, in a nearly fashion. the it must perform time, time-optimal in the cruise mode. must be changed to providebetter control controller accuracy
344
Chapter 13.Multi-Window
>x
DM
Controllers
z
M
PWMand
decoupling
thruster logic
Gyroscopes
s/c dynamics
external forces and
Thrusters
torques
(a)
(b)
Fig. 13.19
The
frame
coordinates,
(b) attitude
controller
in
thrusters.
and
Since each
produces
Fig. 13.19(b) uses pulse width x-, y-, and z-torques, they
(PWM)
combined
in pairs
This renders the control of each axis logic matrix. to The problem is, however, independent complicated by coupling between the x-, y-, and z-rotations due to the spacecraft including spinning of dynamics, fuel and oxidizer,initially at the rate of the booster. Due to large the plant uncertainty, over the despin was chosen to be proportional, providing a large phase stability margin entire frequency range of possibleplant and x-, uncertainty y-, and z-controllers decoupled
coupling.
block diagram, DM separates the error vector into its the demultiplexer The M does The are the multiplexer compensators independent components. opposite. for the x-, y-, and z-rotations, i.e.,the controller matrix is diagonal. such as to despin the s/c without When the controllers' gains were chosen in Fig. 13.20(a). It is seen that was as shown substantial overshoot, the z-axis response the control is not time-optimal.
In the
A window
better
nonlinear
changes
is a twowhich the control law on the of the the absolute value each channel. This was via the errors passing
controller controller
0 5 10 15
20
10 15
20
time
time
saturation/dead
laws.
zone
windows
with
(a)
of Fig. 13.20 Time-response
(b)
z-axis
between the transition The resulting control law is nearly for the despin perfect function and as well for the cruise
shown
despinning:
(a) linear
controller,
(b) two-window
controller
mode. The
was
transient
response
for this
controller is
in Fig.
than
same time more robust controller performs for error mode the with linear controller, large margins stability larger original controller the two-window is when the cross-axis however, was, (This coupling largest. the Mars Global into not and has been too late Surveyor incorporated designed and PID controller was software. The initial provided sufficiently employed simple
two-window
The
the
control.) good despin and cruise This example shows that even for complicated plants with multi-channel controller two-window nonlinear feedback loops, a nonlinear using only law provides nearly control channels for changing the individual
coupled
the
error
in
time-optimal
Chapter
performance,
Controllers
345
substantially
better
spacecraft double
of linear controllers.
control
Example2: Cassini
The
with thrusters
(without
PWM).
plant is
close to a pure
frequencies.
The thrusters are not throttled fixed positive or negative value, or zero controllers often do not include an /-channel (low-frequency disturbances are almost and channel. To avoid nonexistent), only include a P-channel and a high-frequency is which then considered to be use saturation in the P-channel, windup, they commonly the low-frequency channel.
although there are flexiblemodesat high is some and not modulated, and the torque to a 3-position relay.) These (similarly
Example3: Temperature
Narrow
controller
for
the mirrors
telescope.
Angle
Camera.
The camera
represents a small
be
of Cassini spacecraft's
The
the
primary
same
and
the
secondary
mirrors
the
of the
mirror
telescope must
to match
kept
at approximately
image
temperature
in order for
surfaces
an
in the
be clear.
mounted
focal plane to
Fig.13.21
telescope
shows
electrical
analogy
into
control is
system
for a
spacecraftthe
(recall
Section
and
3.1). The
free
plant
highly
within
nonlinear
K 1.6\302\260
because of
nonlinear
law
of heat
the
radiation
temperature
(Another
of
loop,
primary
The heater Hi is
used to
keep
the
mirrors
of each
other.
the primary mirror heater H\\ which discussed here, drives The heaters are within the 263\302\260-298\302\260K range). temperature of 6 and the modulated with the modulation sec, pulse-width pulse-width timing period resolution of 125 ms. The heater total frequency power cannot exceed 6W. The of the plant transfer function differential is from the heater to the temperature response losses G, which are basically that of an integrator; however there are also radiative
which
is not
maintains
the absolute
nonlinear.
CuF
cMF
cHF
(a)
(b)
Narrow
Fig. 13.21
Angle
Camera
controller
electrical
analogy
(b),
and the
The compensator is implemented (HF) channel is high-frequency
controller
configuration
(c)
in three
parallel
channels. The
for compensation
the
a complexpolepair:
A3.5)
The
medium-frequency
\302\260'5
(MF) and
low-frequency (LF)channels
are
first-order:
= CMF MF
and
CLF= F
s + 0.035
A3.6)
346
Chapter a saturation
13.
the
Multi-Window
LF
and
Controllers
and
compensation.
combined compensator
nonlinearity)
element The
precedes separate
frequency channels
are
compensator
and the
in
response is shown loop frequency 13.23. The Fig. parallel connectionof the MF a Bode and HF channels forms near 30mHz. step on the Bode diagram
The controller was as implemented was digital, and the feedback bandwidth limited by sampling effects. ultimately
dB
-20
Fig. 13.22
for responses dB
Parallel-channel compensator
thermal
controller
60
60 loop phase
shift
t-plane
40
40
20
0
-20
loop gainS^
\\
f,
log. scale
20
-270-240-210
i i i
-120-90
J
i
1O3
10-2
/*\"
So
degr
-40
Fig.
13.23
for
thermal
controller
larger
1-10 mHz range, providing in windup, i.e., excessive device in which the heater saturates, unless an anti-windup overshooting,for transients The is provided. transient, the heater saturates immediately.) (For the typical power-on This used here is a element the LF device saturation anti-windup preceding path. \" is saturated when the actuator the LF path from prevents integrating up\" excessively were observed, the simulations and the error is large. After a few E -10) step response in the LF path was chosen K. The closed-loop saturation to be 0.8\302\260 threshold system in this level, which makes a good is notably insensitive to variations transient response level to determine. Note that placement of the saturation element after the LF easy a a is small in transient with but takes an results windup error that compensation
The LF
feedback
in the
result
excessive
saturation problem.
amount
link
Industrial
controllers,
use
integrator
the this
The
power
nearly
step response for most of the time and the overshoot time-optimal,
power-on
is maximum
the
controller
while
is shown in Fig. 13.24. The heater the mirror is heated up. The controller
is
is insignificant.
Chapter
13.
Multi-Window
Controllers
347
K\302\260
temperature
difference
300
-10
2nd heater
power
-20
-30
-40
t, sec
2000
10
t, hours
(b)
controller
in
Section
11.9 global
provides
it at frequencies where the loop gain is large, but also band of the the acquisition reduces the overshoot, and increases and if the feedback condition. The tunnel effect is an exponential function, tunneling when the distance in the tunnel sensor gap was much smaller than loop were initialized would become the be much larger, and then the loop gain would normal, system the NDC. unstable if it were not for the gain reduction by
windup,
antenna
pointing
controller.
controller
described
in
Section
6.10.5
is another
Problems
In
a system
with saturation,
windup
a doubleintegrator
saturation
simulations
plant,
in
and
front
effect on the
SIMULINK
of the
links placed
with
or SPICE,
and make
different
the a PID controller, study of the / and P paths. Use saturation thresholds.
about
2
3
In
the
previous
paths.
problem,
use dead
the
integral
and
proportional
of the
system
Fig.
4 Make
two by
simulation
for
the
responses, an octave
similar
problem but
one
shifted
axis.
The
nominal
is Po =
saturation
+ 1/[(s+ 10)(s
link
with unity
plant
sensor
noise or the
in gain. with up to \302\2612dB variations 100)] is 200 threshold. The feedbackbandwidth uncertainties). Design a good controller.
plant
In
Example
1 in
Section
gain
is uncertain
within What
3dB. is
response
plant
gain
deviations
up and down.
Plot the
Study
command
feedforward
in nonlinear
feedforward link
Study
feedforward system for commands and of the plant response (b) large deviations
a command (a)
large-level
from
the
nominal.
348
Chapter
Study multi-window
13.
Multi-Window
Controllers
controllers with
bounded
internal
variables
in
the
plant
and the
actuator.
10
Study
and
compensators,
Appendices
Appendix 1 Feedback
Al.l
control,elementary
treatment
Introduction complex systems is to break them standard in computer aided the blocks' interaction systems relies on understanding the feedback.
to
comprehend
method
into
analysis
building
and
particularly,
blocks.
design.
on
became
and,
was applied
in the
to closed-loop system
engineering processes
everywhere
biological,
economical,
of
comes backand
feedback opinion,
the input.
The
fundamentals in
can be
expressed in
as
simple
terms.
Feedback
in
systems
school,
can and,
our
should
be
taught
a part
of a
sciencecourse
and
high
facilitating
the teaching of physics, chemistry, and social biology, control but also to demonstrate not only how automatic works,
sciences.
how
the
dynamics
word
limit the
speed
is often
on
and
accuracy
of control,
why
and
how
feedback
systems fail. employed in a much simplified sense, denoting merely of one's action.There is much more, however, and methods of feedback. In the modern to the quantitative world, feedback is meaning and missile control, in cars, and in TV sets, and is widely used to employed in spacecraft the processes studied in biology, and social sciences. We economics, explain and quantify the following material will provide a better perception of how the systems of this hope
feedback
The
the obtaining
of
information
the results
world
operate.
A1.2
Feedback
control,
elementary
treatment
the
purposes
an
of analysis
interconnection
and
design
of a
of smaller block
system
can
be
subsystems
or
are
called
Here,
in
response
value
of 25
is produced. The
describes
3x10 = 30;
30-5 = 25.
10
Fig. A1.1
A
30
's I
output
25
block
diagram
input
with a
summer
case) is
summer
The factor
called the
In the
block's
by
which gain
output
is
larger
of
than the
5 is
A0
in this
block diagram
Al.2,
the
output
fed back
to
the
input
349
350
forming
Appendix
a feedback
is the
following:
input
6-5=1;
1x5 = 5.
output
feedback
of a
feedback
loop
device
inscription
in the
block (or
closeto
it)
often
gives the
name of a physical
represented
by the block.
Al.2.2
We
Feedback control
with examples. the rifle
error
start
a rifle is being aimed, an eye looks at the target Example 1. While through sights. In Fig. Al .3, the rifle points down and to the left of the target. The pointing the difference between the direction to the target and the rifle pointing direction.
is
Brain
command:
error to
\302\246
direction
the
Controller
i i j i \"\"
Arms Eye
pointing
Rifle
target
r
pointing
direction
Sights
Blockdiagram
describing
aiming
direction
of
a rifle
to
the
the rifle
in
pointing
and
communicates
error
this
by
Fig.
A1.3.
The brain
aim.
(a) calculatesthe
also
subtracting
the
pointing
from arms'
as a
controller,
can be:
2. While
The eyes
\"drive
calculates
west.\"
block
operation.The
a four-wheel-drive car in a diagram in Fig. A1.4 shows the estimate the actual direction of the
steering
\"command\"
of the motion,
the error
the
hands. driving
Command:
drive
error
i I
west
Controller
Hands
Steering
wheel
direction
Car
Eyes
Fig. A1.4
Block
diagram
describing
with
driving a
car
telescope
the
a small
computer
spacecraft
a hard-mounted
to take a
and sends
calculates
the direction to
planet
Appendix 1
this
351
as a command to the control shown in Fig. A1.5. The pointing angle system here can be, for example,a camera the telescope; the with a wider angle than the means can be the the The at summer steering jets rotating spacecraft. signal output is the difference between the command and the actual readings of the sensor, i.e., the error.
data
sensor
command: calculated
direction
pointing
Controller
to'
Jets
->
angle
Spacecraft
the planet
Angle sensor
pointing
a spacecraft
We may now generalize Closed-loop system to the control, called the plant. command:
what error
form
the feedback is also called the control system which shown in Fig. A1.6. The actuator drives the object of
the
output
output
Controller
Actuator
Plant
should be
measured
Fig.
Sensor
value
of the
output
control
A1.6
General
of a
plant
If the error is 0, no action is taken. The controller's gain coefficient and aggressively is large. It senses even a small error to compensate for the error. orders the actuator In a typical control system, the actuator is powerful, but not as accurate as the sensor. The sensoris accurate, but not powerful. The feedback control integrates the best features of both the actuator and the sensor. It is widely employed in biological and engineering
systems.
We now
know
enough
Design
to start
a
Example 4.
industrial furnace.
system
the temperature of
in Fig.
1206\302\260 C
within
an
We use the
\021206\302\260C.\"
general
diagram
of feedback
an
control
The
actuator
is now
electrical
electrical
heater.
with
is shown
sensoris an
thermometer.
The resulting
block diagram
the in
120ff
error
temperature
Fig. A1.7
352
Appendix
Example
Now,
sensor
the
command
to maintain
the
a pressure
is a
of 2.2 atmospheres
the
in a
chamber.
and
actuator in Fig.
pump,
plant
is the
chamber,
the
A1.8.
2.2
error.
atm
Controller
Pump
Chamber
pressure
Pressure gauge
Fig.
A1.8
control
Assume that the pressure gauge reading is 2.15 atm. This means that not performed perfectly, and the error is 0.05 atm.
the
command
is
Example 6. Design
amount
a block
diagram
of a
biologicalsystem
the
to
a certain
of a
specific tissue.
Fig.
A1.9
measured,
a
blocks,
the tissue
Gene: make
certain
of a
tissue
specific
amount^
error
tissue
Controller
Tissue generator
amount
Tissue
gauge
of tissue
manufacturing
control even
feedback
mechanism
there
is more than
enough of it.
This
to be manufactured fails, the tissue continues problem. may cause a serious health
Al.2.3
Links
of links. Feedback systems are composed An electronic thermometer, for example, produceselectrical to voltage proportional the temperature. This link speaks two languages: its input understands Fahrenheit, degrees is 0.01 V. At in volts. When the temperature is 1\302\260F, the output and its output speaks is 1V. this thermometer That 100\302\260 thermometer the is, F, particular output generates 0.01V Al. each as in 10. indicated degree Fig. per
temperature,
\"F
Thermometer,
0.01V
voltage,
per degree
Fig. A1.10
The
Thermometer
link
electronic
pressure
atmosphere
of pressure. In
other
gauge displayed in Fig. Al.ll produces IV output 1V/atm. transmission coefficientis words, its
for
each
Appendix
353 V
pressure,
atm
Pressure gauge,
1V/atm
voltage,
Fig. A1.11
Fig.
A1.12
shows a
a composite
and
link.
An
electrical furnace
in watts,
temperature
produces
heat,
in
0.24 calories
the
of the
payload
of the
payload.
temperatun
electricalpowe?
In
Heater
heat, cal/sec
Loaded
watts
furnace
Composite link
Can
as
the
in
Fig.
links
a thermometer and a pressure for example, two arbitrary links: gauge, 13 is an unlucky number: No, this will not work, and not only because different languages and do not understand each other.
Thermometer
Fig. A1.13
At
atm
Pressure
gauge
Links
that
cannot
be connected
the
link joint,
electrical
the
language
must
be common
output
to
the
the
links.
connectan
Fig.A1.14.
thermometer
to the
of
links of
We
can, for
electrical
heat,
electrical
f> Furnace
power^
in
cat/sec
Heater
V
Thermometer
power
In
Total
watts
watts
Fig. A1.14
Equivalent
composite
link
the
the
When several links are correctly connected of these links' gain coefficients. product Why
in a
chain,
resulting
gain coefficient is
A1.3
control
cannot
be perfect
is
assumed
before correct
approximately
minutes
in
only
several
the readings to approach the mouth as shown in Fig. 15(a). temperature, thermometers settle faster, but still not instantly. The thermometer readings but also on what the temperature was seconds depend not only on the instant temperature, and minutes ago. Thus, the thermometer has memory.
for
Electronic
354
frame
Appendix
position
desired
98\302\260
100'
temperature
water
temperature
T
70\302\260
\302\246 time
delay
time
time
50\302\260 time
\\
Fig. A1.15
Consider
initially
Dynamic
time
(b) pendulum
now
position
history;
of thermometer
history
readings;
after
a delay
a pendulum
shown
at rest,
the
as
in
r
i
vy
! i
Let us push
distance
frame
by some
the
1 I
the input
of
link.
The
is the
i
!/
the frame pendulum position. It depends at the current moment, previous position frame position and when the position changed. The plot for the pendulum after the frame was pushed is position shown in Fig. A1.15(b). The output on what depends happened in the past. The pendulum has memory. link with memory is the shower. Another The input is is the shower water the hot water valve position, the output time histories are shown The input and output temperature. is it takes in Fig. The the time A1.15(c). output delayedby the
*L
L..
J...
Fig. A1.16
Pendulum
water
to flow
through
the
pipe. memory
the
Devices
instantly
by
change
input output
composed
of dynamic
Control a step
some
accuracy
limitations
for the output of a dynamic control system to change, as seenin Fig. A1.17, curve (a). The error time decreases with but does not
completely vanish.
A larger
more controller
exemplified
However,
control, with aggressive gain, reduces the error as in Fig. A1.17, curve (b).
bigger
with
controller
the
gain,
the
Fig.
problem arises of
action
stopping
actuator
zero.
immediately
after the
error is reducedto
Control system's output time history Since the links in the feedback
A1.17
loop
Appendix 1
are dynamic,
the
the
information
from the
and
sensor that
actuator
actuator
with some
delay,
the
an error of the opposite it should be terminated. Then, sign will appear at the The then and the oscillates as seen in the Fig. A1.17, itself, process output. repeats output curve If the controller is even the oscillation increases and (b). gain larger, amplitude will more like with further increase of the controller the look A1.17(c); Fig. gain, output oscillation becomes periodical and with large amplitude like that in Fig. A1.18. A simple is by trying to regulate the shower to explore this process experimentally way temperature
moment
while being
The
very
impatient.
total
larger the
the
gain
major
attention
should
must dynamic links in the feedback loop, the smaller to remain stable, and the less accurate and the more while a feedback control system is being control. Thus, designed, be paid to reduction of delays in the loop.
delay
of all
for
the system
Self-oscillation
history in
The
is
time
of an
shown drawn
be
pendulum
oscillation can
the
frequency=2.
osc/sec,
i.e. 2 Hz
time
\\r\\
(a) 180\302\260 360\302\260
the
v^
sec
sinusoid.
oscillations
the
The
per
A
number
of zero
second is called
frequency oscillation single
phase
difference; signals
are
in
phase
oscillation
in is
(b)
sec i
The cycle is
shifted
remains
90\302\260
360\302\260 long.
time
delay
0.25 sec;
phase
delay
of 90\302\260 1 sec
(c) opposite
(d)
in
oscillation
sign,
in phase.
Oscillation (c) is
compared
or having
phase
delay
of 180\302\260
delayed
with
1 sec
oscillation (a).
delayed
Oscillation(d) is
180\302\260
by
which the
is
sign
of
Fig. A1.18
is can some
Timehistoriesof motion
not exactly sinusoidal, and the be maintained constant if the mechanism
speaking,
oscillation
friction-caused the
gradually
losses
are compensated by
injecting
energy
in
system
The
by some
operation
actuator.
in Fig. A1.19 can be explained with the help of the actuator is muscles. The kid the kid's diagram jerks his body to in the the The extra tension to sustain oscillation. sensors he uses are in his rope, produce for his movements vestibular apparatus. He detects the proper zero timing by feeling
of a
swing
shown
block
in Fig.
1.20.
The
356
Appendix
velocity
signal
in the
and
leftmost
must
system
be
positions. in phase
To
with
sustain
the
self-oscillation,
the return
be
the
swing
motion and
must
strong
enough.
signal
to jerk
motion
[->
Brain
Muscles
Motion sensor
Swing
for swing
operation
feedback
dynamos
generating
generateradio
and
TV signals
and
in
the
Al.4.2
Loop
and
frequency
response
Links
can be tested with a set of sinusoidal inputs with different systems is This method for in audio used, frequencies. example, testing recording systems like that in Fig. A1.21. This system illustrated contains a CD player, a power amplifier, and The input to output coefficient speakers. gain expressed in decibels (dB) is.the system are exemplified in Fig. A1.22 for a good quality gain. The gain frequency responses with nearly equal gain at all frequencies from the lower frequencies of 25 Hz to the system of 18,000 Hz, and for a portable boombox where the lower and higher higher frequencies thus making the sound different from the original. frequencies are not well reproduced,
entire
good system
CD
CD
player
disk
Amplifier
fmquency
FSg. A1.21
CDplayer
block
diagram
Fig.
A1.22
Frequency
of a
CDplayer
responses
resonate
gain frequency response is not flat (as would be desired) becausethe speakers at many frequencies with various Better and more expensive speakers amplitudes. (bigger,with better magnets, with larger and firmer enclosures, with some special filling
The inside
the enclosures)
Audio
have
are
wider
and
flatter
gain responses.
by
systems ears
typically
phase swing.
characterized
insensitive
only
the
sound
amplitude responses
sound.
since our
are
to a
large extent
shift
to
the phase
as
of
the
For
feedback
in the
loop is
important
well
- as we already know
Appendix
357
Al.4.3
Self-oscillation
Control
in
A control system must disastrous. be at To Stable, any frequency. prevent self-oscillation, are designed such that at frequencies where the return feedback control systems signal is is its not such that and at those w here the return oscillation, big, phase frequencies supports is in a that the return is small. signal phase signal supports oscillation, sufficiently control system design, the gain and the phase shift frequency about During responses the feedback loop are first calculated with computers and then measured experimentally in Fig. A1.23. and displayed with a signal analyzer as is shown
systems
must
is
potentially
i.e., self-oscillation
not
occur
vloop gain
loop phase
delay
frequency
Controller \342\200\224>
->
Actuator
->
Plant
Sensor
Signal
Analyzer
Fig.
A1.23
Measuring
Al.4.4
We
Some algebra
know
already
qualitatively
find
is small. that when the controller gain is large, the error how small the error is, and how many times it is reduced
the
feedback.
in
series
link connection,
the
the
equivalent
gain
the
coefficient
feedback
is
the
coefficients of all
the CAP
elementary
links. Then,
system
on
following
equations:
(Al.l)
= command
-fbs
(A1.2)
(A1.3)
error
Controller
(fbs)
Actuator
Plant
output
Sensor
Fig. A1.24
By substituting
Feedbackcontrol
system
(A1.3)
command
into
(A1.2)
X
we get
CAPS,
error =
wherefrom
- error
358
Appendix 1
error =
commandl{\\
+ CAPS).
that
the
error
is,
numerically,
smaller
than
the command.
feedback,
arbitrarily
the
already
have concluded
error
the
cannot be
that
After
substituting
into (Al.l),
we
find
output = command
When
CAPS
(A1.4)
S 1+ CAPS
more
the product
than
1, then 1
in
the
denominator
can be
neglected, and
output
= command
\342\200\224.
(A1.5)
10, close
or 100, to 0.5
(A1.4)
is
Al.4.5
The
Disturbance rejection
inaccuracy at
actuator's
and the
environmental
disturbances The
with
D shown value
(A1.4)
components
to
output
the system's
command:
using
the
disturbance as the
disturbances
at the
output
= D
1+
Without
CAPS output
A would
at the system's the effect of disturbances feedback, the the reduces of disturbances feedback Therefore, output effect used to reduce the effects of mechanical feedback can be therefore the
be
DP.
+ CAPS) vibrations
precision
instruments
and
machinery.
Disturbancesat the
plant
input
caused motors, by passing cars, by the air-conditioner on a desk. By mounted disturb around, precision optical systems walking by people the amplitude of the sensors and piezoelectric motors to move the desktop, position using times. can be reduced vibrations many optics'
and
Appendix
359
Al.4.6
In
Conclusion
short introduction to feedback systems we considered single-loop control with a actuator and a single sensor. Sometimes, are employed. While several sensors our hands, for example, we use position and stress sensors in the muscles, tactile operating and sensors in the skin, and the eyes. In complex systems, many coexist temperature loops to regulate various heartbeat and amount of parameters: frequency strength, enzymes in the and many others. It would be difficult to count all feedback stomach, body temperature, TV in a set there are of them. hundreds loops
this
single
A1.5
New
words
list
The following
the authors to
when who
the
material
teach feedbackcontrol
for
to his
will
might be
control
useful
readers
of this Appendix was used by one of then eleven-year-old daughter Helen. The list a similar task of explaining feedback attempt
to their children.
like a motor, power amplifier, control, feedback control - using actions muscle data
actuator - a device
closed-loop
actuator
from
a sensor to
correct
- a source of error in the system motion when forces are applied dynamics description of physical system from the output to the input feedback- return of signal or of information in Hertz (Hz) - a number of oscillation periods per second frequency - a plot of gain or phase dependence on frequency frequencyresponse - a number the signal is amplified gain coefficient by which - without in phase phase delay of one variable dependence on another link representation - a useful or or heated paid for load to be moved payload disturbance
in phase phase shift a change - an object to be controlled plant
oscillation supporting positivefeedback- feedback - expressed in numbers quantitative sensor - a measuring device oscillation sinusoid - a curve describing periodic whose summer - a device output equals the sum of its inputs - a numerical of a system (such as temperature variable description of a feature distance)
or
360
Appendix 2
Appendix
2 Frequency
have
responses
same
output
the property that when they are driven by a sinusoidal signal, the - and, in fact, - is also sinusoidalwith the variable of the any system to the input of a link, the frequency. Thus, when U\\(t) = ?/m]Sin (Ot is applied signal = of the link is + and are the uz(t) U^smitot <p), where Umi signal U^i signal
systems variable
in
and of the
<p
is the
phase
and
is called
the gain
in
coefficient
of
the
link
dB.
1. If a sinusoidal signal with unity amplitude and the output is the input, Example sinusoidal signal is delayedin phase with respect to the input by n/3 (i.e., by 60\302\260), and the output is then the shift or is -rc/3, 2, -60\302\260, the signal amplitude phase gain coefficient is 2, and the gain is approximately 6dB.
link: a Fig. A2.1shows how to measure the phase shift arid the gain of an electrical of signal generator is connectedto the link's input, the voltmeters read the amplitudes the input and the output, and the phase difference between the signals can be seen with a two-beam or another difference meter. phase oscilloscope
Signal generator
fvoltmeterW
Fig.
A2.1
Measurement of a
and
link's
gain both
and
phase
shift
the
The
frequency.
gain
coefficient
the phase
functions
shift
The
plots
of these
are
called
responses. Fig.
axis is commonly
structure
logarithmic.
(which
noisy
can be
a modelof
equipment
a stellar
interferometer
1 is placed on platform 2 is the place where while motors, reaction wheels, tape recorders) (pumps, platform some sensitive It needs to be measuredto what extent the vibrations optics operates. from the upper platform propagate through the truss structure to the second platform of the is defined as the ratio which is supposed to be quiet. The transfer function 2 to the force at a on platform measured acceleration of a specified point applied in the to measurements 1. The are performed frequency domain, specific point platform of the measurements, the force is applied and the signals are sinusoidal. For the purpose and a of an that down a Inside the shaker there is moves shaker. up electromagnet by the motion F case called a mass. This force reacting body proof generates appliedby on a of the shaker to the platform. An accelerometer (a small proof mass placed a in of a or of on the field a coil a core piezoelement, magnetic suspended spring an to acceleration a. electrical the permanent magnet) produces signal proportional
or something
else). Somerelatively
(vibrating)
Appendix
361
and a signal generator, a signal analyzeris used that three devices together with a display and a computer that sends of appropriate amplitude and frequency to the input of the signals power amplifier the shaker. driving
Instead
of
two
voltmeters
incorporates
these
Shaker
Accelerometer
XX
2
xxxx
Fig.A2.2
in
Measurements
of a
link's
gain
and
phase
with a signal
analyzer
to a body with mass M as shown of the resulting acceleration, velocity, and position A2.3(a), and the calculation is reflected in the three-link block diagram shown in Fig. A2.3(b). The input to the first link is the force, and the link's output is the acceleration application
Example 2. The
of force
F = 5sincof
Fig.
a =
This
A/MMsin
(at.
is \\a/F\\
1/M,
and the
phase
shift
is 0.
The gain
output
in
dB
is
is an
integrator:
its
input
is the
acceleration
and its
is the
velocity
cof. \\adt= [5/(Mco)]cos
dB
gain of
second
or
third
X.
(a)
\\
\\
v
\\
composite
a
MM
20logA/M) I
\\
first
link's gain
s
(b)
.01 o
.1 \\\\
10
100
\\\\
(c)
f,
log. scale
Fig. A2.3
(a) Forceacting
on
a rigid
and
that relates body, (b) block diagram (c) the links' frequency responses
the force to
coefficient
is Ma\\
integrator:
position
the
and its output is the to form a single composite link with jvdt. All three links can be integrated gain coefficient l/(Mco2)and the phase shift -180\302\260. Since the second and the third links' gain coefficients are inversely to proportional third
link is
also
an
-90\302\260.
x =
362
the
Appendix 2
frequency,
the gain
-12
of these
slope
links
decreases
with
link
frequency
gain
with a
constant
slope
of
-20 dB
equivalently,
of the
composite
is therefore
-40dB/dec,
or,
A2.2
The
Complex
two
transfer
the
function
gain
scalar
variables,
coefficient transfer
and
the phase
shift,
can
be
seen as
the
magnitude
and the
phase of a complex
that
function.
a transfer
function
is 5exp(Jn/6), or 5Z3O0,
means
that
the
the
phase
shift is
30\302\260.
2. In
transfer
function
Section A2.1's example of a mass driven by a force, the it can be written from force to position is -l/(Mco2). Notice that
total as
A2.3
Laplace
Laplace
transform
and the
s-plane
Table
The
transform
A2.1
Laplace transforms
F(s)
or
1
Ms
8@ K0
t
correspondence fit)
between
Us1
and
a function
variable
F(s)
Us3
?I2
a)\021
of
s =
Laplace
a+j(o.
complex
(s +
(s +
is linear The transform and exists for all practical stable functions fit). Some of the transforms are shown in Table A2.1. delta-function Here, 8(f) is the narrow pulse whose area is 1), (infinitely and l(t) is the step-function.
a)'2
teT
^
+
a/[s(s + a)]
1 -l^\"
a/[?E +
a2/[s(s
a)]
(at-l
sin at
e^ya
+ aJ]
1 -c\"\"'(l
+at)
a/is2 + a1)
Laplace fit)
transform
s/^+a2) a
cosat c
alll
the
function
= e<a.
In
the
region of small
for
transform
is+bf+a2
Hi
times: (s + (s +
fit)
*=l-at;
for transform
The
is + bJ
+a2
initial-value
final-value
theorems
f(.0)=
and
Appendix
When
2
can
363
be found
by,
F(s)
is rational, partial
first,
presenting
the time-functions
that correspond
of F(s) in the 5-plane and the related functions of Fig. A2.4 shows various poles time. As seen in Table A2.1, real poles make exponential signals; purely imaginary As long poles make sinusoidal signals;complexpolesmake oscillatory time-responses. as the pole is in the left half-plane, 0 < 0 and the envelope of the signal is exponentially
narrowing
with
time.
Fig. A2.4
Poles in
the
s-plane
exponents
A2.4
The
Laplace
that
function
is
the
ratio
of the
Laplace
transform
of
a link's
output to
input.
is an and the ratio delta-function, delta-function Laplace transform 1/s is the Laplace transfer junction of an transform Laplace by s is analogous to
to
Example 1. Since the step-function of the step-function Laplace transform to Table A2.1 is 1/5, evidently, according
integrator.
differentiating
integral of the
the
Conversely,
the
multiplying
the corresponding
Laplace
time-function.
the
Since
connected
transform
in parallel
equals to
convolution
links
sum
function of several is linear, the transfer of the Laplace transforms of the links.
links
chain
(Borel) the
theorem,
function
of
is
product
of
the
transfer
functions
of
the
individual
Example
cascaded
2. The
step-function functions
1@
links
with transfer
step-function's
is applied + 1) 5/E
to the input of a link composed of two and (s + l.4)/(s+ 2). Find the output is Us,
the
time-function.
Since the
output
Laplace
transform
Laplace
transform
of the
is
4)
55 +
s3
7
+25
E+1X5 + 2M
+3s2
364
The
Appendix
partial fraction
-2 5+1
\302\246
expansion of the
+
-
Laplace
transform
of the
output
-1.5
35 S
S+2
with
can be found
from Table
the MATLAB
The time-function
of
the
output
in Section
7.2.1.
the
time-functions
A2.1 that
correspond
partial fractions:
output
time-function
can be plotted
using
MATLAB
either
with
num =
den = [13
impulse(num,
[5 7] ;
2
0];
den)
or
with
num
den
With
step(num,
the transform
=[132];
impulse of the
[5
7];
den)
command,
output
the
numerator
and
the denominator
the
of
the
Laplace
are the
used
transform is
transfer
1); with
step
6-function and
whose
Laplace
the
denominator
of
the
function
are used.
and
inverse
MATLAB
Laplace commands
transforms (i.e., finding ^(f) and invlaplace. laplace s0 is a zero Re(e~lS\302\260t) and
is
from
F(s)) can
transfer
of the
For
transfer
large
input
signal
is infinite,
Re(e~s>')
where
sp
a pole
of
the
transfer
function,
infinitely
the
function
is infinitely
amplified
and becomes
at the
When a poleof a transfer function is in the right half-plane of s, the output signal in is is an exponentially growing signal. Such a system response to 8-function input in the input noise. considered unstable since there always exist 5-function components
In
output.
practical
because
of the
systems, power
the
output
limitation
in be
until output
it
becomes
signal
becomes
longercan
roots
viewed
To determine whether
calculate
a system
rational
transfer
function
whether
one
are
the
of
the
denominator can
polynomial
and check
and
real parts.This
be done with
MATLAB
many
other
popular
roots actually
software packages.
when
criterion indicates the presence of right-sided polynomial is simpler than these certain inequalities hold; verifying inequalities the roots. The criterion is not described here since software packages finding in no time. the roots
The Routh-Hurwitz
calculate
This
response
to sinusoidal
inputs, s
should
be
replaced
by jos.
transfer
function.
Appendix
365
3. If the input signal is Re[exp(/coo)], and at this coo the Laplace transfer of the link will be ARe[exp(/coo then the output signal +;'<p)]. In other A and times the is shifted the is words, (advanced) signal amplified phase by <p radians.
Example
function
is AZip,
Example
function
4. The
transfer
function
is 100/(/a>
output 45\302\260.
+ 5).
At
frequency
14.1Z-450, i.e., the equals the input, and the output is delayed by
A2.5
The important \342\200\242
amplitude
is 14.1
the
of
Poles
locations aspects:
and
of the
zeros
of transfer
functions
poles
and
transfer function's
zeros
manifest
themselves
in two
They
show
which
the
exponents equal to
with
the
exponents
and
system stability,
\342\200\242
(exponential signals are amplified infinitely signals with the and which are not transmitted at all (exponential signals In Chapter 4, the former issue is related to equal to the zeros). the second one, to nonminimum shift. phase poles),
They
affect
the transmission
of
shown
purely
sinusoidal
test-signals,
i.e., the
frequency
responses.
Example
1. In the
rational
example
function
in
{/(Ms1). This is a
replaces j(O.
with
function Fig. A2.3, the Laplace transfer a double pole at the origin. It is seen that
is
s
Example
gain
frequency
function 2. Consider the transfer L(s) = 50/(s + 5).The is the the of function plot response
= 20
pole
is s
= -5.
The
20
loglL(/(\302\273)l
log[50/0'0)
shown
+ 5)].
in Fig. A2.5(a). It is evident that this vector is lowest in where the transfer is largest. At zero therefore function magnitude frequencies is 20dB the and the is 0. When the the increases, frequency, gain phase frequency vector becomes longer and eventually the gain coefficient decreases in proportion to the the frequency doubles, i.e., increases by an octave, the gain frequency. That is, when coefficient is halved, i.e., decreaes 6dB. the gain decreases with the Therefore, by constant of -6 dB/oct. slope j(O +
The vector
5 is
at lower
dB
jot-axis
20
to the pole
-5
response
on
the
366
When co changes
rational
Appendix
phase and
Laplace
coefficients.
conjugate
commonly
functions
poles function
Therefore,
The
as
written
changes from zero to -n/2. for physical systems always have zeros are either real or come in for complex
(ao2 =
only
real
complex-
pairs.
transfer
multipliers
[5-(o0
Here,
+;co0)] [s-@O-j<oj]
negative
and
= s1-2aos+
sl +
2?co0s + oo02.
coefficient
0O is
damping
for the
pole.
Example 3. The
L(s) =
\302\246
transfer
[s-(ao-j(oo)][(s-(ac
has two
where \342\200\242s-plane
Fig.
A2.6(a)
shows the
the
poles
on
in
the
the
vectors
represent
multipliers
The frequency response is obtained by substituting j@ for s when co approaches co0, the first multiplier becomes -a0, the becomes becomeslarge.With a further increase of the denominator 2a0co0, and IL(;co)l the denominator of the function decreases. frequency gets bigger and the modulus the shows for function. the A2.6(b) Fig. gain frequency response
denominator
in
function.
the
function.
Then,
/co-axis
s-plane
gain, dB
cq log. scale
(a)
(b)
Complex
Fig.A2.6
(a)
poles and
response
is the peak The smaller the damping coefficient ? (and therefore |cro|) is, the higher on the gain-frequency response. At higher frequencies co \302\273 decreases as the co0, IL(/'co)l the and with constant -12 dB/oct. of the decreases square frequency, gain slope
and
zeros
a pole-zero pair with little distance between the pole and the zero, as Since the vectors corresponding to the pole and to the zero are Fig. other affect the frequency the each and same, they compensate nearly insignificantly a to transfer function will such pair any certainly change the order of response. Adding the system but will have negligible effect on the frequency And, since the response. the a will be no characterizes of linear there link, response performance fully frequency in these links' performance in any application. substantial difference
consider
in
shown
A2.7.
Appendix
2
zero
from
367
For
can be
the
example, by
a cluster one
replaced
frequency
range of
on
replacement is adequateeven when But if the cluster is very very tight. frequencies of interest, then the distance
singularities
the
not
to
the
between
replacement
the
must
be very
small for
the
to be
adequate. In many
function
0
Fig.A2.7
prominent Pole-zero
systems,
mutually
compensate
or
transfer
within
several and zeros poles have small effect on the the frequency range of
poles
pair
interest,
and only
one or a few
and
zeros have
effect
on the
frequency
dominant.
relation
to
the
poles
and zeros
is explained
Chapter
6.
A2.7
Time-responses
calculation solution the
should
In
the
the poles
of the
transfer
function
characterize
The
the
closer
the
have
loop responses
history
of certain linear differential more oscillatory the solution poles too close to the jot-axis
from
equations.
the closedoutput
that the
not differ
substantially
the command.
A2.8
Problems
system
1 Can the
be linear
if
the
input
signal is
(c)
(a) 3sinEf+
2.72); (e)2.72sinB.72f+
34);(b) 3sinC4t+34);
(f) 3sinC40f-
5sinEf-
5);
3sinC41 + 5) and the output 5); (d) -13sinC4f + 5); (g) 5teinC4f- 5).
is:
2
3
What
is the phasor for the function + 2) (c) 3sin(cof 12); (b) -2sin(cof
(express + 12);
-2.72cos(cof 2).
What is the
(cLZ30\302\260-40Z60\302\260;
(f)
4
4Z60\302\260
What
is the
transfer
function
-59\302\260; (c)
if the
input signal
229\302\260; (d)
the
output is:
40Z
40Z
1000Z
(a) the
2.72Z
-2.72\302\260.
Find
5)(s+
the originals of the Laplace transforms: Table A2.1, and using 10)] (Do it using
the
Find
Laplace
transforms
equal
to
(b) (e)
step-function
13A
e\024'),
6sin2f,
368
Appendix 2
-4cos2f
(Use
both the
MATLAB
function
Find transfer
(c)
function f{tj
of
the
double
integral of
signal
(Use
Table
df(t)/clt,
(b)
integral
of
f(f),
8 The
(a) (s2+ 2s + 4)/Bs3 + 4s2 + 30); + 12s2 + 60); (b) (s2+ 3s + 24)/Bs3 + 12s2 + 80); (c) (s2+ 4s + 42)/Bs3 + 2s2 + 90); (d) (s2+ 40s+ 46)/Bs3 + 22s2 + 120); (e) (s2+ 50s+ 40)/Bs3 + 20s2 + 300); (f) (s2 + 60s + 100)/Bs3
Find the
link's
input
is the
5-function, the
signal
Laplace
transform
is
transfer
function.
expressions + 43)(s
(b)(s2+ 30s+ 4)/Bs - 2s2 + 30); (c)-A0s2+ 10s +40)/Bs4 - 2s3 + 3s2+ 80); (d)(s4+ 5s3+ s2+ 20s+ 5)/(s3 + 23s2 + 200s + 300); + 2000)]; (e) -60(s + 3)(s - 16)/[(s + 33)(s + 75)(s + 200)(s - 22)/[(s + 65)(s + 150)]; + 40)(s (f) 10(s + 2)(s (g) -20(s + 2)(s+ 26)/[(s + 43)(s + 85)(s + 250)(s + 2500)].
MATLAB command root to calculate the poles and + s3 + 5s2 + 36); (a) B0s2 + 30s + 40)/Bs4 (b) (s2+ 30s + 4)/{s4 + 2s3 + 2s2 + 36); (c) A0s2 + 10s + 40)/Bs4 + 2s3+ s2+ 3); (d)(s2+ 20s + 5)/(s4 + 5s3 + s2 + 3); + 20)/(s4 + 2.72s3 + 7s2 + 2.72); + 27.2s (e) B.72s2 + 33). (f) (s2 + 10s + 8)/(s4 + 12s3+ 12s2 zeros
of stable
systems:
10 Usethe
of the
function:
11
Use the
MATLAB
command
poly
to convert the
following
functions
to ratios
of
polynomials:
(a) 50(s+
(b) -60(s
+ 1200)]; 6)(s + 12)/[(s + 50)(s + 85)(s + 110)(s + 2300)]; + 210)(s + 7)(s + 15)/[(s + 53)(s + 95)(s + 50)(s + 65)(s +150)]; (c) 10(s + 8)(s + 62)/[(s (d) -20(s + 9)(s+ 66)/[(s + 63)(s + 95)(s + 240)(s + 2700)]; + 1200)]. + 7)(s + 10)/[(s + 70)(s + 130)(s (e)
2.72(s
12
s by Write the frequency response function by replacing + + s3+ s2 + + 30s 3); (a) B0s2 40)/Bs4 (b) (s2 + 30s + 4)/(s4 + 2s3 + 2s2+ 3); (c) A Os2 + 10s + 40)/Bs4 + 2s3 + s2+ 3); (d)(s2+ 20s + 5)/(s* + 5s3 + s2 + 3); + 20)/(s4 + 2.72s3 + 7s2 + 2.72); + 27.2s (e) B.72s2 + 130). (s2 + 10s + 8)/(s4 + 12s3+ 12s2 (f) Three links
with
jca
for:
13
transfer
functions,
+ 85)(s + 250)], -20(s + 2)(s + 26)/I(s (s2 + 30s + 4)/(s3 + 2s2 + 30), and
respectively,
+ 2s3+ 30s2+ 1000) A0s2 + 10s + 40)/(s4 are connected (a) in series (cascaded), (b)
second
in
in
parallel,
(c) with
the
first
and
the
in
parallel
and
the third
in
cascade,
(d) with
the
first
and
the
second
Appendix
2 link. Find
369
series and with the third in parallel to of the resulting composite links.
14
this
composite
the
transfer
functions
Use
MATLAB to
plot
the
frequency
response
for the
first-,
second-,
and
third-order
functions:
10);
(bI00/(s+10J;
Describe
(cI000/(s+10K.
the
correlation
between
the
phase
shift.
MATLAB
15
Use
(aI0/(s
to
plot
the frequency
functions:
the
first- and
()();
second-order + 10);
+
(cI00/(s2 4s+100);
(dI00/(^ (f)
of
s+);
shapes
IOO/^
+ s+IOO).
of the
those
step-responses.
MATLAB
16
Use
to
convert
for
the
function to a
ratio
of
polynomials
plot the
frequency response + (a) 50(s + 3)(s + 12)/[(s (b) 60(s + 3)(s+ 16)/[(s +
the
(c) 10(s+
(d)
-20(s
(e) (f)
What
2)(s + 22)/[(s + 40)(s + 65)(s + + 2500)]; + 250)(s + 2)(s + 26)/[(s + 43)(s + + 100)(s + 1000)]; + 10)(s 2.72(s + 7)(s + + 44)/[(s + 55)(s + 66)(s + 77)(s + 8800)]. -25(s + is the value of the function at dc (i.e., when s = 0)? What
33)(s + 75)(s
2)(s
into
20)/[(s
85)(s
150)];
does
this
function
degenerate
at very
high frequencies?
responses of:
17 Comparethe
(a)(s
frequency
(b) (s + 2)/(s+
+ 2)/(s+10)
10J 2)/(s
and
and (s + 2)/[(s + 9)(s +11]; and (s + 2)/[(s+ 7)(s+ 14)];
(c)(s
Draw
(d) B.4/
+ 10J
a conclusion. for
18
the
functions
in
the
previous
example.
19
and
zeros: (a) (s +
compare
frequency
of
the
functions
with complex
poles and
+ 5.1)]; + 10)(s + 10) and (s + 2)(s + 5)/[(s 2)/(s (b) (s + 2)/(s + 10J and (s + 2)/[(s + 9)(s +11)]; + 10J and (s + 2)/[(s + 7)(s+14)]; (c)(s + 2)/(s (d) Bs2 + 22s + 20)/(s4 + 2.5s3 + 7.5s2 + 2.5).
Draw
a conclusion.
20
same
plot,
using
hold
on feature) of the
370
Appendix
Over what
(a) 10
proportionally
(d)(s+10)/(s+1000).
frequency function to the
high
range
do the
functions
approximate
s?
21 Make a transfer
at (b) 10 at frequency;
to implement
rolling
the
following
frequency
lower frequencies,
frequency;
frequencies,
down
at
higher
frequencies
proportionally
inversely
to the
rolling
up at
low
frequencies
(c) 10 at
(d) 100
low
frequencies,
at
(e) 10 at frequencies,
frequencies;
down
to
the
frequency
to the frequency
at lower at higher
(f) resonance
peak response,
rolling
up
proportionally
frequencies,
frequencies;
down
inversely
proportionally
resonance and rolling down peak response, flat at low frequencies inversely proportionally to the square of the frequency at higher frequencies; (h) resonance peak response, flat at high frequencies and rolling up proportionally to the square of the frequency at higher frequencies; notch of three different kinds, with different behavior at lower and (i) responses
(g)
higher
frequencies. functions
22
Which of the
following
22)/[(s
22)/[(s
+ 40)(s
+ 40)(s
(c) (s +
2)(s
+ 22)/[(s
(d) (s + 2)(s +
+ 40)(s (e) (s + 2)(s + 22)/[(s (f) (s + 2)(s + 22)(s+ 150)/[(s + (g) -is + 2)<s+ 22)/[(s
+ 40)(s -
65)(s
+
150)]; 150)(s
+ 250)];
150)]; 150)].
Appendix
371
Appendix
Causal
real functions
When
systems,
positive
a pole, the transfer function is \302\253>. A transfer function pole in the right means that the to a finite an exponentially is half-plane response input signal rising This cannot be of a a without output signal. property passive system, i.e., a system of energy. Therefore, passive systems sources must have no transfer function in poles the right half-plane of s. Causalsystemsare those systems whose output value at any 7, does not depend on the input signal at t > t\\. All stable systems are causal. Positive realness of a function Q(s) means that for all s in the right half-plane, > 0. AD passive is the ratio Re0E) driving point impedances (a driving point impedance of the voltage to the current at the same port) are positive Such an impedance real (p.r.). has non-negative for all sinusoidal signals and resistance resistance for all positive or not A does not). rising exponential signals (whether oscillating p.r. impedance but generate only dissipates power. admittances of passive systems arealso p.r. The driving point and of passivesystems The admittances can be p.r. but are not transfer impedances
s is
equal to
necessarily
so.
point
The driving
impedances
of active
systems can
be p.r. but
are
not necessarily
so.
of a passive plant the actuator control where and the ratio of the sensor readings to the actuator action or an integral of the or admittance, or a derivative driving point impedance This limits the range of the plant phase variations to 180\302\260. impedance. as a driving point impedance Any p.r. function can be realized (i.e.,implemented) it is always possible to make a system of a passive system, i.e., composed of passive In some is the function. elementswhosedriving cases, point prescribed p.r. impedance of resistances, in and inductors connected the system is an arrangement capacitances, series and in parallel. For some p.r. functions, realization however, requires bridge-type as a driving function can also be realized circuits or transformers. A p.r. point
Collocated
sensor
control is a feedback
are collocated,
impedance of an
The
function
active is p.r. no
RC circuit.
A. There are
three the
conditions
are satisfied:
right
half-plane
of 5.
B. Polesand
zeros
C. Re
6(/o>)
> 0
at all frequencies.
372
Appendix
Appendix
Derivation
of Bode
part
integrals
Laurent
and
\302\260\302\260 for an m.p.f. Q(s) = A(s) expansion at s -\302\273 is odd an is function, B(s)
+ B(s),
where A(s)
is an even
The
entire
right
half-plane
of s.
On the^co-axis,
it accepts
(A4.1)
The function
the
contour
s-plane
half-plane
integration
,/oo-axis
radius
of s equals 0. The contour of viewed as composed of the completed by a n-radian arc of infinite
may be
R as
the
shown
equals
in
Fig.
A4.1.
The integral
integral
along
arc
nB\\; the
along
the whole
joo-axis equals
part
twice the
integral
of -
the even
of
the
integrand,
i.e. of A
semiaxis.Therefore
(A4.2)
part
is m.p.,
origin.
then
Q/s
is analytical
in the
right
half-plane
the
of s So
s-plane
the n-radian
shown in Fig.
the
as
of Q/s
around
contour
The
the
along
integral
where
The
-nA^
where,
as follows
from (A4.1),
frequencies.
is
the
value of
0 at
very
high
Therefore,
along
the
integral
of
the even
part of
Q/s
the^eo-axis
equals
Appendix
373
La
i.e.,
u=A\"~A\302\260
(A4.3)
where u =
Another setting
is known
relation
between
results from
W
to
zero
the integral
of 9 -
A^ifsW
the
same
contour; here,
is
function of a reactance two-pole. On the function, i.e., an impedance or sW is purely W is either negative. The function positive j(O axis, purely imaginary, on thejoo-axis. real, positive or negative, between The function 4sW therefore alternates being purely real or purely at the joints of on adjoining sections over the jco-axis. It has branch points imaginary these sections.The sign of the radix at the sections must be chosen so that the whole folds. On this contour, the contour of integration to only one of the Riemann belongs function Re W(jo)) must be even and Im W(J(O), odd. decreases with s at at higher frequencies to s, the integrand For those W reducing least as s~2, and the integral total Since the contour along the large arc vanishes. integral is zero, the integral along the jco-axis equals zeroas well.Its real part is certainly zero:
reactance
!Re^zAi.d(a
-1
sW
in
= 2lRe^^-d(o
0
W=(l
sW
= 0.
then
(A4.4)
If,
particular,
+sl)/s,
ysW =yl-(d
is
real
for
lcol<l
and
0=0
A4.3
I {A- AJdarcsineo
General
the
-J
1
da. -co
(A4.5)
vl
relation
frequency
0O\"a>c)>
Let's define
0C =
at which the
Ac and
Ac + jBc =
phase
shift
is of
interest
as coc, and
of s
also define
where
Bc are real.Considerthe
function
(A4.6)
374
This
points
in
Appendix
function
-jeoc, A4.3
Fig.
in the right half-plane of s and on the /co-axis except at the the of function taken around the contour shown the Therefore, jose. integral zero. The the sum of the integrals contour consists of several equals pieces;
is
analytical
along
these pieces
The
is 0.
term
integral
along
the
0 because
integrand.
of
R equals the arc of infinite radius s1 in the denominator of the Bc, and
s-plane
As s
approaches jcoc, 8 in
A^
approaches
the
to
second
V(sfj
multiplier
the
left
side of along
the
(A4.6) tends
infinitesimal
Then \302\251c).
the integral
arc
centered
at j(Ocequals
Bds
I\"
/J
The
c along the
equating
Fig. A4.3
Contour
integral
at -j(Oc
equals
-nBe as well.
Next,
^miNnsT
*otes'\"9
the
integral
along
whose
integrand
of all components of the contour the the joo-axis equals 2nBc. Neglecting is these annihilated within symmetrical integral
the sum
see that
J(A-A)
and finally
2@ \342\200\224z\342\200\224S-r d 0) CO
= 2TCBC
-0>c
d<a
\302\246(A~Ae)d(O.
71 i\302\2512-<
(A4.7)
Since
2\302\251,.
co2
-\302\251
jd(O
=\\UdV
UV-\\Vdu
(A4.8)
where
we
denote:
U _
A-Ac n
tidied
CO \342\200\224
COj
u =
(A4.7)
ln(\302\251/\302\251c),
equals
dA , ImI , , \342\200\224 lncoth\342\200\224du.
\342\200\224-
(A-A.)lncoth-
-i?
~7tJ
(A4.9)
du
Appendix 4
The
375
imaginary
left
side
of the equation is
real. Hence,the
can
components
on the
right
side Since
are
annihilated
after summing. We
therefore
count the
real componentsonly.
lncoth\342\200\224=/7i+lncoth\342\200\224,
2
coth!\302\253/2l
does
not change
(A4.9)
and
the
because
replacement, of symmetrical
the function
square
brackets
becomes
limits. Thus,
B((o c) = -
% J
\342\200\224 In coth\342\200\224du.
du
(A4.10)
376
Appendix
The
Appendix
Program
can
for phase
calculation
be calculated with MATLAB numerical routines using These three are among several m, and integral_u. for calculation of different routines Bode written Michael Kantner from integrals by Caltech. The routines can be used to calculate the phase shift response of a physical m.p. plant on the basis of its measured gain response. The magnitude is prescribed over a finite interval. The function frequency takes as inputs and returns and magnitude vectors the find_phase2.m frequency
integral
(A4.10)
,m,
f ind_phase2
table_maker.
phase.
Behavior
of
the
magnitude the
outside response
within
an asymptotic
that
extensionof
higher
is assumed That
is, a
has
-40dB/decade
off
at the
in
same rate at
a lookup
frequencies.
by
frequency range is assumedrolling specified The integrals of the tails are precomputed and
.m.
code.
to be system
stored
when
table_maker
needed,
the lookup
might
The
handling
of the tails
accuracy
dominant
frequency
The
developed
difference
the
high-frequency
and
interval.
low-
prescribed frequency
of the
integral
routines is sufficient. The functions have When the input is 100 logarithmically spaced errors are under 0.1 degrees. As the number By placing data rapidly changing, cost. computational
improves.
function
points
used
variety
of
transfer
in the functions.
unevenly, accuracy
is
over 4 decades, typical spread of data points increases, accuracy with more of them where the known minimal be improved with added can
follows:
find_phase2
function
% % % % % % %
[phase]
[phase]
= find_phase2(magdb,
= find_phase2(magdb
routine uses the Bode Integral of a a magnitude response row vector given in dB gain row vector given in frequency
same
table_maker.
end;
length.
[row,col]
[row,col]
%%%
size(magdb);
col if
size(natfreq);
% calls
% %
col
load table
=
table_maker
load table
data con
the function the creating for toe and tail needed numentries hilimit lolimit
calculations:
numintstep
table
points
numsteps
%
= points
following
length(natfreq);
- 1;
are
The
ilnfreq
variables = log(natfreqA));
=
for the
lookuptable (u
domain)
toeslope
tailslope
flnfreq
= log(natfreq(points)); = (magdb(points)
(magdbB)
magdb(l))/(log(natfreqB))-ilnfreq);
log(natfreq(numsteps)));
- magdb(numsteps))/(flnfreq-
Appendix
377
dmagdb
dnatfreq
deriv
= magdbB:points)
=
- magdb(l:numsteps);
natfreqB:points)
- natfreq(l:numsteps);
= dmagdb./dnatfreq;
=
nnfreq
wl
nat?req(l:numsteps);
= nnfreq';w2
=
= natfreqB:points)';
for I
% we
l;points,
The =
next
lines
perform
the integration...
weights
natfreq(i)*ones(wl);
looplnfreq
ind
end
=
log(natfreq(i));
- [looplnfreq]*[1 1]
[eps
eps];
max([l
tailtoe
= abs(piA2/4*[l;l]-table(ind',2));
=
1;ind]);ind=min([numentries
J-loglO(lolimit)-loglO(lolimit)])/con+[l
numentries;ind]);
phase(i)
(deriv*weights
[tailslope
toeslope]*tailtoe)/pi;
Function table_maker.m
function
% % % % %
table_maker
called the
table_maker.m, creates
by
function to
lookup
limits:
table
le-9
le-15
reasonable This
is
used
for zero,
all
650 is used
100 of the
of
contains
=
nearly hilimit
%
toe
This routine
and
tail
numentries
=
lolimit
le-9;
=
= 4001;
= 100;
number
table
for each
should
integration
be odd
table(:,1)
= vector';
[tabled,2)]
= integral_u(le-15,lolimit,
2:length(vector),
numintstep);
for k
end
[table(k,2)]=table(k-l,2)+integral_u(table(k-l,1),table(k,l),
numintstep);
clear vector k
con
save
clear
Function
Iogl0(tableG,l))-logl0(tableF,l));
table
con
hilimit
table
table
integralji
function
%
[trap]=integral_u(ul,u2,numsteps)
[trap]=integral_u(ul,u2,numsteps)
function
378
% %
Appendix 5
routeens
This
It
may
not
handle
integrates
in u domain.
however.
% vector=linspace
calculation{ul,u2,numsteps+l);
if
end
end
ul=le-15;
(ul==0),
if (u2==0),
=
This
u2=le-15;
next
vector
%
logspacedoglO calculation
=
valvector
delta
%up %down
= vectorB:numsteps+l)-vector(linumsteps);
valvector
=
log(abs((exp(vector)+1)./(exp(vector)-1)));
(lmumsteps)
*delta'; ; result
valvectorB:numsteps+l)*delta';
trap=(.5*(valvector(l:numsteps)+valvectorB:numsteps+l)))*delta'
if
disp('Warning: end
Different
trap=0;
trap==NaN,
NaN
found
in
integration,
set
to 0')
[6], QFT.
MATLAB function
For the
to a gain
for Bode integral calculations programs without high-Q resonance peaks, the phase
corresponding
14.
response
can be
found
using
function
boniqas
.m from
Appendix
379
Appendix
When
Generic
system
the
a feedback
cannot be
feedback
a connection
of
links,
a more
general
description of
w
system
used as a connection
A6.1.
of
a unilateral
two-port
to a
passive
four-port B as displayed
in Fig.
Fig. A6.1
The
two-port
w is
assumed to have
output
and
either
in
infinite
or
infinitesimal
input
and
impedances.
the circuit
diagram
Fig.
A6.1
of
be
circuits
imitated
input
parallel
is and or in
input
and output.
these
have to
be
integrated
the B-network.
In principle, the dimensionality of the signals at the and output of the input and at the input and output terminals of the whole does not influence system we select one of the the the exposition, following analysis. However, to simplify and characterize the signal at the input to the active element versions by the possible The and the at current active element its output with voltage J?i, signal by the I4. transadmittance w = lilEi is therefore assumed to have high input and output
amplifier
impedances.
When
the return
an external
as shown is
emf E\\
is applied
to the
the
input
of
the amplifier
fl-circuit, ratio
in Fig.
A6.2,
return
voltage
T =
U,
-.
(A6.1)
Fig.
A6.2
Disconnected
feedback
loop
380
When
the
Appendix
ratio
T is
system's
ratio
must
be
superposition principle.Thus,
return
depends
the input
being measured, the emf E\\ of the source connectedto in accordance with the circuit, replaced by a short the source is to the connected impedance Zx port 1. The on Z\\, i.e., T= T(Zt). In particular, the value denotes 2X0)
of T measured
is shorted,
input
and
while 7X\302\260\302\260),
Fig. A6.3showsthe
and
cross-sectioned and
feedback output
Z\"
connected
to the
of the
two-poles broken loop provide appropriate in order to keep their transfer of the broken input loop produces
signal
U$. The
ratio
E6
equals
E6 Us
U
this
T. When
shunted
way,
the two-pole
Z1
need
not be
connected since it
is
w>
0
E6
Fig. A6.3
Disconnecting feedbackloop
in the
feedback
path
ratio of a linear fourpole can always be Generally, the voltage output-input the of the and the ratio of as the two ratios: current presented product output-input ratio, load impedanceto the fourpole input impedance. The latter ratio is found to be 1 when T is calculated. Therefore, T may be measured arbitrarily as the ratio of either voltages or currents. In the system, the signal U3 is formed by superposition of the effects closed-loop and U3\302\260
-U3T
=
Thus
f/3
by
the
signal
source and
the
output
of the
amplifier.
(A6.2)
return
difference,
i.e., the
difference betweenthe
signals
t/3 and
E3
of the feedback system in Fig. A6.1 is a linear combination of two the of (A6.2), and the signal source. By virtue the signal output of the amplifier F is the reduced times. from the Hence, closed-loop system output signal amplifier and as the ratio of the output voltage to the transfer coefficients in voltage, current,
output
sources:
signal
emf
are, respectively,
Appendix
381
K0L
\342\200\224 = \342\200\224\342\200\224-
kd,
(A6.3)
aol
_ =
Ki \342\200\224 = \342\200\224
h _
klA
(A6.4)
^-+*Edand
(A6.5)
the
Here,KOh,
while differences
KOhh
#ole
path
are
is
open
loop
disconnected;
measured
are
the
return
of
connecting
zero
input
impedance,
terminals;
infinite
and
k&,
impedance, or, respectively,impedance and ^ are the coefficientsof direct determined under the same set of loading
the system's
ku,
Let Z designate
without
the
feedback
(with
signal propagation through the fi-circuit and are at the input terminals. conditions and Zp, the input impedance in the system input impedance, w - 0, i.e., with the a cross-sectioned feedback path, or with
active
element
K = K0L^-,
\342\200\224,
(A6.7)
By substituting
(A6.3),
and (A6.4)
M Z
U(\302\253)
F@) from
follows:
i
F@)
= Z
r@) +
T()
.
calculated
(A6.9)
three
The
formula
expresses in
Z through
any
the
easily
functions:
Zo
and
return
T{\302\260\302\260).
principle,
the
two
terminals
of
feedback
system,
any
port
as input nodes of the fi-circuit can be regarded the formula (A6.9) can be used of for calculation n, provided that F@) is understood as F measured
with F(<\302\273),
If the
For
terminals
are shorted,
this
reason,
the feedback
but not
the
current.
respect
to the
382
terminals
Appendix
n if with respect to
the
these
terminals
T@) T@)
= 0 =
feedback is
equals 0,
the
them
is called
compound.
the
input
impedance
is
(A6.10) )
It
B(oo)
depends
on the fi-circuit and not on w. exclusively More detail along these lines is given in [2, 9].
Appendix
383
Appendix
The
Effect
of feedback
of Blackman's
on mobility
Blackman's original
proof,
following
derivation
formula follows
however
in mechanical
a mechanical Consider
port. That is,
terms [21].
system active
with
consideran
is the
structural
member, a
For
structure
connected.
an actuator accessed via a single mechanical member including an actuator. To the active The structure's mobility is ZL. The force F is
measuredbetween
to the
active
member
and
the
structure.
the feedback loop at the input actuator and applying E to the actuator The relative velocity V across signal input. the active member and the feedback return signal Et at the end of the disconnected feedback can be each a s loop expressed a linear function of the force F and the signal E:
the purpose
of analysis, considerdisconnecting
V=aE + bF,
Here a,
that
ET=cE
+ dF
(A7.1)
b, c, and
find
d are
when
the feedback
the
First,
without
feedback,
be determined from conditions. Notice boundary = = it is is E and E 0 when closed, Ej, open. loop without and with feedback. The case for the mobility expressions V= bF. Thus, the active member without i.e., ? = 0, gives mobility
the constants to
(A7.2)
feedback,
Zo, becomes
Z0=V/F = b
When active
the loop is closed, i.e., Et = E, (A7.1) gives member mobility with feedback, Z, becomes
V= [b + adl{\\
c)]F
so
that
the
Z=b
+ ad/(l-c)
for the return ratio for the expressions when the active member is clamped and when T of the active member feedbackloop is defined
(A7.3)
the two different loading it is free to expand. The as the ratio of the return
Second,find
conditions,
return
ratio
to the negative of the input i.e., T=-ET/E. signal signal, of the structure ZL, i.e., T(ZL). function of the mobility When constrained, Zl = 0, the active member is rigidly
This ratio is
i.e.,
certainly
(A7.1)gives
the other
F =
-a/(bE)
and
Et
= (c
- adlb)E.
Hence,the
return
ratio
case,
T\\0) = -c
On
+ ad/b.
when
(A7.4)
hand,
Zl
induced
in the
force
is
r(oo) = -c.
Comparing
(A7.5)
the obtained
Blackman's
formula
as
i The
7X0)+ 1
/j0
formula
member
mobility
with
feedback,
the
Z, in terms
system
of three
to which
other functions,
the
7*@), and
that do T{\302\260\302\260),
not depend on
structural
active
is connected.
384
Appendix
The
Appendix
8
derived
two
Dependence
in the
two
of a
previous
function
a Laplace
on a parameter
i.e., can be presented
transfer as
transform
formulas
sections
are bilinear,
a ratio
of
linear
functions.
Generally,
function
of a
as A/A,,, where the main determinant A and the physical linear system can be presented minor Ao are linear functions of the value of an element of the system (e.g., for an electrical system, resistanceof a resistor, capacitance of a capacitor,inductance of an in [2]. The proof can be found inductor, gain coefficient of an amplifier). is a bilinear function feedback For example, return ratio of the system load
impedanceZl- This
L
and
function
can be
expressed as
z
to analyze the effectsof
the
can
be used
plant
uncertainty.
Appendix 9
385
Appendix
As
is seen
from Blackman's
following
equations
7\\o) =
r(~
F(co)
F@)=
validates
the
(A9.1)
the other two. This are the conditions of balanced bridge. In such a system is not dependent on the external and therefore the value of the impedance, feedback is not limited this variations. by impedance An of a balanced bridge circuit is example in Fig. A9.1. shown The Wheatstone bridge is = ZJZ&. In this the if ZJZ\\, balanced case,
feedback
transmission
from the
output
of
the
terminals
diagonal
these
terminals
by
the
external
impedance
will
not change
first
return
ratio.
Therefore,
the
condition
from
(A9.1)
is Flg.A9.1
satisfied.
Zero
output
terminals
similar
of
inverting
between the system's the input of the amplifier is use. An example can be drawn by the direction of the amplifier in Fig A9.1. The
transmission
Balanced
and
bridge feedback
of the loop.
amplifier (actuator)
Z& can
be implemented
by
impedance feedback
386
Appendix 10
Appendix
For
10
describingfunctions
function of a system of linear links and a nonlinear composed the relation between the and link, nondynamic gain phase frequency responses B(A) is the same as in linear systems if the DF of the nonlinear link stays the same for all the at the to link does not depend the nonlinear frequencies,i.e., signal amplitude input on frequency. This is the case of the iso-w curves. When, link the nonlinear however, depends on frequency,the relation B(A) becomes more complicated. Assume that the conjunction of filter is applicable to the problem considered. Let us determine the relations between the real and imaginary of the describing components link: function of a nonlinear
a
describing
= In H = Re H+jq>
U2
- In Ux
Here, U\\ is the amplitude of the sinusoidal signal, input fundamental. The derivative is amplitude of the output signal
and
Uz
is
the
complex
dN
?/, <#/,
U2dU1
dlaU1
where
-l = exp@-tf)-l
function
the logarithmic
transfer
for
increments
Q=
and
A+jB = lndU2~\\tidU1,
is real.
dUi
Therefore,
- Re
dReH
dlnUl
= exp( A
the
H) cos(B -
<p)
-1, stable
and,
by
applying
differentially
linearized
m.p. link,
we
see that
cos
din
t/J
from the measurements its derivative on the level of the of the of the real part the response input signal dReH/dlnUi, and frequency must be measured while simultaneously linearized circuit A. The latter differentially The the main to the link's input a\302\273o. signal with amplitude U and frequency applying with if at A is to measure a voltmeter this frequency frequency-selective magnitude easy Since no nonlinear the power of the set of amplitude. product has a substantial in comparison of these componentsis small with the power of all real frequencies A (the differentially linearized differentiable function for the continuously frequencies, will be must be m.p. and not containing on the ./toaxis, which circuit singularities in can be the the results of the seen on (A10.2) measurements), integral clearly from the measurement results of A on a limited determined with sufficient accuracy number of frequencies. iso-w is rather complicated. For practicaldesignapplications, The relation (A10.2) are preferable and should be used whenever possible. responses
can o\302\273o)
of: the
Using (A10.2) the phase shift <p(?/i, real component of the describing
be calculated
function
Re//,
Appendix
11
387
Appendix
The
11 Discussions
of the
function
also to
transcripts
to whom
\"Discussions\" sections is to anticipate questions and objections, and In most cases, these are condensed misconceptions. of conversations which took place with the authors' colleagues and students, we extend our sincere gratitude.
Compensator
it is
What
All.l
implementation stated
does
that
modern
the
word
an
used the
as
the
advertisement
It is
same
more than
technology
The old
are
as that for
actuation.
implementation
used
the
mechanical,
integral
hydraulic,
and
pneumatic
gadgets
whose
outputs
proportional
to the
or to
the derivative
These were combined to make the desired transfer function of of the inputs. devices the compensator. Since the devices were relatively expensive and rather difficult to The the low-order. most them remained tune, compensators complicated among were the PID controllers a proportional and a device, an integrator device, using differentiator device, all connectedin parallel. The way of the mechanical controller implementation the control impacted for low-order controller design theory. Convenient methods have been developed are not suitable to handle high-order controllers. however, they
On the other hand, feedback amplifier technology was not limited to low-order used in the compensators compensators since small capacitors,resistorsand chokes for highwere cheap.The Bell Laboratories scientists developed synthesis theory best. These theory and design order compensators to approximate the theoretical methods only partially control. into the so-called classicalautomatic propagated in and 1990s. Nowadays, in The sensor technology changed completely 1980s of the sensors are and hydraulic systems the outputs mechanical, pneumatic, the the of the and are actuators are electrical, electrical, inputs compensators can be economically in electrical. Therefore, high-order compensators implemented hardware or software, and the control can be made close to the best possible.
some elementary level, however,lagged,still practicing obsolete but plain counterproductive and confusing when they to make a precision controller design. on the closed-loop performance are often formulated in the time Q: The specifications and domain. Is it worthwhile to convert them into frequency-domain specifications then design the compensator with frequency-domain methods? the trouble of frequency-domain of A: Definitely.The benefits design far outweigh of most practical conversion converting the time-domain specifications.The
Teachingthe
control
at the
specifications is simpleand
initial
transparent.
while performance
Q:
For
design,
is it
ignoring
some
like noise, nonlinearities, and plant A: That sort of approachtypically produces Even in the initial design, the system should for design will time and resources allocated
details
variations?
disastrous
be be
results
addressed wasted
on dead
ends.
388
A11.2
Appendix
11
Feedback:
the
positive
sign at
the
and negative
summer
A: No. At
modulus
Q:
Does
minus
any
mean
that the
sign
frequency,
CAP
the
of
the
the elements in
the
loop.
the
Q: From the
functions
and B,
closed-loop all
function
first and
CAPI(\\ +
will
A: It's not quite that simple. When the be accurate. Even rather errors large
much
CAPS)can
be
calculated,
and vice-versa.
Is that
there
is to it?
the
feedback
is large,
only
calculation P do
in the
knowledge of C, A,
not cause
in the closed-loop transfer function. The result is that the inverse is with small errors in or the observed calculated closedill-conditioned, problem into in errors the calculation the of loop response possibly mapping large loop the calculations or measurements transmission. the closed-loop of Therefore, to determine the loop transfer function. response are commonly inadequate
uncertainty
A11.3
Tracking
systems
definition
of a
the
feedback
for
frequencies
with
lower
the
than
the
crossover,
can be
a
in
a system
provide
prefilter.
and
However,
with
the
B= 1
design
nominal
without
prefilter, may be
A11.4
the disturbance
rejection
compensator
need to be
plant.
to compromised
acceptable
transient
systems.)
responses for
(This
Elements
the
of the
feedback system
A: There are
Q:
or digital? path and the compensator be analog A has the advantage to consider here. compensator many digital it can be reprogrammed in response that to known changes in the plant; however, it nor cheap. A software is often neither trivial should be pointed out that changing of is that reduce the available they primary disadvantage digital compensators in the is it often is. For as feedback when the computational delay loop significant, are the first for fast feedback this choice reason, compensators loops. If analog
Should
feedback
of an analog compensator can be made the parameters \"programmable\" converters. The summing device and the feedback D/A by employing multiplying than about path can be analogas long as the required relative accuracy is not better 0.0001. To achieve much accuracy, higher they should probably be digital. Many will affect this other factors cost, decision, power requirements, including and so forth. production quantity,
necessary,
Q: The
A:
nominal plant. But what deviates from the nominal? calledquantitative feedback A methodology has been developed, (QFT), that theory the so as to the specifications in the satisfy closed-loop performance designs system is discussed in This variations. the of worst-case procedure parameter presence of a amount the methods involve calculation, 8. they significant Although Chapter
link and the feedback rejection, the desired closed-loop response with the provide the to the closed-loop response when plant happens
for
disturbance
Appendix
11
389
are
useful
when
parameter
is sufficient determine the with
applications, it
plant,
variations are very large, i.e., more than lOdB. For most to first design the closed-loop with the nominal response
the
and
then
changes
by
the
plant
variations,
response
and, if
as the
necessary, modify
Q: What is
wrong
prefilter. design
methods
the
closed-loop
objective for the compensator design,like the pole placement method? A: With such methods, the appropriate value of feedback and the stability margins are not observed and preserved. This can cause many the system stability problems: or wind-up might occur, die disturbance may be only conditional, rejection may not be optimized, and the plant variations cause parameter may larger closed-loop
variations response
with
feedback
maximization
methods
A:
How accurate must the related phase responseto About 1/2 dB.
The
gain
response
5\302\260 ?
approximation
be for
the
accuracy
of the
be
Q:
compensator
transfer
function
required function
will
response.
order
and
the
sensitive to the
not robust. Is this
in the
coefficients. is not
sensitivity
Then, rounding
errors
make
A:
Not exactly.
the
frequency response to polynomial coefficients in typical cases is not high, and the compensator order is in this aspect irrelevant. For example, in analog telecommunication systems, with 20th order transfer with the functions, employed equalizers have been routinely
frequency
response
zeros
The
important as long
of
as
the
of the desired response of \302\2610.001 dB. The requirements accuracy of implementation for the control system compensators are by a long way easier. What if the is non-minimum-phase? plant Q: of the loop phase lag must be compensated A: The non-minimum-phase for component of the the This can be done by minimum-phase by reducing component phase lag. of the Bode step. Simpleformulas /b to increase the length reducing the frequency calculations are given in Chapter 4. for these the sensor is path are known, and Q: The command, the prefilter, and the feedback This data to CAP. C is the suffices calculate if Further, output. measuring plant's determined and this be to C AP can be information can used known, exactly, modify is as desired. Right? function such that the loop transmission the errors in the calculation. The sensor is A: Before deciding to do this, let's consider the not the command is not well-suited to the goal of characterizing ideal (noisy), the where and the problem is ill-conditioned for all frequency components plant, be used for the frequency where the is large. This approachmight band feedback of the crossover frequency /b. feedback is positive, i.e., in the neighborhood of the command need the high frequency for this application, However, components the than which is not the case. to be sufficiently noise, usually large, larger feedback be the resonances on the available the effects of plant potentially Q: Can
A:
4 and
the Answer to
the
Problems.
390
Appendix
11
A11.6
Q: Is
A:
the distance of the poles of the closed-loop transfer from the jfO-axis a function better robustnessmeasure then the stability margins on the Nyquist diagram? No. A practical counterexample is an active RC notch filter. Its closed-loop poles are close to the joo-axis, but the stability very margins in this feedback system are the is reliable and used. sufficient, system globally stable, widely Conversely, the of a far from the does not placing poles closed-loop system away jo-axis
guarantee
global
stability,
to define
Q: Is
and
it
convenient sufficient
robustness.
Nyquist
diagram
to reflect
necessary
stability
requirements?
the
A: Yes.
Q:
How
are
the values
for
stability must
margins be
determined? in the
A: Global and
actuator
the
process stability
assured
presence of
is
the
plant
and
but
Q:
of a certain norm on the errors in the nonlinear state of operationis the the to of closed Also, acceptable.) sensitivity loop response plant parameter variations must be limited. the critical Why should the area surrounding point be defined by gain- and phasesatisfaction
not
strictly
achieved,
A:
margins, and not by mathematically simpler circular boundary? The shape of the margin is defined stability boundary by global and process the In the and variations. of plants, requirements by majority plant parameter variations of the plant gain and plant phase in the neighborhood of the crossover are not well This and correlated. necessitates defining phase-margins gainindependently. the methods and use circular lost if we simplify performance design Q: Is much
stability
margin
the
boundary?
stability
A: Changing
substantially
margins
from
those
appropriate
in
to circular
would
reduce
therefore, the Q: Is the definition definition A: No. The Lyapunov stability depends on the initial
actuator
of positive feedback
feedback in the the same as that
conditions. may
for conditional be
stability is
A Nyquist-stable
the
nonlinear
with
system
the
system
but
usual
saturation
nonlinearity
conditionally
stable
can
be
rendered
globally stable by
the
addition
of nonlinear dynamic
compensation.
A11.7
Q:
we can always apply to its the internal (output) impedance of the actuator, input such a signal that the system output will be as required. Therefore, it doesn't matter what is the actuator Right? impedance. output is right, but the effects of the plant the statement A: Wrong. For the nominal plant, on the are to extent from the nominal a deviations dependent large parameter
Whatever
actuator
Q:
output
impedance. output
impedance
for the
and
driver. But,
a resistor
this
voltage feedback
system
placing
in
series.
A: The result
will
be the
remains
linear. This
method can be
Appendix
11
391
used in the
laboratory this
for series
testing resistor,
power losses on
schemes. However,there
the
will
be
actuator
needs to
be more
actuator
powerful, with Q:
But,
a larger
saturation
level.
anyway
isn't
the
power
when
the impedance
by
A: No. Compound
efficiency.
feedback causesno
of feedback
is the
the
the
the
actuator
A11.8
Integral
what
Q:
A:
At The
frequencies
feedback positive?
within gain
feedback
is positive
the decreases
circle
of unit radius
monotonically
centered at (-1,0)
on
the
Q: A:
with frequency, the major to 4/b. The integral of feedback falls in the band 0.6/b part of the area of positive small feedbackat much higher frequencies is negligibly (see bibl. to [9]). makes the system better at some frequencies, but at others even the feedback Well,
T-plane.
When
the loop
worsethan
Negative
before. So, what is gained from the application of feedback? is used to cover the frequency range where the plant parameter are and positive feedback is variations and the effects of disturbances critical, confinedto the frequency range where the noise and the disturbances are so small be that even after being increased by the positive feedback, they still will
it was feedback
acceptable.
All.9
Bode
many
integrals
Bode
Q:
How
relations
30 different
A: There are
about
been made since then? of these relations Q: Have new relations or expansions A: of the real Yes. The most important are the R. Fano expansions of the Bode integral in Laurent which use not one but several terms the expression. They are usable part, for RF and microwave Bode relations were circuits on expanded design. Also, of the unstable discrete multivariable systems, parallel paths systems, systems, for disturbance and the transfer function isolation. An example signal propagation, is given in Appendix 10. However, of an expansion on certain nonlinear systems these expansions are less for the four practice, compared with important fundamental Bode relations described in this book.
All.10
in
Bode's
book.
The Bode
is the
phase-gain relation
the
Q:
Why
slope of
Bode
diagram
Q:
barrels. Gain samples supermarkets the to with less than 5\302\260 one octave suffice calculate phase response apart typically And it is certainly convenient error as needed for sound feedback system design. is nearly -10 dB/oct. that the slope of a well-designed Bodediagram a constant slope of Does it make sense to consider a loop gain response having
that
dB/oct,
not in
dB/dec?
not
-10 dB/oct? can such a response be implemented How A: It can be closely by a rational function approximated Are the Bode to transcendental integrals applicable Q:
in a of s.
physical
system?
plant
transfer
functions?
392
Appendix
11
A: Yes.
Q:
At
a university Afterward
where
method.
I started
the in
locus
here
is it so? prefer Bode diagrams. Why A: Bode noticed that for an engineer striving to make the best of the design, it is difficult to cope with three variables: gain, phase, and frequency, scalar and he reduced the number of the variables to only two scalars: gain and frequency. This allows MIMO and approach (including handling high-order systems multiloop In contrast, systems). applying the root locus method to an nth order system increases the number of the variables to n complex variables (roots) crawling all over the s-plane in a strange, manner. and unmanageable threatening,
the engineers
All.11
What
limits
the feedback?
the clipping of and the level of
What are the physical factors which limit the feedback? A: The major factors are:the uncertainties in the plant transfer of the sensor noise in the higher frequency components
Q:
function,
actuator,
noise in
Q: Does
when
it
the pay
designing
the control
increases
full-state
as possiblethe law?
available
and
available
knowledge
about the
is
plant
A: Certainly.This
for hypothetical
unpredictable
the
feedback,
infinite
a completely
require
designing
plant.
concern
Q: A
of the project manager: the system design of its subsystems, and knowledge of the available performance be made trade-offs often employ feedback. How can the system
typical
trade-offs
these
without
subsystems
the feedback
subsystems?
should
that
A: The manager
performance
approachthis
Q: What
kind
of
Using the Bode compensator. the compensator. can be calculated without actually designing What kind of mathematics is data do we need for this estimation?
can
with
about available
the
subsystem
performance,
i.e.,
the
optimal
involved? A:
The
following
in
data
the
octaves
vicinity
sensornoisespectral
feedback
bandwidth,
density the
over
three
available
of frequencies ranges output signal amplitude from the actuator, four estimated to octaves over the where plant structural can fall, up modes is This sort of data feedback and sometimes more. available, bandwidth, typically it may not always be very precise. The available disturbance rejectioncan although (nondistorted)
then
be estimated
using
the
Bode
integrals.
All.12
Feedback
to develop
maximization
and market
soon
Q: I want
a product.How
me, with a
can
I be
sure
that
my
that
competitor
uses
will same
not enter the market, and actuator, plant, A: The Bode integral
available
after
superior product
faster
the
sensor,
approach
but has
bigger and
feedback?
allows
the determination
transfer
of the best
theoretically
system
performance.
to approximate
Q: Is it
necessary
a physical
plant
function
(which is
sometimes
Appendix
11
393
\"model
A:
to perform function and/or transcendental) by a rational when designing a feedbacksystem with the Bode method? No. The calculated or measured plant and actuator transfer
plant
reduction\"
functions
are subtracted
from
rational
the
desired
loop
function
is
desired
response,
final
and
the
stage
of
the
compensator design.
Q:
A:
What
the
required
accuracy of
the
approximation
the desired
will
loop
gain
response?
The accuracy must be such that the related phase response desired phase response with an accuracy of about 5D.
Why5\302\260?
approximate
the
Q:
A:
from the stability margin case, the average loopphase lag must stay 5\302\260 away will be less than the the of the Bode Then, boundary. average slope diagram the f or maximum 90\302\260 1/3 dB/oct (from 6dB/oct). by proportion: acceptable over each of the 3 octaves of the cut-off, 1 dB of feedback is lost. Therefore, The small remaining possible these losses are marginally Typically, acceptable. of the feedback increase may not justify a further increase in the complexity In this
compensator.
Q: How accurate
A:
must
the
gain response
be ? 5\302\260
approximation
be for
the
accuracy
of the
Q: The compensator
of transfer function must be high-order for accurate approximation transcendental response. But, poles and zeros of a high-order transfer coefficients. function Then, the rounding may be very sensitive to the polynomial this correct? errors will make the system not robust. Is zeros A: Not exactly.Variations in the values of poles and are not important as long as
has doesn't change much. The typical compensator response response frequency to the of the such function modulus no sharp peaks and notches; the sensitivity order is in this less than 1, and the compensator polynomial coefficients is typically be within irrelevant. in for the to accurate 0.5 order Therefore, compensator aspect the polynomial of the transfer coefficient function, dB, i.e., 6% in the magnitude accuracy need not be better than 1 to 5%, and the effect of rounding is insignificant. What is the best availableaccuracy of analog Q: compensators? A: Equalizers for analogtelecommunication have been routinely designed with systems with accuracy of implementation of the desired function, up to 20th order transfer
the
response
of
\302\261 0.001
dB.
designed? by using
Q:
A:
By interpolation, by cut-and-try procedures, by using asymptotic Bode diagrams, in the element domain, polynomial series, by adjustments by using Chebyshev the Second Remez Algorithm, and by using the Simplex Method.
What
Q:
if the
plant is
the
non-minimum-phase?
component
A: The non-minimum-phase
by reducing
of the
minimum-phase
have
formulas
regard
tp
controllers?
394
Appendix
11
A: Sampled data systems, which an analog-to-digital include converter, a digital filter, and a digital-to-analog converter are time-variable and have an inherent delay that reduces the available feedback. What about a proportional-integral-derivative the (PID) compensator having Q: transfer function Cis) = kp + kjs + k^s ? A: With appropriate the response of approximates gains, the PID compensator roughly the PID controller; however, the approximation error can be quite optimal large. control falls short with of the performance an appropriate of a system high-order
compensator.
Q:
But
how
much
on
better off
the
than
a PID's
is the optimal
controller?
transfer
responses,
when
A: It depends
disturbance
frequency
response
of
the
plant
plant
function
the PID
a
and
the
spectrum
in
density.
For
smooth
is 5 to
improvement
disturbance
rejection
10 dB
plant
replaced
especially
to
by when
30
Q:
Why
dynamic compensator, dB improvement can be expectedfrom the high-order controller. aren't the Ziegler-Nichols PID conditions for tuning controllers presented
higher-order it is used in
controller.
For a
with
with
structural
conjunction
a nonlinear
a5
in
this book?
A: This method
only
does
not
use a prefilter
(or a
and
command
feedforward),
and
is suitable
with
for
frequency
better
results
can be
achieved
the
A11.13
Q:
What about loop response shaping for multi-loop systems? one A: Basically, the technique is the same. Multi-loop systems can be designed a time, as long as loop coupling is taken care of by adjusting the responses within certain frequency bands. providing extra stability margins of the loops is large? Does when the number this work well even technique Q:
A:
at
and
Yes,
typically.
All.14
Nonminimum
there
phase functions
advantageous to
apply
Q: Is
A:
a case
transfer
where it is
functions?
compensators
with
non-minimum-
phase
has high-frequency structural a the plant modes, Probably not. Sometimes, when the make the a to stable. introduce in must system loop compensator phase delay be achieved with a minimum-phase low-pass However, this phase delay can always - with the extra function stability filter-type advantage of increasingthe amplitude margin
and reducing
Feedback
awkward
the
noise
effect
at the
actuator's
input.
All.15
control
to go
the
design procedure
and
Q: Isn'tit
A: It's a
design
back
one
forth
from
the Nyquist
diagram on the
L-plane
to
the Bode
case of
diagram? Isn't
stability
the
right
characterization,
all require
of diagram enough? for the right job: global and process stability dynamic compensation margin definitions, and nonlinear the trade-off resolution and use of the L-plane, but
type
tool
the
Appendix
11
are simplified
by
using
diagram due
12 apply
to
a reduced
Q: Do the
Q: Still, if A: 3 times
All.16
design
of single-loop
A: Single-loop. But
you
following
for
the
design
have longer
to design, than
or 27 times
channel?
longer,
extension of this procedure. design is a natural a will it take 3, 9, say, three-input, three-output system, of for each single-loop system comparable complexity
system
typically.
Global
it
stability
to
Q: Is
convenient
use Lyapunov
in
the
design
of
high
performance
control
systems?
A: Devising
high-order Q:
appropriateLyapunov
linear part and
the Moscow,
functions
is yet
elements.
with
several nonlinear
International
At the
1st Congressof
in
Federation
Control
(IFAC)
important
in
1960
theoretical
researchers
from
Russian
academia presented
A:
This research impressed using time-domain and state variables. American the conference and shifted to a large extent the attending professors in American academia. Were these methods direction of research the methods Russian engineers employed to designcontrol laws for their rockets and satellites? No. Russian rockets' control systems have been designed with frequency domain methods in very much the same way as American rockets (see A13.9).
results
All.17
Q: A:
compensation
DF analysis fails to
systems.
Would
just
it
be
right
therefore
screwdriver
because
it cannot
drive
although
DF
analysis
is
not
a universal,
accurate
with
loops Q:
What
is
when employed for analysis and synthesis monotonic steep low-pass responses. the purpose of using DF now, when nonlinear systems
computers?
is seen
can be simulated
well
with
of analysis but only, of control with especially, design systems conceptual of the analysis need not be high. links. In many cases, the accuracy several nonlinear with the phase calculated The phase of the DF has an error of up to 20\302\260 compared - but, this phase is not of critical importance since NDCs can with exact analysis
not
when it is
used
for
the purpose
of design,and
easily provide the required phaseadvance. for additional created DF analysis does not account by higher phase shifts Q: in the nonlinear link. So does the DF design guarantee harmonics interacting robustness? can typically yield up to 15-20\302\260 of extra phase harmonics A: Interaction of high-order be increased The NDC DF phase advance must by this lag for the fundamental. NDC phase advance exceeds which is rather easy to do since the typical amount,
100-200\302\260.
396
Appendix
much
11
Q: How
NDC?
improvement
in disturbance
rejection can
of
be expected from
rejection
using
an
A:
It
depends
on the
desired frequency
shaping
the disturbance
in
some
cases,
Q: Is it
A:
up to
30 dB.
SISO
the
to use NDCs in MEMO advantageous systems? Yes. In addition to providing the same advantages as for reduce the effects of nonlinear between the loops on coupling
systems,
system
NDCs
stability.
All.18
Multi-loop
is it
systems of saturation
elements
Q:
Why
the number
DF
that
matters
when
defining
what
is the
multi-loop system?
A: Becausethe
gain during with
saturation link changes from 1 down to the inverse of the loop 100 or 1000 times. This to be accounted for effect needs the functions synthesis. Compared stability analysis and the loop transfer this effect, even the effects of the plant parameter variations are small.
of a
coefficient,
i.e.,
A11.19
MIMO systems
is the
Q:
Where
implement the
in this
decoupling
matrix
in
the
forward
path
since
case
the
decoupling the
matrix sensors'
doesn't
commands should be formulated (and sensors are not aligned with the actuators), the decoupling matrix should be placed in the feedback path. Is the design of MEMOand multi-loop difficult? systems Q: A: It is not simple, but several oft-ignored the design: techniques greatly simplify \342\200\242 The Bode technique of making trade-offs betweenthe loops without designing the compensators, \342\200\242 the m.p. character of parallelsignal verifying propagation paths, \342\200\242 the effects of loop coupling only in the narrow frequency ranges considering
precise. In
this
commands
readings.
need to be When
wherethe
using using mode
coupling
is critical,
\342\200\242 \342\200\242
appropriate NDCs
Q:
How
does
A: The effects
transfer
output impedances for the actuators, and in the nonlinear to provide global stability and good performance of operation, without sacrificing the disturbance rejection. and robustness? between the loops affectthe system stability coupling can be analyzedby considering the change in one loop of loop coupling
caused
function
by the
plant
and
the actuator
transfer
function
variations
in
the
another
stability
be
provided
for by correspondingly
increasing
Q: At
what the
is the mode,
A: In
frequencies, where
could
the
loop
gain
is large
and
changes
in it
caused
using
by
an NDC.
In
loops. However,this can the linear mode, the coupling is more dangerous
affect other
the
be
loops
is positive.
Appendix
11
397
A11.20
The
the
Bode's
book
the book is
named
Q:
A:
In
bibliography,
analysis. However,Bodehimself
The
and
not on
Q:
for synthesis. book describes the tools for analysis also, but mostly for these two purposes are, generally speaking, quite different. What about the terminology in the Bode's book?
The choice
of tools
A: Bode
and
developedseveral
powerful
approaches
valid for
the terminology to serve this wide For example,in his definition the transfer function is the ratio of the relative output, and the sensitivity allowed of the result. These definitions integrating point functions analysis and synthesis.
he optimized
range
of applications. ratio of the input of the cause to change feedback theory with
to the
the
that
driving
the functions
as certain functions as minimum phase shift with all transfer functions the having phase among we use the inverse definition of the transfer same gain response. Today, however, for function which better the narrower area of is, maybe, intuitively applications, but are not as elegant and general. With the definition employed today of the transfer to the source, m.p. function in fact function as the ratio of the response has To bring maximum phase shift. some sense to this, function must be called m.p. but in minimum functions most it is books called still, lag inconsistently phase minimum phase function. Bode didn't use the word as a telecommunication Instead, \"compensator\". engineer,he used the word \"corrector\", for feedback loop or for any other signal of this word is: we know the theoretically transmission channel. The meaning best we have to (of the loop) as is, then, response, we have measured the response correct the response for it to be as prescribed to be the optimal. by the theory, Bode used separate for the sensitivity and for the return difference, definitions while in some works the return is formally defined as difference contemporary - which be if we limit the use of this term to a \"sensitivity\" may acceptable only class narrow of too narrow even the control for problems, very engineers. Bode formulas has been later modified and for the purposes of generalized certain researchgoalsand for the convenience of teaching. Nonetheless, the authors of the Classical Feedback Controlfound no versions in the existing literature better or equally usable for the engineering than those in the design purposes employed Bode's book. This is why Classical Feedback Control, with very few exceptions, uses original Bode's notations, definitions, and expressions.
he
defined
smallest
398
Appendix
Appendix
12
12
Design
sequence
of
In the an estimate of the average time is given for completion of each following, the steps by an experienced designer, and for a not-unusually-complex problem.
Phase I:
\342\200\242 determine \342\200\242 decide
Calculation
of the
available
kind of
nonlinear
compensation
minutes); the
(if any)
which
will
be
employed,
define
\342\200\242 draw
stability
bounds
on the
L-plane E
Nyquist diagram on
L-plane
maximizes
the feedback
E
\342\200\242 find
minutes);
E to
the
30 minutes);
responses and by the
\342\200\242 make
required by spectrums, by other feedback loops in variation, reshape the Bode diagram available feedback and report the system
Design
trade-offs
frequency system,
of
plant
the
disturbance
transfer
function
the
A0
PhaseII:
\342\200\242
of the
linear compensators
prefilters model,
(up to subtract
5 days)
plant
given
the nominal
response
\342\200\242 in
from
or a plant
loop
the nominal
gain
gain
response
to
obtain
the
required
compensator
approximate Chapter
the required 6
compensator
\342\200\242 make
gain response A0 to 30 minutes); compensator response using one function and obtain the compensator transfer hardware/software (a day or two); system model
nominal and
of the
and specifications
a linear
calculate
the
closed-loop frequency
frequency response
that
(severalhours);
\342\200\242 decide
closed-loop
gain
response
is close
to
to several
hours);
from the desired response to closed-loop gain response find the the to 30 obtain or, minutes); alternatively, prefilter gain response A0 desired responsefor the feedback path, B; \342\200\242 the required response the prefilter to approximate find link) (or feedback path
\342\200\242 subtract
calculated
A0 minutes
\342\200\242 determine
to 3
hours);
the frequency
Nonlinear
the
linear
system A to
24 hours);
PhaseIII:
\342\200\242 create
compensator
a nonlinear
model for
system
find the
mode) (up to 10 days); signals(nonlinear \342\200\242 in the compensator and/or design a elements nonlinear introduce the system test and tune nonlinear performance compensator, dynamic
specialized
(up to 30
days);
Subtotal
time
for Phase
only your
HI:
up
to 40
in
days.
the
Phase
I is
feedback
configurations
path for the global is a subsystem). PhaseI might system of the global system beforea final
critical
simple,
engineering
be
repeated
decision
that this
procedure be short,
and reliable.
Appendix 13
399
Appendix
In
13 Examples
to the
addition
here
of single-loop
several examples examples in the book's chapters, and multiloop systems designed with the frequency
are
given
domain
approach.
A13.1
Temperature
Industrial
control
precision
depicted
industrial
in Fig.
environment,
furnace, Fig. A13.1, is implemented as a A13.2. The plant includes a sink representing two thermal capacitances, the furnace and the
connected
equivalent
conductance
shown
as illustrated
in
in Fig.
A13.1(a). The
function
heater
shown
payload temperature
to
the
and the plant transfer Fig. A13.1(b), to the difference of the power of the
The
environment.
plant
p,
dB
f,
log. scale
>v
(b)
(c) (b)
its
furnace
with payload,
plant
equivalent
thermal
schematic
frequency
response
is a pulse-width
of
electrical
heater H,
rather
the
carrier
The signal
amplifier
amplitude
the
thermocouple
sensor TC is
small,
noise
limits
three
be adjusted by
different
payloads
the system's accuracy. The response of the PID can compensator manual The regulator in relation to the regulators. adjustments are easy to make.
temperature
power
time
Fig. A13.2
Temperature control
system
Fig. A13.3
transient
Closed-loop
response
for not less than The payload must be kept in the furnace a specified time (say, 3 hours) at a prescribed 1150\302\260 \ 302\261 The furnace 2\302\260). temperature (e.g., operation during the time is not paid for by the customer; time needs to be therefore, the settling settling minimized. The settling time on the heater's available output the depends power, feedback bandwidth, and the value of the feedback. The feedback bandwidth is limited noise and the by the effects of the sensor
400
noise on amplifier modulation. The
compensator
the
Appendix
13
actuator's
input,
and by the
margin
is
in
pulse-width low-order
variations
the
are
expected
over
the frequency range with positive loop gain. Then, for the minimum phase stability to be the must The be about 60\302\260. 40\302\260, margin average phase stability margin average must therefore be about -8 dB/oct. The average slope cannot slope of the Bode diagram be made steeper, in this case the compensator since for each type of adjustments be than need to of is payload higher precision practical. With such stability margins, wind-up cannot be large,but it can be a problem if the is not well tuned. To improve the system robustness, wind-up was eliminated system the loop phase lag for large-level signals. with a simple NDC that reduces The transient in Fig. A13.3. The control looks nearly system response is shown because the settling time in the linear mode of operation is many times time-optimal shorter than the full-power preheating time. of the controller the interfacing and made the Digital implementation simplified
controllercheaperin
A13.2
The
mass
production.
Scanning
mapping
mirror
spectrometer
of a mapping spectrometer of the Cassini spacecraftis an instrument an producing The mirror spectrometer'sscanning specified wavelengths.
a flexure
as shown
in
Fig.
A13.4.
Driver
Flexure
Yoke
electrical
to
mechanical KXX
xxa
Fig. A13.4
suspension
Scanning
mirror
Fig.
A13.5
for
Mechanical
scanning
with
schematic diagram
positioning
control
with actuator
(LVDT)
mirror
feedback
is measured by a linear actuator. The mirror angle in The plant's mechanical schematicdiagram and the LVDT, and the mirror characterized Fig. A13.5 shows the cores of the solenoid respectively by the moments of inertia Js. Ai> andJLVDT> the stiffness and the damping in model flexure stiffness and damping. The analytical the yoke's arms, and the suspension was simulated as a blockdiagram of the system dynamics was derived and the system of the analog controller blocks. Later, however, for the convenience with unidirectional electrical circuit was modeled as an equivalent (the design, the mechanical plant with that of the mechanical model and response for the electrical model was compared
a solenoid
is rotated by
voltage differential
transformer
(LVDT).
with the controller's model in SPICE. exactly the same) and integrated is to increase the in such a The control goal time, i.e., to scan the mirror exposure will in each the remain of focal with a the beam that longer plane photocells, way light in The should track the command as shown A13.6. mirror angle Fig. staircase-type with a rise-time less than 2 msec. Thus, the feedback bandwidth must exceed command
found
to be
1kHz.
Appendix 13
angle,
401
mrad
time
Fig. A13.6
The for
Closed-loop transient
response
of the
scanning
mirror
that
of a pixel, angle-wise, is 0.9mrad. The plant parameter variations are such beam to stay reliably the plant within the pixel, the feedback about must exceed 60 dB at lowerfrequencies. must not exceed 30%. The overshoot The feedback bandwidth is limited by the structural resonance of the solenoid core on its arm. The nominal resonance is 6 kHz with deviations of possible frequency \302\26120%. The of the resonance is known with the accuracy of \302\26120% (for damping the maximum this is excellent accuracy).Therefore, damping, plant gain in the 6 kHz with the accuracy of \302\2612dB. The plant phase, well, neighborhood is known pretty LVDT resonance uncertain due to the effects of the however, is quite (at a higher in the coils. Therefore, the loop and the stray inductances and capacitances frequency) must be gain-stabilized at the frequency of the solenoid core resonance, i.e., the gain at
size the
be belowthe
amplitude
stability
margin
of -10dB.
The plant and controller simulation has been performedin SPICE. The chosen on the L-plane is shown in Fig. A13.7(a) and has a 45\302\260 stability boundary phase margin. The Bode diagram for the designis shown in Fig. A13.7(b). Here is seen the resonance of the mirror on its suspension at 8 Hz, and the solenoid core resonance on its arm at is higher than 10 kHz. 6 kHz.The resonance of the LVDT core on its arm frequency
171, dB
ITI.dB
L-plane
60
-180\302\260
-135\302\260
phase
f,
log.
scale
n 111111 n i mi 11
10
100
(a)
(b)
and
(b) Bode
diagrams
for
scanning
mirror
control
will not cause the resonances It is seen that variations in the frequency of the plant of 45\302\260 is preserved over all frequencies where system to oscillate. The stability margin the loop gain is more than -10 dB. The The feedback path transfer coefficient (B) was chosen to be a constant. is shown in of a system with such a B to a small-amplitude input step response curve (a). The overshootis about which is marginally acceptable. The 30%, Fig. A13.8, be reduced about overshoot can 10%)by either putting a lead filter in the (to efficiently
402
Appendix 13
or
feedbackpath,
the
by an
actuator
is not
this
was
not done
since
output
time
LVDT
electronics
Fig. A13.8
response (a) saturation
Fig.
controller mirror
and
plant
(simplified)
to employ
maximum
a small
torque
actuator
maximum
an
available
torque
is a
be seen in
wind-up
idealized, not
saturation).
Due
to the
45\302\260 phase
stability
large
should
Therefore, applicationof an NDC is not required. This was confirmed by computer simulation of the output response to the step command with different actuator saturation thresholds. In Fig. A13.8, curve (a) relates to the linear system, and curve (b) to the
5 times smaller than the maximum torque calculated for the linear system. Even with this small output the is quite good, actuator, output transient response power and the overshoot is reduced. Because of the rather large feedback bandwidth, small production and quantities, to make the entire loop analog. it was decided The required low power consumption, are block diagram and the simplified schematic system diagram of the compensator shown in Fig. A13.9.
threshold
A13.3
It
in Fig. A13.10 increases rocket booster shown small auxiliary thrusters To this, fight engine thrusting. exponentially during is pulse-width modulated were employedto produce moments. The thrust stabilizing a a as sensor. Since the carrier of 10 a feedback Hz) by (with loop using gyro frequency 0.8 the is a bandof 0.2 to feedback are in the the nutation Hz, loop range frequencies was
that the
nutation
angle
of a
the
main
bandpass
one.
is the real part of the the feedback is, the smaller the of controller's shift responses frequency phase version are shown (o) in Fig. A 13.11. The control loop compensator by curves original of 4 Hz and a high-pass consistsof a two-pole low-pass filter having a cornerfrequency at the filter reduces the loop gain with a corner frequency of 0.1 Hz.The filter low-pass filter attenuates level of-27 dB. The high-pass 10 Hz carrier frequency to the acceptable It was
shown
that
the
larger
nutation
and
dc and
thrusters.
low-frequency
The
filters
to prevent
cost-effective
them from
solution
overloadingthe
to
low-quantity
production.
Appendix
13
403
m,
dB
argT,
degr
(m) gam /\302\246
20
\\
s.\\
\\
\\\\
phase
10 0 -10
-20
V \\\\
\\\\[m) \\ \\ \\V^
f, I
log. scale
10
Fig. A13.10
Rocket
booster nutation
Fig.
A13.11
Bode diagrams
for
nutation
controller
The loop responses with the modified higher-order compensator, employing a notch the carrier instead of the low-pass are shown by the curves to attenuate filter, nutation and the over the range of the marked (m). Both the feedback frequencies is a increased. The controller are stable; however, globally margin amplitude stability of of the phase stability because substantial jump-resonance could be expected margin the process same as in the older system). Although (the instability might not only 30\302\260 even of jump-resonance and a problem, it is safer to eliminate the possibility create for small signal levels is an NDC whose frequency response wind-up by introducing
filter
shown
in
Fig.
A13.12(a).
are open
signals,the
diodes
in
Fig. A13.12(b).
For large
NDC
gain,
10
dB
(small
signals)
(large signals)
f,
log. scale
(a)
(b)
(b) schematicdiagram
dynamic
compensator:
simulations
in
amplitude
the
modified
12 seconds of smaller.
an
thrusting,
the
nutation
NDC with
level. The
linearity
should be very good, to reduce the channel of this repeater designed in Russia linearity of a concurrent American counterpart, despite
of repeaters for
telecommunication
systems
the
frequency
division
to an
acceptable
the
the
404
transistors
Appendix 13
and the linearity of the transistor in the ultimate was much stage in The Bell Laboratories. Thiswas special transistors developed in the feedback obtained by using a Nyquist-stable by the increase system with diagram shown in Fig. A13.13, upper curve.
was
smaller
worse
achieved
than
that
of the
the
Bode
/0.01
0.1
open-loop
Fig.A13.13Bode
for a
diagrams
Fig.
A13.14
Nonlinear amplifier
telecommunication repeater
dynamic
feedback amplifier
compensation in
by a
nonlinear
a telecommunication
feedback
was
global stability
provided
dynamic
the in
penultimate Fig.
stage. The
A13.14.
simplified schematicof the amplifier The diodes play the role of a dead-zone link.
the
signal
the diodes start conducting and introduce amplitude exceeds their threshold, negative feedback over the functional thus changing the gain in the common bandwidth, loop as shown This Bode diagram is less steep and the by the lower curve in Fig, A13.13. in the related phase lag is smaller, so that according to the DF method, further saturation ultimate stage does not cause periodical oscillation. were tried elicited initial conditions Many during experiments and none of them oscillation. The repeater was put in mass production in large quantities and no stability problems were ever observed.
the
flexible shaft
rotated
a reaction
Fig. A13.15.
The reaction
wheel is
for
by
the motor
M.
the of
of
and
rotation
the
of the
reaction
velocity reference
Fig. A13.15
Attitude
control
of a
flexible
plant
Appendix
13
405
The amplitude
stability
margin
was
chosen
to be
8dB. The
appendage
gyro
noise
feedback
inertia
bandwidth
to
less
than
10 Hz.
The flexible
with
somewhere in the 13 -29 Hz region (nominally at 15 Hz) with very low damping, produces an area of uncertainty on the loop gain and phase as illustrated (not to scale) in responses,which further limits the feedback bandwidth The loop at the resonance must be gain-stabilized. The gain Fig. A13.16(a). peak on the value of the output of the actuator. depends mobility
JA =
5 Nm2, resonating
dB
loop phase
lag
f,
log. scale
13
20
-30
loop
gain diagrams
flexible
to scale,
A local feedback loop about the driver makes the (not shown in Fig. A13.15) the actuator output to 0.03 This reduces (rad/sec)/Nm. mobility equal peak-to-notch with the case of the actuator being a pure torque swing from 54 dB to 28dB compared source. Correspondingly,the available increases by almost an feedback bandwidth octave. The resulting Bode is shown in Fig. A13.16(b). diagram
A13.6
The
Voltage
supply
is
regulator
voltage
rectified
power
for a
transmitter
through
is produced
a
by a
and
changing
motor-generator
kV
whose output
voltage
and passed
-22
output
low-pass
filter.
output
The -20
the 2
the
output
is the
the
difference betweenthe
tube. The
of
kV at
the filter's
and
kV voltage
current
drop on
the field
bypass
bypass
voltage
is regulated
(b)
by (a)
in
winding
the generator
(main actuator)
changing
the grid
bias of the
in Fig. A13.17. The goal (the for the tube (vernier actuator), as shown reference) main (slow) loop is to keep the voltage on the bypass tube to be on average 2 kV for the The for the fast vernier loop is to fine-tune tube to be operational. (the reference) goal on the for the the voltage tube bypass drop regulator output voltage to be -20 kV (or value within the 0 to -40 other kV range). specified any
The range
0 to -42kV.
of
the
output
the
winding
voltage of the
bandwidth
generator/rectifier/filter
subsystem
is from
The feedback
generator,
constant of the
the
current
to the
field
the
to 10 Hz by the timemain loop is limited that supplies maximum voltage from the power amplifier of the generator, and the noise of the voltage divider and
in the
the
first
stage of
amplifier
in the
compensator.
406
Appendix
13
2AMkV
ij
j vernier
-(
loop
Voltage
divider,^
Fig. A13.17
High-voltage
power
supply
controller
The vernier loop bandwidth was to be 60 Hz to achieve the required chosen can only regulate the range of 4 kV, so that disturbance rejection. This regulator within its average at the 2kV level (to be de-saturated) output voltage needs to be maintained main the slower by loop. of the The plant is and nonlinear (because of the high-order nonlinearity
The loop compensator's order is rather high. magnetization curve of the field winding). ratio The Bode diagrams and the Nyquist for the main loop return Tx and the diagrams ratio vernier loop return T2 are presented in Fig. A13.18. showed that the system was asymptotically stable following any initial Experiments link S was not conditions that take place in practice. However, initially, the saturation was observed. included in the system, and a substantial Analysis and jump-resonance was a nonlinear that the reason for the indicated jump-resonance experiments the between vernier and the local interaction loop loop T$.
L-plane
f,
log.
scale
(a)
and Fig. A13.18 (a) Bode
(b)
(b)
Nyquist
power
supply
for a
high-voltage
This local
loop is about
the
high-voltage
driving
the
bypass
tube,
to
Appendix 13
stabilize
407
its
transfer
amplifier which
and
in
is nearly
the feedback
this
This function, with 1 MHz feedback bandwidth. loop contains an is nearly an integrator; which an integrator; a power transistor is nearly a differentiator, so that the phase stability margin path which
and by
loop
transistor
the loop is globally stable. However,when in this loop input signal, the feedback large-amplitude thus increasing the phase lag of this subsystem, closed-loop the a
stand-alone
margins
in
the transistor
at the
signal
input to
loop.
Since
observed.
Telecommunication
or
repeater
multiport
electrical
mechanical
can
be
characterized
by
transmission
coefficients betweenthe ports and the input impedances (mobilities) at the ports. MIMO as desired, all these parameters of an active multiport feedback can be used to make stable in time, and linear. in the Bell Laboratories in the An of such a system is a repeater designed example telecommunication 1930s for a 12-channel frequency division system over multiplex must have large feedback over the open wires [2, pp.499 - 502]. The repeater amplifier the channels. Over the between band to reduce the intermodulation operational must be continuously band, the repeater's gain adjusted by operational frequency of the open wire span between the level control to match the attenuation automatic can cause the line attenuation to vary within for all weather conditions, which repeaters 20 dB at lower frequencies. The nominal 40 dB at higher frequencies and within input to Z= 150 ft. The provision of the desired and output impedances of the repeaterequal
impedances
and the
the
input-output MMO
gain system
can
is a
gain
the
and
flowchart
three
shown
outputs
in (not
response
control loops).
|
\302\253--/ \342\200\224f \342\200\224 \342\200\224f-
Load
CombirierJ
Splitter
Fig.
Flowchart
of a
MIMO
system two
and
The
amplifier
signals:
is a
two-port
described
two
output
I^n,
1/^,
and
the
/an,,,,
connect
the signal
the
source and
load
relations between the splitter three-ports the amplifier and the feedback
the
input
combiner
and
ratios of
input
be controlledare
impedance.
amplifier
transfer
output
The
input
the
and
impedances
specified
(commanded)
by
the
transfer
functions
of
blocks
Z. In
other words,
408
Appendix
current
13
the
of the blocks Z being the command the signals, using the summer 5lt the input voltage Un, with the summer S2, and the output voltage U0M,with the summer S3. The simplified schematicdiagram the gain control loops is shown in including A13.20. in the The is Bode sense it since includes Fig. system single-loop only one actuator with a nonlinear link: the saturation in the ultimate stage of the This amplifier. illustrates benefits of the the functional structural over diagram design: frequency range, the input impedance on the combiner, and the output impedance, depends exclusively on the splitter. The repeater blocks and on the gain depends on these two input-output feedback path B. Thus, gain regulations in B do not affect the input and output impedances.
input
4,
and the
outputs
output
current
/ou,
is controlled
Fig. A13.20
Telecommunication
repeater
simplified
with
schematic
diagram
band-limiting
the a signal
splitter
multiple
are made
resonances.
transformers
having
They
complicatedthan
(or
ones shown
in
Fig.
A13.19:
the
unlike in the
in
means splitting
between
expense of the at different different The solution frequencies. output. optimal and The stray elements bound the available signal-to-noise ratio, reflectionattenuations, first between these parameterswere the feedback. the trade-offs During the design, defines the for the real part of an impedancethat resolved using the Bode integrals and for the feedback. The available signal-to-noise ratio, for the reflection attenuation, in different directions of the signal and combiner frequency responses for the splitter
how
at the
loads,
and
one output
propagation
approximated
Then, these responses were complex. and compensators that are implemented by and splitter. in the combiner incorporating extra electricalelements the which the feedback sufficiently over The functional bandwidth rejects was limited to 50 kHz by the quality of vacuum tubes available at the intermodulation - but the GHz time. Today, the bandwidth of FET feedback amplifiers can reachseveral were
chosen to be
high-order
not
overly
with
correctors
design
remain
essentially
with
the
same.
and
gain response
bandwidth
over
with
operational
the
order
of the
maximum the
feedback
feedback better than 0.5 dB, accuracy was path arranged in two
available
the
feedback
filter
path
(whose
high-pass
Bht.
The
minimum-
Appendix 13
409
by
phaseproperty
of the total feedback of the frequency responses B and Bhf. A simple NDC - a back-parallel load some advance
path
B + BM
was preserved
appropriate
shaping
pair for
of diodes
reduced provided phase large-level the jump amplitude of the jump resonance. and the available feedbackover The slope of the Bode the diagram operational band could be increasedwith Nyquist-stable loop design. However, in those days (and until the 1960's) the methods of providing global stability with NDCs were not yet well such an NDC, the system would not be globally stable. developed, and without in the feedback path Three Bode variable have the following gain equalizers flat, slanted, and convex, regulation frequency responses: as depicted in Fig. A13.21. Three pilot with signals at the ends and in the center of the functional dB frequencies An analog frequency band were being sent continuously. in the form of a resistor matrix the decoupled computer
interstage
gain control loops. The automatic gain control levels the the at the of output amplifier constant kept pilot the thus that the total of gain open wire line and assuring the OdB at these remained repeater frequencies and, OdB over the entire frequency therefore, approximately band of operation.
automatic
frequency
Fig.
A13.21
Gain
regulation frequency
responses
A13.8
The
Distributed regulators
level
signal
along
of
the telecommunication
pilot
trunk
can
changing
be
controlled
the
small-amplitude
single-frequency
paths
signal
that
and
levels
attenuation
by sending a of the
feedback
the
repeaters
will
such
the
the
be equal
to
references,
signal
level
regulation
telecommunication
system
the number of such regulators in a long telecommunication trunk is large, substantial interaction between them. When, the level on the nth signal say, becomes than the the at of levels the reference, suddenly larger repeater output outputs all repeaters starting with the nth become larger than their and all these references, automatic gain control system start acting to correct the signal level. shows that even a small overshoot in a single The analysis of such systems as transient response causes a large overshoot at the output of the trunk regulator
When
exists
there
illustrated
in Fig.
regulators
Al3.23.
are
If
all
identical,
then to make
small
the
overshoot
of the
total
410
Appendix
90\302\260 stability
13 over the
although
response, a
band
where
presents
must be preserved in each regulator loop gain is bigger than -60 dB, which, substantial implementation difficulties.
margin
frequency
the regulator
feasible,
time
Fig.
A13.23
Transient
(b) a chain
Alternatively, be made differently,
responses
single
regulator and
in the regulator can loops, or the regulators several slower thus regulator following regulators, between the regulators. reducing the coupling Chains or networks of regulation are employed for shape correction of flexible bodies distributed regulators. (optical mirrors, for example) with multiple spatially with
A13.9
For
attitude
the
the
first
stage
stabilized
V
attitude
launch
rate
The
torque
is provided
shown
gimballing
four
of the
digital
five F-l
and
controller
block
computer
diagram from
is the
analog
the
compares
It is
part
command
history
part to the
feedback a D/A
sampled
inertial
converter
RC
to
the
flight
flight
from
the rate
the
of
high-order
Ct
and
compensators
of the
attitude
are analog because they must in the digital computer can be rather errors
error is passed The attitude computer. The analog feedback control computer. This computer consists that the rate feedback and the C2. Note have a fast response, while the generation
control
slow.
Computations
Launch
D/A
digital
I
C,(s)
Actuator
and
vehicle
vehicle
dynamics
computer
Flight
control
computer
\302\246
Rate gyro
Inertial
platform
Fig.
A13.24
for
the
Saturn
from
Fig. A13.25
the
is a frequency
be seen that slosh,
of the plant
transfer
function
the gimbal
actuators to
structural
sensors.
It can
dynamics
and propellant
frequencies
resonances due to
uncertain.
Appendix
13
411
Rigid Aerodynamics
Slosh,
mode
6 tanks
Pitch (yaw)
dynamics
Banding, *
modes
I\342\200\2241
pfl
| .01 .1 1
frequency Actuator
dynamics 1
10
100
Fig.
A13.25
Frequency
V dynamics
map
of
The
channel
Saturn
is
pitch
The
and
control
Fig. A13.26
for Saturn
Nyquist V
diagram
resonance
propellant has sufficient stability system within the boundaries shown A13.10
The
pitch
control
frequencies of the
flexible
modes
PLL
computer
20 MHz
computer
clock with duty cycle adjustments radar must have 50% duty clock of the Cassini spacecraft
cycle
be synchronized with a 10 MHz ultra-stable quartz generator. is is generated VCO A nearly sinusoidal 20 MHz signal by an LC VCO. The the to make the clock To stabilize followed by a Schmitt shape rectangular. trigger are employed. The loops frequency and the duty cycle of the clock, two feedback small and be between the two is can neglected. loops coupling is halved by a D flip-flop and applied The clock first loop is a PLL. The frequency To the to one of the inputs of an exclusive OR gate which is used as a phase detector. The other input of the gate is applied the reference 10MHz signal. averaged phase to the with RC is via an detector output error) compensation applied op-amp (phase diode VCO tuning and corrects the clock frequency. RC low-pass filter. The filter's output The loop uses as a sensora simple duty-cycle is the average value of the clock to the duty cycle. voltage signal and is proportional This voltage is subtracted from a half of the VCC (obtained by a voltage divider), and in the VCO, via an the difference(duty cycle error) adds to the dc bias of the transistor of thus changing the degree asymmetry of the generated op-amp with RC compensation, the the Schmitt trigger, output is forced by the feedback signal.After being clamped by to have the required 50% duty cycle.
and must
A13.ll
The
DS-1
fired 1000
from sec.
wind
the
solar
nominal
frequently
412
accuracy
Appendix
13 Fresnel lens light concentrators is must be continuously corrected by the panels via a gear without backlash and
with
of pointing
the
solar
panels
outfitted
toward
0.5\302\260. Therefore,
the panels'
attitude
the
sun
rotate
the
motors
are commanded
that
possibility
extreme
the
motors firing
thruster
open-loop,
the
action
is fast.
several
However,
steps
the
during
modes
in the
the power to the ion engine). To prevent this from panels (the panels supply affecting the steady state accuracy,the system must be controlled closed-loop using the data from the encoder placed on the solar panel shaft. The sampling is 0.5 Hz. Therefore, fb~ 0.05 the Hz, frequency closed-loop bandwidth = 0.07 Hz, and the rise time is about 5 sec. With this rise time, the settling time of the system is about 10 seconds, which is too long. A better solution is to combine the advantages of the open-loop control and the closed-loop controlby using a feedback-feedforward scheme. A simplified blockdiagram of such a controller is shown in Fig. A13.27. is the commanded is the encoder Here, alpha_com angle, alpha_enc
large
readings,pulsejium
period,
is
the
the
number
number
f forwjium
is
number
make during
by
the
sampling
the
feedforward
path,
fbacK_num is the
alpha_com
of pulses
commanded
by
the
feedback
compensator.
fforw_num
Fig.
The
A13.27 controller
for solar
panels'
of
attitude
control
feedback
configuration with
and
saturation
parallel in front of
connection
of
it.
in the
that
does
not pass
disabled 12 pulses
becomes
up
supplies
settling
to
It begins with a high-pass block diagram is the feedforward. dc. Therefore,in seven or so seconds after a step command this and the feedback control takes over, but for small times it to the motor to speed it up and to reduce the rise time and the
time.
A13.12
The
Conceptual
Limb
radiometer
Microwave
(MLS) of
antenna
the
Chemistry
Spacecraft
the
radiometer. The
pointing
mirror
scans
Earth
horizon
includes a with
TeraHerz
6arcsec
away settling
accuracy.
180\302\260 for
After calibration,
nearly
each 20 sec, 2\302\260 the antenna must be turned sCan, and then returned to start the next scan. The required
to arcsec
by
must
after the return is 10~5 (the ratio of 6 accuracy be less than 0.8 sec, which is not easy to achieve.
and 180\302\260),
the settling
time
Appendix
13
413
with The radiometer pointing direction can be shifted by 180\302\260 an additional mirror. In this case, there will be two separate a scanning mirror and a switching mechanisms: in the dual mirror is mirror. The design of attitude controllers system simple since the be switched the mirror can be small and can off switching completely optical path of the main mirror during the scan, and the scanning mechanism can include a gear. An economic alternative is to use a singlemirror driven by a motor, and a directly and switching. In the attitude controller for this servo loop for both single scanning time necessitates a wide feedback bandwidth; mechanism, the small settling requirement The question resonances. the bandwidth might be limited, however, by structural servo has to be resolvedat the initial stages of of the single-mirror regarding feasibility have not the when accurate mathematical models of the mechanisms' dynamics project for the purposes of conceptual design and the control yet been developed.Therefore, model of the system's estimation, a simplespecialized performance dynamics has to be
developedby
the
control
system designer.
in Fig. A13.28(a). The angular encoder disk The single-mirror mechanism is shown It is placed close to the motor rotor, thus making is used as the angle feedbacksensor. mirror is connected the control collocated. The antenna to the motor rotor via a shaft. the The of torsional resonance of antenna on the shaft is 300Hz. The entire frequency
mechanism
base, a heavy
from
with
a thrust
structure.
On
the same
instrument
driver
to
(a)
(b)
TeraHerz
antenna
mechanical
modes
that
no structural
modes of the base is about 50 with the torsional motion of the rotor. The coupling coefficients coupled at this stage of the project. are not yet known A simplified mechanical schematic diagram for the rotor torsional motion shown in is obtained by projecting the rocking structural modes onto rotation Fig. A13.28(b) about the motor rotation axis. We will consider the worst case: the rocking mode motion modes. These projections use the moments of inertia of the aligned with the torsional bodies about the rotation The spring coefficients are chosen such axis. that the rigid torsional modes resulting from these have the same frequencies as the projections
frequency
of the
are rocking modes. Thereis a than 50 Hz. The lowest about 60 Hz. Hz, and of the laser modes,
base
in frequency
The modesare
original
rocking
modes.
The employed
introduced
modal
damping.
The damping
since
can be
modes
in
the
this
example
there is no
the of the
will be
already
by
substantially
damped
by the dissipative
mobility
motor
driven
a voltage
source.
414
The instrument
inertia inertia
Appendix
13
of inertia of the laser about the rotor rotation axis J^ a 0.5 kgm2. The and the encoder constitute a rigid body with the moment of base, the stator, the motor rotation axis /B ** 0.2 kgm2. The antenna mirror moment of about
moment 0.01 kgm2.
Zsm-
/M =
The actuator
output
is
shown
as a
source of velocity
Qs
with
internal
The
mobility
initial
effects on the control rough estimation of the plant dynamics' loop based on the diagrams in Fig. A13.28 is the following: The base moment of inertia is larger by more than by an order of magnitude than the mirror's moment of inertia. we Therefore, can assume in the course of the system analysis that the base moment of inertia is This simple model is valid infinite. at frequencies to half of the of the up frequency structural lowest i.e., up to 25 Hz. The resonances at 50 and 60 Hz of the resonance, base and the laser will not profoundly affect the loop because the base mobility is rather - as low relative to the antenna as the of interest is up to range mobility long frequency 25 Hz, i.e., the control is below 15 Hz. bandwidth For the control bandwidth beyond 15Hz, the worst-case stability extending analysis the plant model in Fig. A13.28(b). can be made using The equivalent in Fig. A13.29(a), with the electrical schematic diagram is shown 1-to-l ratio in the analogy of the mechanical to electricalparameters and variables, e.g., with Ju replaced by Cm = 0.01 F. The torsional stiffness coefficient of the mirror shaft kM is
the
replaced
by
winding
resistance
of the driver's l/kM. The electrical contour impedance output is a is motor is driven it converted to rw (the by voltage driver); = the mobility 1-to-l electrical impedance where Zs A^rw, representation
LM =
constant.
(b)
Fig. A13.29
schematic attitude
control,
The schematicdiagram
two-poles
it
about
the
contour
is shown
= 0.2
= 0.85,
rw =
4 n,
CB
F, CL =
= 400
0.5 F, CR
rad/sec,
= 0.0002
F, CM=
0.01F,
= 2000
the
resonance
1/(*VW)
frequencies
= 0.346,
@L
cob=
320 rad/sec,@a
rad/sec,
1/Zs =
sCR= 0.002s,
Appendix
13
415
Z,\342\200\224
s*LLCLLBCB
+s2(LBCB
+LLCL
as
+CLLB) + 1'
Since I4Q
Z,=-
= l/coj2,
we can
express Za
)+
s2[l I wB
\\ +
CL /
+1 (CBcoB)]
or
z, =
61.035x10\026j4
'
+ 31.64s2
+ 106
This
function
is an
impedance
along
of a
losslesstwo-pole,
and
its zeros
0;
\302\261;400
and
poles
the;'co-axis.
in
in this case could be analyzed with SPICE; even need to do not be derived. However,for the expressions impedances of system design and integration, convenience in the plant model is worth building A13.30 shows the block model of the SIMULINK. Fig. plant dynamics diagram the approach described in Fig. 7.18(d) and (f). On the SIMULINK block following variables mechanical listed. are diagram, Fig. A13.29
the
(a)
(b)
torque
on
mirror
shaft
omega of mirror
Outport,
encoder output
(c)
model plant Fig. A13.30 (a) Laddernetwork control, (b) Block diagram model of the of the plant,
416
Notice
Appendix
13
the diagrams (b) and (c) in Fig. A13.28 are very for convenient in the effects the series and branches and of (a): investigating parallel troubleshooting the input of a link pointing down replaces the related series two-pole by a disconnecting to a link pointing disconnects short and disconnecting the input the circuit, up,
that
corresponding
The
with
shunting
branch.
in
Fig.
Al3.31
for the
plant
transfer
function
I/(ZM)/?s
is plotted
bode(A,B,C,D,l,w)
[A,B,C,D]
on
= linmod('mlsplan');
connection
nominal
3) ;
hold
% remove bode(A,B,C,D,l,w)
the
to the
of the
input of block
parameters,
Z2
cases: for
massive
the
values
plant
and for Z2
= 0,
i.e., for
an
base.
\342\200\224-.
> ^,
e
\342\200\242\302\247-20
-s.
AC\\ '40
10
10
10
c
deg
Frequency (rad/sec)
8
8
10'
A13.31
10'
10\"
Frequency (rad/sec)
Fig.
Bode diagram
attitude
for
the
control
TeraHerz antenna
of the MLS GHz radiometer, single-mirror feasible. This device must be made with two a scanning mirror and a switching mirror. mechanisms, separate The two gain and phase responses in the picture are very close to each other. resonances of the laser and of the base do not constrain the Hence,the structural feedback bandwidth which can be therefore 30Hz. With an appropriate prefilter, a multiwindow command Section and this controller, 5.11) profiling (see shaping, loop
For
a much larger
primary
mirror
attitude-and-switching
control
is not
feedback
this
bandwidth
ensures
the required
accuracy
use
with
substantial
margins.
Based
on
analysis,
a decision
can be
made to
the
economic
option of a
single-mirror
mechanism.
Appendix
13
line
417
A13.13
System
Pathlength
description
interferometer (SIM) is placedin the path of the The separated optical elements called siderostats. is regulated to provide an interference on the focal plane where this is delay pattern light combined with the light from another siderostat. The delay line is positioned on a truss structure as shown in Fig. A13.32(a). A reaction wheel assembly is employed for the interferometer attitude control. The delay line includes two mirrors. The larger, sphericalmirror is actuated by a voice coil (VC) capable of a maximum displacement of 1 cm at low frequencies. The stroke of smaller, flat mirror is moved by a piezoactuator (PZT) with a maximum 30u.m. The light between the mirrors along the variable bouncing pathlength a controllable The must be controlled with better than experiences delay. pathlength 5 nm accuracy. The optical
light
delay line
from
the
the
stellar
widely
gathered
one of
TT
Truss
structure
Reaction
wheels
Fig. A13.32
The
PZT
the
consists
countermass.
of
two
piezo
elements
a force between
supporting
bandwidth
the
smaller
mirror and
Since
the forces
applied to the
structure
in
balance loop is
out,
not
the
PZT
limited
by the
The VC is,
in
and the feedback not excite the structure, structural modes. the PZT. The VC de-saturates does
this
turn,
de-saturated
by placing
it
on not
a be
loop
the The
will
mass
the
mirror
having
flexible
schematic diagrams for the VC in of the mirror are shown actuation Here, CM reflects the mass of Fig. A13.33. the mirror, and Lsusp and /?susp reflect the VC suspension, with the resonance at 5 Hz. The where rvc is VC Zvc = mobility the coil resistance, Zq is the driver amplifier output impedance, and k is the force/current
structure electrical
equivalent
Fig. A13.33
circuit
(a) following
418
electromechanical
is substantially
Appendix
13
of
the
the
voice
mobility
interest, IZstl
much
affect
the velocity
of the mirror
voltage
on CM).
PZT
maximum
maximum
displacement
displacement
is 30 urn
over
the entire
The VC
amplitude
is
With
the
VC
constant
/max
k=
0.3 N/A
frequency
and
the current
at
saturation
the VC
threshold
of
the VC
driver amplifier
amplitude
= 3
A, the
which
maximum displacement
equals
that
of the
PZT, Dmax
= 0.00003
m, is
large to reject the sufficiently 500 Hz, caused by the reaction wheels. The feedback must be at least 60 dB at 16 Hz. The disturbance forces' spectral so that the assumed to be flat over the 500 Hz bandwidth, are density responses to the of the vibration amplitudes are, on the average, square inversely proportional the and the maximum actuator both feedback output amplitude frequency. Therefore, can decrease inversely proportional to the square of the frequency. Hence, the loop gain
the
The feedback in
VC
and PZT
loops
must
be
vibrational
disturbances
over
the
bandwidth
up
to
slope must be close to -12 dB/oct. of the structure The available feedback in the VC loop is affected by the mobility as seen in Fig. A13.33. As can be estimated Zst, using an asymptotic Bode-step the VC loop bandwidth modes and their uncertainties prevent response, the structural from 100 Hz - if the loop is designed as stand-alone-stable. In this case, the exceeding 60 dB. gain in the VC loop at 16 Hz is only 26 dB, lessthan the required in this case, the Therefore, the VC loop has to be designedas stand-alone-unstable; increased. The loop can be substantially gain and the slope of the loop Bode diagram as described in Section 9.7. can be designed as a self-oscillating dithering system The sampling the PZT 5kHz. For the VC loop, the sampling for is frequency loop 1 can be chosen to be kHz. frequency
Higher-level
The
design objectives
system
The
control
pathlength.
In
addition
required or highly
\342\200\242 \342\200\242
index is the mean square error in the delay line performance design objective is to keep the mean square error below 5 nm. principle the to the principle design objective, characteristics are following
desirable:
system
robustness, output
and amplitudes, to commands of different shapes to disturbances that are neither responses large-amplitude vanishing in nor or duration, excessively large amplitude \342\200\242 a large disturbance/command of nonlinear if the triggering threshold phenomena, nonlinear are and violent and cannot be excluded phenomena responses prolonged in order that these nonlinear the design, by phenomena happen infrequently.
good
responses
\342\200\242 transient
Appendix
13
419
Design approach
The controller
to
for
this nonlinear,
flexible,
overly
and
uncertain
plant
must be
the
reasonably close
controller
the
best
achievable,
but
not
choose
to be
(i.e., not
adaptive).
Bode
the
in here
objectives, according to the opinion design with making some reasonableassumptions The and the design begins translating a into set of lower-level The latter consists of the higher-level objectives guidelines. If possible, these objectives and design objectives and the design considerations. considerations should be formulated in a mutually (orthogonal) form to decoupled the This is more easily trade-offs and to speed up the design. system simplify
accomplished
and the Bode asymptotic of the timevicinity optimal globally best satisfaction of the higher-level means of the customers, i.e., system engineers).
integrals
using
frequency-domain
specifications.
Lower Level
The
Design Objectives
design objectives for following:
the
lower
level
as the
feedback
system
under consideration
can be
the
formulated
\342\200\242 To
effectively
loop
\342\200\242 To
disturbances 40 Hz
of rather
large amplitudes,
must
VC
and the
feedback
increase
toward
the
lower frequencies.
effectively
that
vibrations
the
at
higher
frequencies,
however
with
smaller
been
PZT
will
wide bandwidth;
it has
Hz bandwidth
the
transient system
commands stable.
of different
\342\200\242 If the
the frequency of oscillationin VC loop is made unstable when stand-alone, in for as as order the of the limit-cycle amplitude loop should be high possible a nd in as small as not to overload the PZT. this to be oscillation possible loop
this are
The designconsiderations
\342\200\242 The
the following:
m.p.,
VC
the
and PZT
parallel
and
loop
must
be
m.p.
For
this,
\342\200\242 At
channels
frequencies
shaped appropriately.
VC
provides
stroke and
actuator.
the
is therefore
higher
frequencies,
PZT
is
the
main
Therefore,
loop
VC
loop. Outside of
shaping
depends at/</cross on
these
ranges,
is the
provision of stability
Extra
(Generally,
loop
which
is
unnecessarily
therefore, this
\342\200\242 At
- but it not the main one does system performance consumes a part of the area specified by a related Bode integral; is not worth doing.)
not
making
loop
cross
at /cross is
hurt
not
necessary.
gain in the
the
5 Hz, the
VC
driver
resonance.At
to damp
can
be
420
higher, thus making \\ZWC\\ these frequencies to be lessaffected
made
Appendix
13
higher
in order
by the system
function
at
Conventional designapproach
Most
commonly,
industrial
improving making
main-vernier
the
NDCs Such
all stand-alone
and
stable.
the
disturbance
the
disturbance
are achievable
improved
such
at
the
price
however,
of
making
causes sluggish.
main-vernier
system
only
conditionally
complicated
to be
procedure
to
recover
hardware.
be
quite
violent
in
to
the
the reaction to the commands the system from the limit cycle For this reason, this option is
not used
industrial
The chosen
The
design options
design
chosen
options
for
the
system
with
an NDC
this
are the
the
following:
\342\200\242 The
VC
loop is
can
stand-alone-unstable. In
be
case
the slope
of the
Bode
diagram
of
the
loop steeper thus improving of disturbances. handling large-amplitude \342\200\242 An NDC provides global stability. \342\200\242 The PZT loop bandwidth is 600 Hz wide, with
made
the VC
disturbance
rejection
and
a Bode step response, with the Bode -10 dB/oct at 150 to 1200 -12 over the and dB/oct Hz, diagram slope frequencies 40 Hz. Hz in PZT is x to 150 At 40 the the therefore 12dB/oct range gain loop = + 20 43 down at dB. The gain may gradually roll lower frequencies. 150/40) Iog2( \342\200\242 choose the asymptotic Bode diagrams shown in Fig. A13.34(a), since for this We task the advantages of using the better particular design shaped diagrams exemplified in (b) do not justify higher complexity of the design. \342\200\242 The VC loop Bode diagram crossesthe PZT loop Bode diagram at 40 Hz.
at 40 Hz is approximately 40\302\260. loop phase margin to 20rad/sec, down and -6 dB/oct loop Bode diagram slope is -18 dB/oct below this frequency. The gain at 40Hz must be 43 dB, i.e., 141 times.From here, = 2.24xlO9. a = 141Bn40K 7Vc = a/[s(s + 20J] where \342\200\242 = 130\302\260. At 40 Hz, the phase difference between the is 270\302\260- 140\302\260 This loops
\342\200\242 The
PZT VC
\342\200\242 The
ensures
\342\200\242 To
minimum the
ensure
total
loop
and
with
good
linear
50\302\260 safety
margin.
transient
block
responses
the
to
the
commands,
an NDC
the
be
included
in the
dead
zone
PZT
equal to
threshold
loop transfer
of the
NDC, the
Appendix
13
421
dB
'vc
'VC
52
PZT
-18dB/oct
52
PZT
40
600s
\\
(a)
(b)
Fig.
A13.34
Asymptotic
stand-alone performance
loop transfer
functions;
Block
The
diagram
asymptotic
with rational
transfer functions
responses
shown
(transcendental)
with
in
Fig.
A13.34(a)
need to be
certain
responses. approximated The frequency-normalized Bode-step-type (including loop response with function bostep (from the of sampling) is obtained MATLAB
rational
function
Bode
Step
and
This transfer
shifted
in
forms
x \\Q9/[s(s + 20J]. already defined as 2.24 PZT loops and for the VC and stand-alone The Bode diagrams with the are obtained Bode diagram following script: = 6.7e-6 -5.14ell 1.26el7 1.5e21 [2.33e-10 npzt = 6.5el7 1.684e21 2.83e5 7e9 9.18el3 [1 dpzt = [2.5e9]; dvc = [1 40 400 0]; nvc
function
crossover function.
frequency The
to be
stand-alone
the
27t600rad/sec. VC loop
summed
loop
9.5e24 1.2e28];
0
0];
ntotl
ntot2
conv(npzt,dvc);
ntot
w
= conv(dpzt,nvc);
dtot = conv(dvc,dpzt) ;
=
logspace(l,4.5);
bbode(npzt,dpzt,w);
hold
on
bode(nvc,dvc,w);
bode(ntot,dtot,w);
hold off
zoom
on
The
logarithmic toolbox:
plane
Nyquist
diagrams
are plotted
with nyqlog
from
the
Bode
Step
nyqlogC700,
hold on
nvc,dvc)
nyqlogC700, npzt,dpzt)
hold
hold
on
nyqlogC700,
ntot,dtot)
in Fig.
off
shown
The diagrams
operation
A13.35 indicate
that
the
system
rejection
is stable,
robust,
mode of
422
Appendix
13
200
70 r
+
\302\246\302\246
50
-200
\\
+
\\
+
..
m
101
40
102
103
10*
10\"
Frequency
(rad/sec)
\\
r
\302\246 i
20
\\
\\
-180
\\\\
\\
s
-10
-270
10
10
Frequency
10
(rad/sec)
10
-20
10\" -270
-240
loop
-210
phase
-180 shift
In
-90
Fig.
A13.35
approximating
(The
combined
functions Bode and Nyquist for the rational transfer diagrams the asymptotic diagrams for the VC, the PZT, and the combined loop. and the intermediate one is the top one on the gain response, response on the phase response and the Nyquist diagram.) using
Fig.
diagram
these
transfer
functions
produced
is
shown
in
the sum
of
the
displacements
by the
PZT and
VC actuators.
2,5e9
velocity
s2+9s
vcc
0.1
Int
VC...POS
2.33e-10s6+6,7e-6s5-5,14e11s4+1,26e17s3+1,5e21s2+9.5e24s+1,2e28
s7+2.83e5s6+7e9s5+9.18e13s4+6.5e17s3+1.684e21s2+1.2e22s+2e22 c_pzt
|'\342\200\2243|\302\253J ndc_out matlab\\slm\\slmposc.m
dzO.0003
|3*
dz_ln spos
pathlength
BL Aug301998
Fig.
A13.36
Simplified
SIMULINK
block
diagram
of pathlength
control
dead
of the saturation, the block and in the simulations, the thresholds diagram the 10 times relative to the real and have been increased zone, signal amplitudes This increases t he of simulation. This numerical does system. scalingcertainly stability not affect the theory of operation and the responses' shapes, To simplify the VC is represented by a velocity source with velocity analysis, a VC not the detailed actuator model will character of saturation; change using principle
this
In
the results.
via
the
dead
(NDC). The
dead zone
equals
It
does
dynamic not
Appendix
13
system arid
423
performance the transient
pass small
state of
amplitude
signals
The
operation.
NDC
large amplitude
commands
and has no effect on the on the global stability will be discussed later.
effect without
in the linear
responses to
Self-oscillationin the
With
system
an NDC
is stable
frequency
responses
when
mode of operation
VC
both
shown in Fig. Al3.353, the system the PZT loop and the VC loop are
stable.
pulse 5 sec.
in the linear
loop
Without
is unstable.
an
NDC,
pathlength
oscillation
cycle
command.
approaches a limit
0.1
the period
longer than
2
X107
1.5 0.05
\\
/
1
1
1
~
\\
\\
/
\\
0.5
1
\\
-o.os
V \\
-0.5
\\
-1
\\ 1
\302\2460.1
/
a short
-1,5
(a)
Fig.
(b)
A13.37
the
Oscillation
VC output
NDC (a) of
pulse command
(b)
in
the
system
without an
saturation
at the
input to the
with the amplitude of this oscillation, the PZT output is negligibly small. the a nonlinear saturation can be as the link, Therefore, system analyzed having single the function can be performed with in the VC actuator, and the analysis describing method. The accuracyof such analysis is sufficient since the VC loop is a low-pass and sinusoidal when to the saturation link becomes nearly the at the input signal the limit as seen in A13.37(b). cycle Fig. approaching to saturate the when the vibrations' amplitudes are large enough In other words, PZT, the VC loop is left alone and the system bursts into the limit cycle self-oscillation
Compared
with vanish
large and
limit cycle oscillation of the PZT is negligibly of the since the does not change substantially output amplitude the VC. with the small Thus, the limit cycle of the displacement generatedby compared as a whole. Largestand-alone VC loop is in fact also the limit cycle of the system of the limit cycle with substantial components frequency vanishing signals amplitude oscillation belong to the basin of attraction for the limit cycle. The system is
the
When
PZT,
the
high-amplitude
high-
the
conditionally
stable.
Limit
cycle of the
VC loop with
the
NDC
and
Since the
the
NDC dead
pass
the
424
Appendix 13
amplitudes,
signals of small
is important
the stand-alone
VC loop is unstable
the
even
with
the
the NDC.
It
amplitude radically changes oscillation. The amplitude of the limit cycle oscillation is determined by the dead zone in the much zone describing NDC, since for signals larger than the dead zone, the dead function approaches 1, the system becomes close to linear, and such a system, as has is stable with sufficient stability oscillation can been shown Therefore, before, margins. take only place with amplitudes not much higher than the dead zone. the describing function stability Sincethe oscillation is small, during amplitude can be replaced link in the VC actuator by 1, and the system can analysis the saturation
to emphasize,
however, that
NDC
and
the frequency
of the
limit
cycle
in Fig. A13.38(a). This system's linear be viewed as that shown is, however, part for the conventional methods to be applicable, the diagram unstable; describing function to the diagram the dead zone with (b) by replacing (a) is transformed equivalently connection of a a saturation link with the threshold link and parallel unity equal to the zone. The stand-alone linear part of the latter (the dashed box) is stable this dead since connection is a feedback system with of VC and PZT loops. The transfer parallel function of the box is
'PZT
1 \"T
Notice
-*p
about
the
loop
via the
saturation
is applied
in phase.
PZT
PZT \342\200\224I\342\200\224>
/\342\200\224'
rJ
i
VC 1
(a)
Fig.
(b)
A13.38
Equivalent
the
(a)
with
unstable
for
(b) with
shown
analysis,
part is obtained
with
this transfer
function
A13.39
script
npzt
dpzt
1.2e28];
=
[2.33e-10
6.7e-6
-5.14ell
nvc
0];
nl
dl
dll
d2
= conv(dvc,dpzt);
= [0
nl]
dl;
deq = dll
%
= conv(dpzt,nvc);
+ [0
d2];
w = logspace@,4);
nyqlogA260,-nl,deq)
bbode(nl,deq,w)
Appendix 13
425
10
c
\302\246J3
N
\\ s
'''
/
0-10
-20
10\"
10'
10'
10*
10'
Frequency (rad/sec)
90
\302\2468 CD
N
\\
-90
-180
10\"
10\"
10' Frequency
10\302\260
10'
(rad/sec) describing
function
Fig. A13.39
Bodediagram
for the
oscillation
analysis
It is seen that the condition of oscillation (zero loopphase shift while the loop gain is positive) occurs at approximately 1600 rad/sec, or, approximately, at 250 Hz. The is 1.5. The oscillation loop gain at this frequency is 3.5 dB, i.e., the gain coefficient of the loop E can be found by equating the describing function to the inverse amplitude coefficient, i.e., using A1.8), gain
l.27(E/esyl
wherefromjE!
=0.00054.
the describing
1/1.5,
= l.8es
this
With than
stability
the
gain
and
function of the PZT equals 0.67, i.e., is only 3.5 dB less linear state of operation.Sincein the linear state of operation the is asymptotically safety margins of order of 10 dB are provided, the system
E,
in the
Therefore,when
it
the
PZT
is
capable
426
Appendix 13
3.5
x10~
2.5
2.5
\\
1.5
A
/
\\
1.5
0.5 0.5
\\
\\
\\
-0.5
0.02
/
0.04
0.06
V V V
vv Vv
-0.5
0.06
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
(a) Fig.
(b) after
A13.40
and
Pathlength
without
time-history
a pulse
without
command
limiting
in
a system
with the
NDC
a PZT
actuator,
(a)
the VC
velocity and
(b) with
Global
a \302\2610.1 m/sec
limiter
of the
VC velocity
stability
of a
system is
in
with
the
NDC
saturation
parallel
branch
with
branch.
These
function.
(Augmenting
nonlinear
subsystem,
of
our
case
by the
total
properties
system function
input
are those
linear
system,
is sometimes
called exact
linearization.)
therefore of the
is 7Vc/(l
saturation
the script
link: the VC saturation. The only one nonlinear the VC to the VC linear from saturation link output equivalent with of this transfer function found + Tpzt)- The Bode diagram
includes
npzt
dpzt
= [2.33e-10
=
[1
2.83e5
nvc
= [2.5e9];
=
dvc = [1 40 400 0] ;
9.5e24 6.7e-6 -5.14ell 1.26el7 1.5e21 1.2e28]; 6.5el7 1.684e21 0 OJ ; 7e9 9.18el3
nl
dl
conv{nvc,dpzt);
= conv{dvc,dpzt);
d2 = conv(npzt,dvc);
deq
w
dl
[0 d2J;
logspace{l,4);
bode(nl,deq,w)
is plotted
the
in
system
the
Popov
criterion
to this
Appendix
13
427
% 10
a o
-10
10'
10*
Frequency
10*
(rad/sec)
I-360
-720
10'
10'
Frequency
10\302\260
(rad/sec)
Fig.
A13.41
Bode diagram
for
transfer
function
7vc/A + Tpzt)
output
transient
response
to a
3 mm
in Fig.
pulse
command
in a
system, assuming
no
saturation
in the
VC actuator,
is shown
A13.42.
3.5 X10
x1Cf 3.5
3
2.5
2.5
I
1.5 1
1.5 1
0.5 0
0.5
Iflf
llll
nun
Iff
ft
fflfl
0.08
k
0.02
\\
-0.5
0.02 0.04
-0.5
0.06
0.04 (b)
0.08
0.08
(a)
transient
without ms, 3 mm pulse command, responses Pig. A13.42 Closed-loop saturation in the VC actuator; pathlength, upper curves, and PZT mirror displacement lower curves; (a) without PZT, ending in a small-amplitude250 Hz limit time-response, globally stable, rapidly settling cycle oscillation, and (b) with PZT, asymptotically
to 20 The
zoomed-on
parts of
the
the
responses
are
shown
in Fig.
the
A13.43.
signal,
After
the
PZT
becomes
NDC the
dead
zone
stops passing
the
the
response
system, and
428
X10
Appendix
13
x10
10
3.05
2.95
2.9
I
-5
0.01 0.0150.02
Fig. A13.43
The
Zoomed-on
/
0.025 pieces
0.03 of the
mm
0.035
transient
0.04
response
to a
20 ms, 3
to
closed-loop
command
pulse
output
in
transient
response
saturation
saturation
the
VC the
Fig.
limits
with
of
the
in a system a 50 ms pulse command in Fig. A13.44. threshold 0.01 is shown and in other aspects the responses output,
with
The
are
similar to
those in
X10
\302\246OS
0.12 (a)
-0.5
0.12
(b)
to 50 ms, 3 mm pulse with command, Fig. A13.44 Closed-loop transient responses saturation in the VC actuator; pathlength, solid lines, and PZT mirror displacement timedashed lines; (a) without PZT, response, ending in a small-amplitude 250 Hz limit cycle and (b) with PZT, asymptotically oscillation, globally stable, rapidly settling Settling
time to
high
accuracy
is that
of
the
linear
system.
The tail of
the
response
is
that of
a linear system.Fig.A13.45 shows of the equivalent linear system the responses of the real system (solidline). (dotted line) and the response
Appendix
13
429
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
0.1 of the
system
0.12
responses to
step
commands,
nonlinear
overshoots)
and the
demonstrate
main-vernier
the function
These figures
stability
of an NDC:
response
not
only
global
is,
but
also
it provides
good
transient
to large
in Fig.
the
signals.
the
In
integrator
the
large-signal
(nonlinear)
mode
of operation,
crossover,
loop
A13.41
response
over
in a single-pole closed loop transfer which Such a loop response results function is transient response (although not as good as known to produce a rather closed-loop good a higher-order Bessel filter so there remains some room for improvement). response, to the (a) small and (b) large shows the output Fig. A13.46 response step of 50 msec. The 75% overshoot in the small-signal commands applied at the instant from the stability margins are justifiably results that chosen (linear) mode of operation
reasonably
signal
narrow
(since
the plant
parameter
a prefilter
uncertainty
is small).
If needed,
the
small-
overshoot
can be
reducedby
values
not needed
because in
X10
absolute
the
these
are
1.8
1.6
0.03
1.4 1.2 1
If\" 0.025
0.02
0.8
0.6
0.015
0.01
0.4 0.2
0.02
0.005 0.04
0.06
0.08
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
(a)
(b)
responses
(b) larger
430
Robustness
Appendix
13
is exactly in the PZT saturation As long as the threshold equal to the dead zone in the NDC, the system is equivalent to a system with nonlinear one element, the VC only satisfies the criterion with conventional This actuator. system Popov stability margins, in the linear links' transfer and in the and is therefore robust against variations functions of the VC actuator. characteristic nonlinear of However, it would be desirable to make the dead zone wider than the threshold the PZT output die PZT saturation by 10 to 30% so as not to impair stroke. Therefore, the system must be also robust .3 of variations in the threshold 3.5 against the saturation in the PZT. To such
systems
nonlinear
not
including link,
more the
than
one
Popov
criterion Instead,
directly
applicable.
is we
When rely on computer simulations. the PZT saturation threshold is from 0.0003 to the 0.00015, changed stable remains and the system response
shown
to
in
the
Further
pulse
reduction
command
remains
of the
Fig. A13.47
-0.5
acceptable.
threshold
system amplitude shown
0.02
0.04
0.08
0.08
0.1
0.12
pulse
to
0.0001
unstable in Fig.
Fig. A13.47 Transient responsesto the command in the system with PZT saturation
threshold
A13.42.
0.00015
control having loop responses Bode with steps An appF^pmation to the theoretical loop response with Bode step describedin Section has been employed in precision SISO motor control systems for retroreflector 4.2.3
A13,14
MIMO
motor
carriage
motion
control
and for
gyroscope
attitude
control
of
an instrument
and
concrete
on
the
Chemistry
spacecraft.
jsijso
Jt was
employed drills:
of robot mounted
for a device for taking environment. jes zero-gravity In these control systems the feedback bandwidths are limited by the MIMO loops' resonances. The same nominal was used in most rw\302\253rm.4 drjjl structural loop response i-th The was therefore \302\256f the eritica] defined fpedb^ck loops. loop response fully by the The trade-offs between the different crossover fp^ju\302\247ncy^. performance requirements the set of scalar numbers for fhe ioo\302\247sof J^ese MIh$O systenis was reduced to finding of the crossover provides good system performance. The iterative adjustments $>i that simulations and from the experiments frequencies wtiji computer converged rapidly. After the gontrpi becomes operational (at least in simulations), the loop system lower than /w can be reshaped following Bode relation response at frequencies much C.12). In most cases there was no reason to do this and it was not done, but in some cases the required of the control loop was able to be well satisfied with much accuracy lesser feedback, and the feedback at lower frequencies was reduced. Within the
station, for a
of a
rover to
less precise attitude, position, robot designed to take samplesof take of Mars rocks, and samples
an
motion
controls
in Chernobyl
comet or
asteroid
in nearly
Appendix
limitations
13
this
431
loop
transient
imposed
by
the Bode
and,
the
integrals,
gain reduction
responses.
margins
therefore,
introduction
better
last design
step was
improved
of the
loops
that
the
transient
and disturbances.
A13.15
A
Mechanical
animated and
snake
mechanical
control
snake employed
mechanical
in
gigantic
the
movie
with
Anaconda
the
was
constructed of chain-connected
in
identical
pitch
yaw
directions.
response of a single link. However, were very oscillatory. The oscillation caused by the interference of mechanical waves along the snake. propagating
to bend Position feedback allowed transient achieving good transient of several such links in a chain responses
ability
was
Step Response
links, each
... ,......
To correct the
problem,
force
feedback
the methods detailed in was added and, using the mobilities of the 7, Chapter output The actuators were made dissipative. damping reduced the effects introduced into the system the transient of the waves' interference, of the of several links was chain response
A.
drastically
Fig.
improved
for
of
the
as
exemplified
in
A13.48
link
chain,
and
the Time
movements
the
very
(sec.)
becameagile and
This
JAS
of 5 links
Transient responses
chain
with
in a
position
and force
feedback
<schier@compuserve.com>.
432
Appendix
The
Appendix
14
14
includes
Bode
Step toolbox
MATLAB functions:
frequency
toolbox
the following
1. NYQLOG
(Nyquist
Nyquist
plot on logarithmic scale with for the gain and the lag
transform,
margin,
plot) frequency
4. BONYQAS
5. BOSTEP
(Frequency
(Asymptotic
de-normalization,
and
similar to
Nyquist
Ip21p)
Bode
diagram,
phase plot,
logarithmic
plot)
6.
BOCLOS
7. BOINTEGR
8. BOCOMP
9. NDCP
to optimal Bode step response) approximation for closed-loop low overshoot and fast settling) two parallel is into (Breaking compensator paths, one of which at low frequencies.) dominant
(Rational
function
(Prefilter
design
(Calculation
10. BNDCP
11. NDCB 12. BNDCB These
Bode the
function for a dc motor control) compensator for of NDC with parallel paths) functions (Nyquist plot describing for describing functions of NDC with parallel (Bode plot paths) for path) (Nyquist plot describing functions of NDC with feedback (Bode plot for describing functions of NDC with feedback path)
of the
functions
MATLAB
simplify prefilters.
optimal examples
linear/nonlinear servo loops with designing The m-functions (and MATLAB scriptsfor
the
book)
are available
do the
from the
author's
web
functions
following:
A. Plotting routines
1
marks
NYQLOG
plots
a Nyquist
diagram on
the
logarithmic
allow
reading
the slope
of the
Bode this
diagram
plane with octave marks. The without plotting it. The loop shaping
can
be performed
BOLAGNYQ
iteratively
using
plot
instead of the
Bode diagrams.
phase lag
octave
stability
of the gain and the frequency responses plots the on the logarithmic plane with margin, diagram Nyquist the plot Using plots' arrangement is convenient for loop shaping. where to only a small area of the allows one to pay attention plot crossesthe 0-dB level, and to read there the value of the guard-point
and plots
B.
marks.
lag
This
margin
of
the
Calculations
initially does
manipulation gain
in
and,
problems
sometimes, produces inaccurate answers).It 3 in Section 4.2.3. like that described in Example
diagrams, the system two tasks:
normalized
similarly
to
the
in
the
numbers
can
be
C. Plant modeling,asymptotic
4 BONYQAS simplifies accomplish the following
and
conceptual
design
In
conceptual
design.
particular,
it
helps
to
Appendix 14
433
when
the only
I. Calculating
II.
and
plotting
the phase
(since
shift
of
the plant
the
plant
the
the conceptual
The phase
design of the
the Nyquist
of
shift).
plant
gain
feedback
loop
linear Bode
calculates
the
using asymptotic
pieceand
the asymptotic
Bode
diagram
and plots
diagrams. It
allows
for easy
shaping of
responses
linear
(the Type of
step can
loop)
used
be
further
the at the corner frequencies, the frequencies, gain at low frequencies slopes lag coefficient, and the asymptotic and at high The obtained parameters of the Bode frequencies. as the input file parameters for the BOSTEP function.
the corner
D. Feedback
loop design
a rational generates (or irrational, obtained margins,
5
for
BOSTEP
function
with
approximation
loop
to
the
theoretical
transcendental
specified
BONYQAS)
response
with a
feedback
Bode step
Type.
asymptotic
BOCLOS generates a normalized transfer function without and with a closed-loop and the of a 4th-order Bessel filter. Also, it generates the prefilter, frequency response It is usable for designing a prefilter a good closed-loop step response. rendering
6
transient
response.
BOINTEGR
functions,
converts
the
transfer
transfer function into a sum of two compensator one of a PID (a generalization of an integrator low-pass can be saturation into the introduced Then, path low-frequency and to provide globalstability. response
the
linear
Compensator
design
transfer
magnet
motor.
transfer
generated
by
BOSTEP
and
with a function for the loop response The input file includes the loop load the dc motor and the inertial
parameters.
F. Nonlinear dynamic
9 NDCP
with
compensator
design
on includes
parallel
one
of
link
which
NDC
a
saturation)
link. A series
loop
nonlinear
is also
included
the
rest
of the
feedback
describing
loop so that
function
Nyquist
of the
element
the values
of
the
paths, one
series
iso-e
includes
an
nonlinear
link
(typically,
is also included
can
imitate
with
the rest
values
of the
feedback
Bode
the
of the
describing
of
the
on the logarithmic plots iso-e describing functions Nyquist plane for an NDC or a nonlinear link (typically, a dead path which includes a variable the rest of the feedback loop so that zone). A series link is also included that can imitate a feedback
434
Appendix
diagrams
14
the
the loop
12
Nyquist
can
be plotted,
1.
with
values
of the
describing function
of
the nonlinear
BNDCB
feedback
series link
Bode
nonlinear
describing functions
or with
diagrams
element
can be
from
HELP
plotted,
the
for an NDC with a diagrams a dead zone). A link (typically, the loop the rest of the feedback loop so that function of the values of the describing
Bode
a nonlinear
0 to
1.
plots
in Figs.
is typed
files include default/demo that generate in without arguments. The plots are shown
name
and
A14.9-12.
Nyquist
diagram,
x marks t
w = wb,
+ marks octaves
60
50
m
40
30
\\
o>
Q.
20
.2
10
0 -10
-20
_\342\200\224\342\200\224-
=F=
=d
^180 shift
-270
-240 -210
loop phase
-150 in degrees
-120
-90
Fig. A14.1
Default/demo
for
nyql
og and
bos tep
Appendix
14
435
.\302\247100
|
5>
50
1 0
BSSS
fL
i
y
-50 10
10'
10\"
10\"
10'
rad/sec
40
20
\\
0
-20 _-\342\200\224 \342\200\224I _\342\200\224\342\200\224\302\246 \342\200\224\"
.
-180
-270
-240
-210
x marks
phase, degr;
Fig. A14.2
wb, + mark
-go
Default/demo
for
100
Bode diagram
\"
Nyquist
diagram
70 xv
50
60
|>
0
\0250
50
\\
\\
40
8
\\ i>
30
\302\2461-100
20
of-150
\\
\302\246
10
c
\302\247>-200
\\ -250
/
/
-10
-300
10*
frequency,
-20
10\"
10'
rad/sec
-270-240-210-180-150-120
-90
phaseshift,
degr
Fig.
phase.
A14.3
Circles
and plotting a band-pass plant Default/demo 1 for bonyqas, calculating mark the corner frequencies of the piece-linear on the gain response
approximation
436
Appendix
14
Bode
50
diagram
70
Nyquist
diagram
\302\246
60
0-
50
ir50 \302\246a
i-100
40
^ 30
\302\246S.-150 \"B -\342\200\224
\\ \\
X
20
CQ-200
10
a.
-300
-10
!
-350
10
-20
10'
10'
-90 -270-240-210-180-150-120
frequency, rad/sec Fig. A14.4 Default/demo 2 for Circles on the gain response mark
asymptotic
phase
shift, degr
Bode
diagram
bonyqas, loop response. asymptotic the corner frequencies of the piece-linear for loop response with Bode step
Dc motor
A
servo design
motor
dc
control
the
system (like
that
described
be designed
that
using following sequence First, with bonyqas, an asymptotic the feedback satisfies the disturbance
of
the
toolbox
diagram
in Example functions.
with
in
Section
4.2.3)
can
Bode
a Bode
rejection
requirements,
the feedback
loop is
with
sufficient
at
the
frequencies
An
of of
structural
to
guarantee
system
in Fig. Bode
stability
the chosen
stability margins.
the frequencies
the
example
the
of the
margins,
beginning
slope,
nonminimum
phase
lag, and
the
Type
are
determined
this the
for the loop a rational function approximation function for the nominal single-integrator plant 1 in Section with a small nonminimum phase lag is calculated (as was done in Example i.e., the loop gain 4.2.3). The responses at mis point are normalized in frequency, in Fig. A14.1. has unity crossover frequency, like that shown response the the closed-loop frequency responseis plotted, Third, with the function boclos is plotted, like that with the prefilter is calculated, and the closed-loop response prefilter can be used to calculate the closed-loop function shown in Fig. A14.5. The MATLAB - or with one peak, and a low-pass with a prefilter comprising two notches, response of these. any subset
and
feedback
loop design.
a compensator
Appendix
14
437
is a response
the
closed-loop
response
Bessel
filter
response.
response axis.
can be
close to a obtained
deby
shifting
the nominal
frequency
mm \302\246\302\246\"\302\246 \342\200\224\342\200\242\302\246\302\246MB
S?
CD D
N \\
l-20
\\
\\ \\
T3
\\
\\
\\
10\"
10'
rad/sec
1.5
0.5
10
time,
15
20
sec
several plots responses: an open-loop gain at low frequencies); closed-loop without a responses, a peak, prefilter (the one with a 7 dB hump) and with a prefilter that consists of a notch, and a 3rd-order Bessel filter (the response with the widest bandwidth); 4th-order Bessel filter response with nominal 1 rad/sec bandwidth that has 15 dB attenuation at this frequency. The phase responses (the lower three) are of the Bessel filter, of the closed a prefilter. The lower plot shows the loop with the prefilter, and of closed-loop without closed-loop transient response with the prefilter.
for
boclos
(the
one
with
large
gain
Fourth,
functions
using
the
motor
and load
parameters,
bocomp,
the
compensator
and the
Fig.
function
plant
transfer
are calculated
function
and plotted
bointegr, the
with
as were
the compensator
the
those in transfer
path
A14.6.
is split
into a
parallel connectionof
frequencies),
low-frequency
by
as exemplified
second
(for the
medium and
A14.7.
438
100
Appendix
14
of
plant and
compensator
50 0
o>
\\
\\
-50 \302\246\302\260.
\342\200\242a
\302\24611
*\342\200\242
-100
-150
'N.
-200
10\"'
10\" rad/sec;
10\"
Fig.
A14.6 Default/demo for bocomp, the gain and for the compensator and the plant of a dc motor
responses
system
60
m 40
tf
20
\"\302\246\302\253:\302\246
\302\247) 0
-20
-40
10
10'
10
rad/sec
III
10\"
10
O)
\302\260
\"-100
-200
10
Default/demo for
the
10'
bointegr,
for
10\"
10'
10'
Fig. A14.7
the gain
and phase
paths
built
responses
that
entire
compensator
the
and
its
two
parallel
be
the
like
shown
in
load
and
the
nonlinear
elements in
the
in current and voltage), in the friction model, and in of in is introduced front the compensator (saturation low-frequency path of the to perform fine-tuned well over the With the the controller is model, compensator). the and of the variations, plant system performanceand range parameter specified
the
actuator
(saturation
robustness
are evaluated.
Appendix 14
439
NDCiso-E describing
The
Figs.
functions
iso-?
A14.9-12
DF values 0; 0.2;0.4;0.6; 0.8; the signal levels E/es= \302\260\302\260; 3; 2; 1.5; < 1 for the saturation 6.3;
with the
responses
for signal
paths
shown
in
Fig. A14.8
1.
are exemplified in
values
These
correspond
to
and E/eiz
8;
\302\273 for
the dead
zone.
DF
ft.
e
ft
(a)
(b)
(a)
parallel
a feedback
path
m40 \302\246a | 30
20
\\
\\
\\:
-10
-270
-240
-210
-180
bop
-150
-120
-90-60-30
Fig.
A14.9
Default/demo
for
ndcp
1()
10
10 Frequency (rad/sec)
10
1C
120
150
_ w \302\246 180\302\246MM
/
'*'\302\246'\302\246
10\021
10\"
10'
10'
Frequency
Fig.
(rad/sec)
A14.10
Default/demo
for bndcp
440
Nyquist 70
Appendix 14
diagram,
x marks
w=wi,
+ marks
octaves
60
SO
\\ \\
40
S 30
\\
\\
\\
}/
-240 -210
sr1
Iv
* -60 -30
Fig. A14.11
100
Default/demofor ndcb
10\"
Frequency
10'
(rad/sec)
for
10'
bndcb
Fig.
A14.12
Default/demo
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Textbooks
Control,
v. 1 and
2. John Wiley
Design.
and
Sons,
NY:
examples
2 H. W.
of frequency-domain
Amplifier
design).
Van
Bode,
Network
of
Analysis
numerous
and Feedback
later editions).
Nostrand,
The book establishes frequency-domain theory and multi-loop systems, which is single-loop
and practical
of
feedback
of immense
theorists
engineers.
While concentrating on linear systems, the book develops design methods with applicable to practicalsystems large parameter uncertainties and with nonlinear those that has been found actuators, and abstains from discussing design approaches reader or inferior. When the becomes confused the book doesn't why non-practical follow up on some apparently attractive idea, why some theory is not further notations are not or, conversely, generalized simplified, or even why the employed what the reader would consider appropriate,he should be advised to suppress the to correct the classic do his and homework the reason of humbly urge finding why Bode did so. Someof these issues are clarified in [6,9] and in the present book. The book cannot be recommended as a first book on feedback systems, although the transparent and informative introductory is worth reading for everybody chapter interestedin feedback. But afterward, the difficulty since the book was rises steeply written on the basis of lectures Bode gave for his colleagues at The Bell
Laboratories
where Shock
he later and
headed
the
mathematical
and physical
development.
and
3 P. A. Crafton,
NY:
Vibration
in Linear
1961 (one
and
4 R. C. Dorf
Park, 6 I.
of the best books on using electromechanical analogies). R. H. Bishop, Modern Control Systems.Addison-Wesley,
Weapon
Systems. Harper
Brothers,
Menlo
CA: 1997.
Guided
5 P. Garnell,
Quantitative
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M. Horowitz, Synthesis of
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7 J.
V. Jose, E. J. Saletan,
Design
Press,
NY: 1980. Press, Systems, 2nd ed. Pergamon FeedbackSystems.Academic NY: 1963. Also: Press, Boulder 1993. Co, Theory (QFT). QFT Publications,
Classical
Dynamics:
Contemporary
Approach.
NY:
1998.
Control
Systems,
5th ed.
1996.
9 B.
describes the
nonlinear
feedback
Modern
10 K. Ogata,
NJ:
Artech Dedham, MA: 1986. (The book House, and design of certain linear and methods for the analysis systems, see www.luriecontrol.com.) Control 3rd ed. Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, Engineering,
and the
1997.
J. L.
Melsa,
D. G. Schultz,
Dynamics
Linear
Control.
Control
Systems.
McGraw-Hill,
12 M. J. Sidi,
NY:
Spacecraft
and
Cambridge
University
Press,
1997.
Vidyasagar,
13 M.
River,
Nonlinear
Systems
Analysis,
2nd ed.
NJ:
1993.
442
Additional
Bibliography
bibliography
is well
reflected
in the
the in
bibliography
to
[11],
The bibliographies
[6,9]
cover
with
following
most topics
collected in
compared
specific to
present [9]).
book. Transfer
[9.128]
[9.71].
The
them
written
authors)
extensive
and patents (most of is a short list of selected recent publications at the the authors' Jet colleagues Propulsion Laboratory or by the by reflected in or related to the book material. Some of these sources contain additional
bibliographies.
Necessary
14 D.
S. Bayard,
Adaptive
Systems
An
LTI Representationof
Control
Conference,
15 D.S.Bayard,
Without
Albuquerque,
NM, June
1997.
Algorithm
16D.S.
17 J.
Windowing
Four Personal
A
Bernstein,
Them:
for State-Space Frequency Domain Identification Distortions. IEEE Trans. AC, vol. 39, no. 9, 1994. What I learned From and a Half Control Experiments and Control the American Proc. of Conference, Journey.
1997.
Conf.
and
18 J.
F.
O'Brien
for Structural Force Feedback Integral on Adaptive Structures, Nov. 1992. San Diego, G. W. Neat, Micro-Precision Interferometer:
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Experimental
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1993.
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1994.
Vibration
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Vibration Control Experiments in Active SPIE Proc. 2264-01, San Diego,CA, July
Distortion
August
Reduction
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using
Adaptive
Cancellation.
1997.
to
chapters
this
in References [2], [6],[9] and [9.113] are generic for those topics covered which are not conventionaly in contemporary textbooks. The references included earlier below exemplify and expand on selectedtopics,or indicate publications.
book
listed
Ch.1 1.7 [9.24]; 1. 9 [9.65] Ch.2 2.4[9.24, 2.6 2.7 [26, 36,53] 9.176, 55]; Ch.3 3. [41]; 3.9 [1,9,9.113,9.44,17,25,50] 3.9.2 3.9.3 3.12 [35]; [17]; [
[29-32];
9.99,
Ch.4 4.1[9.81, 33]; 4.2.3[34];4.5[9.99] Ch.6 6.6.2 [33]; [9.21,9.109] 7.1.1 [3, 38, 39], 7.4 [49,51]; 7.4.5 21, 29, 38,39,51];[29, [19, 9.122] 32]; 7.9.1.1 [37]; 7.9.1.3 [22];7.9.2 [28,
6.7.2 Ch.7 7.5
9.103,
9]; 3.13
[9.99,9.103,9.113]
30,31,
Ch.
Ch.
8 9
8.1[9.128, 9.71];
8.4 10.7
[9.69,9.71];
8.5 [47]
Ch.
Ch.
11
Ch.
12
9.120,]; 11.2 [9.57]; 11.3 [9, 9.113,9.162,9.158,9.108,9.102,9.126, 28];11.9 [30]; 11.3.2 11. [9,9.113]6,11.7,11.8
[9.113]
12.2
[9.86,
9.105,9.107,9.106];
12.5 [9.4,9.105,9.106,9.107]
NOTATION
A,
A(s)
- actuator
transfer
function,
6(s),
74
feedback, 106
functioh, 249 function function
at s
\302\253* 75 \302\253*,
fl, flE)
- feedbackpath
transfer
of 80?),
74
with two with two
feedbackpath
feedback path
382
382
in
Laurent
nonminimal capacitance,
phase 76
of
75 \302\251(.$),
C, C(s) C
- compensator transfer
output
matrix, the
240
E
E\\ E2
emf of
amplitude
Ea
2?0\" E\\>' ?b\"
amplitude amplitude
amplitude
source, 212 fundamental at the input to a nonlinear link, at the input to NDC, 301 of the fundamental of the fundamental at the input to the actuator, 297 after the jump down, 325 of the fundamental
signal
of the
291
E E\\c>
325
up, 325
square
thermal
of a
E&
Em-
values of
amplitude force,
171
327
207,207
F&T+l-
F@)\\F\\,
return difference, 2
value
of return
return
difference
difference
when
when
two
specified
terminals
shorted,
381
F(\302\253\302\273)
value of
or
GO),
G
20 loglfl G - return
plant describing
open, 381
in NDC,
H
H
Hm
~ -
noise
matrix, 254
287
254
J
J
K
of inertia, functional,
12,207-208
253
coefficient
K
K.%
closedloop transmission
gain
in voltage,
the
381
emf,
matrix,
249
ratio
closed loop
of the
output voltage to
source
381
445
446
Kb K\\
Notation
Kql
L
M
254 coefficient
in current,
in
381
381
loop
system
transmission
ratio
coefficient
coefficient
voltage,
open loop
inductance,
system transmission
of the
77,207-208 body,
in current,
381
emf,
source
381
M
A?a
116, 204-205
M,N-
in bilinear
actuator
function,
input,
302
of a symmetrical Q - regulation regulator, 195 = of factor a resonance, 137 Q 1/BQ quality 253 matrix, Q weighting transfer 33 R, R(s) - prefilter function, R 253 matrix, weighting load resistance,212-213 RL -
noise at the
plant
112 1
transfer
function,
function
transfer
of nominal
plant, 31,
Rj S
SH T
thermal sensitivity,
resistance, 17
sensitivity,
208
Horowitz
return
19
ratio,
2
209
T
T@)
absolutetemperature,
return
ratio
in a
381-382
T(\302\260\302\260)
system
two
with
the
two specified
- return
ratio
when
specified
nodes are
disconnected, 216,
381-382
7p
TE
Ts
return ratio about the plant, 276 in an equivalent system, 277 return ratio sampling
voltage,
U
U U, V
U\"
period, 147
212 324
threshold
Uun) V
V
amplitude of sinusoidal signal at the system'sinput, values of U causing jumps in E, 320-321 of nth harmonic at a system's output, 16 amplitude fundamental at the of of nonlinear output amplitude
link,
324
velocity,205,207-208
voltage,
transfer transfer
207-208
function, function
W(w) W@), -
or immitance, (immitance)
zero
194
regulator,
of a
194
V V
Z
Z'
W(\302\260\302\260) regulator functions with element w, 194 admittance, 77 admittance of a two-polethat impedance,
or infinite
values of the
regulating
is not
77
77
76 that
Zl Zo
impedance of a two-pole
is not
zero
at
infinite
frequency,
load impedance,
impedance (mobility)
212,216 of a
system without
feedback, 216,381,383
Notation
447
2s
fli, b\\,
a2,... bz,...
e, e(t)ed
source impedance, 212 coefficients, 151-152 polynomial coefficients, 151-152 at the input to a nonlinear link, signal
polynomial -
323
es /
fb
fe fc
threshold, in Hz,
293
frequency at
fi
fe
ft,
/p /s /T
which loop gain is 0 dB, 8 lowest frequency at which loop gain is -x dB, 98 central frequency of a segment of constant slope of at which loop gain is -x dB, 98 highest frequency lowest at which loop gain is X\\ dB, 109 frequency is x\\ dB, 109 at which loop gain highest frequency
frequency sampling unity frequency
a Bodediagram,
82
of
a pole,
132
148
frequency, gain
fz
Jfc k k &o &oe
bandwidth,
of a
propagation signal
in voltage,
koi
ke n n
propagation
relative
source
emf,
381
signal coupling coefficient, 120, 313 slope coefficient of an asymptotic transformation coefficient, 226
of forward
propagation, 381
Bode
diagram,
97, 131
Pi, Pi, \342\200\224 polynomial coefficients, 147 criterion 271-272 coefficient, Popov's q
1u 1z,
qx,
- coefficients
reference,
in modified
Popov criterion,
275
q%,...
s = a+j(o t time,
t& tT tt
polynomial coefficients,
249
operational
147
variable,
362
54
54
input,
= In \302\253
\302\253, u(t) \302\253\302\253,h
signal
system's
command,
320
298
integrator,
323
to trapezoid \302\253\342\200\236 signal sample at the input of a at nonlinear the link, v, v(i) signal output
147
v
vn
vector of
process
at
noise,
the
254
or transfer
w
w w w
signal sample
impedance, admittance,
147 of trapezoid integrator, coefficient of a variable element,194 in a feedback transfer immitance or coefficient system, 379
output
gain
response
segment,
82
448
wo
Notation
nominal value
lower vector upper
of variable
stability
element
in Bode
symmetrical
regulator,
195
x
x
xi
xE
displacement, 208,312
amplitude of
margin in dB,
64 65
state
variables,
stability
249
margin
63-64
amplitude
in dB,
254
margin,
y, or yn
y
vector,
249 312
y z
z~x A A Ao
?2
velocity, run
rad/sec,
207
angular - transfer
of rotation,
nonlinear
wave torque,
p
x
tb
function, 271
(mobility),
12
resistance
? = 1/B0 - damping
go <BC
137
frequency, frequency
denotes
rad/sec, 7 at
which
phase
shift
parallel
connection
of
79 impedances, e.g., Zj
is calculated,
INDEX
Bessel filter,
322-324
57-59,101
188-189
Bias,269
Bifilar
stability,
and
65,270-271
system,
coil,
Bifurcation
Bilinear
tracking
function,
193,
324
194, 220,385
228-229
39-40
Active suspension(vibration
isolation),
206-207,
Biquad, 147,152
R. B.:
216,
Actuator, 1
35-36 382-384
40-43
main/vernier arrangement,
motor,
Blackman,
formula,
1-2, passim
coil,
106-107
system,
diagram,
integral
7, passim
of admittance,
Aliasing,
156-157
hydraulic,
77
Analogies:
electricalto
electrical
of gain,
78-79
part
to thermal, 208-209
integral of imaginary
78,136,
integral integral
(phase),
of real
of resistance,
feedback to connection
of
two-poles,
237,271,
324
Brake
373-375,392 step,97-100,139-143
(stall)
1,4,11-12,19,153
torque,
213
Approximation:
Bridge:
219,
386
of describing
Asymptote,
function, 296
97, 98
131-133,
high-frequency,
of periodic
signal, 317
Asymptotic
Automatic
Cauer.W.:
two-pole
implementation,
179-180
Chart:
Backemf, 104,223,228
Backlash,
297-298
183
Balanced
Bandwidth:
bridge
Clegg
Integrator,
310
function,
3, 14,
functional,
passim
of closed-loop
of
Coil, bifilar,
Cold
188-189
open-loop
110
controller
switching, 335
116-119,232,
Collocated control,
260
Basin of
attraction,
449
450
Index
Delay, transport,
31-32
function, Describing
Command, 1, passim
Command
85,113-114
291-292
feedforward,
Commander,
33,44
approximate
formulas
293-295
296
of dead zone,
of hysteresis,
297
relations 294-295
135,154,
174,175,182
inverse, 292
phase-gain
switched
Conditional
capacitor, 184-186
stability,
for, 387
Compoundfeedback,218,383
270
291
of
saturation,
of three
Conjecture of filter,
Control:
bang-bang,
fuzzy-logic,
299
331
asymptotic
Bode,
239
131-133,
passim
Bode, 7, passim
Ince-Strutt,
matrix,
249
333-347
loading,
for
213
unstable
67-69
non-collocated,
115,119,232-234
Differentiator, 171-172
time-optimal, 341-342
vector,249
262-264,418
Controller:
Dominant
multiwindow,
poles
and
zeros,
367
composite
333-347
Drift, 173,
Dynamic
235
247
PID (proportional-integralderivative),
Driver, 1, passim
nonlinearity,
20,143,
186,
Dynamic
Electromotive
TID (tilt-integral-derivative),
192-193
(emf),
212
backemf, 132
Encoder,
104, 223,228
234
Corner
frequency,
223,
Coulomb friction,
Coupling,
227
Equation,
Error,
Mathieu's, 238
34
matrix,
426
43-45, passim
61-62
Criterion:
Nyquist,
feedforward,
Nyquist-Bode,
gain
linearization,
254
Popov, 271-275
Exact 8
Falling
Criticalpoint,
Crossover
63
frequency,
branch,
269, 325-327
2 Feedback,
balanced
regulator,
25-26
220,
386
111
Cycle,
limit, 268
bandwidth (range)
Damping coefficient,137,367
Dashpot,
of closed-loop feedback,
functional,
111
143,
207
299
of open-loop feedback,110
common,
37-38
Decade,55
Decoupling
compound,
matrix,
218, 382
25,
44-45,185
current,
218,312,
381
Index
451
Four-port
error, 1
foil-state,
network, 379
velocity,
251,254
Free run
213
integral
of, 75-76
large, 4
Frequency:
crossover, 8
Nyquist,
local, 37-38
maximization,
148
96,394,394
response,
sampling,
7, 360-361,
147-153
passim
multiloop,
36-37
parallel,217,382
positive,
negative 3,76,97
3,58,
Friction:
Coulomb,
Full-state
227
251,254
65-66,76,97
viscous, 226-227
feedback,
path, 1
rate, 217
voltage,
Function:
series, 218,381-382
217,
all-pass, 86
382
Feedforward,
command,
31-36
lossless
Black's, 35-36
31-33,412
220,385
impedance,
117-118,
229-231,371
error,
34
Filter:
active RC:
multiple
333, 391,394-395
positive feedback,
real,
363
87,272,
323, 371
176
transfer,
Furnace,
Fuzzy
351, 399
logic
controller,
249
332
capacitor,
184-186
antialiasing,
157
56-57
Gain
Gain
matrix,
scheduling,
chart,
259
225-226
Gear, flow
Generator:
Chebyshev,
filter
56-57
339-340
198-199 sweep,
Global
Kalman,
transversal,
262
linear phase,
Flexible
plant,
57
modes, parts,
77, 96,115, 215
stability,
270,
315-316
264
186-187
(appendages,
structures),
Guard-point
stability
margin, 67
116-119, passim
Floating
capacitor,
method,
255-256
Follower,5, 172-173
Fourier:
Hard oscillation,
Harmonic
328
289-291
313-314 Harmonics,
balance,
formulas,
291
law, 208
Heater, 209,351,
Homing
399
12, passim
system,
205-207
to voltage,
208
104,223,228
back electromotive,
R.: theorem,
two-pole,
canonical
180, 230
180
Horowitz, I. M., IV, 18, 245,441 sensitivity, 18-19 Hot controller switching, 335 Hydraulic systems, 209-211
Hysteresis, 297
negative,
310
452
Index
phase lag
Impedance,
of, 297
nonminimum
phase,
113,394
207-208
Laplace transfer
function,
229-230
load, 212-213,381
Laserinterferometer,
118,
234
of losslesssystem,
mechanical,
Lead
compensator,
cycle,
135-136,154,
206
Limit
174-175, 182
268
RC, 180
source,212
wave
Line, transmission,
231
231
253-255
(characteristic),
LinearQuadratic Linearsystems,
time
1
Gaussian,
Incremental
Initial
encoder, 234
and
253-254
value
final-value
theorems, 362
(LTV), 158,238-239
Inner loop, 33
Integral
Links, 1, 352-353
I-plane,
of
admittance,
77
LMI, 256
Load:
cell, 206-207,228-229
effect
phase,78 resistance,76-77
Instrumentation
on
feedback,
219-220
amplifier,
188
Loading
213 resistance,
diagram,
impedance, 212-213
213 199, 264
Integrator
discretetrapezoidal,
half-integrator
Clegg, 310-311
146-149
Loading
Logarithmic
line, 213
amplifier,
approximation,
Loop:
134
link,
common, 37,311-312
12,
passim
38-39 crossed,
gain,
op-amp
Interferometer:
184 switched-capacitor,
laser,
implementation, 171-172
inner,
33
and
local, 37-38,311-312
234
main
vernier,
39-40,405-406,
orbiting
Intermodulation,
stellar, 40,417
314-315
417
nested, 38
outer,
Internal
feedback,
68
292
33
phase
tangent,
shift, 7
41
responses,300-306
Johnson
Loop
transfer
recovery, 255
structure,
(Nyquist)
noise,
171
230-231
Jump-resonance,
Junction
324-327
211-212
267
233-234
of
links,
Lyapunov,
Kinematic
Kochenburger,
nonlinearity,
Second method,
Main-vernier
270
39-40,405-406,
Ladder
Lag:
network,
75,
86-87
Margins
417
compensator, 135-136,
174,175,
stability,
63-67,
390, 394-396
Index
453
based channels
safety, 123-124,186,193,302
Mason's
rule,
41-42,277
Mathieu's
Matching,
equation, 238
231
\302\256 commands
344-347
local
feedback,
MATLAB
306-309,
338, 340-347,
between
program
listings: 7-9,13-14,60,
405
Nonlinear
100-104,117-118,133,
interaction
local 17
74,
280, 228,251,
376-378
140-141,150, 180-181,
364,
product
coefficient,
(lag),
Matrix:
85-86,113,341,394
control-input,
estimator
Norm:
decoupling, 44-45,185
gain,
tf.,,255
254
gain, 249
measurement, 254
output,
Norton's
Nyquist,
theorem,
H.,
212
17,
249
plant
MEMO
noise distribution,
43-46,
246
254
criterion,
for
61-62,70
unstable
system, 249
system,
diagram, 9-10,passim
plant,
67-69
passim
frequency, 148
noise, 171
stability,
phase function,
206,
74-75, 79,
64-65,
374
87, 333,341,394
Mobility,
Octave,
214On-off
55
control,
passim
plant
effect on
uncertainty,
215
Op-amp,
170-174
188
instrumentation,
206,213
permanent
magnet,
213
36-37
inverting,
174
171
series, 218
Multiloop
non-inverting, 172-174
pinout,
feedback
system,
unity-gain
frequency,
94-96
170-171
Optical encoder,223,234
Optimality,
chart,
10,25,246,327
112-113
Noise:
Overshoot,
15,54,59,
functions,
passim
332
at actuator
process,
input,
254
Participation
of resistance,
254 sensor,
171
99,111-112 115,119,
Participation
Phase
rules, 332
253
Payload,351,359
plane,
at system's
output,
31,114-115
Nominal
Phase-gain
relation, 79
20,143-145,186,
plant,
PID controller,
Non-collocated
control,
190-192,337-338,387,
394
Piezoactuator, 40,224-225,417-430
dynamic
compensator:
based on
276-286
absolute stability,
collocated,
116-118,232,260
454
Index
143-145, 120-121,
257-261
matrix,
passim
Resolver,233
Return
identification,
difference,
ratio,
2,95,
380
1
noise distribution
nominal,
254
Return
2, 380
31,115
non-collocated,
template,
116, 119,
232-233
245
392-393
114415,
RTI
tolerances
(uncertainty),
(real
time
interrupt),
154
Rules:
Poleplacement,
Popov,
277 Masons',41-42,
participation,
247-248
329
V. M.,
271
criterion,
Popovstability
Port, 216
to frequency
margins,
filter,
123-124,
176
302
150
Sallen-Key 322
Sample
Sampling
Process
Proof mass,235,360
PSPICE
instability,
145 \302\256,
and hold,
frequency
156
and period,
147-153 modulation),
Saturation,
PWM
(pulse-width
16,
and
178-179,266,
common
293
loops,
299, 399
in local
QFT, 245-247
Quality
factor,
296
Schmitt
trigger,
17-18
298
18-19
Rate gyro,
234,405
feedback,
Sensitivity,
rate Rate-stabilized,
153,
Horowitz,
217
Sensor noise,
111-113
218,
Series feedback,
Series, Laurent,
183
381-382
Rate sensor,234
i?C-impedance
372
2
chart,
Servo,servomotor,
Servomechanism,
Settling
Redundancy,
Regulator:
36, 45
1, 2
54
Reference,5, 19,249,264
Bode
time,
Shaker,
variable
345
ratio,
symmetrical,
Siderostat, 416
Signal-to-noise
195-196
current,
236
25-26
Single-loop
Linear
Quadratic 253-255
(LQR), 253-254
Gaussian
SBVIULINK
227-229,
250
LinearQuadratic
(LQG),
passim
Specifications,
105
11-13
Spectral
three
density,
position,
266, 293
SPICE
models
Resistance:
integral
two-position, 299
of,
or program listings,
89-90,
144-145,
303-304,
309, 320-321
76-77
Index
Stability:
455
Tachometer, 234
212
absolute,
270-271
Thevenin's
theorem,
asymptotic,
global,
270
315-317
Three-valued
function, 325-326
192-193
conditional, 270
270,
Thrusters, 343-345
TID controller,
Time
local, 269
point,
67
Time-response to stepcommand,
passim
15,
Torque,
Tracking,
torque,
213
340-342,
363
388
Star tracker,
234,262
254
Transfer
Transform:
Stateestimate,
State Static
variable attractor,
filter, 177
249
Laplace,
Tustin,
362
149-151
Statevariables,
Static nonlinearity,
Static
268
267
Transformer:
balanced-to-unbalanced,
flowchart,
189
error, 54,73
inductance,
225-226
Transmission
line, 231
accelerometer,
capacitance,
stiffness,
Structural
mass, 97
46,96,
circuits,
effect
308-309,
design,
211-212
Tustin
347
A.,
Subharmonics, 327-329
149,291
Switchedcapacitor
Symmetrical
184-186
transform
149-151
regulator, 195-196
stable,
Two-pole network:
Cauer,
System:
absolutely
180-181
270-271
Foster,
Two-position
180-181
relay,
asymptotically
globally stable,
Two-port, 220
299
2 systems,
270
homing,
12,59,99,185,279,
Type 0,
Type 1, Type
plant,
72-74
282
linear time-variable
238-239
main-vernier,
(LTV), 158,
Unstable
Vanishing
67-69,119-120
39-40,405-406,417
signals, 270
212
matrix,
249
multi-output
multi-input
(MIMO),
43-46,
249
2,268
64-65,108-109,
316,405,
passim
free running,
actuator,
213
single-input
(SISO),
single-output
39-40,405-406,417
Vibration 1
Voice
suppression (isolation),
single-loop,
207,228-229
coil,
tracking, 4-5
with
with
40,206,228-229,416-419 5-6,406
72-74
Voltage
Voltage
parameters, 230
plant,
119-120
231
456
Weight
Weighting
Index
function,
matrix,
79-80, 255
253-254
Yo-yo, 343
Whetstone
Wind
Wind
Zames,G.,255
^-transform (Tustin, bilinear):
C-code,
tables,
disturbance,
up:
152-153
152
336-338
phenomenum, 336
Windows:
H-analysis and
u-synthesis,
255
nonlinear, 178-179
in
multiwindow
controllers,
333-334