MODIFICATION OF CORE -SHAPE FOR IMPROVEMENT OF PRODUCTIVITY OF MALLEABLE IRON PIPE FITTINGS

" (SOCKET 1", 1 )

THESIS Submitted in partial fulfilment for the award of the degree of MASTER OF TECHNOLOGY In PRODUCTION ENGINEERING

Submitted By Krishan Dev 100628181031

PUNJAB TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY JALANDHAR

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MODIFICATION OF CORE -SHAPE FOR IMPROVEMENT OF PRODUCTIVITY OF MALLEABLE IRON PIPE FITTINGS
" (SOCKET 1", 1 )

THESIS Submitted in partial fulfilment for the award of the degree of MASTER OF TECHNOLOGY In PRODUCTION ENGINEERING

Submitted By: Krishan Dev Roll No. 100628181031

Under Guidance of: Er. Gautam Kocher Asst. Prof. Production Engg. Deptt. R.I.E.T Phagwara, Punjab (INDIA)

Department of Mechanical Engineering

RAMGARHIA INSTITUTE OF ENGG. & TECHNOLOGY PHAGWARA. AFFILIATED TO PUNJAB TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY, JALANDHAR

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DECLARATION I hereby certify that the thesis titled: Modification of Core-Shape for Improvement of Productivity of Malleable Iron Pipe Fittings (Socket 1, 1

) in partial fulfilment for

the Award of Degree of Master of Technology in Production Engineering at Ramgarhia Institute of Engineering & Technology, Phagwara is an authentic record of my work carried out under the supervision of Er.Gautam Kocher, Assistant Professor, Mechanical Engineering Department Ramgarhia Institute of Engineering & Technology, Phagwara. I have not submitted the matter presented in the thesis anywhere for the award of degree.

(Krishan Dev) Roll No. 100628181031

CERTIFICATE This is to certify that the above statement made by the candidate is correct to the best of my knowledge and belief.

Er.Gautam Kocher Assistant Professor

The Viva-Voce examination of Krishan Dev (Roll No.100628181031) has been conducted successfully on __________________

Supervisors

HOD

External Examiner

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ABSTRACT The term pipe fittings include a number of fittings e.g. elbow, tee, socket, union etc. These fittings should have chamfering at outlet. The chamfering is provided to assist assembly and prevent damage to the start of thread. The chamfering should have an included angle of 900 50. Presently there is practice of chamfering malleable iron pipe fittings after these have been galvanized. In this work, new shaped cores for malleable iron sockets 1, 1 have been developed. With the use of these new cores, we get sockets after casting which do nt need chamfering anymore. The occurrence of chamfering during casting process saves the valuable time required for chamfering operation. The sockets casted by using these new cores are lighter in weight than the existing sockets. Other dimensions of new sockets are kept unchanged. Thus the number of sockets that can be made from the same amount of molten metal has increased. Thus the scrap production due to chamfering operation has reduced. The labour cost of chamfering has eliminated due to use of these new cores. Thus the productivity has increased due to reduction in time of production, scrap production and labour cost. Keywords: Chamfering, Malleable, Core, Pipe Fittings.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I am heartily grateful to the supreme power almighty with whose blessings I have been able to complete this study. I owe my profound gratitude to my guide Er.Gautam Kocher Assistant Professor Mechanical Engineering Department of Ramgarhia Institute of Engineering. & Technology Phagwara for his inspiring and pains taking supervision, valuable guidance, suggestions at every stage of my thesis. Without his critical review and valuable discussions this work could not have been produced to its present form. I would like to acknowledge the cooperation and help rendered by Er. R.K.Dhawan, Principal and Er. Harvinder Lal Assistant Professor, Ramgarhia Institute of Engg. & Technology. I am also thankful to the proprietors of B.N. Industry, Jalandhar city for providing me infrastructural facilities.

KRISHAN DEV Roll No. 100628181031

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Topic Declaration & Certificate Abstract Acknowledgement Table of Contents List of Figures List of Tables List of Publications

Page III IV V VI-VII VIII-IX X XI

Chapter 1: Introduction 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 1.10 Process of manufacturing of G.I. Malleable Pipe fittings Terminology Types of Fittings Core Core Materials Core Sands Which Require Heat Treatment Core Sand Which Do Not Require Heat Treatment Washes, Pastes, Powders and Other Dressings Core Frames Machine Core making

1-28 2 16 17 19 20 21 23 24 27 28

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Chapter 2: Literature Review Chapter 3: Problem Formulation Chapter 4: Experimental Work 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 Experimental Introduction Work Place Procedure for making core box, Pattern of socket Manual Core making Procedure for making moulding sand, mould and casting of socket Tools & Equipments Required Results

29-35 36 37-53 37 37 37 40 43 47 54-67 61 63 68 68 69-70

Chapter 5: 5.1 5.2

Analysis Discussion

Chapter 6: Conclusion 6.1 Scope of Improvement

References

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LIST OF FIGURES Figure No. Figure 1.1 Figure 1.2 Figure 1.3 Figure 1.4 Figure 1.5 Figure 1.6 Figure 1.7 Figure 4.1 Figure 4.2 Figure 4.3 Figure 4.4 Figure 4.5 Figure 4.6 Figure 4.7 Figure 4.8 Figure 4.9 Figure 4.10 Figure 4.11 Pipe Fittings Induction Furnace Annealing Furnace Equipment for Compression Grinding Machine Shot Blasting Machine Dry Galvanizing Process Core Box Core Box 1 (sectional view) Core Box 1 (sectional view) Pattern of Socket New Cores New Cores of Socket 1 Existing Core of Socket 1 Existing Core of Socket 1 New Core of Socket 1 Making of Moulds New Pieces of Socket Page 1 3 4 5 6 7 12 37 38 38 39 40 41 41 42 42 44 45

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Figure 4.12 Figure 4.13 Figure 4.14 Figure 4.15 Figure 4.16 Figure 4.17 Figure 4.18 Figure 4.19 Figure 4.20 Figure 4.21 Figure 4.22 Figure 4.23 Figure 4.24 Figure 4.25 Figure 4.26 Figure 4.27

Shovel Trowel Trowel Lifter Lifter Strike Off Bar Vent Wire Draw Spike Slick Sprue Cutter Bellow Rectangular Flasks Handle Ladle Handle Ladle Muller Rotary Furnace

47 48 48 48 48 48 49 49 49 50 50 51 51 52 52 53

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LIST OF TABLES Table No. Table 1.3.1 Table 1.3.2 Table 4.3.1 Table 4.3.2 Table 4.4.1 Table 4.4.2 Table 4.4.3 Table 4.4.4 Table 4.4.5 Table 4.5.1 Table 4.5.2 Table 4.5.3 Table 4.5.4 Table 4.5.5 Table 4.5.4 Table 4.6.1 Types of fittings Details of wall Thickness Dimensions of Pattern of socket1 Dimensions of Pattern of socket1 Materials Required for core Dimensions of new core of socket 1 Dimensions of existing core of socket 1 Dimensions of existing core of socket1 Dimensions of new core of socket1 Materials Required for Mould Materials Required for Making socket Dimensions of new piece of socket 1 Dimensions of existing piece of socket 1 Dimensions of new piece of socket 1 Dimensions of existing piece of socket 1 Tools and equipments required Page 17 19 39 39 40 41 42 42 43 44 45 45 46 46 46 47

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LIST OF PUBLICATIONS

1. Optimization of Core Shape for Malleable Iron Pipe Fittings (Socket 1 ), Published in International Journal on Emerging Technologies 3(I):151153(2012)

2. Productivity Improvement technique for Malleable Iron Pipe Fittings (Socket 32 mm), Published in International conference on advancements and futuristic trends in mechanical and materials engineering(PTU,AFTMME -2012) pp. 65-66

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CHAPTER: 1 INTRODUCTION
The term Pipe fittings include a number of fittings e.g. elbow, tee, socket, union etc. These fittings are used to connect pipes. Male fittings are those which have only male threads. Female fittings are those which have only female threads. Male-Female fittings are those which have male and female threads at outlet. We have done work on Blackheart Malleable iron pipe fittings. Malleable iron is a cast iron-carbon alloy, which solidifies in the as-cast condition in a graphite free structure, that is, Total carbon content is present in its combined form as cementite (Fe 3C). The properties of material are obtained by heat treatment. Malleable iron castings may be either white heart, blackheart or pearlitic, according to the chemical composition, Temperature and Time cycle of Annealing process and properties resulting there from. Blackheart Malleable iron castings obtained after annealing in an inert atmosphere have a black fracture. The microstructure developed in the castings is mainly ferritic with temper carbon.

Figure: 1.1 Pipe Fittings

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1.1 PROCESS OF MANUFACTURING G.I. MALLEABLE PIPE FITTINGS

Various steps in manufacturing of pipe fittings are -: Casting Annealing Grinding Shot Blasting Galvanization Machining including Chamfering, Tapping.

1.1.1 Casting: In Casting process pipe fittings are made from molten metal. The molten metal consists of 60% pig iron and 40% steel scrap. The Sand Casting (Green Sand) moulding process utilizes a cope (top half) and drag (bottom half) flask set-up. The mould consists of sand (usually silica) and molasses. When molasses and sand are mixed the bonding characteristics of the clay are developed which binds the sand grains together. When applying pressure to the mould material it can be compacted around a pattern, which is either made of metal or wood, to produce a mould having sufficient rigidity to enable metal to be poured into it to produce a casting. The process also uses coring to create cavities inside the casting. After the molten metal is poured and has cooled, the core is removed. The material costs for the process are low and the sand casting process is exceptionally flexible. The mould material is reclaimable, with between 90 and 95% of the sand being recycled, although new sand and additions are required to make up for the discarded loss. The sand must exhibit the following characteristics: Flow ability: The ability to pack tightly around the pattern. Plastic Deformation: Have the ability to deform slightly without cracking so that the pattern can be withdrawn. Green Strength: Have the ability to support its own weight when stripped from the pattern, and also withstand pressure of molten metal when the mould is cast.

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Permeability: This allows the gases and steam to escape from the mould during casting. The melting process is either carried out in rotary or induction furnace.

Figure: 1.2 Induction Furnace An induction furnace is an electrical furnace in which the heat is applied by induction heating of metal. The advantage of the induction furnace is a clean, energyefficient and well-controllable melting process compared to most other means of metal melting. Most modern foundries use this type of furnace and now also more iron foundries are replacing cupolas with induction furnaces to melt cast iron, as the former emit lots of dust and other pollutants. Induction furnace capacities range from less than one kilogram to one hundred tones capacity and are used to melt iron and steel, copper, aluminium and precious metals. Since no arc or combustion is used, the temperature of the material is no higher than required to melt it; this can prevent loss of valuable alloying elements. The one major drawback to induction furnace usage in a foundry is the lack of refining capacity; charge materials must be clean of oxidation products and of a known composition and some alloying elements may be lost due to oxidation (and must be re-added to the melt). Operating frequencies range from utility frequency (50 or 60 Hz) to 400 kHz or higher, usually depending on the material being melted, the capacity (volume) of the furnace and the melting speed required. Generally, the smaller the volume of the melts, the higher the frequency of the furnace used; this is due to the skin depth which is a measure of the distance an alternating current can penetrate beneath the surface of a conductor. For the same conductivity, the higher frequencies have a shallow skin depth - that is less penetration into the melt. Lower frequencies can generate stirring or turbulence in the metal. A preheated, 1-tonne furnace melting iron can melt cold charge to tapping readiness within an hour. Power supplies range from 10 kW to 15 MW, with melt sizes of 20 kg to 30 tones of
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metal respectively. An operating induction furnace usually emits a hum or whine (due to fluctuating magnetic forces and magnetostriction), the pitch of which can be used by operators to identify whether the furnace is operating correctly or at what power level. 1.1.2 Annealing: The pipe fitting material after casting needs to be annealed. It is very important process in the manufacturing of pipe fittings. The purposes of annealing are:1 To improve ductility 2 To improve malleability 3 To relieve internal stresses

Figure: 1.3 Annealing Furnace Process: Material is first packed in annealing furnace. The annealing furnace is generally made from heat resistant material like fire bricks. The material is generally packed inside rings of steel. The layers of material are separated from each other by sand which acts as a conductor of heat as well as stops products from sticking to each other when heated. The material is heated to a temperature of 960 0C. The material is then held at this temp for about 4-6 hours. The material is then allowed to cool slowly in the furnace itself. The cooling process takes generally 2-3days.After cooling process is over and furnace cools to suitable temp, the material is then taken out. The annealed material is tested for its malleability by the compression test as explained further.

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Compression Test: This test is conducted on the material that has been annealed. It is conducted to judge the malleability of the pipe fittings and shall be carried out as: A ring of 10mm width for socket 1 is cut from one end of the unfinished socket after the annealing process to form a test piece. The outside of the test piece is measured over the points 450 off mould joints. The test piece shall be placed on the equipment as shown in FIG 1.4 [A hand vice can be used in place] and shall be compressed gradually at the rate of 17 to 20mm/min until the amount of compression reaches 5 percent of one original outside diameter. The test should not show any crack on any part of the work piece.

Figure: 1.4 Equipment for Compression 1.1.3 Grinding: A machine tool operation which is mostly used of finish within close tolerances flat, cylindrical or other surfaces by the abrasive action of a high speed grinding wheel is known as Grinding. A machine tool which is usually designed to finish close tolerances flat, cylindrical or other Surfaces by the abrasive action of a high-speed grinding wheel is called grinding machine or grinder. Grinding Action: Grinding wheels are composed of an abrasive material of very high harness, approaching the hardness of diamond held together by a set adhesive substance called, a bond. Upon rapid rotation of the grinding wheel, its grains contacting the work piece remove thin chips from it. The cutting ability of separate grains varies since the form of grains varies and their sharp cutting edges are arranged differently. For this reason, the material being ground is cut by certain grains in the same manner as by the cutting teeth of a milling cutter. Some other grains scrape and scratch the work. Some grains only rub against the surface of the work piece. Consequently, in grinding a metal, not only chips of various forms are produced, but a metallic dust as well is produced .The particles of this dust and pieces of the chips are cemented together at the high temperature generated in grinding. This temperature is
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due to friction of grinding wheel on the ground surface. In grinding without coolant, the temperature is in the zone where chips cut may reach 2000 oC. The harder the material to be ground, the more rapidly the grains of the grinding wheel will be dulled. For this reason, wheels, in which the bond presents less resistance to breaking out of the dulled grains, are used for grinding the harder materials. This facilitates self sharpening of the wheel.

Figure: 1.5 Grinding Machine 1.1.4 Shot Blasting: Shot Blasting is a process in which an abrasive material is forced through a jet nozzle using compressed air pressure. This creates a fast and effective way of cleaning or preparing surfaces for recoating using steel shots. Steel shots are sharp, hard abrasive which is used to prepare surfaces on nonferrous metals before recoating.

Shot blasting machines incorporate 5 basic elements: 1. One or more wheel units 2. A cabinet that contains abrasive material as it performs its cleaning function. 3. A means of presenting the work to be cleaned the abrasive action. 4. A system to recirculate and clean the abrasive, removing sand, fines and contaminants from the abrasive mix before returning effective abrasive to the blast wheels.

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5. Dust collector to remove all dust and abrasive fines from blast machine to provide an environmentally safe operating atmosphere.

The wheel: The key component in airless blast cleaning machine is the abrasivethrowing wheel. The intensity of the radial and tangential forces it develops, the abrasive flow volume and velocity it generates, the accuracy and stability of its blast pattern in the target zoneall are vital to the effectiveness and economy of the blast cleaning operation.

Figure: 1.6 Shot Blasting Machine Blasting: Abrasive from an overhead storage hopper is fed to the centre of the wheel unit which is rotating at high speed. A cast alloy impeller rotates with the wheel and carries the abrasive to an opening in the stationary control cage form where it is discharged onto the bladed wheels. At this point, the abrasive is picked up by the inner ends of the throwing blades and is rapidly accelerated as it moves to the periphery of the wheel. When the blast wheel is properly adjusted and its elements are in good working condition, the full effect of the blast stream will be attained for maximum efficiency. Some of the more common causes and cures of wheel malfunctions are highlighted on these pages.

Control Cage: One of the most critical components in the wheel is the control cage. This governs the directions of the blast out of the wheel and onto the work to be

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cleaned. As little as 10% misadjustments of the hot spot can reduce cleaning efficiency by 25% or more.

Impeller: Of equal importance in maintaining the desired blast pattern is the effect of abrasive wear on the impeller. If the leading edge of any segment of the impeller becomes worn so that it becomes parallel with the blade, the abrasive will cut through the bottom of the blade and could create wear on the steel spacer and blade slots. Not only will the blast pattern be affected but also wheel imbalance will result creating additional serious problems.

Wear Affects Efficiency: Complaints of longer than normal cleaning cycles, inadequate cleaning and high maintenance costs can usually be traced directly to loss of directional control over the blast pattern. Of course, the blast pattern must be set properly in the first place but it can change for a variety of reasons. Wear on the wheel parts which control the Hot Spot control cage, impeller and blades is the chief cause for changes in this pattern. Inspect them regularly and replace them as soon as excessive wear is detected. Ammeter A Tool to Control Cleaning Efficiency: The ammeter on each Shot Blasting machine wheel motor is an important tool to help you control cleaning efficiency. It is the only way of determining at a glance how much abrasive is being thrown by the wheel. For example, on a typical Shot Blasting machine, with a 19 diameter by 2 wide wheels using a 15 HP motor on 440 volts approximately 8 amperes would be used without any abrasive flowing into the wheel. Under full load, 20 amps would be used. The abrasive thrown under full amperage would weigh about 375 pounds per minute or about 31 pounds for each abrasive load ampere. If the wheel were operating at 17 amps rather than 20, there would be over 25% reduction in wheel efficiency. When the wheel is operating at less than full amperage (as stamped on the plate above the ammeter) this usually means there is an insufficient amount of abrasive in the machine but it may also indicate poor adjustment of the wheel parts, it is important that the cause of this low amperage be corrected immediately since longer periods of blasting are required under these conditions to produce the desired cleaning results.

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Wheel Housing: The blast wheel is enclosed within a housing whose primary function is to serve as a safety guard and abrasive seal around the rapidly rotating wheel. To minimize wear on the housing, a series of protective liners are installed inside this housing. The latest protective liner kit, which is recommended for all M, R and RLM wheels, consist of only nine places. Labyrinth seals provide an abrasive tight closure between top, side and end liners. The curved top liner minimizes ricochet of abrasive back into the wheel.

To Reduce Blast Cleaning Wheel Noise: One of the chief sources of noise at the blast machine is the opening where abrasive is fed to the blast wheel. The Sound Abator totally enclosed abrasive control valve, which can be installed on most Shot Blasting machine machines, is specifically designed to combat noise from this source by sealing the opening to the wheel. It can reduce the noise level of a typical blast wheel, measured three inches from the abrasive feed inlet, by 25 decibels (A scale). The Sound Abator also serves another important function by modulating the volume of abrasive flowing to the blast wheel.

The Abrasive Handling System: Every Shot Blasting machine blast cleaning system contains the following elements: 1. The abrasive elevator. 2. A device to move abrasive from the elevator and provide preliminary screening of the abrasive before it enters the separator this may be by gravity or a screened rotary screw conveyor. 3. An air wash abrasive separator to remove all dust, fines and contaminants from the abrasive. 4. A hopper to collect refuse removed for the abrasive. 5. An abrasive control device (Sound Abator) to control and meter flow of abrasive to the blast wheel. 6. A means of moving spent abrasive, sand and other contaminants to the elevator. This could be a helicoids screw, shaker conveyor or gravity.

Ventilation and Environmental Protection: Since the blasting action removes sand, scale, rust, etc. from work and reduces the material removed to varying degrees of
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fineness, an adequate and properly operating dust collector system is necessary for efficient operation of the blast equipment. The predetermined flow of air from each of the vent points on the Shot Blasting machine must exist for proper operation of the machine. Although the failure to maintain this flow will soon become obvious through a reduction in cleaning efficiency and dusting at the machine, a periodic check on air volumes will preclude the possibility of an unobserved gradual degradation of operation. The dust collector is also the air source for the abrasive separator. The condition and efficiency of the dust collector have an important influence on separator efficiency. When proper ventilation is being experienced at each venting point, static pressure readings (with a manometer) should be taken in each of the vent pipes and these readings recorded as standards for future comparison. Should any future readings show material change in static pressures, it indicates an upset in the condition of air flow, the cause of which should be investigated immediately.

Importance of Abrasive: The final element of blast cleaning is the abrasive itself. Three important factors should be considered to evaluate the performance of the abrasive: 1. The amount of cleaning the abrasive will do in a given length of time. 2. The quality of the cleaning. 3. The cost of performing a given amount of work. This performance is determined by abrasive breakdown characteristics, the abrasive size distribution in the blast machine and the abrasive hardness. Abrasive breakdown rate affects the shape of the abrasive in the operating mix, and therefore the maintenance on the blast equipment. Abrasive size distribution is also influenced by the breakdown rate. The smallest size abrasive possible should be selected for each job. The size of the abrasive selected, however, is not the factor influencing consumption. Rather, it is the size at which the abrasive is removed for the machine. Abrasive hardness is the third major consideration in arriving at proper product selection. The harder, tougher and more resistant the abrasive, the more useful energy it will impart to the cleaning task. When possible, use a low breakdown and high hardness product, characteristics found in Shot Blasting machine Steel Abrasive, for lowest maintenance costs and maximum cleaning efficiency.
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1.1.5 Hot Dip Galvanization: The galvanizing process consists of three basic steps: surface preparation, galvanizing and inspection.

Surface Preparation: Surface preparation is the most important step in the application of any coating. In most instances incorrect or inadequate surface preparation is generally the cause of a coating failing before its expected service lifetime. The surface preparation step in the galvanizing process has its own built-in means of quality control in that zinc simply will not metallurgically react with a steel surface that is not perfectly clean. Any failures or inadequacies in surface preparation will immediately be apparent when the steel is withdrawn from the molten zinc because the unclean areas will remain uncoated and immediate corrective action must be taken. Surface preparation for galvanizing typically consists of three steps: caustic cleaning, acid pickling and fluxing.

Caustic Cleaning: A hot alkali solution often is used to remove organic contaminants such as dirt, paint markings, grease and oil from the metal surface. Epoxies, vinyls, asphalt or welding slag must be removed before galvanizing by grit-blasting, sandblasting or other mechanical means. Pickling: Scale and rust normally are removed from the steel surface by pickling in a dilute solution of hot sulphuric acid or ambient temperature hydrochloric acid. Surface preparation also can be accomplished using abrasive cleaning as an alternative to or in conjunction with chemical cleaning. Abrasive cleaning is a process whereby sand, metallic shot or grit is propelled against the steel material by air blasts or rapidly rotating wheels.

Fluxing: Fluxing is the final surface preparation step in the galvanizing process. Fluxing removes oxides and prevents further oxides from forming on the surface of the metal prior to galvanizing. The method for applying the flux depends upon whether the galvanizer uses the wet or dry galvanizing process.

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In the dry galvanizing process (see Figure 1.7), the steel or iron is dipped or prefluxed in an aqueous solution of zinc ammonium chloride. The material is then dried prior to immersion in molten zinc. In the wet galvanizing process, a blanket of liquid zinc ammonium chloride is floated on top of the molten zinc. The iron or steel being galvanized passes through the flux on its way into the molten zinc.

Figure: 1.7 Dry Galvanizing Process

Galvanizing: In this step, the material is completely immersed in a bath consisting of a minimum of 98% pure molten zinc. The bath temperature is maintained at about 840
0

F (449 0C). Pipe Fittings items are immersed in the bath until they reach bath

temperature. The zinc metal then reacts with the iron on the steel surface to form a zinc/iron inter-metallic alloy. The articles are withdrawn slowly from the galvanizing bath and the excess zinc is removed by draining, vibrating and/or centrifuging. The metallurgical reactions that result in the formation and structure of the zinc/iron alloy layers continue after the articles are withdrawn from the bath, as long as these articles are near the bath temperature. The articles are cooled in either water or ambient air immediately after withdrawal from the bath. Because the galvanizing process involves total material immersion, it is a complete process; all surfaces are coated. Galvanizing provides both outside and inside protection for hollow structu res. The galvanizers ability to work in any type of weather allows a higher degree of assurance of on-time delivery. Working under these circumstances, galvanizing can be completed quickly and with short lead times. Two- or three-day turnaround times for galvanizing are common.

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Inspection: The two properties of the hot-dip galvanized coating that are closely scrutinized after galvanizing are coating thickness and coating appearance. A variety of simple physical and laboratory tests may be performed to determine thickness, uniformity, adherence and appearance. Products are galvanized according to IS 67451972. The mass of zinc coated pipe fittings is determined by stripping method as explained:

Stripping Solution: Dissolve 20g of antimony trioxide (Sb2O3) or 32g of antimony trichloride (SbCl3) in 1000ml of concentrated hydrochloric acid (sp gravity 1.16). Immediately before test, prepare the stripping solution by adding 5ml of the solution prepared under to 100ml of concentrated hydrochloric acid (sp gravity 1.16). Mix well. Procedure: Weigh the cleaned test piece whose mass is less than 200 g nearest to 0.01 g, for test piece whose mass is between 300 to 1000 g, weigh to nearest 0.1 g and for masses over 1000 g, the accuracy of weighing shall be nearest to 0.5 g. After weighing immerse each test piece singly in test solution prepared and allow remaining there until the violent evolution of hydrogen ceases, and only a few bubbles are being evolved. This requires about 15 to 30 seconds except in the case of sherardized coatings which require somewhat longer time. Calculation

Where M=mass of zinc coating in g/m2of surface, M1=original mass in g of the test piece, M2=mass in g of the stripped test piece, and t= thickness of the stripped test piece in mm. Performance of Galvanized Coatings: Galvanized coatings have a proven performance under numerous environmental conditions. The corrosion resistance of zinc coatings is determined primarily by the thickness of the coating but varies with the severity of environmental conditions. Environments in which galvanized steel and
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iron are commonly used include indoor and outdoor atmospheres, the storage of hundreds of different chemicals, in fresh water, sea water, soils, and/or concrete. Because of the many years galvanizing has been used for corrosion protection, a wealth of real-world, long-term exposure data on zinc coating performance in a wide variety of environments is available.

Atmospheric Exposure: Zinc oxide is the initial corrosion product of zinc in relatively dry air. This is formed by a reaction between the zinc and atmospheric oxygen. In the presence of moisture, this can be converted to zinc hydroxide. The zinc hydroxide and zinc oxide further react with carbon dioxide in the air to form zinc carbonate. The zinc carbonate film is tightly adherent and relatively insoluble. It is primarily responsible for the excellent and long-lasting corrosion protection provided by the galvanized coating in most atmospheric environments. Exposure atmospheres may be divided into five types. They are:

Moderately Industrial: These environments generally are the most aggressive in terms of corrosion. Air emissions may contain some sulphides and phosphates that cause the most rapid zinc coating consumption. Automobile, truck and plant exhaust are examples of these emissions. Most city or urban area atmospheres are classified as moderately industrial.

Suburban: These atmospheres are generally less corrosive than moderately industrial areas. As the term suggests, they are found in the largely residential perimeter communities of urban or city areas.

Temperate Marine: The service life of galvanized coatings in marine environments is influenced by proximity to the coastline and prevailing wind direction and intensity. In marine air, zinc corrosion follows a different mechanism; chlorides from sea spray can react with the normally protective zinc corrosion products to form soluble zinc chlorides. When these chlorides are washed away, fresh zinc is exposed to corrosion. The addition of calcium or magnesium salts to the surface of the zinc can extend the service life of the coating.

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Tropical Marine: These environments are similar to temperate marine atmospheres except they are found in warmer climates. Possibly because many tropical areas are often relatively far removed from heavy industrial or even moderately industrial areas, tropical marine climates tend to be somewhat less corrosive than temperate marine climates.

Rural: These are usually the least aggressive of the five atmospheric types. This is primarily due to the relatively low level of sulphur and other emissions found in such environments.

Corrosion Performance in Fresh Water: Galvanizing is successfully used to protect steel in fresh water exposure. Fresh water refers t o all forms of water except sea water. Fresh water may be classified according to its origin or application. Included are hot and cold domestic, industrial, river, lake and canal waters. Corrosion of zinc in fresh water is a complex process controlled largely by impurities in the water. Even rain water contains oxygen, nitrogen, carbon dioxide and other dissolved gases, in addition to dust and smoke particles. Ground water carries microorganisms, eroded soil, decaying vegetation, dissolved salts of calcium, magnesium, iron, and manganese, and suspended colloidal matter. All of these substances and other factors such as pH, temperature and motion affect the structure and composition of the corrosion products formed on the exposed zinc surface. Relatively small differences in fresh water content or conditions can produce relatively substantial changes in corrosion products and rate. Thus, there is no simple rule governing the corrosion rate of zinc in fresh water. Hard water is much less corrosive than soft water. Under conditions of moderate or high water hardness, a natural scale of insoluble salts tends to form on the galvanized surface. These combine with zinc to form a protective barrier of calcium carbonate and basic zinc carbonate.

Corrosion Performance in Soils: More than 200 different types of soils have been identified and are categorized according to texture, colour and natural drainage. Coarse and textured soils, such as gravel and sand, permit free circulation of air, and the process of corrosion may closely resemble atmospheric corrosion. Clay and silt soils have a fine texture and hold water, resulting in poor aeration and drainage. The corrosion process in such soils may resemble the corrosion process in water.
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1.1.6 Machining: After galvanization, the pipe fittings are chamfered. Then sockets are threaded with the help of taps. In this way entire manufacturing process is over.

1.2 TERMINOLOGY:
Various terms used in pipe fitting are as given below: Fittings- The connecting pieces connecting one or more parts. Equal Fittings- Where all outlets are of the same size. Unequal Fittings- When two or more outlets are of different size irrespective of the number of outlets. Male Fittings- Fittings having only male threads. Female Fittings- Fittings having female threads on the outlet. Male-Female Fittings- Fittings having male and female threads at the outlets. Reinforcement- An additional material at the outside diameter of an internally threaded fitting in the form of band or bead. Rib- Locally of axially aligned additional material on the outside or inside of a fitting for assistance in the assembly or manufacturing. Run- Two principal axially aligned outlets of a tee or cross. Branch- Side outlet(s) of a tee or cross. Chamfer- Removal of a conical portion at the entrance of a thread to assist assembly and prevent damage to the start of the thread. Face-to-Face Dimension- Distance between two parallel faces of axially aligned outlet of a fitting. Face-to-Centre Dimension- Distance from the face of an outlet to the central axis of angularly disposed outlet.

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 Centre-to-Centre Dimension- Distance between the two parallel central axis of the outlet of a fitting.

1.3 TYPES OF FITTINGS:

It is denoted as elbow, bend, tee, cross, etc. the diagrammatic representation of the various types of fittings is given in table-1.3.1 Table 1.3.1: Type of Fittings [26]

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Detail of wall thickness of various fittings is as shown in table-1.3.2

Table 1.3.2: Details of Wall Thickness Sr. No. Size Designation Wall Thickness Basic Size (1) I. II. III. IV. V. VI. VII. VIII. IX. X. XI. (2) 1 1 1 2 2 3 4 5 6 (3) 2.5 3.0 3.0 3.5 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 6.0 6.5 7.5 Tolerances (4) -0.5 -0.7 -0.7 -0.7 -0.7 -0.7 -1.0 -1.0 -1.0 -1.0 -1.0

No limit for plus tolerance

1.4 CORE:
A core is that portion of the mould which forms the hollow interior of the casting or hole through the casting. The core is a mass of dry sand which is prepared separately: baked in an oven and then placed in the mould. The core gives hollow portion in the casting which cannot be readily obtained by the mould. Core is used in moulding where big size hole is to be obtained in the casting. Small size hole cannot be obtained in the casting by core. In pit moulding, the entire mould is made of core. Sometimes, the cores are also used to reduce metal erosion in gates and runners to retard foreign
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matter in the melt and to provide a cap on the top of the mould. 1.4.1 Characteristics of Cores: The core should be sufficiently strong and hard so that it may be able to support its own weight and withstand force of molten metal. It should be permeable to escape core gases. It should be able to withstand high temperatures of the molten metal. It should be capable of collapsing shortly after the molten metal has solidified around it. It should produce minimum amount of gas when in contact with molten metal. 1.4.2 Core Making: The cores are made separately in a core box. The core boxes are made of wood or metal and designed in several types to aid in-core removal. The various steps in core making are ramming of core sand in the box, venting, reinforcing, removing of core from the box, baking, pasting and sizing. The cores are made either by hand or by machines designed for this purpose. The cores of symmetrica1 cross-section can be made by extruding core sand mixture through a suitable die opening. Usually the cores are made by core blowing machine for production work. 1.4.3 Core Baking or Core Drying: After making the cores, they are dried to drive off the moisture and to harden the binder. The cores are dried in ovens equipped with drawers, shelves or other holding devices. They are dried in batches or continuously over moving shelves. The heat in oven is produced by burning oil or by electric resistance. The core drying time depends upon the quantity of moisture and binder used in the sand, size of the core and temperature of the oven.

1.5 CORE MATERIALS:

Dry sand cores are usually made of clear river sand which is mixed with a binder and then baked to give the desired strength. 1.5.1 Core Sand: Core sand must have the proper type of strength, porosity or permeability, smooth surface and sufficient refractoriness. Strength depends on the type of sand and binding material used. Sharper grains of sand will bond together and form a stronger core. Porosity or permeability depends on the size of the sand grain and its freedom from fines in between grains. Smooth surface of a core results in a

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smooth surface of the opening in the casting. In the attempt to produce a smooth surface, care must be used not to go too far since permeability is lost as the fineness of the sand increases. Refractory property is possessed by sand to a great extent. A binder must be selected that will withstand the temperature required of the core. A thin coating of graphite or similar material adds considerably to its ability to withstand the intense heat momentarily. It is not desirable to have the core remain hard after the metal has cooled. The binding material used should disintegrate or be burn out by the prolonged contact with the hot metal so that the core may be removed easily from the finished casting. This so prevents shrinkage cracks during cooling.

1.5.2 Core Binders. It has already been stated that silica sand is used for preparing cores. This sand has no natural bond. Hence some other materials are added to it which acts as binders. The binder cement the sand grains and give sufficient strength to cores to prevent breakage, distortion, erosion during core making, moulding and casting. Various commercial binders are available in the market like core oil, resins, sulphite, liquor, molasses and proteins. The core oil mainly contains vegetable oil like linseed oil or corn oil. Core oils are very economical and produce better cores. Rosin and pitch are thermoplastic binders. The powdered binder is mixed with the core-sand. On heating, the binder liquefies and coats the grain sands. On cooling the dispersed liquid binds the sand grains together fulfilling a united mass. Rosin is a form of resin. Petroleum and coal for resins are also used as binders. Pitch compounded with dextrin and steam coal is used for large cores. Phenol and urea-formaldehyde, thermosetting plastic core binders are more suitable. Molasses give hardness to the core but lacks in strength. Protein binders like gelation, glue, casein, etc. are used where easily collapsible cores are required. Sulphite liquor is used where high strength, hardness, quick drying and high temperature resistance is required.

1.6 CORE SANDS WHICH REQUIRE HEAT TREATMENT:

For the strengthening of cores include oil-bonded, clay-bonded, and resin-bonded sand mixture (the bonding resins in the last type of sand are fast-curing synthetic

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resins). Oil-bonded and clay-bonded core sands show satisfactory properties are comparatively cheap and suitable for use in hand and machine production of cores in sand blowing, jolt and squeeze machines. The cores made from these required thermal heating to impart strength, which lengthens the production process, lowers the operating efficiency of the foundry and generates a need for installing driers. That is why such core sands find application in piecework and short run work. Resin bounded core sands are made with synthetic resin binders of Class B-1 (carbamidebase), B-3 (lignin) and Class A-I (powdered Bakelite). These binders are capable of hardening at 230-250C for a short time (2 o r 3 min to 30-50s depending on the composition and size of cores). Catalysts (both organic and inorganic acids) may be added to speed up the process of curing. The core sand composition also includes such additives as ferric oxide and crystalline graphite which improve the heat conduction and increase the specific heat of the sand all thereby enable the core to heat through and harden more speedily. Other additives diminish stickiness and improve flow ability. The core sand hardens directly in a metal core box heated by a gas or by electrical heaters. These are the so-called hot boxes. The sand hardens as a result of policondensation of a binder (resins of B-1 and B-3 classes) or its polymerization (powdered Bakelite) the core gains high strength, up to 100 kgf cm-2 and B-3 class resins have low green strength, they flow easily and thus readily fill the cavities of complex core boxes. The cores are taken off the boxes already hard. So the castings show improved dimensional accuracy. The core sands deform well, shake out with ease from the castings but have insufficient thermal stability. Resin-bonded sands go into the production of cores of all classes for casting thin-walled small pieces 150 to 200 kg in mass from iron, steel and non-ferrous alloys. These sands are prepared from washed sands of the first and second classes, which are more expensive than common quartz sands; the cost of binders is high too, 400 to 800 rubles per ton. The cores are moulded in complex, costly metal boxes, so that resin-bonded sands are envisaged for use in high volume and high run production. In this case it pays to automatize the production process with a view to increasing the efficiency of manufacture, cutting down the costs and improving the quality of castings. Along with the sands mentioned above, powdered Bakelite-bonded sands are used for the manufacture of hollow shell-type cores.

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1.7 CORE SAND WHICH DO NOT REQUIRE FOR HEAT TREATMENT

Core sands which do not call for heat treatment are most promising since they allow the foundry to dispense with the heating of boxes and to simplify substantially the production process and moulding equipment. Cores can be made in wooden, plastic and metal core boxes. These sands are highly suitable for use in various types of production. Synthetic resin-bonded cold-curing core sands contain such binders as carbamide, carbamide-furan, phenol-furan; phenol formaldehyde resins (binders of B-1 class). Catalysts are added to speed up the hardening of binders. These are commonly organic and inorganic acids such as benzenesulphonic, orthophosphoric and nitric acids. The core sands feature high flow ability and strength from 14.7 to 15.20 kgf cm-2 and also good gas permeability, deformability and collapsibility. An important characteristic of a sand mixture is its life that is the time during which the sand still remains mouldable. The life of sands can be controlled by varying the amount of catalyst added to the sand. As the quantity of catalyst increases, the sand life shortens. So, knowing the time it takes to fill the box and ram the sand, we can add such an amount of catalyst as is necessary to provide the desired span of life for the sand. As the sand hardens, its strength gradually grows. The rate of strength growth is directly proportional to the added amount of catalyst. The maximum value of strength for the given sand decreases with the increased quantity of catalyst. As the thermal stability of sand decreases, burning-on becomes more probable. Phenolic and phenol-furan resins feature the highest thermal stability and make suitable binders of sands for steel castings. Carbamide-furan resins have lower thermal stability. They serve as binders of iron core sands. Carbamide resins have the lowest thermal stability. These are the binders of core sands for casting non-ferrous alloys. Cold curing sands has a lower strength than sands curable in hot boxes and therefore they largely go into the production of cores of the third and fifth classes. The setting time these sands take until they acquire a maximum strength comes to few hours. The merit of cold-curing sands is they allow for the production of cores in wooden, plastic, and metal boxes. That is why they have found the widest applications in the batch production of moderate sized and large sized castings from iron and steel. The use of
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these sands makes it possible to exclude drying, mechanize the core production process, improve the quality of castings and increase the output. Cold-curing silica-bonded sands include core sand mixtures with a liquid silica glass as a binder. The cores are dried by blowing carbon dioxide through the rammed sand. They can also harden under heat. The core sands have high strength, good gas permeability, but show lowed formability and poor collapsibility. Sawdust (aboutl.5%) and asbestos powder (up to 5 %) make the cores more deformable and collapsible. These core sands are applicable in the piece and batch production of steel and iron castings. Liquid self-set core sands which compare in properties to the previously described sands have come into extensive use in the batch production of large castings. The use of these sands enables the foundries to raise the output per man-hour, mechanize the process of production of cores for casting parts both piecemeal and in small lots and improve the quality of castings

1.8 WASHES, PASTES, POWDERS AND OTHER DRESSINGS:

Core and mould washes and pastes are called upon to prevent metal penetration or burning -on, increase the surface strength, decreases the crumbliness of mould and core walls and provide clean surfaces and smooth casting appearance. Antipenetration washes consist of refractory materials which form the base and bindingagents. The washes applied to the surface of mould and cores form a strong refractory coating which keeps the molten metal and its oxides from penetrating into pores between sand grains and thus eliminates the burnt- on-effect. 1.8.1 Moulding Washes: These paints must conform to the following requirements: (l) Have a high melting temperature to sand up to the fusion effect of contacting metal. (2) Produce no fusible compositions when in contact with the metal. (3) Remain invariable in composition during preparation, storage and when in use. (4) Have good covering capacity. (5) Form a strong skin on mould and core walls, free of cracks after drying. (6) Firmly adhere to the mould. . .

(7) contain as little foreign matter and difficulty available materials as possible. The choice of washes depends on the kind of metal cast, mass of the casting and
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moulding method. Washes for large iron castings contain such anti-penetration materials as black lead with the additions of bentonite and binders: In washes for small and medium size iron castings, silica flour mixed with coal and ground coke substitutes for graphite. Washes for steel castings usually consist of silica flour or zirconium silicate which serves as a refractory base, mixed with the same-binders as those used for iron castings. In casting iron parts, it is advisable to add 5% coal and charcoal dust to the wash in order to create-a reducing atmosphere in the mould; silica flour, graphite and ground anthracite account for 95% of this reducing wash. The compositions of washes for moulds and cores of iron castings are described here. The steel moulding washes of the 2nd, 3rd and 4th types are put to use for cores in castings steel parts with walls 20 to 40 mm in thickness. In painting cores or moulds, it is advisable to stir the wash regularly to make it stay in suspension. When applying the wash on cores by dipping, one should shake off the excess of wash to avoid influxes and insure against sealing of the vents, it is good practice to check the coat tightness and its surface hardness by applying the wash to sample moulds and cores or to standard specimens. To enable a better sticking of the wash to the surface of moulds and cores, foundries make use of priming paints consisting of 25% lignin, 75% water and 25% pectic gel. The paints are applied by the common methods. Air drying washes speed up the process of drying of coated moulds and cores. The composition of a wash of this type includes 10% crystalline graphite, 12% black lead, 3.5% polyvinyl butyral and 74.5% solvent 646 (or a solution of ethyl acetate and alcohol in the proportion 1. to 1). This wash is applied to moulds and cores for iron castings. In the wash used for steel castings, graphite is changed by zircon. 1.8.2 Pastes: If washes do not give a sufficiently smooth casting surface nor ensure the desired dimensional accuracy of casting, it can be useful to apply pastes on to the surface of cores to exclude surface blemishes. Pastes find rare uses, however, because they involve manual labour. Coating pastes are made anhydrous. They usually consist of four parts crystalline graphite and one part vegetable oil (by volume). Sometime lignin serves as a binder Instead of the expensive oil and talc together with graphite makes the base. After applying the paste, the cores are dried at 220-240C.It is advisable to use oil-free pastes of the following composition (% by mass): 50% talc, 15% chamotte, 25% crystalline graphite, and 15% clay. The dry powder is then
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dissolved in 0.6 or 0.51 of water per kg dry mass. If the paste is applied to a hot core, the coat does not require additional drying.

1.8.3 Putties: These find use for repairing purposes and for sealing seams which may form while cementing the cores. It is only the cores which have small cracks and dents in unimportant places that are subject to repair. The cores with open fissures and large fractured parts are considered non-repairable. The putty of the following composition is most popular: 65% grade 2KOO63 sand, 25% crystalline graphite, and 10% moulding clay screened through No. 016 sieve. The ingredients-are properly mixed, and the mass is then blended with water (O.31kg water for 1 kg powder); powdered soap is added in an amount of 0.5% by mass to give plasticity. Putty applied to the cores for steel castings consists of 40% refractory clay, 30% silica flour and 30% quartz sand; the powder is then mixed with 12% lignin and 13% water. 1.8.4 Core Cements (Pastes): These serve to .bond together core boxes. The composition commonly includes water-soluble binders, clay and bentonite. In wide use are the core pastes of the following compositions: (1) 0.50% lignin, 50% moulding day, 20% water (the rupture strength of dry paste is not less than 685 kPa, or kgf cm-2); (2) 40% dextrin and 60% clay mixed with water (65 parts water to 100 parts by mass of powder). 1.8.5 Parting Powders and Dusts: Patterns and core boxes are dusted with facings to prevent the moulding sand from sticking to their surfaces. Powders for in a waterimpermeable coat and thus exclude sand adhesion. Foundries use a lycopodium powder and its substitutes for the purpose. The lycopodium powder is a white to yellow substance which is light in mass, fluid and fine-grained (it fully passes through No. 0063; No. 055 catches 5% powder). This powder is costly and not readily available. 1.8.6 Artificial Dusts: (substitutes for lycopodium powder) are produced from fine powders of tripoli, dolomite and other similar materials. The powders are treated with paraffin, fat, and wax to provide a thin film on powder grains. Other materials which prevent sand sticking are kerosene with crystalline graphite or the mixture of 10%

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oleic acid and 90% kerosene. Heating a pattern plate to 40C also helps eliminate sticking. The film of kerosene on the pattern surface precludes its moistening with water and thus excludes sand adhesion. For economy, the mixture may consist of 50% kerosene and 50% black oil. Heating the tern dries its Surface and thus impedes moisture condensation if the sand is still hot.

1.9 CORE FRAMES:

These are the reinforcement means moulded into cores to increase strength. The frames are made from wire or shaped cast iron plates. The core--reinforcement must fulfil the following requirements: give sufficient strength and rigidity to the core, not spring or come off the core sand (soft, annealed wire will do for the purpose), deform readily to allow for contraction of the casting, not stand in the way of vent holes being made and permit easy shakeout of the core from the casting.Thin cores are reinforced with I or 12 mm wire inserted into the core boxes during core moulding. Small and moderately sized cores are made with 6 to 10 mm wire frames whose separate parts are fastened with a thinner wire. The reinforcement means for large sand-clay cores are iron and steel cast frames with 6 to 10 mm cast in wire inserts. The framework for medium-sized and large cores includes lifting arrangements by which the cores are suspended on the crane for delivering them to the assembly site. Wire and cast frames are made in various shapes. Wire frames are laid along the length in the core. They should terminate at least 2 or 3 mm short of the core ends. The frame should pass into the prints to add to the core strength. If the core has two prints located opposite each other the frame should extend into both. The wire that makes up the frame proper is the basic wire and which runs around the frame periphery and strengthens individual parts of the core is the binding wire. It is impermissible to place the frame wire too close to or directly on the surface or the core otherwise the frame may weld to the casting and cause the formation of blowholes and hot tears. The distance from the wire frame to the core surface must be 5 to 10 mm. For cast frames, this distance in cores measuring 500 x 500 mm, (500 1000) x (500 - 1000) mm and over 1000 x 1000mm ranges from 20 to 30 mm, 25 to 30 mm and from 30 to 35 mm respectively. If a core should have only one frame, this is placed in the centre of its cross section. Several frames should be positioned uniformly over the core cross section. If a core
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has a curved axis, it is better to set up a few thin frames instead of a single thick frame in order to facilitate the core shakeout from the casting. It is undesirable to use core reinforcement in the mass production of castings since this complicates the core making process and the core shake out procedure. The required strength of cores is often possible to achieve by using high strength core sand. 1.9.1 Making a Large Core in Turnout Core Box with Loose Side: In the preliminary operations, the core maker first prepares a cast frame (grid) for core moulding. For this, he bends wire about the contour of the core working cavity and checks it for the right position by inserting the frame into the box. After this done, he cleans the box of the adhered sand, wipes its working surface with a kerosene-moisten drag, fills the box with core sand to a depth of 50 - 70 mm and rams it. The core maker now inserts the clay coated frame into the box and sets up steel pins or hooks to reinforce the protruding and narrow portions of the core. Then he lines the working surface of the box with core sand and rams it into narrow pockets and recesses. Next he inserts into the box, a wooden piece to form a cavity for coke ash and fills the box around the wooden piece with sand and compacts it. The core maker then removes the piece, makes vent holes, fills the cavity with coke ash and sand and rams the core. Using the necessary handling equipment, he places a drying plate on the top and inverts the box. Further, the core maker raps the box to facilitate the removal of the upper part. After this is done; he gently takes aside loose pieces of the box. Now he finishes up the core, checks it for compactness, repair the portions damaged in the core removal operation, rounds off and fillets sharp angles and inserts metal pins into thin parts and at corners. The finished core is conveyed for drying and then for coating.

1.10 MACHINE CORE MAKING:

In the mass and large-lot production of castings, cores are made on core making machines which at present are progressively introduced into foundries producing castings in small lots. Core making machines increase the productivity of labour, make easier the work of operators and produce cores of high accuracy, largely from sands of lowered green strength which flow readily into deep pockets of the box. There is a variety of core making machines available to the foundry such as core blowing, slinging, jarring, squeezing, core shooter, screw-feed (extrusion) types and others.
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CHAPTER: 2 LITERATURE REVIEW

A comprehensive review of the work reported by various researchers in the field of improving productivity of castings is described as

C. Li and B. G. Thomas [2000] investigated the theoretical limits of the shell thickness, casting speed, and productivity of the steel continuous casting process as a function of steel grade, section size, and mould length, assuming ideal liquid flux lubrication. The predictions are based on the maximum casting speed that is just able to produce a thin shell with the critical thickness needed to withstand the ferrostatic pressure below the mould and avoid a longitudinal rupture from excessive creep stain. The calculations are performed with a finite-element thermal-stress model that has been validated with numerical solutions and plant data. The critical shell thickness is predicted to be on the order of 3 mm. It is surprisingly insensitive to steel grade and superheat, but decreases with decreasing section size and increasing working mould length. The theoretical maximum casting speed and potential productivity both increase with decreasing critical shell thickness. The theoretical limits to casting speed are predicted to be extremely high, exceeding 21 m/min for a conventional 700mm working mould length, 200-mm square bloom mould, which corresponds to 3.5 million tonnes / year. The infeasibility of these limits in practice is likely due to other problems such as achieving shell thickness uniformity and liquid flux lubrication. Attention should return to focussing on these other problems which limit productivity. This work suggests that if shortening mould length can solve lubrication, taper, and other problems, then it should be explored as a potential means to increase productivity. A uniform shell would be strong enough to withstand the ferrostatic pressure even with a shorter mould length and a higher casting speed. To overcome the other problems which limit casting speed and productivity, design changes regarding fluid flow, mould powder, mould taper, and machine length are also required. This should be the concern of the designers of future continuous casting processes.

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Thomas Schroeder [2004] reviewed the formulations of starch and dextrin based adhesives used in making cores. Various advantages of these adhesives are availability and low costs, stability of quality, insolubility in oils and fats, non-toxic and biodegradable nature, heat resistance.

Nicolas Perry, Magali Mauchand, Alain Bernard [2004] described that the costs controls is a major decision tool in the competitiveness of the companies. After defining the problems related to this control difficulties, they presented an approach using a concept of cost entity related to the design and realization activities of the product. They tried to apply this approach to the fields of the sand casting foundry. This work high lightened the enterprise modelling difficulties (limits of a global cost modelling) and some specifics limitations of the tool used for this development. A Cost Entity is a grouping of costs associated with the resources consumed by an activity. L.A. Dobrazaski, M. Krupiski, J.H. Sokolowski, P. Zarychta and Wlodarczyk Fligier [2006] presented methodology of the automatic quality based on analysis of images obtained with the X-ray defect detection, employing the artificial intelligence tools. The methodologies developed made identification and classification of defects possible and the appropriate process control made it possible to reduce them and to eliminate them at least in part. The reduction of defects in casting resulted in increase of productivity. J. Dako, M. Holtzer, R. Dako [2007] presented a paper which dealt with such problems of scientific and development research concerning the reclamation of used foundry sands as: management of used sands generated in foundry production, recommendation of selection of effective reclamation techniques and assessment methods of the reclaimed material quality, identification methods and an environmental impact assessment of spent sands from foundry technologies, moulding and core sands of an increased reclamability and a decreased harmfulness for environment. The reclamation of used sand helps in increasing productivity.

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A. Fedoryszyn [2007] observed that an increase of productivity requires a wide-scale mechanisation of the equipment used for casting production on modern foundry moulding lines. Modernisation of foundries is expected to help in creation of optimum conditions for casting production, satisfying all the requirements regarding quantity and quality of castings produced. Modern designs of moulding lines were described, including moulding machines and the related equipment.

F. Peters, R. Voigt, S. Z. Ou and C. Beckermann [2007] described that steel castings produced in sand moulds, the expansion of the sand has a significant impact on the final size and shape of the casting. Experiments were conducted using a cylindrical casting to study this effect for different sands (silica and zircon) and different sand binder systems (phenolic urethane and sodium silicate). The type of sand has a significant effect on the final casting dimensions, in particular because the expansion of silica sand can be irreversible. The sand expansion effect is enhanced by the presence of sodium silicate binder. In addition, the size of the core strongly affects the internal and external dimensions of the resulting casting.

Liu Weihua, Li Yingmin, Qu Xueliang, Liu Xiuling [2008] proposed productivity improvement by preparing a new aqueous alkaline resol phenol-formaldehyde resin from phenol and formaldehyde using NaOH as catalyst; With addition of some crosslinking agents, after passing carbon dioxide gas through the resin bonded sand, high as-gassed strength and 24 h strength are achieved.

E.O. Olakanmi and A.O. Arome [2009] contributed to productivity improvement by characterising core-binding properties of beniseed and melon oils with a view to finding alternatives to the imported foundry core oils that deplete Nigerias foreign exchange. Clay and sand samples collected from Niger and Plateau states respectively were blended with varying proportions of core-oils in order to assess their functional properties. Baked strength of 3,223.41 kNm-2 obtained for the oils suggest that the oil samples can be used as substitute for imported core oil. On the basis of ranking according to functional properties, beniseed oil was found to possess more desirable functional properties in terms of bulk density, strength and collapsibility. Practical applications of these core oils reveal that they are suitable for castings of large, medium and small sizes. On the basis of results obtained in this study both beniseed
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oil and melon oil can be used as substitutes for imported core oils like linseed oil, corn oil and fish oil. Beniseed core oil binder was found to be the most desirable for core making because it was able to impart higher bulk density, green and baked strength to the core mixes. Moreover, its collapsibility was faster than that of the melon core oil binder. Slavomr Pek, Rudolf Miiko, Dagmar Fedkov, Jana Bidulsk [2009] evaluated the relationships between the chemical composition, the dendrite structure parameters, the casting technology parameters and the occurrence of defects in continuously cast slabs. For calculation of the selected indices, the sulphur and phosphorus content, the overheating temperature, the casting speed, the dendrite arm spacing, and the central zone share were chosen. These indices determined the susceptibility of steel to the defect formation. The defects were formed in steels with a high overheating degree, a low share of central zone, high dendrite arm spacing and an exceeded recommended sulphur and phosphorus content.

A.K.M.B. Rashid [2010] presented methods of controlling hot tears in casting in order to increase productivity. He proposed the use of local chilling of hot spots, reduction in casting temperature to reduce hot tearing. He also suggested that fins are a major source casting constraint. So casting should be checked straight out of mould, not after machining. Lakshamanan Singaramu [2010] The Taguchi method is a powerful problem solving technique for improving process performance, yield and productivity. Green sand process involves many process parameters which affect the quality of the castings produced. An analysis of significant process parameters of green sand casting process has been made in this paper. The parameters considered were Green strength, moisture content, permeability and mould hardness. The outcome of the paper was the optimised process parameters of the green sand casting process which lead to improved process performance and thus minimum casting defects. R. Venkataraman [2010] presented innovative ideas for improving foundry productivity and casting quality. He discussed case studies in areas like design of product, methoding practice, pattern manufacturing, moulding, core making, melting and pouring and post processing after casting evaluation. He suggested time study of
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processes like drag moulding time, cope moulding time, core setting time, box closing time and pouring time. Implementation of new ideas is helpful for increasing productivity by reducing cycle time. Metal spurting can be prevented by a mobile cover moving along with ladle covering top area of mould. This ensures safety of people , plant and facilities. Nishikant M Ejrekar, Vicky Kapur [2011] contributed to productivity improvement by presenting a practical approach to coating technology in production of high quality castings. Refractory coatings play an important role in preventing many casting defects like metal penetration and fusion. The main objective while using a refractory coating is to apply a uniform coating layer free from runs, drips and cracks. Anil Barik [2011] discussed effects and controlling measures of directional solidification in castings towards quality improvements. Directional solidification can be achieved through use of riser, chills, chaplets, insulating pads and sleeves for risers, mouldable exothermic sleeves.

O.S.I. Fayomi, O.O. Ajayi and A.P.I. Popoola [2011] investigated the use of local oils, namely groundnut oil, cotton seed oil and palm oil with Nigeria local clay and silica sand for the production of foundry cores on varying composition. Addition of cassava starch, local clay, oil and moisture to sand are used to produce strong and efficient core. These oils were tested and it was found that the three could be used to produce foundry cores. The best Composition was found to be core comprising 2.5% starch, 2.5% clay, 8% oil, 8% moisture and 68% sand and baked at 150 oC for 1 h 30min. The tensile strength of the core was as high as 600 KN/m2. The study have been used to consider the effectiveness and suitability of Nigeria Ochadamu sand and clay with other bounding binder proportion of groundnut oil, cotton oil, palm oil, and starch variation. The results showed after tensile analysis that the sand and oils employed were good binders if baked between temperature of 150 and 200C and with 2.5% starch content.

J.S. Colten [2011] suggested solution for various casting defects to increase productivity. Shrinkage can amount to 5-10% by volume. So part and mould need to be designed to take this amount into consideration. Porosity is caused due to entrapped gases and shrinkage. Remedies suggested for gas bubbles are controlled
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atmosphere, proper venting, and proper design of runners, gates and addition metallic elements to react with gases. Solutions for porosity/shrinkage are use of runners and use of chills.

R. Vinayagasundaram, V.R. Nedunchezhian [2012] studied the application of modern technology in foundries and its impact on productivity and profitability. In order to produce the cast components in foundries with high quality and at lowest cost the foundry owners have to introduce modern technology to improve the productivity. This study brought out how technically qualified entrepreneurs of selected foundries have carried out technological innovations, mainly due to their self-motivation and self-efforts. Introducing the modern technology in the process and changing product designs, as desired or directed by the customers resulted in cost reduction, quality and productivity improvement. These incremental innovations have enabled the selected foundries to enhance competitiveness, grow in the domestic market and penetrate the international market and grow in size over time. And have achieved technological innovations successfully based on their technological capability and customer needs, enabling them to sail through the competitive environment.

Bharathi Rajkumar k. and Gukan Rajaram [2012] implemented lean philosophy in foundry with a spotlight on increasing productivity. The purpose was to develop kaizens to eliminate waste in the foundry. In this case study, the industry could not meet the customer requirements due to the increasing cycle time of the individual process and rework due to excess rejection. Processing time was more in core making, mould making and finishing section of the foundry. Time study and motion study was conducted and the respective operation idle time and busy time were taken. This paper described some of the quality improvement tasks that reduced the rejection rate which also affect the productivity. The improvement of work process was executed by eliminating and combining of work process, which reduces production time, number of process and space utilisation. The results of process were analysed by conducting time study after implementation with cost benefit analysis to show the financial benefits.

Noberto T. Rizzo Downes, Ramon D. Duque proposed ten steps for increasing yield in ductile iron castings. These included use of ceramic foam, shorter gating
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systems, non-turbulent gating system gating design, thinner runners and ingates, and proper and efficient use of risers. Many of these techniques were reported in the literature. It was suggested that cost-savings achieved by application of these steps could be significantly higher than those achieved by conventional scrap reduction procedures.

These researchers have suggested various means to increase productivity in foundry. These researches emphasize use of easily available core binders, proper composition of contents of cores to reduce wastage and production cost of cores. Use of refractory coating on mould and core, use of proper sand binders of mould are other means of having defect free castings. Vinayagasundaram and Nedunchezhian emphasized the use of modern technology in foundries to increase productivity. These modern technologies include Just in Time, Lean Manufacturing, and Enterprise Resource Planning. Technological challenges for foundry according to him are optimal design of pattern and core to minimize scrap.

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CHAPTER: 3 PROBLEM FORMULATION

A lot of researches have been done by many researchers in the field of casting. There is large scope of improvements in this field. Researches in the field of foundry include core making techniques, use of different type of binders for core making, mould making techniques, use of different techniques to improve quality of sand casting etc. Major foundries are producing auto parts, sanitary fittings, pipe fittings and machine parts. Pipe fitting industry is a small scale industry. Pipe fittings are mainly made of malleable iron. These products are first casted in foundry. Productivity in these industries is low because of non-optimal shape of core boxes in which cores are made. It has been seen that pattern and core makers engaged in these industries are not technically aware of productivity improvement techniques. So a need is felt to make a core of optimum shape in order to improve productivity.

OBJECTIVES
Various Objectives of our work are:1) To reduce time of chamfering and labour cost. 2) To reduce the cutting tool cost for chamfering. 3) To increase productivity by reducing scrap production due to chamfering.

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CHAPTER: 4 EXPERIMENTAL WORK

4.1 EXPERIMENT INTRODUCTION:

In this present work a new shaped core for socket has to be developed and cast a socket using this core. The effect of using this core on labour cost of chamfering, scrap production during chamfering, time of chamfering and cutting tool cost will be studied.

4.2 WORK PLACE:

The experimental work has been done in B.N. Industry, Jalandhar city.

4.3 PROCEDURE FOR MAKING CORE BOX, PATTERN OF SOCKET:

The core box and pattern were first made from wood on lathe machine in the machine shop. The core box and pattern were then got casted of aluminium metal. These were then machined to the dimensions and shape. The core box is a split type two piece core box.

Figure: 4.1 Core Box

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Figure: 4.2 Core Box 1 (sectional view)*

Figure: 4.3 Core Box 1 (sectional view)*

*All dimension are in mm.

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Figure: 4.4 Pattern of Socket Table: 4.3.1 Dimensions of Pattern of Socket 1

Sr. No. 1. 2. 3.

Dimension Length of Pattern excluding core print Length of Pattern including core print Diameter of Pattern

Pattern of Socket 43 mm 61 mm 35 mm

Table: 4.3.2 Dimensions of Pattern of Socket 1

Sr. No. 1. 2. 3.

Dimension Length of Pattern excluding core print Length of Pattern including core print Diameter of Pattern

Pattern of Socket 50.5 mm 70.5 mm 43.5 mm

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4.4 MANUAL CORE MAKING:

In the single piece and small-lot production of castings, it is common practice to make cores manually in core boxes and with the aid of templates. The production of cores in core boxes is the most widespread method which is rather simple and effective. First the box halves are fastened with clamps and the box is placed vertically on the bench. The sand is then gradually rammed, layer after layer, into the box, it is trimmed off level along the top face, a reinforcement wire is inserted, the core is vented and then the box is gently knocked with a mallet to facilitate the core removal. It should be remembered that too sharp and hard blows can deform the core. Next the clamps are loosened; one box half is lifted, the core is withdrawn from the box, and placed it on plate for transportation to an oven. Here it is dried properly. The core is now ready for use.

Table: 4.4.1 Materials Required for Core Sr. No. 1 2 3 Material Sand Dextrin Water Quantity 60% 40% 65 parts water to 100 parts by mass of powder.

Figure: 4.5 New Cores

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Figure: 4.6 New Core of socket 1* Table: 4.4.2 Dimensions of New Core of socket 1

Sr. No. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Dimension Length of core including core print Length of core excluding print core Diameter of Core Diameter of core at ends Length of core print Diameter of core print

New Core 61mm 43mm 29mm 31mm 9mm 29mm

Figure: 4.7 Existing Core of Socket 1*

*All dimensions are in mm. -41-

Table: 4.4.3 Dimensions of Existing Core of socket 1 Sr. No. 1. 2. 3. 4. Dimension Length of core excluding core print Length of core including print core Length of core print Diameter of core Existing Core 43mm 61mm 9mm 29mm

Figure: 4.8 Existing Core of Socket 1 * Table: 4.4.4 Dimensions of Existing Core of socket 1 Sr. No. 1. 2. 3. 4. Dimension Length of core excluding core print Length of core including print core Length of core print Diameter of core Existing Core 50.5mm 70.5mm 10mm 36.5mm

Figure: 4.9 New Core for socket 1 *

*All dimensions are in mm.

Table: 4.4.5 Dimensions of New Core of socket 1

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Sr. No. 1 2 3 4 5 6.

Dimension Length of core including core print Length of core excluding print core Diameter of Core Diameter of core at ends Length of core print Diameter of core print

New Core 70.5mm 50.5mm 36.5mm 38.5mm 10mm 29mm

4.5 PROCEDURE FOR MAKING MOULDING SAND, MOULD AND CASTING OF SOCKET:
None of the natural sand possesses the required qualities to the required extent. They may lack in one or more of these properties which we have to make up by artificial means to make the sand suitable for use. Sand mixing is the process through which we add those materials to the sand which are rich in such characteristics which the sand lacks. Sand to be used in moulding should be properly conditioned before use in order to obtain good castings, since most of the defects which occur in castings are due to improper conditioning of the sand. It holds good equally for the new as well as old or used sand. Proper conditioning means the uniform distribution of the clay bond over the said grains, even distribution and proper control of the moisture content in the sand and sorting out the foreign materials like nails, gaggers and other metal pieces from the sand by ridding and a thorough mixing of the entire sand mass. Even today above operation is carried out by hand in most of the small foundries. Since no testing equipment is normally available in such foundries, the sand condition is judged by moulders themselves by virtue of their practical experience only and the quality of the castings produced in such foundries entirely depends upon this factor. A common physical test, which is generally followed by most of, moulders, for judging the sand condition is to grip a handful of the prepared foundry sand and then relieve the pressure of the fingers. The sand mass thus produced is broken into two pieces by hand and the edges formed at the broken section are carefully observed. If there is no deformation in the edges the sand is supposed to properly conditioned. If the upper surface of the broken pieces appears to be setting, down gradually, as if it is being compressed, it indicates high moisture content. Gradual separation of sand grains, as if they are being sprinkled from the parted surfaces, indicate a weak-bond and low
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moisture content. Mixing of sand by hand is performed by first collecting the sand, together with the other constituents to be mixed in it, in the form of a help and then pouring adequate amount of water on to it. after keeping it as such for some time it is turned upside down by means of a shovel and the operation repeated several times to ensure thorough mixing of different constituents. It is then riddled to remove the foreign material from it and thus it is ready to use. The sand for mould is properly mixed with molasses in Muller. This sand is used for making the mould. The core is placed in the drag. The cope and drag are then fitted together and clamped properly. Molten metal is then poured into it through sprue. After sometime, the casting gets cooled. In this way we get the required specimen.

Figure: 4.10 Making of Moulds

Table: 4.5.1 Materials Required for Mould

Sr. No. 1 2 3

Material Sand Molasses Coal dust

Table: 4.5.2 Materials Required for Making Socket

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Sr. No. 1 2

Material Pig Iron Mild steel scrap

Quantity 60% 40%

Figure: 4.11 New pieces of Socket Table: 4.5.3 Dimensions of new piece of Socket 1

Sr. No. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Dimension Length Thickness Outer Dia. Inner Dia. Weight

New piece of socket 43mm 3mm 35mm 29mm 172gms

Table: 4.5.4 Dimensions of Existing piece of Socket 1

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Sr. No. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Dimension Length Thickness Outer Dia. Inner Dia. Weight

Existing piece of socket 43mm 3mm 35mm 29mm 180gms

Table: 4.5.5 Dimensions of New piece of Socket 1 Sr. No. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Dimension Length Thickness Outer Dia. Inner Dia. Weight New piece of socket 50.5mm 3.5mm 43.5mm 36.5mm 274gms

Table: 4.5.6 Dimensions of Existing piece of Socket 1 Sr. No. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Dimension Length Thickness Outer Dia. Inner Dia. Weight Existing piece of socket 50.5mm 3.5mm 43.5mm 36.5mm 286gms

4.6 TOOLS & EQUIPMENTS REQUIRED:

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Table: 4.6.1 Tools & Equipments Required Sr. No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 Name of Tool/Equipment Shovel Trowels Lifters Strike off bar Vent wire Draw spike Licks Sprue pin Sprue cutter Bellows Files Moulding boxes Ladle Riddle Muller Furnace Rotary blower Weighing scale Weights

The function of various tools &equipments is explained as: 4.6.1 Shovel: It consists of iron pan with a wooden handle. It can be used for mixing and conditioning the sand and then transferring the mixture in some container.

Figure: 4.12 Shovel

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4.6.2 Trowels: These are used for finishing flat surfaces and corners inside a mould. Common shapes of trowels are shown as under. They are made of iron with a wooden handle.

Figure: 4.13 Trowel

Figure: 4.14 Trowel

4.6.3 Lifter: A lifter is a finishing tool used for repairing the mould and finishing the mould sand. Lifter is also used for removing loose sand from mould.

4.6.4 Strike off bar: It is a flat bar, made of wood or iron to strike off the excess sand from the top of a box after ramming. Its one edge made bevelled and the surface perfectly smooth and plane.

Figure: 4.17 Strike Off Bar

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4.6.5 Vent wire: It is a thin steel rod or wire carrying pointed edge at one end and a wooden handle or a bent loop at the other. After ramming and striking off the excess sand it is used to make small holes, called vents, in the sand mould to allow the exit of gases and steam during casting.

Figure: 4.18 Vent wire

4.6.6 Draw Spike: It is a tapered steel rod having a loop or ring at its one end and a sharp point at the other. It is used to tap and draw patterns from the mould.

Figure: 4.19 Draw Spike

4.6.7 Slicks: They are used for repairing and finishing the mould surfaces and edges after the pattern has been withdrawn. The commonly used slicks are heart and leaf, square and heart, spoon and bead and heart and spoon.

Figure: 4.20 Slick

4.6.8 Sprue Pin: it is a tapered rod of wood or iron which is embedded in the sand and later withdrawn to produce a hole, called runner, through which the molten metal is poured into the mould. 4.6.9 Sprue Cutter: It is also used for the same purpose as a sprue pin but there is a marked difference between their uses in that the cutter is used to produce the hole after ramming the mould. It is in the form of a tapered hollow tube which is inserted in the sand to produce the hole.

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Figure: 4.21 Sprue Cutter

4.6.10 Bellow: It is used to blow but the loose or unwanted sand from the Surface and cavity of the mould.

Figure: 4.22 Bellow

4.6.11 Moulding Boxes or Flasks: The moulding boxes or flasks used in sand moulding are of two types: (a) Closed moulding boxes. (b) Open type of snap flasks. These boxes used in sand moulding may be made of wood, cast iron or steel. They consist of two or more parts. The lower part is called drag, the upper part cope and all the intermediate parts, if used, cheeks. All the parts are individually equipped with suitable means for clamping during pouring. Wooden flasks are generally used in green sand moulding. Dry sand moulds always require metallic _boxes because they are heated for drying. Large and heavy boxes are made from cast iron or steel and carry handles and grips as they are manipulated by cranes or hoists etc. The closed metallic flasks may have a rectangular or round shape.

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Figure: 4.23 Rectangular flasks

A snap flask is hinged in one corner and it is rectangular in shape and it is made of wood. It is used for bench moulding and number .of moulds can be made from same set of flask. 4.6.12 Ladles: They are used to receive molten metal from the melting furnace and pour the same into the mould. Their size is designated, by their metal holding capacity. Small hand shank ladles, used by a single moulder, are provided with only one handle and are made in different capacities up to a maximum of 20 kg. Medium and large size ladles are provided with handles on both sides to be handled by two moulders. They are also made in different sizes with their capacity varying from 30 kg to 150 kg. A typical hand shank ladle is shown.

Figure: 4.24 Handle Ladle

Extremely large sizes, with capacities ranging from 250 kg to 1000 kg are found in crane ladles. Geared crane ladles can hold even more than 1000 kg of molten metal. They facilitate a better pouring control than the ungeared ladles and ensure more safety for workers.

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All the ladles, irrespective of their size, consist of an outer casing made of steel or plate bent in proper shape and then welded. Inside this casing is provided a refractory lining. At its top the casing is .shaped to have a controlled and well-directed flow of molten metal.

Figure: 4.25 Handle Ladle

4.6.13 Muller

Figure: 4.26 Muller

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It is possible to mix foundry sand by hand, and quite successful moulds have been made using this method for many generations, but the amateur foundry man will not have the space or time to laboriously mix small quantities of sand to the quality that a Muller can.

4.6.14 Rotary Furnace

Figure: 4.27 Rotary Furnace The rotary melting furnace is the most flexible and universal design of equipment to recycle aluminium scrap. Due to the nature of its operation all scrap forms can be recycled with good results. The rotary furnace is rotated either by a friction drive wheel system or a positive rack/pinion or chain drive depending upon the size and production requirements. A single door is utilized with either vertical, horizontal rotation or a pendulum type swing arrangement depending upon the plant layout. A high efficiency fume extraction system is provided either fixed directly on the furnace which tilts with the furnace and exhausts through a rotary joint or simply by a high level fume collection hood / housing. Rotary furnaces have been traditionally static but over recent years tilting designs have been implemented due to the many advantages with regard to reduced cycle times, yields and consumptions. Mechatherm engineer rotary furnaces to suit all applications and client requirements. We can supply oxy-fuel burner system, cold air burner operating on either fuel oil or gas.
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CHAPTER: 5 RESULTS
1. Reduction in Scrap Production for socket 1: - For calculating the reduction in scrap production due to chamfering, first the weights of sockets casted by using existing and new core are noted. These two types of weights of sockets are compared for calculating the reduction in scrap production. For this purpose, 25 sockets of each type are weighed and their weights are as given below:

Socket No.

Weight of socket 1 in gms. with existing core 180 180 181 180 179 182 180 180 180 179 180 181 180 181 182 182 180 179 179 179 179 179 179 179 180 4500 180

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 Total weight of 25 sockets Weight per socket

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Socket No.

Weight of socket 1 in gms. with new core 172 172 172 172 173 173 172 172 172 172 172 171 172 172 172 173 173 173 171 171 171 172 171 172 172 3300 172

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 Total weight of 25 sockets. Weight per socket

Difference in weight of one socket (with existing and new core) Reduction in scrap production % age of scrap reduction

= = = =

8gms 8gms 8 x 100/180 4.4%

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2. Reduction in Scrap Production for socket 1 : - Reduction in scrap production is calculated in the same manner which has been used previously in case of socket 1 and is explained as below:

Socket No.

Weight of socket 1 in gms. With existing core

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 Total weight of 25 sockets

286 286 286 286 286 288 286 286 287 286 286 286 286 286 286 287 287 286 286 285 285 284 286 285 286 7150

Weight per socket

286

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Socket No

Weight of socket 1 in gms with new core

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 Total weight of 25 sockets

274 274 274 274 274 274 274 274 275 275 274 274 274 274 274 274 274 274 275 274 274 272 274 273 274 6850

Weight per socket

274

Difference in weight of one socket (reduction in scrap) Reduction in scrap production % age of scrap reduction

= = = =

12gms 12gms 12 x 100/286 4.2%

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3.

Elimination of Chamfering Time: - The sockets casted by using new cores do not require chamfering. The time consumed for chamfering sockets casted by using existing cores is saved. The time required for chamfering a lot of 10 sockets each casted by using existing cores is observed and is given as below:

Observation No.

Time of chamfering Socket 1 with existing core 576 seconds 576 seconds 579 seconds 575 seconds 574 seconds 2880 seconds

1 2 3 4 5 Total

Observation No.

Time of chamfering Socket 1 with existing core

1 2 3 4 5 Total

578 seconds 576 seconds 576 seconds 575 seconds 574 seconds 2880 seconds

Chamfering time for both the sizes of sockets is equal. Therefore reduction of time is the same in both cases. Time of chamfering for 10 sockets (with existing core) Time of chamfering for 10 sockets (with new core) Therefore reduction in time of chamfering for 10 sockets = = = 576 seconds Nil 576 seconds

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4. Reduction in Labour Cost of Chamfering: - The sockets casted by using new cores do not require any labour cost because chamfering is not needed in this case. The labour cost for chamfering sockets casted by using existing cores is saved. The labour cost required for chamfering sockets casted by using existing cores is saved. The labour cost required for chamfering sockets casted by using existing cores is calculated by taking observations on hourly basis on a machine which is used for chamfering as given below: Observation No. 1 2 3 4 Total No. of Sockets 1 Chamfered 66 64 60 60 250

Observation No. 1 2 3 4 Total

No. of Sockets 1 Chamfered 60 62 66 62 250

Total number of sockets chamfered in 4 hours is the same in both cases. Therefore reduction in labour cost also the same. No. of pieces chamfered in 4 hours No. of pieces chamfered in 8 hours Labour cost of 8 hours Labour cost per piece (with existing core) Labour cost per piece (with New core) Reduction in labour cost per piece
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= = = = = =

250 500 Rs. 225 45 paisa/piece Nil 45paisa/piece

5. Reduction in Cutting Tool Cost for Chamfering: - The sockets casted by using new cores do not require chamfering. Therefore there is no cutting cost for chamfering in this case. The cutting tool cost for chamfering sockets casted by using existing cores is saved. The cutting tool cost required for chamfering sockets casted by using existing cores is calculated as given below: For Socket 1 No. of cutting bits used Cost of 3 cutting bits No. of sockets chamfered (with existing core) Cost of chamfering of sockets (with existing core) = = = = = Cost of chamfering (with new core) Reduction in expenses on cutting tool For Socket 1 No. of cutting bits used Cost of 3 cutting bits No. of sockets chamfered (with existing core) Cost of chamfering of sockets (with existing core) = = = = = No. of sockets chamfered (with existing core) Cost of chamfering (with new core) Reduction in expenses on cutting tool = = = 3 Rs. 360 5000 360 X 100/5000 7.2 paisa/socket 5000 Nil 7.2 paisa/socket = = 3 Rs. 360 5000 360 X 100/5000 7.2 paisa/socket Nil 7.2 paisa/socket

Cutting tool cost of chamfering for both the sizes of socket is equal. Therefore reduction in cutting tool cost is the same in both cases.

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5.1 ANALYSIS
The overall cost estimation method is used for analysis of results. Cost estimation includes only scrap cost, labour cost of chamfering, cutting tool cost for chamfering. Only these elements are included because these are the element which get affected due to use of new core. Other cost elements remain the same for both cases. In case of casting with existing core one Ton casting contains 5555 sockets of 1 . Labour cost of chamfering 1 Ton sockets = = Cutting tool cost of chamfering 1 Ton sockets = = Scrap produced during chamfering 1 Ton sockets Scrap cost = = = COST ANALYSIS EXISTING CORE vs. NEW CORE Summary of cost (in Rupees) Per Ton for socket 1 Using existing core Rs. Per Ton 1435 2500 400 4335 Using New core Rs. Per Ton 0 0 0 0 5555 x 45 249975 paisa 2500Rs. 5555 x 7.2 39996 paisa 400Rs. 44 Kg. 44 x 35 1435 Rs.

Cost Element Scrap in chamfering Labour cost of chamfering Cutting tool cost of chamfering Total cost Profit = 4335 Rs.

By comparing the new core with the existing core use, the overall profit per ton increased by Rs. 4335 in case of adopting new core in socket 1.

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In case of casting with existing core one Ton casting contains 3496 sockets 1 Labour cost of chamfering 1 Ton sockets = = Cutting tool cost of chamfering 1 Ton sockets = = Scrap produced during chamfering 1 Ton sockets Scrap cost = = = 3496 x 45 157320 paisa 1573Rs. 3496 x 7.2 25171.2 paisa 251Rs. 42 Kg. 42 x 35 1470 Rs.

Summary of cost (in Rupees) Per Ton for socket 1 Using existing core Rs. Per Ton 1470 1573 251 3294 Using New core Rs. Per Ton 0 0 0 0

Cost Element Scrap in chamfering Labour cost of chamfering Cutting tool cost of chamfering Total cost Profit = 3294 Rs.

By comparing the new core with the existing core use, the overall profit per ton increased by Rs. 3294 in case of adopting new core in socket 1 . So it shows the advantages of using new cores.

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5.2 DISCUSSION
Scrap Production :- Experiments carried out with new shaped core show that scrap due to chamfering is not produced using these cores because chamfering is not needed in this case whereas scrap produced due to chamfering increases with an increase in number of pieces in case of using existing core. The variation in scrap production with existing and new core for socket 1 is shown graphically as:

Scrap Weight in Gms.

900 800 700 600 500 400 300 200 100 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Pieces with existing core Pieces with new shaped core

Number of Pieces Graph 1- Plot of scrap production during chamfering for pieces with existing and new core for socket 1

8000 7000 6000 5000 4000 3000 2000 1000 0 10 20 30 40

Weight in gms.

Pieces with existing core Pieces with new shaped core

No. Of Pieces Graph 2- Bar graph showing weight of socket 1 with existing and new shaped core

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Scrap Weight in Gms.

1400 1200 1000 800 600 400 200 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Pieces with existing core pieces with new shaped core

No. Of Pieces Graph 3- Plot of scrap production during chamfering for pieces with existing and new core for socket 1

12000 10000 8000 6000 4000 2000 0 10 20 30 40 Pieces with existing core Pieces with new shaped core

Weight in gms.

No. Of Pieces Graph 4- Bar graph showing weight of socket 1 .with existing and new shaped core.

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Labour Cost of Chamfering :- Our experiments have shown that there is no labour cost of chamfering using new core. With existing core labour cost is 45 paisa/piece. The variation in labour cost of chamfering for existing and new core products is shown graphically as:

500 400

Labour cost in Rs.

300 200 100 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000

Pieces with existing core Pieces with new shaped core

Number of Pieces Graph 5- Plot showing labour cost of chamfering for pieces with existing and new core for sockets 1 and 1 .

400 350 300 250 200 150 100 50 0 200 400 600 800

Labour cost in Rs.

Pieces with existing core Pieces with new shaped core

No. Of Pieces Graph 6 Bar graph showing labour cost of chamfering for pieces with existing and new core for sockets 1 and 1 .

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Cutting Tool Cost of Chamfering :- Our experiments have shown that there is no cutting tool cost of chamfering using new core. With existing core cutting tool cost is 7.2 paisa/piece. The variation in cutting tool cost of chamfering for existing and new core products is shown graphically as:
400 350 300

Cutting tool cost in Rs.

250 200 150 100 50 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000

Pieces with existing core Pieces with new shaped core

Number of Pieces Graph 7 Plot showing cutting tool cost during chamfering for pieces with existing and new core for sockets 1 and 1

400 350 300

Cutting tool cost in Rs.

250 200 150 100 50 0 1250 2500 3750 5000

pieces with existing core pieces with new core

Number of Pieces Graph 8 Bar graph showing cutting tool cost during chamfering for pieces with existing and new core for sockets 1 and 1 .

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Time of Chamfering :- Our experiments have shown that no time is needed for chamfering using new core. With existing core time consumed is 576 seconds for 10 pieces. The variation in time of chamfering for existing and new core products is shown graphically as:

7000

Time of chamfering in seconds

6000 5000 4000 3000 2000 1000 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 Pieces with existing core Pieces with new shaped core

Number of Pieces Graph 9 Plot showing time of chamfering for pieces with existing and new core for sockets 1 and 1 .

400

Time of chamfering in seconds

350 300 250 200 150 100 50 0 1250 2500 3750 5000
Pieces with new shaped core Pieces with existing core

Number of pieces Graph 10 Bar graph showing time of chamfering for pieces with existing and new core for sockets 1 and 1 .

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CHAPTER: 6 CONCLUSION
1) Experiments have shown that no scrap is produced due to chamfering in case of using new core. It is because chamfering is not needed in this case. Scrap produced during chamfering in case of existing core with socket 1 is 8 gm. per piece. Hence in case of metal casting of 2 tonnes there is saving of 88 kilogram of scrap. The market cost of scrap is about Rs. 22 per kilogram, whereas the cost of malleable casting is Rs. 62 per kilogram. Hence there can be saving Rs. 3520 in that case. In case of socket 1 , there is saving of 12 gm per piece. 2) No time is needed for chamfering in case of using new core whereas time of chamfering n case of using existing core is 576 seconds for 10 pieces. 3) There is no cutting tool cost in case of using new core. In case of using existing core, the cost of cutting tools for chamfering is Rs. 360 for 5000 pieces. 4) There is no labour cost for chamfering in case of using new core. In case of using existing core the labour cost is 45 paisa per piece. The productivity has improved with the use of new shaped core due to reduction in scrap production, time needed for chamfering, cutting tool cost and labour cost for chamfering.

6.1 SCOPE OF IMPROVEMENT

The chamfering work is needed in all other pipe fittings including Tee, Elbow and Union of different sizes. There is scope of eliminating the need for chamfering these items also. New shaped cores for these items need to be developed. Productivity of pipe fitting industry will improve to great extent by using such cores.

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REFERENCES
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