COMMUNICATION

Structure Objectives Introduction Meaning and Definition Elements of a Communication System Essentials of Communication Types of Communication Media of Communication Factors Inhibiting Communication Let Us Sum Up Key Words Some Useful Books Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises

OBJECTIVES
After studying the unit you will be able to: describe the meaning and importance of communication in administration identify the main elements and essentials of communication differentiate between different types of communication discuss different media of communication; and Analyze the factors that inhibit effective communication

INTRODUCTION
In administrative theory and organization, communication is one of the most widely discussed but less clearly analyzed topics. According to Fred Luthans some estimates of the extent of its use go up to about three fourths of an active human beings life and even higher proportions of a typical managers time". Ineffective communication has been identified as the root cause of many problems in the world. Hicks and Gullet have suggested that the heart of all the world's problems - at least of men with each otheris man's inability to communicate as well as he thinks he is communication. The concept of communication is interrelated with concepts such as motivation, coordination, leadership, structure; and decision making in organizations. In this unit we will study communication, its importance, types, media, as well as the factors that inhibit proper communications.

MEANING AND DEFINITION

Communication is one of the main principles of organization. It has been considered as an effective tool for achieving the goals of an organization. All organizations, may be

small or big, simple or complex, general or technical, have the necessity of communication network. It plays a vital role, as functioning of all other important principles of the organization depends upon its availability and affectivity. Moreover, communication is the only means for inspiring a persons enthusiastic and cooperative contacts. Pfeiffer considers the communication as "the heart of management", while Millet describes it as the "blood stream of an administrative organization", Writing about communication, Ordway Tead has declared that the underlying aim of communication has been defined as that process whereby one person makes his ideas and feelings known to another. Peter Drucker has defined communication as "the ability of the various functioned groups within the enterprise to understand each other and each other's functions and concerns'" Communication is difficult to achieve, if the top management does not possess the imagination and the knowledge to understand the behavior of personnel working at the lower rungs. The following are some of the definitions: "Communication is the processes of affecting an inter-change of understand between two or more people". "Communication is the mutual inter-change of ideas by any effective means". " The imparting or inter-change of thoughts, opinions, or information by speech, writing, or signs". "Communication is the arrangement of environmental stimuli to produce certain desired behavior on the part of the organism". The term communication is, generally applied in the sense of imparting knowledge or transmitting information, however, in its wider connotation, it includes inter-change of thoughts, partaking of ideas and a sense of participating and sharing. Thus, the essence of communication is, not information but understanding. In some organizations it may be internal, external and interpersonal. In the former aspect, communication connects the organization with its employees while the second aspect deals with the relationship of the organization with the public and is called "public relations". The last one is concerned with the relationship among the organizations employees. In brief communication means "shared understanding of a shared purpose".

ELEMENTS OF A COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

There are five main elements of a communication system. The first among these is a Communicator, he may be called as the speaker or sender. In some government agencies, the management comprising the administrator and his subordinates is the communicator. All the orders and instructions are issued in the name of the Chief Executive. He himself does not prepare them but these are generally prepared and issued by the staff assisting him. This practice preserves singleness of purpose and direction to avoid conflicting instructions. Transmission procedure is the second element. There may be certain media of communication, such as teletype, wire, radio and mail in an organization for communicating messages. It is the responsibility of transmission centre to ensure proper delivery and distribution of messages in the organization.

Form of the communication is the third element and it may be an order, regulation, manual, letter, report, ruling, circular, etc. Usually, Forms of communication fall into three primary types: rules and regulations governing relationship of an organization with its clientele, these must be known to all the employees of the organization, so that these should be properly carried out; operating instructions of administration including various orders, circulars, manuals and official letters prescribing internal organization and procedures and certain informational media such as the house journal the training hand book, the periodic report, and other methods to convey the general tone of management. Recipient is the fourth element and for this, an organization should ensure that the Information and instruction being obtained by persons arc determined by the organizations. Every communication should reach to all those who are to be involved in effecting their behavior. Desired response is recognized as the fifth and last element of communication. Under it, the higher authority requires evidence of compliance with instructions through formal replies and reports to determine whether the information or instruction has influenced the administrative behavior of the recipients or not. It is possible through upward flow of requisite information in an organization.

ESSENTIALS OF COMMUNICATION
It is worthwhile to mention the essentials of effective communication. According to Terry the eight factors essential to make communication effective are (a) Inform yourself fully: (b) Establish a mutual trust in each other; (c) find a common ground of experience; (d) Use mutual known words; (e) Have regard to context; (f) Secure and hold the receiver's attention; (g) Employ examples and use visual aids; and (h) Practice delaying reactions. But Richards and Nielander opine that it should reflect the policies, programs and practices of management. Millet has given seven factors viz.., communication should be clear, consistent with the expectation of the recipient, adequate, timely, uniform, flexible and acceptable. It is essential for the management to clarify ideas before communicating them. To convey precise information to the recipients it is desired that they should be clearly communicated the course of the decision, mode of action and the time element etc. Such clarity will help establishing effective communication. Secondly, the communicator should examine within himself as to why is he communicating and what the main objective of this communication is. Thirdly, communication must convey adequate information to stimulate the expected response from the recipients. Prior assessment should be made of the total physical and

human settings which are to be involved. Voluminous and repetitive communication should be avoided. Fourthly, communication must be timely to provide sufficient time to the recipient to act upon it. Fifthly, uniformity should be maintained in the nature of communication in such cases where the recipients are expected to behave or act in a similar way. Sixthly, communication should permit flexibility. "Top management usually learns that it is preferable to communicate broad purpose 'and general intent to subordinates and to leave good deal of judgment to the individual; so communicators tend to be more effective if they are not too exacting in their detail and allow for adaptability to peculiar circumstances." Finally; communications should stimulate acceptance by referring to previous agreements or understandings or by calling attention to the new circumstances requiring new action. The American Management Association has given Ten Commandments of good communication. These are as follows: 1. Clarify your ideas before you communicate. 2. Examine within yourself why are you communicating and what the true purpose is of this communication. 3. Before you launch communication measure, consider the total physical and human setting which will get involved in the process which you want to ignite. 4. Consult others for planning because your own subjectivity operates adversely in designing your communication network. 5. Be mindful of the content of human message, because it is possible that the message may be lost in the context, and the overall configuration of the contents may disfigure the message itself. 6. Convey other things to help him because a communicatee is not only looking forward, for a command, but he is curious to seek guidance and assistance. 7. Follow up your communication, for it being a chain process does not stop at a given point of a letter or the dispatch of a message. It needs to be continuously followed and strengthens at every bend of the way. It ensures affectivity and keeps it moving till the attainment of goal.

8. Communicate for today as well as for tomorrow. It means the communicator should establish a rapport and establish his own image as knowledgeable person with sound commonsense and robust pragmatism. This image makes him a better communicator and even those who do not take him seriously today, will gradually respond to his communications. 9. Action supports communications. Communication is not merely letter writing. It is desirable that the cormmunicatee should watch and assess the behavior of the communicator. 10. Seek to understand before you get understood. Commonly, understanding of situations requires more brains than imposing ones ideas on helpless subordinates as it is not easy to understand others, if someone is ignorant. These help in achieving a shared understanding of shared purposes. If these essentials are not observed the communication process may break down.

Chester Barnard was one of the earliest writers who have recognized the importance of communication as a facilitating factor in maintaining authority in organizations. According to him, the following seven elements are very important in maintaining authority in an organization: 1. The channels of communication should be definitely known. 2. There should be a definite formal channel of communication to every member of an organization. 3. The line of communication should be as direct and short as possible. 4. The complete formal line of communication should normally be used. 5. The persons serving as communication centers should be competent. 6. The line of communication should not be interrupted while the organization is functioning; and 7. Every communication should be authenticated.

TYPES OF COMMUNICATION
There are three types via, downward, upward and lateral, based on the direction of communication flow. It would be worthwhile for us to briefly discuss these types. These formal types are also supplemented by informal types like the 'grapevine'.

Downward Communication Downward communication refers to the instructions and other official messages originating with the top personnel of an organization. These are transmitted from top to down through hierarchical set up and reach the lowest ranking official in the chain. The top level for downward communication makes use of devices, such as, directives, written or verbal orders or instructions, manuals, staff conferences, budget sanctions, other authorizations to inform the lower rungs about its attitude and ideas as well as to direct, guide and advice. In large organizations, downward communication is difficult enough to begin with, because orders must descend through numerous intermediate levels before the point of execution is reached. Misunderstandings can easily occur when instructions pass through so many people. If little upward communication exists, the difficulties are multiplied, because the orders themselves are apt to be unrealistic and are likely to meet with workers resistance.' Upward Communication In upward communication, messages are passed by the lower levels in the hierarchy up to those heading the organization. This includes whatever information is passed up through methods, such as written and verbal reports pertaining to performance and progress, statistical and accounting reports related to work, written and verbal requests for seeking guidance suggestion and discussions. The upward reporting system is often of very limited use or value in finding fault. in the agency's operation because sometimes the head of [he agency may appear to be unbelievably blind as to what is really going on in his agency; yet based on the reports he gets everything is fine: these reports simply do not present him with all the facts. Lateral Communication Lateral communication may take place among officials of the same level in the hierarchy or among the officials who are out of superior-subordinate relationship. We may call it across communication. The methods viz., written or verbal information and reports, formal and informal as well as personal contacts, staff meetings and coordination committees, are used in this type of communication. This type is helpful in bringing together the related but different parts of the organization. Assuring coordination of organizational objectives, the officials of the organization should communicate their plans and interactions to one another clearly. Informal Communication

Tile rigidity of formal channels gives rise to informal channels of communication. They supplement formal ones. Such channels of communication, often called grapevinc are branded as dangerous and mischievous to organizational functioning. They damage the organizational interests by carrying gossip and false information. But often they play a very constructive role. For example, take the case of a person in an organization that is worried over a particular matter, but has no access to such information which will relieve him of his tension. In such circumstances, the informal channels which have an access to that information will help the employees by furnishing the information or by informing to higher ups about his genuine concern over the matter. Informal communication flows through friendship circles and other small groups in the organization. They may even be unorthodox channels like espionage networks. One positive feature of these channels is that it removes some of the problems in upward communication. They also facilitate downward and lateral communication. The greatest danger of informal channels is that they can. Distort the information. If the administrators know what types of informal channels are working in the organization and what sort of information is circulated, it helps them in coordinating the affairs. Excessive dependence of the employees on informal channels is an indicator of weak coordination in, the organization. Sometimes informal channels work to sabotage the organizational purpose. To counter this danger, organizations have to develop openness in information sharing and socialization practices.

MEDIA OF COMMUNICATION
It would be possible to classify the communication media into three main groups: Audial, Visual and Audio-Visual. Audial communication media is adopted through conferences, the interviews, the inspection trips, public meetings, broadcasts, telephone calls, etc. Visual communication media includes written communications viz., circulars, manuals, reports, bulletins and hand books and pictorial forms namely pictures, photographs, posters, cartoons, slides, flags, insignia, etc. Audio-visual media comprises sound motion pictures, television and personal demonstrations. Each of these media has its advantages and disadvantages but it is up to the management to decide what media will be used for which purpose. The conference as method of communication has gained momentum in attaining marked popularity. This method helps in avoiding delays, minimizing correspondence

and reducing red-tapism. The main uses of the conference method, according to Millett, are: (1) to gain awareness of a problem; (2) to help in problem solving; (3) to gain acceptance and execution of decision; (4) to help/promote a sense of unity among the officials of the organization; (5) to help in appraising personnel; and (6) to help in encouraging an exchange of information and informal relationship among administrative personnel. Conferences aid individuals to discharge their present responsibilities mare effectively, coordinate their working relationship, and enable them to profit from others experience, broaden their view point and formalize organizational communication. The conference method possesses the advantage of creating a high degree of interest, full and equal participation by group members, satisfaction through mutual achievement, acceptance of results by participants inculcating habit of analysis and integration, of thought, developing group morale and possessing,: an informality. Here are some limitations of conference method in the views of the Estimate Committee of Government of India. Its 9th report stales: "The conferences have become so many and are sometimes so unwieldy that it is impossible for officers participation in them to do frill justice to the subject matter of the discussions and, in practice, instead of the meetings, short discussions, noting.,, etc. ... They sometimes lead to protracted correspondence, in as much as different viewpoints which are expressed have to be recorded, corrected and reconciled and delay occurs in framing agreed minutes and sometimes further conferences become necessary as a result of incomplete discussions. sometimes, the same officer has to attend more than one conference the same day and cannot obviously be fully prepared for each conference, consequently, he does not contribute fully to the discussions. In short, the conference system is proving more elaborate than the original procedure of noting on files." Conferences should be carefully managed so as to make them most useful. h conference must follow or observe preliminary planning, expert services, rules and provide for adequate organization for effective working. Persons responsible for preliminary planning must be given adequate or sufficient time and the qualified persons should be assigned tasks well in advance. The conference room should be well equipped with the provision of aids like black-boards, slides and projectors, recording, seating arrangement, timing, etc. The personality of the Chairman and the procedure adopted may help in making the conference successful.

FACTORS INHIBITHNG COMMUNICATION

There are certain factors which come in the way of smooth flow of communication process. With the result, the communication becomes ineffective. They are described below.

Rigidity In a conversation, the meaning attached to various words and expressions vary from person to person. Some people hold stray views on various matters. They hardly listen to other persons, in view of their rigid stand on certain matters. This leads to ineffective communication. People have to develop the skill of listening to others. They must have patience to accommodate the view points of others. This leads to effective communication. Generalizations Another factor which leads to ineffective communication is generalization. If an aged person has had a bad experience with some youth, he considers all youth as unruly. Similarly, if a person had read an unimpressive poem written by a poet, he considers all that is written by that poet as unworthy. Such feelings about persons and things in day to day life act as stereotype ideas on one's personality. This leads to ineffective communication. Extreme Opinions Some people brand everything in this world as either good or bad. In their day to day life they show rigidity. But, in real life it is difficult to view things in two simplified compartments. There are so many grey areas which exist. People with extreme opinions behave in such a way, that if a person is good in one area, they consider him good in every aspect of life. This happens in the other way also. This leads to ineffective communication. There is need to overcome some of these limiting factors and make the communications effective. The following suggestions are given for the purpose: a) Communication should express the total needs of the organization. b) Communication is effective in a climate of mutual trust and confidence. c) Communication should be treated as a continuing program. It should not be equated with a brief campaign. d) The purpose of communication the person to whom directed should be very clear. e) Communication should be both ways i.e., upward and downward.

f) The language and line of communication should be very clear. g) Communication should reflect the policies, programs and practices of management. More important than the above is the need for mutual understanding and respect and confidence and trust between communicators. Only this will enable communication of personal feelings and real problems.

LET US SUM UP
Communication, which is one of the main principles, is in fact the blood stream of administrative organization. Communication means shared understanding of a shared purpose. Communicator, transmission procedure, form, recipient and desired response are its main elements. The media of communication are viz., audial, visual and audiovisual. Conference method is proved to be the most useful but has some limitations too. Downward, upwards and lateral are the types of communication. Communication should reflect the policies, programs and practices of the management. Informal channels of communication, to some extent give positive results. However, it needs skills to handle ainf6rmal communication. Otherwise, it may even sabotage the organizational purpose. Communication becomes ineffective in case the people involved in communication hold rigid attitudes, stereotyped ideas and take extreme positions on people and matters. Communication will be effective if people have mutual trust and confidence.

CONFLICT RESOLUTION AND STRESS MANAGEMENT

Structure Introduction Objectives Stress: An Introduction Relationship Between Stress and Performance Stress Reactions
Effects of Stress Long Term Symptoms Gender Difference: Girls v/s Boys Personality Differences

Individual Differences
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Defenses Against Stress

Managing Stress Conflict: An Introduction

Intra-individual Conflict Inter-personal Conflict

Benefits of Conflict Determinants of Conflicts Approaches to Inter-personal Conflict Resolution Effective Skills to Manage Conflicts Let Us Sum Up Unit-end Exercises Suggested Readings

INTRODUCTION
The purpose of this unit is to introduce you to the concepts of stress and conflict management so that you can help your students cope effectively with the numerous demands that school and society make on them. In this dynamic, ever-changing social and psychological world with the changed nature of the family and break down of the support systems, the teacher plays a central role in helping students deal with the pressures, tensions and frustrations of life .The teacher provides a relationship and a platform which facilitates a student in his/her pursuit of learning, how to deal with stress and conflict, so that these call cease to be impediments and make him/her more productive, rather than be a helpless victim of a system. Since you are a teacher in a residential school you become the natural guardian of the students while they are at school. Teaching them how to cope with and manage stress is thus a life skill which you must develop in them.

OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you should be able to: understand the concept of stress, define the term stress, identify the nature and common causes of student stress,

appreciate the relationship between stress and performance, become aware of the negative effects of unmanaged stress, become sensitive to the different ways in which different people cope with stress: become perceptive of the Defenses Against Stress, identify the techniques and strategies used by individuals to cope with their

life stressors, differentiate between inter-personal and intra-personal conflict, identify the nature and common causes of inter-personal and intra-personal conflict, reflect upon the benefits of conflict, discuss the negative effects of uncontrolled conflict, discuss the approaches adopted by people to resolve conflicts,
Explain the techniques and strategies used by individuals to cope with their life stressors.

STRESS: AN INTRODUCTION
Stress is a popular expression used by people-in day to day life. You have seen that conflicts with parents and siblings at home, being nagged, or pulled up by teachers at school, failing in class, having fights with other students, concern about the future, not being able to cope with the school curriculum, having to face examinations, pressures of day to day living, loss of a loved one, etc, form part of the experiences of most human beings. They necessitate coping or dealing with them and stretch the body beyond its natural capacity. They are called stressors. Stress is a natural, ongoing dynamic and interactive process that takes place as people adjust to their environment. Stress can be brought about by positive or negative life events. You might have experienced excessive joy and happiness in your life which brought tears to your eyes. This also takes time for our bodies to absorb the joy. Stress is thus both 'distress' and 'eustress' the common feature being that the body has to make adjustments to too much happiness or too much sadness. Stress can increase our individual achievements and improve our performance, or can cause various physiological and psychological disorders like migraine, arthritis, heart disease, nervousness, hopelessness, depression, forgetfulness, lack of concentration, suicide attempts - dependency on medicines/drugs - smoking, drinking and so on, depending on the severity of the causal factors. It is an unavoidable consequence of life. Without stress, there would be no life. Stress can be defined as "any event, situation, circumstance, demand, pressure or tension that disturbs or threatens to disturb the individual's functioning, leading to physical, mental, and emotional strain". Although the general orientation to stress is to consider unfavorable outcomes, yet you must have observed that stress experiences may also facilitate the development of effective and varied coping behavior, increased personal resources, and lead to a sense of competence in development. Therefore it is essential for everyone to understand the importance of optimum stress levels. It is very much like the stress on sitar string, not enough produces a dull, harsh sound. Too much makes a shrill, annoying noise, or causes the string to snap. However, just the right degree can create magnificent tones. Similarly, the level of stress under which the

individuals operate is important: if they are not under enough stress, they may find that their performance suffers because they are bored and unmotivated. However, if they are under too much stress, once again they may find that their performance is adversely affected. Therefore, it is important that individuals recognize that they are responsible for their own stress; they should learn to monitor their stress levels, and adjust them according to the need of the hour. They need to realize that by managing stress effectively they can significantly improve the quality of their own lives.

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN STRESS AND PERFORMANCE

Figure 5.1 deals with the relationship between stress and performance. Study it carefully.

Figure 5.1 shows the relationship between stress and the quality of performance. You can see that if the level of stress is low, individuals may find that their performance is low because they are bored, lack concentration and motivation. Likewise if the stress is too high, their performance can suffer from all the symptoms of short-term stress reactions. The zone of best performance is when there is a moderate level of stress. If the individual is at this level, he/she will be sufficiently aroused to perform well without being over-stressed and unhappy. This brings us to our next question: how do we know when the individual is under stress and as teachers how do we know whether our students are under stress?

STRESS REACTIONS
Stress conditions may' surface in school if a student does not match up to his/her potential or ability and fails to perform well academically. As teachers, you can easily infer when students are stressful by observing their behavior. When they are withdrawn, fearful, gloomy, sad and/or very unhappy, you can be sure that they are

under stress. Behavior indicators which are more easily noticed are: hyperactivity, frequent anger outbursts, disruptive attitude in school, inability to get along with other students, lack of interest in the environment, not wanting to take part in any school activity, reduced interest in school work even in favorite subjects, academic performance becoming poor in general, remaining quiet and wanting to be alone, not wanting to play or participate in group activities etc. However, if these reactions are present in students consistently over a period of time, only then can you conclude that they are under stress. Effects of Stress CASE I: Shalini is in the science stream in class 12. In her 10th board exam she scored 90%. She is under great pressure to get admission in a medical college even though she wants to be a journalist. She studies till late at night everyday; she barely sleeps for 4-5 hours a day. Every time she goes home, her father pressurizes her to do better. Her teachers are encouraging but, they too, want her to get admission in MBBS. So they are always giving her additional homework and keep telling her to study. Recently her best friend and roommate left school to get married and she feels she has no friends; so she has no one to share her problems with. She cannot sleep at night. She feels tired in the mornings during her classes. She is unable to understand what the teacher is teaching in class or to remember or recall what was taught the previous day. She also feels that her sense of judgment has been affected and is unable to make good decisions. She no longer enjoys school or school work. She was an outstanding basketball player but now she finds that she cannot make any baskets. She just cannot concentrate and gets into a fight with everyone over very petty issues. She feels she is useless, incompetent and a failure. From the above case we can see that stress interferes with clear judgment and makes it difficult to make good decisions. It reduces the individual's Stress Managementenjoyment in his/her work, where the individual needs good physical skills; it gets in the way of fine motor control. It causes difficult situations to be seen as a threat and not as a challenge. It damages the positive frame of mind the individual needs for high quality work by promoting negative thinking, damaging self-confidence, narrowing attention, disrupting focus and concentration and making it difficult to cope with distractions. It also consumes mental energy in distraction, anxiety, frustration and temper outbursts. Long Term Symptoms As a teacher, you must know that if stress remains unmanaged it can have serious longterm effects. This should enable you to also look at your own life situation and ensure that you cope with the stressors in your life. There are instances when high levels of stress caused by anxiety, excitement or apprehension are prolonged and become more

than a student can cope with. This leads to distress and disorders which manifest in the form of: (i) Illness: As stress moves on to distress, a pre-disposition to the disorder combined with stress leads to illness. It may take many forms like giddiness, backaches, palpitation, tremors, and feelings of panic and so on. Acutely sensitive and vulnerable students may also have respiratory disorders. Digestion could be affected without proper blood supply leading to tummy upsets or vomiting. Fright may cause a student to wet his pants. Some student may suffer from constipation or diarrhea. Sensitive students may develop skin allergies or rashes and profuse sweating. You must have observed this among your students during and before an examination. (ii) Sleep disturbances: High levels of stress can definitely interfere with sleep. Student may be too worried or excited to go to sleep. As a result, pupil dilation could also lead to blurred vision. (iii) Muscle tension: Prolonged muscle tension could very well produce headaches and vague aches and pains in the body. Research in the area has proven that excessive muscle tension hinders good performance and athletic skills. (iv) Emotional disturbances: If stress is stretched beyond a certain point, efficiency drops due to low levels of concentration and comprehension. Failure is a possibility and leads the student to develop a disinterest in academics. Irritability, hyperactivity, excessive anxiety1 worrying, inappropriate anger and hostility, irrational fear and other behavior problems in students cause concern to all teachers. These manifestations may occur in teachers as well. For example: Suman is teaching English to the students in three sections of the 6th and 7th classes. She is a popular teacher; her students are very happy and can understand everything she teaches. As a result, they scored very high marks. Unfortunately her husband falls very sick and she has to look after him, manage her house and attend school. Also, in the school there is a group of teachers who are jealous of her popularity and good relationship with her students. They constantly hurl false allegations at her, accusing her of not taking classes, of bribing her students, belittling her about her appearance etc. All this takes a severe toll on her health. She visits the doctor complaining of palpitations, tremors, headache and backache. The doctor finds that she has high blood pressure, there is a rapid increase in her pulse rate and she has developed ulcers in her stomach. She is not able to sleep at night, the sight of food makes her nauseous, and she gets angry over small issues and worries over small things. Rajiv joins a new school. He loves his work and is very good at it. One unfortunate day, he has an argument with one of the senior teachers. After that day none of his fellow colleagues talk to him. During his free time he sits alone and has his lunch alone. If he

tries to talk to other teachers, they ignore him or walk past him. He is unhappy and, cannot sleep at night, needs to eat constantly, is unable to solve students' problems and difficulties, forgets things easily, gets irritated easily, cannot concentrate and attend to what he is doing and is disoriented most of the time. The school annual day is coming and Shivani who is the coordinator has to stay in school till late. In this connection she has had a very hectic schedule for the past 6 months. Her daily schedule is that she has to teach eight periods a day, correct 100 note books single handedly, organize the entertainment program, network with people, arrange for the auditorium, the finances, attend meetings outside school, etc. Recently people who know her have observed that she is constantly worrying and is anxious, is tactless, gets angry, is hostile to her students, has difficulty in making decisions, is under constant fear that things may go wrong, has developed insomnia, and has difficulty in remembering things.

INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES
Gender Difference: Girls vs. Boys A comparison between boys and girls revealed that boys reacted differently to stress from girls. The differences in the reaction to stress in boys and girls can be brought to light best by using the case cited below. Arvind and Ritu are best friends. They are in the same class. Both are good in studies and 'they like to do things together. When the mid-term results were announced, both of them got to know that they had failed in English. As soon as they got to know this, Ritu became miserable, started crying, started biting her nails and could not eat for nearly a week. Thereafter, she would worry constantly and had unpleasant thoughts. Arvind on the other hand, was able to distract himself by turning his attention towards playing the guitar and reduced his negative feelings. But he became defiant, naughty and restless during his English class. Can you cite the differences in the way Arvind and Ritu reacted to the same situation? Research has indicated that under stress boys were found to become more disobedient, aggressive and restless while girls became tearful, miserable and resorted to biting their nails and experiencing loss or increased appetite. Also, compared to boys, girls reported more hassles of negative effects and physical symptoms and fewer positive emotions.

DEFENCES AGAINST STRESS

Whether or not you realize it, your body is defending itself against stress. These defense mechanisms heal your emotions by relieving you of anxiety and stress. They give you immediate relief but whether this is genuine relief or not needs to be seen. Sometimes in the process of trying to help, they distort the situation or falsify it further and the stressor returns. Nevertheless, let us examine what you as adults and the students you teach resort to. (i) Denial: This is not happening to me! You can make yourself believe that something did not happen - e.g. your best friend dies - refusing to accept reality you continue calling him or her and talking for hours over the phone-to the dial tone. A student continues to attend classes even when he/ she get to know that he/she has failed. (ii) Escape or Fantasy: Daydreaming, sleeping for fifteen hours a day, reading a number of books to escape from studies can help you find relief temporarily from stress. But if carried on endlessly, these activities can be damaging to your emotional strength. These patterns are often seen among students when they know they have to study but, do not feel like it. (iii) Rationalization: Sometimes justifying something without a valid reason seems to whisk stress away. Let us say a number of students have failed in your subject during their terminal exam. Instead of facing the mistake, you claim you could not do better because the students were not interested in studying, or just do not have the ability. In other words, you fabricate an excuse in order to defend your mistake. So, through giving reasons, we can justify anything to protect ourselves. But is this the truth?

(iv)Projection: Projection is a method of defending your self-esteem/self-worth by

blaming your failures on others. If a student gets poor marks, He/she may say that it is the teachers fault because he/she did not like him/her. If students lose a game on account of their own mistakes, they say, 'it is the coach's fault because he/she did not tell us exactly how to win. Such projections sometimes can lead to psychological problems. In projection we make a scapegoat out of someone else.

(v) Repression: Repression is essentially forgetting on purpose. You block out thoughts about stressful or painful times or experiences. May be your students asked you a question and you did not know the answer and felt terrible admitting this. You will find that you consciously try to wipe out this memory with happier memories of when you feel you taught them well. This helps relieve the stress of not having been up to the mark. (vi) Displacement: Displacement is acting out your stress at someone completely not related to it - sometimes causing emotional hurt to that person. Suppose you come home after the principal of your school has reprimanded you and your student comes to

you for help with his /her maths homework. You slap the student and belittle him/her or else you may slam the door hard and it may break. Remember, the student was not the cause of your stress. You have made the student the victim of your anger at your principal. Same is true with the door. You have not only dealt with your stress - you have hurt your student or broken the door - which will only create more stress. Displacement doesn't work. (vii) Regression: Regression is going back to a time or place when things were not as stressful as they are now. Let us say you are taking Calculus and are completely stressed out about it. You return to your old arithmetic book and go through those problems instead of doing your Calculus homework. Sometimes, regression can rebuild a broken confidence, but at other times it may only make the problem worse. (viii) Compensation: "I do not care if I do not teach or students do not like me - I am very popular with my colleagues!" Compensation is replacing deficiency in one area with proficiency in another. Sometimes compensation can restore confidence, but at other times, it is completely useless and may actually do harm. (ix) Sublimation: Sublimation is changing bad behavior or doings into good ones. If you have a tendency to get angry at others you can channelize your anger into painting something or writing stories. This is probably the only useful defense against stress. But do not worry. You can learn to manage your stress effectively by using conscious techniques and strategies. You do not have to stop at the stage of defenses alone. Let us see now how we can manage stress effectively.

MANAGING STRESS
Stress management is not getting all the stress out of your life (which is impossible) but rather, letting you deal with the stress in a way where you find yourself relaxing and your tension dissipating, Look back at your own experiences and enumerate on "What

happens lf I do not relax?"

Some of the common experiences shared by people are that they find Stress Management themselves slipping into self-pity; they reach for cigarettes, alcohol, or simply yell and scream at people. They do not trust anyone, cannot concentrate, do badly at work and have poor interpersonal relationships. Learning how to manage your stress prevents that and re-establishes control by initiating the relaxation response. Try to imagine "What happens when I relax?" You will find that your heart rate goes down; as a result the heart works more efficiently. Your breaths are deeper and fewer. Your oxygen demand goes down. Your processes are normalized and your muscles relax releasing tension. Your digestion is turned back on - and it extracts nutrients and vitamins much more efficiently. In all systems of Reiki, Meditation, Yoga and Art of Living etc. relaxation for physiological improvement is the first step which then moves on to stage two of psychological well being. The next question is "How can one relax?" There are many methods for relaxing and reducing tension and stress to enable us to take better charge of our lives. (i) Planning: Most students find themselves in this situation a number of times. It is the night before the assignment/test/project is due. They find that they have worked on it a little bit before, but nothing substantive is done, always knowing there was some more time left. Now they realize that the next twelve hour's time is all they have, until 9:00 a.m of the next morning. That is when the teacher set the deadline for the project submission or has set the date for the test staring at their insignificant efforts. they ask themselves, "Where did all that time go?" The situation described above generates a lot of stress, but can be easily prevented. Simply knowing when upcoming due dates of tasks and setting aside time each day to work on them could have prevented the catastrophe. Set half an hour aside on an afternoon to figure out what is due in the upcoming week or so and how much time you will need to finish it. Remember: Plan Your Work and Work Your Plan. You will find it will make your life much easier to live. (ii) Time management: "Time Management" is "setting and following a schedule, in order to organize and prioritize our life activities". In the context of competing activities of work, family, etc., time is a precious commodity; everyone gets an equal share but we use it very differently. Research indicates that successful students are future oriented or goal oriented. Productive people have set their priorities and scheduled their time accordingly. Unsuccessful and procrastinating students are present oriented, unorganized, laid-back, and pleasure-seeking. The idea is to decide "what is the best use of the given time?" Make a list of what you need to do each week and then, based on the time available, make a daily "to-be-done list" for working on your high priority tasks. In the "to do" list write down things you have to do, then decide what to do at the moment, what to schedule for later, what to

get someone else to do, and what to put off for a later time period. For example, you can have things like "I have to prepare for my class tomorrow, correct note books that are to be returned day after, cook for the family, give the dog a bath, call the plumber to repair the tap etc". This will help to remember what has to be done in a systematic manner. You can also have a daily/weekly planner wherein you can write down appointments, classes, and meetings in a chronological log book or chart. Always know what's ahead for the day; always go to sleep knowing you are prepared for the next day. (iii) Laughter: Laughter is the best medicine. It is very difficult indeed to remain stressed, tense and uptight when your sides are ripping apart in humor. From the medical standpoint, laughter is very beneficial as it increases the oxygen supply and relaxes muscles in the chest. It has been reported that the brain produces endorphins which are neurotransmitters of happiness. Laughing is also contagious. If you get a group of friends together and watch funny movies - if one starts laughing, soon others too will. Laughter can even heal cancer - not just stress. People have cured themselves of various ailments through this method. Next time you feel stressed, look for the humor in the situation and laugh your heart out. You can also join or start a laughing club in school.

(iv) Progressive Relaxation/Deep Breathing: Relaxation is always good for Stress management you and simply resting in-itself is a powerful technique. When you are under stress, you must have observed that relaxing can be difficult. That is why

relaxation techniques can help. They strive to directly reduce stress levels by emphasizing the difference between "stressed" and "relaxed" and leaving you relaxed. A good technique is as follows: Find a place away from distractions, loud music, or excessive noise. Underneath a tree in a park or on the beach is nearly ideal. If you cannot get outside, a quiet room (or closet) will suffice. Sit down cross-legged with your back straight, or if you prefer, find a chair and sit on it with your back straight and your feet flat on the floor. Close your eyes. Feel yourself breathe. The air comes in, the air goes out. Observe this process for a while. When you feel ready to begin, take a few deep breaths. Let the air fill your lungs completely. As you let each breath out, mentally say "relax" or "peaceful." Then moving down your body from your head, tense each part and then relax it, in time with your breathing. With each breath, feel the part become more and more relaxed. Once you reach your toes and have relaxed each part of your body, rest for a few minutes and listen to your breathing. Slowly open your eyes and get up, and stretch. You are now relaxed. You can also mentally imagine or visualize pleasant events or times, such as when you were at the beach and watching a sunset, or high up in the mountains and looking down upon the world, or whatever experience was most pleasant for you. Imagine it and feel every part of the experience. Live it again. Your imagination has no limits. (v) Sports & Exercise: Sports and exercise, if done regularly, reduce stress. The rhythm they provide is beneficial. For maximum effect, you must exercise on a regular basis. Getting up once a month to go for a walk probably will not be very beneficial. But, if you set aside some time everyday for a sport or exercise, you will feel healthier and be more relaxed. Some of the benefits of exercise include: increased stamina, having power both at the physical and the psychological levels, better mood, high self-esteem and feelings. There is also more oxygen and better nutrition allocation and usage, strengthening of the heart and its ability to pump blood better and not have to work as hard. (vi) Yoga: The word yoga means "union," and rightly so. Yoga's goal is to bring about a union of mental, physical and spiritual aspects of a human being. The basic principle of yoga is that if the mind is troubled, the body will be compromised and if the body is in poor health, the mind's clarity and usefulness will be weakened. Yoga attempts to bring about this mind body unity through a series of postures or asanas (the word asana in Sanskrit is for "ease"). While doing these postures, breath control is emphasized and awareness of muscle sensations is encouraged. The harmony with which the body moves in tune with the breath has therapeutic and calming effects. Yoga is a useful stress releasing exercise. (vii) Meditation: Meditation does not necessarily have to have religious or spiritual connotations. Benefits of meditation are similar to those of relaxation and include a decreased heart rate and a more peaceful feeling.

A simple meditation technique is: find a place away from distractions, loud music, or excessive noise. Underneath a tree in a park or on the beach is nearly ideal. If you cannot get outside, a quiet room will suffice. Sit down cross-legged with your back straight, or if you prefer, find a chair and sit on it with your back straight and your feet flat on the floor. Set a timer for how long you want to meditate. For beginners, 5 to 10 minutes is good - once you get better at it, you can lengthen the time to as much as half an hour. Once you are comfortable and feel prepared, begin. Breathe in through your nose and mentally count "one." Exhale through your nose and count "two." Inhale, through your nose and count "three." Exhale through your nose and count, "four." Continue until you reach ten. Then start over again at one. Helpful tips during meditation: Do not control your breathing -just watch it. Try to stay still and refrain from moving while meditating. Do not stop before the length of the meditation period is up. Make sure all your breathing is through your nose, and not through your mouth. Meditation is best used on a consistent basis. If you only do it once a month, it may bring some benefit, but it is best to set aside some time everyday or at least a couple of times a week for maximum effectiveness. People who meditate say they feel more in control and are better able to handle their stress. (viii) Hobbies: whether it is reading or trekking, sewing, walking, cycling, cooking or painting, hobbies have great stress-relieving potential. Make sure you make the time for them. These activities clear your mind and bring you joy because you are doing the things you love. Of course, it probably is not advisable to go on a holiday the weekend before a massive report is due, but a thirty minute session of lying around on the grass and listening to the birds could calm your mind and let you work better. (ix) Count Your Blessings: Read the following statements carefully and try to find the objective of the exercise. I have caring parents/ spouse who love(s) me and will do anything for me. I have many friends. My teacher was very happy with my work. I can share my feelings with my sister /brother. I can paint well. I have two hands to work. I have two feet with which I can walk properly

The list is endless. This method is a very simple and yet is a very powerful technique. All you have to do is take a piece of paper or a journal and simply list all of your blessings (your family, your music, your friends, etc.) and successes on it. Date it, and put it away in a safe place. Later, when you are feeling stressed, pull it out and read through it, finding comfort in

your own words. You will see how small your problem is compared to the big picture of what you have already accomplished and possess. It will make you smile. Remember, what you worry about today, you will laugh about later. Time heals all wounds. (x) Refuting Irrational Beliefs: Study the following statements and figure out what the writer is suggesting: Everyone should love me. I feel I am no good. It is easier to avoid than face a problem situation. If things go wrong once, they will always go wrong. I have to be the best in everything I do.

These are a few irrational beliefs that could be present in an individual's belief system. Irrational beliefs like the ones given above are the source or origin of emotional disturbance. The individual should be taught to change them. Teachers can teach students to replace each belief with rational, empirically founded beliefs. The techniques which will help include: Debating as asking such questions as to 'what evidence is there to support the belief ' or 'what makes this belief so or not so - in which way does it have truth or falsehood. Discriminating helps the person too clearly distinguish between wants and needs, desires and demands, rational and irrational ideas, absolute and non-absolute values and behavior. Defining consists of helping the individual to choose their terms more precisely. They can do this by reflecting on the following logical principle (I) just because it has happened once, it does not mean that it will always occur (2) just because one feels a certain way at a given point of time, it does

not follow that one will feel that way forever (3) just because one has behaved in a certain way over a period of time, it does not mean that one cannot change. This change in the belief system results in new, more appropriate emotional responses to situations, and develops skills that allow the individuals to first identify and then dispute their own irrational beliefs a process they can then apply to other problem areas in their lives. (xi) Prayer: Prayer is the oldest form of relaxation known to mankind. Before any of the techniques outlined above even existed, mankind was crying out to God for assistance, love, care and guidance. There is nothing more powerful than the feeling of love. To be comforted, carried away from troubles, lifted up and shown the right way is immensely supportive, relaxing and completely relegates the very idea of stress. God knows what He is doing. He will care for you, love you, carry you - but only if you ask. "Knock and the door shall be opened. Ask and you shall receive." The prayer must come from the heart and it must be sincere. Aside from these, there are no other limitations. It may take any shape, method or form. You can sing it, whisper it, think it, dream it, write it or type it. Prayer releases you from stress because it delivers your trust to God. Prayer is the most powerful and simplest method of healing and relaxation known to mankind.

(xii) Nutrition: Stress creates malnutrition and malabsorption of vitamins and minerals because of which deficiencies can result. Restoring those nutrients is necessary for the proper functioning of the adrenal gland, which undergoes degeneration with continual stress. This can be eased or even prevented by eating a balanced diet made up mostly of fresh fruits or vegetables, rich in vitamins and minerals. Processed foods such as soft

drinks, junk foods, fast foods, etc. are high in sodium and put an excessive amount of stress upon your system. Caffeine is also something you should avoid - it adds to your stress level and hampers sleeping which is necessary for proper stress recovery. Potassium is critical to proper adrenal gland function which is found in fresh fruits and fresh vegetables, as well as unprocessed meat. Also necessary are vitamin C, vitamin B6, zinc, magnesium and pantothenic acid. Pantothenic acid is found in legumes, cauliflower, broccoli, salmon, liver, yams and tomatoes. Many plants also make antioxidants which they themselves use as protection against their own stress.

CONFLICT: AN INTRODUCTION
This section deals with conflict management and resolution. Conflict is a source and cause of stress and is an area which needs to be addressed at length. In this section, you will read about intra-individual conflict, inter-personal conflict, and intra-personal conflict, determinants of conflicts as also benefits of conflicts. Approaches to conflict resolution and skills needed to manage conflicts are also dealt with. Conflict is it normal phenomenon of human interaction, It can be defined as any situation where incompatible activities, feelings, or intentions occur together. Conflict may take place within one person, it can occur between two or more people who how each other, or between large groups of people who do not know each other due to differences, variations in opinion, viewpoints, ideas, ways of doing things, attitudes, beliefs and so on. It may involve actual confrontation between persons, or merely

symbolic confrontation through words and deeds. The conflict may be expressed through verbal unfair criticisms, accusations, threats, or through physical violence to persons or property. It can also remain unexpressed, as in avoidance and denial. Conflict can be the catalyst for important new ideas and now ways of doing things. However, too much conflict can lead to loss of focus and fragmented activity. Conflicts may be defined in terms of the issues that caused them, A student, for example, may accuse his/her teacher of not teaching properly; as a consequence the teacher may subtract five marks from his/her test paper, send him/her to the principal, or come to him/her and try to talk to him/her as a friend and find out the reason for his/her accusations. If he/she does the latter, there is greater chance that the student will respect him/her, do what he/she wants him/her to do and this will result in greater learning, If the teacher canes his/her or scolds him/her, he/she may be silent for the time being but there will be no change in the student's viewpoint. There are two types of conflict namely, intrapersonal and inter-personal conflicts. We will reflect on intrapersonal conflict first.

Intra-Individual Conflict
Should I go to my friends party or study for my test to be held tomorrow?" The teacher said to me "go to the principal or write 100 time, I will complete my homework, What should I do?" "Should I attend my Hindi class which is so boring or miss it?" These are examples of intra-personal conflict. Within every individual there are usually (I) a number of competing needs and roles, (2) a variety of ways in which these can be fulfilled, (3) many types of barriers that exist between the need and the goal and (4) both positive and negative aspects are attached to desired goals. These complicate the adjustment process and result in conflict. Let us find out as to why intra-personal conflict occurs, The commonly cited reasons include: (i) Frustration: Frustration results when the individual wants to reach a goal but there is a barrier that prevents him/her from reaching the goal. An example of such a situation can be that a person is thirsty and when he/she reaches the water cooler he/she finds that there is no water. The student wants to please his/her teacher, but is not able to get good marks in the teachers subject. (ii) Goal conflict: A common source of conflict is a goal which has positive and negative features or even more than two competing goals. Three types of goal conflicts have been identified:

Approach-approach conflict: Here the individual is motivated to approach two or more positive goals, For example, a student might get admission to two good institutions and has to decide between them. This is mildly stressful as one is not sure about one's choice. Approach-avoidance conflict: Here the individual is motivated to approach a goal and at the same time wants to avoid it. This goal contains both positive and negative characteristics for the individual. A student may get the subject of his/her choice, but may dislike the teacher, for example. This compels him/her to carefully plan and forecast the positive and negative outcomes. A teacher may get an excellent job but in a bad location. He/she will then have feelings of approach and avoidance. Avoidance-avoidance conflict: Here the individual is motivated to avoid two or more negative but mutually exclusive goals, The teacher constantly belittles the student but the student cannot leave the class because the teacher will inform his/her parents or minus ten marks from the examination answer sheet. A teacher may dislike his/her position but the option of leaving may be worse. This causes maximum stress. It is like the choice between the devil and the deep sea.

(iii) Role conflict: It results when expectations are mutually different or opposite and the individual cannot meet one expectation without rejecting the other. The parents of a student, for example, who is good at singing may force his/her to study, but his/her music teacher in contrast may encourage his/her to practice his/her music instead, Role conflict results in psychological stress leading to emotional problems and will result in decline in performance, poor motivation, inefficiency and can adversely affect the person's physical and mental health.

Inter-personal Conflict
Two girls fighting for one position. Two boys competing for the same girl. Teacher wants to teach, but the students want a free period. Radha talks rudely to the principal.

The above examples are illustrations of interpersonal conflicts. Such conflict situations are made up of at least two individuals who hold different points of view, who are intolerant of ambiguities, and who are quick to jump to conclusions. Why do interpersonal conflicts occur? The commonly cited reasons include:

(i) Habits and beliefs: We bring to our relationships an accumulation of everything we have ever learned - all of our habits, and all the opinions and beliefs we have developed about ourselves, other people, politics, religion, lifestyle, acceptable behavior, and the "right" way to do everything from dressing ourselves in the morning to shaping the attitudes and beliefs of our students for life. All this diversity, including racial, cultural and gender differences, means that we are going to rub each other the wrong way, occasionally. One of the reasons conflict exists between teachers and students is that they have different viewpoints. Teachers want to complete the syllabus. Students want to play, and enjoy themselves, so they start talking in class. The English teacher feels that a language can be taught only if students use it; so he/she gives them an opportunity to talk in class and practice their skills, but his/her supervisor feels that the students are making a lot of noise and reprimands the teacher. Once again, there is a difference of viewpoints. (ii) Limited resources: When there is one biscuit and two students want it, when funds are finite and programs to use them are many, when there is only one position for a head girl in a school and three people think they have earned it, the emergent feature is a conflict. (iii) Change: Study the statements carefully. Imagine that someone is saying this to you. Write down your feelings and reactions if someone said that: You must teach better. You must improve your handwriting. You love the way your room looks. You can find everything. One day your friend comes and says "your room was looking much cluttered, so I have removed everything and rearranged it for you."

These are examples of situations when someone says that we have to change, or starts making changes around us without our consent. If you reflect on your reactions, you will find that most of us respond to such situations with everything from passive aggression to open resistance. Change can result in interpersonal conflict. (iv) Poor communication skills: Poor communication skills often result in communication gaps. For example when you are genuinely appreciating someone's work but that person feels that you are being sarcastic. Lack or insufficient knowledge also results in conflicts. (v) Lack of clear goals: When the goals are not clear or both parties are not aware of the goals, it results in misunderstanding and conflicts. (vi) Power and status differences: Interpersonal conflicts occur from unequal distribution of power and status. For example, the principal entrusts additional responsibility to an already overburdened teacher and she /he refuses .A student orders the teacher to do something. A teacher who has done PhD is told by another teacher who has just done her graduation how to teach. All these will lead to interpersonal difficulties. (vii) Clashes of values and interests: Conflicts frequently occur between students and the teacher because students want a free period, because they are tired or bored of studying and the teacher wants to teach so that she /he can complete the course. Another example is that the teacher emphasizes that students should always come on time but is late himself1 herself.

BENEFITS OF CONFLICTS
Conflicts make us aware of problems within our relationships that need to be solved, they make us realize who is involved and how can they be solved. They also encourage change. They indicate when new skills need to be learned like computers and when old habits need to be modified. For example a teacher can learn to have a democratic classroom environment, or encourage student participation while teaching concepts. They energize and increase our motivation to deal with our problems. A conflicting situation often sparks curiosity and stimulates interest. For example, if a student tells a teacher that she/he has told him/her something which is incorrect, then the teacher instead of being indignant and reprimanding the student, can ask the particular student to study that concept in detail and then give a brief presentation to the class on the topic. Better decisions are made as people come up with a number of alternative solutions and the best possible one can be adopted. A conflict increases a person's level of self-awareness. He/she is able to find out what makes him/her angry, frightened, or how he/she manages conflicts. Conflicts I can deepen and enrich relationships because if both parties are working together to come to an amicable solution then automatically

commitment also develops. Conflicts are pervasive and inevitable too. If one tries to avoid, deny or, stifle them, then serious difficulties will arise. Conflicts signal the presence of diverse points of view, which in struggle or reconciliation can spark creativity, nourish growth, induce productivity, and strengthen relationships.

DETRIMENTS OF CONFLICTS
Conflicts create stress in people. They take a toll on the physical and mental health of people; generate feelings of anxiety, guilt, and frustration which cause a climate of mistrust and suspicion. Often, because of conflicts, collaboration decreases or vanishes. There is a breakdown in communication. Normal flow of work is disrupted and as a result, there is instability and chaos. They interfere with clear judgment and make it difficult to make good decisions. They can seriously reduce an individual's enjoyment of their work. Where he/she needs good physical skills, they get in the way of fine motor control and cause difficult situations to be seen as a threat, not as a challenge. They damage the positive frame of mind which the individual needs for high quality work by promoting negative thinking, damaging self-confidence, narrowing attention, disrupting focus and concentration and making it difficult to cope with distractions. They also consume mental energy by producing distraction, anxiety, frustration and temper out bursts. Lastly, they result in lack of concentration and motivation to work or learn.

APPROACHES TO INTER-PERSONAL CONFLICT RESOLUTION

As you must have observed, everyone has a characteristic style or manner in which he/she approaches conflict resolution which is based on his/her personality, unique wants, needs, and values. It is formulated early in his/her life. Although no one uses purely one style everyone demonstrates tendencies or preferences based on their personalities. There are strengths and weaknesses to each approach to conflict resolution, An awareness of one's own style, including the pluses, or assets, and the minuses, or blind spots, is the first step to understanding one's personal approach to conflict resolution. Five styles of handling conflict Read the statements carefully and tick the one you feel represents your style of dealing with conflict,

I pursue my goals with determination, regardless of the other person's concern.

I avoid the issue of conflict. I try to avoid conflicts in favor of harmony.

I give up part of my goal to resolve a conflict.

I want what is fair for both of us. I make the first move in conflicting situations to gain control of the situation. I believe that avoiding a conflict is a more mature and reasonable way of dealing with them, than childish arguments. I let the other person have his/her way in order to retain his/her approval, I believe that if I express my personal concerns, others will cut off their relationship with me. I identify options available to meet both our needs. I want to maximize my chances of obtaining my demands. I withdraw and give up my goal. I want to be accepted by others. I am ready to sacrifice a part of my relationship, for the common good. I seek a compromise between my goal and my relationship. Winning a conflict gives me a sense of pride. If a problem has to be resolved, it will get resolved. I try to smooth over a conflict. I think discussing a conflict damages a relationship. I look for the middle ground between two extremes. Losing in a conflict makes me feel a failure, weak and inadequate I feel helpless in situations of conflict. I give up my goal to be liked by others. I think of the common good. I am not satisfied till the tension and negative feelings are fully resolved. My goal is more important than my relationships. I give up my relationships with the person. I try to maintain my relationships. I think it is hopeless to try to resolve a conflict. I persuade the other person to give up part of his/ her goal to resolve a conflict. I highly value my goal and I want my relationships. I prolong the discussion of issues until the other person gets tired and gives in to my way of handling the problem. I stay away from conflicts. I think people get hurt in conflicts. I seek a solution that achieves both my goals and the goals of the other. I try and sort out where each one stands.

Scoring pattern-On the basis of the key given below, try to see which is your more dominant pattern of conflict management, Dominance statements 1, 6,11,16,21,26,3 1

Avoidance statements 2, 7, 12, 17,22,27,32 Accommodation statements 3, 8, 13, 18,23,28,33 Compromise statements 4, 9, 14, 19,24,29,34 Collaboration statements 5,10,15,20,25,30,35 Dominance: This style is characterized by competition and dominance. It is power oriented and is associated with direct physical aggression and heavy reliance on punishment. For example, if a student disagrees with the teacher, the teacher who follows this style will slap the student, subtract marks from his/her exam, or fail him/her. Such a style creates forces which aggravate the struggle and do little to discover innovative or constructive solutions acceptable to all. Statements 1, 6,11,16,21,26,3 1 Avoidance: This style is characterized by avoidance, indifference, escaping and running away, For example, taking the above example the teacher may laugh off the matter or ask some other student to do the work and never ask/ talk to the rude student. In the family set up people often turn on the TV rather than discuss an argument. As disagreements are ignored, no position is taken regarding the issues involved, conflict is not effectively resolved, nor eliminated. Statements 2, 7, 12, 17,22,27,32 Accommodation: This style is characterized by accommodation. Parties are generous and self sacrificing. The emphasis is on common interests of the group and de-emphasis on their differences. Herein the student will do -whatever the teacher asks him /her to do. This can result in a temporary solution, but the issue needs to be addressed at a later stage. Statements 3, 8, 13, 18,23,28,33 Compromise: This style is a traditional method of resolving conflicts. It is characterized by finding the middle ground and bargaining. It also involves use of an outside thirdparty or an arbitrator. There is no distinct winner or loser because each party is expected to give up something of value. Two teen aged athletes talking to their peers or counselors after a dispute on the football field, is an example of compromise. It is commonly used where the conflict involves differences in goals, attitudes, or values. It is effective when the sought her goal can be divided. It is sometimes the only way conflicts can be resolved, but is less effective than the win/win strategy. Statements 4, 9, 14, 19,24,29,34 Collaboration: This style is characterized by co-operation. It is the most effective approach to conflict resolution. This approach is about changing the conflict from attack and defense, to co-operation. It is a powerful shift of attitude that alters the whole course of communication: It rests on the following

strategies: identifying the underlying needs, recognizing individual differences, openness to adapting ones position in the light of shared information and attitudes and attacking the problem, not the people. Usually, co-operation can result in both people getting more of what they want. This approach is conflict resolution for mutual gain. Statements 5,10,15,20,25,30,35

EFFECTIVE SKILLS TO MANAGE CONFLICTS

Some of the effective skills to manage conflicts are described below: (i) Self awareness: This involves recognizing "triggers," loaded words" and "actions" that immediately provoke an emotional response, like anger. They could be facial expressions, words, tone of voice, a pointing finger, etc. that are likely to incite a conflict because they are hurtful and usually cause a negative or defensive reaction. This will help us control our emotions better and manage conflict effectively. (ii) "I" statements: "I" statements are familiar to most teachers, but many teachers are reluctant to use them because they seem artificial and stilted. An "I" statement is a way to analyze and reframe a situation. The traditional formula is: I feel_______ (put a name on the emotion and claim it) When_______ (formulate a non-judgmental description of the behavior) Because_____ (describe the tangible effects of the behavior).

For example, if the student talks back to the teacher when he/she has asked him/her to write answers properly: using I statements she should say, "I feel very angry when you speak rudely to me and refuse to listen to my suggestions because if you do that your grades in the exam will improve". Speaking in "I" statements helps people take responsibility for their own feelings and actions. Working through the statement gives them clarity about their feelings and the situation that provoked those feelings. "I" statements are a conflict management technique because they require individuals involved in a conflict to put space between their action and their reaction. This allows the individuals to take time to get in touch with their feelings and to choose an appropriate response instead of reacting spontaneously. Although using "I" statements can be uncomfortable at first, they are effective and using them gets easier with time because students learn how to adapt the statements so that they sound natural and still incorporate all the necessary elements. Modeling "I" statements for students is important. If teachers use the "I" statement, students will learn this technique and also begin to notice a difference in how they feel when being the recipient of an "I" statement versus a "you" statement. (iii) Nonverbal communication skills: Actions really speak louder than words. For example, if a person says "this is really important to me" and rolls his/her eyes at the same time, do you believe his/her verbal or nonverbal cues? If someone says he/she has time to talk to you now, but continues to erase the chalkboard, organize his/her desk and gather books to take home, do you believe his/her verbal or nonverbal cues? Research has indicated that most people believe nonverbal cues (also referred to as body language) over verbal cues when the two cues are inconsistent with each other. This seems to be especially true in conflict situations. People involved in a conflict tend to pay close attention to the body language, voice inflections, and word choice of others involved in the conflict. Body language is often a major cause for rapid escalation of conflicts. If we expect people to communicate and manage conflict effectively, they must possess good non-verbal communication skills. (Iv) Active listening: Listening is hard work and requires more than sitting and looking at a person while he/she talks. Active listening is a term used to refer to a set of listening skills that include good body language, listening, asking questions, and summarizing facts and feelings. Active listening also requires the listener to select a time and location that is conducive to good communication, to reduce the number of internal and external distractions, to avoid making assumptions and to refrain from giving advice, Most of us have experienced the frustration of trying to work out a conflict with a person who is not willing or capable of listening. These individuals are probably distracted from listening because they are reacting out of anger, trying to prove themselves to be, right, trying to place blame on others, or formulating their next argument. Fortunately, most of us have also encountered people we consider to be

good listeners, often we consider them so because they listen attentively, exhibit good body language, summarize the facts, acknowledge your feelings, ask clarifying questions, and avoid giving unwanted advice. Active listening is an important skill for managing conflict. In a conflict situation, a listener who asks clarifying questions and summarizes facts and feelings enables the speaker to feel that he/she has been given a chance to be heard. Many conflicts are resolved simply by active listening because the parties realize the conflict is simply a misunderstanding. Even when a true disagreement exists, individuals who are given an opportunity to have their perspective heard are much more likely to be committed to achieving a win-win solution. Hurt feelings, misunderstandings, and misperceptions can cause conflicts to escalate quickly. If individuals employ active listening skills in the early stages of a conflict, they increase their chances of a quick resolution. (v) Different perceptions: Is the glass half empty or half full? Did the teacher give a student a dirty look or not? Conflict is natural because people perceive things differently. To resolve conflicts effectively people must be willing to acknowledge, but not necessarily agree with another person's perception. To do this an individual involved in a conflict must be willing to momentarily set aside his/her own perception and feelings to accurately hear the perception, feelings and needs of another person. Acknowledging that different perceptions exist may allow disputing individuals to find common ground and work towards a resolution. (vi) Brainstorming: The goal of brainstorming is to identify as many solutions as possible for resolving a problem. Brainstorming should include a few rules such as be creative, list all ideas without judging them and suggest as many ideas as possible that start with the words "I" or "we". This process helps people see that there are many possible solutions for a problem and that working together cooperatively they can discover them. (vii) Third party mediation: In mediation sessions, a neutral third person (or persons) helps the parties in resolving their problem. Mediators should be detached and unbiased. They may be professionals or volunteers who have undergone intensive training. Mediators do not dictate a settlement. They encourage dialogue, provide guidance, and help the parties define areas of agreement and disagreement. A mediation session is confidential. A mediator should be objective validate both sides, be supportive use caring language and provide a non-threatening learning environment, where people will feel safe to open up. He/she should actively discourage judgments as to who was right and who was wrong and should not ask "Why did you?" He/she would ask, "What happened?" and "How did you feel?" He/she should resist advising, and should offer suggestions when needed as options, not directives. Finally, he/she should work towards 'wins' for both sides and turn opponents into problem-solving partners.

(viii) Evaluating options/ predicting consequences: After a list of possible solutions has been identified, it is essential to decide which ones will be part of the final agreement. For this, it is necessary to talk about them, identify ones which are liked by people and explore what each person likes or dislikes about each option. The options that the group dislikes can be crossed out. Then the members can be asked to predict the consequences that might follow upon choosing each option and cross out those whose consequences may be undesirable. The options should be such that both parties can agree to become part of their final solution. (ix) Assume a global perspective: If we believe that the actions of one individual are interconnected with every other individual, then we can have a sense of how our actions can have meaning in conjunction with the actions of others. We can look at the overall system, which may be the family, the organization or the society. Consider what needs this larger unit has in order to function effectively. By taking a broader perspective we confronted the enormity of the difficulties, identified what we could do to affect a particular problem, even if it was only a small step in the right direction. One step forward changes the dynamics and new possibilities can open up. Points to remember in conflict resolution Identify and state the problem/conflict. Express your feelings/concerns with "I" statements, not "you" statements. Listen to understand - never to interrupt. Check that you understand by briefly repeating what you heard in your own words. Remember it is okay to laugh with each other but not at each other. Final resolution is achieved when apologies are exchanged, and/or reconciliation occurs, and/or everyone reaches a solution that they can "live with" and the solution allows the group to proceed.

LET US SUM UP
Stress is a natural, ongoing, dynamic and interactive process that takes place as people adjust to their environment. Stress can be brought about by positive or negative life events. Distress can cause disease, and eustress or positive stress can promote well being and increased productivity .Therefore it is important to recognize and be responsible for one's stress, and realize that by managing stress effectively you can

significantly improve the quality of your own life. Our body is constantly defending itself against stress. The defense mechanisms heal our emotions by relieving us of anxiety and stress. They give us immediate relief but it may not be genuine relief. You, as teachers, play a central role in helping the students deal with the pressures, tensions and frustrations of life. You provide a relationship and a platform which facilitate the student in his/her pursuit of learning how to deal with stress and conflict, so that they can cease to be impediments and make him /her more productive, instead. Conflict is a normal phenomenon and it can be defined as any situation where incompatible activities, feelings, or intentions occur together. Conflict may take place within one person, or between two or more-people-who bow each other. They need to be managed well as they generate new ideas and new ways of doing things, but too much conflict can lead to loss of focus and stress.

DECISION MAKING
Structure Introduction Objectives Significance of Decision making Decision making Process Types of Decisions Models of Decision Making Creativity and Decision making Some Common Errors in Decision making Let Us Sum Up Unit-end Exercises Suggested Readings

INTRODUCTION
Decision making is the process of choosing actions that are directed towards the resolution. It can be defined as "the selection from among alternatives of a course of action: it is at the core of planning". The decision making process can be carried out either by individuals acting alone or by groups. There are several models and theories which are developed to explain decision making and how effectively you can make a decision. Decision making is a process of selection from a set of alternative courses of action which is thought to fulfill the objectives of the decision problem more satisfactorily than

others. Decision making is an essential part of every function of management. In the words of Peter F. Drucker, "Whatever a manager does, he does through decision making." When we talk of teachers it can be seen that a teacher is continuously involved in decision making whether it is regarding school activities or related student centered activities etc. Knowingly or unknowingly a teacher is always at decision making. Decision making involves thinking and deciding before doing and so is inherent in every activity. That is the reason decision making is often called the "essence" of managing. No one can survive without effective decision making. Some of the decisions may be of a routine type and repetitive in nature and some may be strategic in nature which may require a lot of systematic and scientific analysis. In the educational sector, a teacher is always a decision maker. Teachers are expected to make decisions that affect the growth and development of the students in their care. OBJECTIVES After going through this unit, you should be able to:

Discuss the importance and process of decision making, Discuss the models of decision making. Explain the relativity of creativity and decision making, Discuss common errors in decision making.

SIGNIFICANCE OF DECISION MAKING

Decision making is important for organizational effectiveness because of its central role in the overall process of directing and controlling the behavior of organizational members. Decisions are made that cover the setting of goals, strategic planning, organizational design, personnel actions, and individual and group actions. Besides its organizational effect, however, decision making also has an individual effect. The quality of a decision has a bearing on his or her professional success and sense of satisfaction. So studying decision making is important from both an organizational and an individual perspective. Another major reason for studying decisions is to enable us to make better quality decisions than we do presently. This point must be emphasized strongly because the quality of our decisions is often much poorer than we realize. Selective perception tends to bias the information we use in making decisions and our attitudes and values influence how we interpret that information. Drives for consistency lead to oversimplified interpretations. Our willingness to attribute positive outcomes to ourselves (e.g., taking credit for good decisions) and to attribute negative outcomes to forces outside our control makes us remember the results of decisions in a personally

favorable light. All these forces degrade our decisions and at the same time, limit our understanding of the decision making problem. Besides being unaware of our human limitations in the decision making process, we are often unaware of the methods that can be used to increase our decision effectiveness. Very little training that emphasizes the actual decision making process is available either inside or outside organizations. In most cases experience is our guide and while experience can be a good teacher, it can be misleading as well. In many cases we may learn the wrong way to do something or we may obtain information that is actually irrelevant for the quality of the decision. In order to increase our effectiveness in decision making, we must first understand the decision making process. Decision making and planning are deeply interlinked. The determination of objectives, policies, programs, strategies, etc. involves decision making. The most outstanding quality of a teacher to be successful is his/her ability to make sound decisions, A teacher may be in a situation where he/she has to make up his/her mind quickly on certain matters, It is not correct to say that he/she has to make spur of the moment decisions all the time, While taking many decisions, he/she gets enough time for careful fact finding, analysis of alternative and choice of the best alternative. Decision making is a human process. When a teacher decides, he/she chooses a course which he/she thinks is the best.

DECISION MAKING PROCESS

The basic characteristics of decision making are as follows: It is the process of choosing a course of action from among the alternative courses of action. It is a human process involving to a great extent the application of intellectual abilities. It is the end process preceded by deliberation and reasoning. It is always related to the environment. A decision may be taken in a particular set of circumstances and another in a different set of circumstances. It involves a time dimension and a time lag. It always has a curpose. Keeping this in view, there may just be a decision to not to decide. It involves all actions like defining the problem and probing and analyzing the various alternatives which take place before a final choice is made.

The decision making process includes the following components: The decision maker. The decision problem.

The environment in which the decision is to be made. The objectives of the decision maker. The alternative courses of, action. The outcome expected from various alternatives. The final choice of the alternative.

The stages of decision making are indicated in Figure 8.1

The first leg of decision making is goals and objectives. The second stage is problemrecognition; here the decision-maker has to be alert to know what is happening and also to recognize the discrepancies which exist. During the third stage, the decision-maker must evaluate the discrepancy whether it is an important one or not. Next, it has to be found out how the problem occurred i.e., 'information-search phase'. This stage is crucial but least handled well. In the next stage 'course of action' must be explored i.e., number of alternatives to be explored. This is the 'alternative-generation' phase. Next comes the evaluation of alternatives that is the 'choice phase'. Here the pros and cons of each alternative have to be thought about before taking a decision which is known as choice of action. The last phase of the process involves the implementation and evaluation of the decision.

TYPES OF DECISIONS
Decisions may be classified into five major types. These are: Organizational and personal decisions Routine and strategic decisions

Policy and operating decisions Programmed and non-programmed decisions Individual and group decisions

Let us discuss each type in brief.

(i) Organizational and personal decisions: Personal decisions are those decisions that cannot be delegated to others. These decisions are meant only to achieve personal goals. Organizational decisions are those decisions that are taken to achieve organizational goals. For example you want to solve food habits related problems of your students. Advising them to take nutritious food becomes a personal decision. As a teacher you adopt different kinds of teaching methods so that your students are able to understand science and mathematics better. These are for organizational goals because good performance enhances the credibility of the school. (ii) Routine and strategic decisions: Routine decisions are those which are repetitive in nature. For example, certain established rules, procedures and policies are to be followed. You might have experienced that when a teacher goes on leave another teacher who is free at that time has to engage the class. This is a routine decision. 'Strategic' decisions are those decisions which have to be deliberated upon in depth. For example, highlighting the characteristics of the school, before giving an advertisement for admissions, can bring more revenue to the school. (iii) Policy and operating decisions: Policy decisions are those decisions which are taken at the higher level. For example fixing pay scales of teachers. Operating decisions are those decisions which mean procedure of execution of the policy made. For example, how to disburse the arrears accumulated to a teacher (e.g. calculations). (iv) Programmed and non-programmed decisions: Non-programmed decisions are those decisions which are unstructured. For example, if a child is often absent, the class teacher can analyze the reasons for his/her absenteeism from the information provided by the child and then advice as to how to recoup with the situation. Whereas programmed decisions are of routine type and repetitive in nature. For example, when children should take their breakfast, lunch etc. (v) Individual and group decisions: A decision taken by an individual in the organization is known as 'individual' decision, where autocratic style of functioning prevails. For example, if only the principal takes a decision without the participation of teachers, it is an individual decision. 'Group' decisions are collective decisions which are taken by a committee with a proper representation. For example, decisions taken collectively by parents, teachers and principal for the welfare of students.

Some other types of decisions: Decisions can also be classified on the basis of dimensionality i.e., complexity of the problem and certainty of outcome of following the decision. These are described below: Mechanistic decisions: Mechanistic decision is routine and repetitive in nature where the outcomes are known. For example, if a child misbehaves in the class, the teacher raises voice to control it. Analytical decisions: In this type of decision one has to analyze the situation and take a decision. For example, if students are not performing well in science, the reasons have to be explored. It can be because of the teacher or the method of teaching science, labfacilities provided, etc. Adaptive decisions: In this kind of decision outcomes are not known and often unpredictable; It varies from situation to situation, For example, a decision taken by a teacher without prior experience of the outcome.

MODELS OF DECISION MAKING

The following are important decision making models which enable us to know more about decision making: Contingency model Economic man model Administrative man model Social man model Let us discuss each model in brief.

(i) Contingency model: Beach and Mitchell (1978) felt that the decision maker uses one of three general types of decision strategies: aided analytic, unaided analytic, and no analytic. The aided analytic strategy employs some sort of formal model or formula, or an aid such as a checklist. An unaided analytic strategy is one in which the decision maker is very systematic in his or her approach to the problem and perhaps follows some sort of model, but does it all in his or her head. Thinking of all the pros and cons for each alternative or trying to imagine the consequences of each action would fall in this category. Finally there is the category of no analytic strategy. Here the decision maker chooses by habit or uses some simple rule of thumb ("nothing ventured, nothing gained" or "better safe than sorry") to make the choice. Which strategy is to be selected depends on the personal characteristic of the decision maker and the demands of the task. The underlying assumption of this model is that a person will choose a strategy that requires the least amount of time and effort to reach

a satisfactory decision. The more analytic a strategy, the more time and effort are required to use it. Since aided analytic techniques take the most effort and analysis, the use of such techniques requires that 1) the individual should have the personal characteristics necessary to employ them (e.g., knowledge, ability, and motivation) and 2) such techniques are demanded by the characteristics of the decision problem. The characteristics of the problem are divided into two groups: the decision problem itself and the decision environment. The model suggests that as the decision problem becomes less familiar and more ambiguous, complex, and unstable, the decision maker will use more time and analysis (more analytic strategies) to reduce the uncertainty caused by these factors. However, this process continues only up to a point. When the uncertainty due to these factors becomes too great, the decision maker is likely to return to a simpler rule. The reason is that when there is an extremely high degree of uncertainty in the decision problem, the potential gains of a more accurate analytic decision are small and are often far outweighed by the cost (e.g., time and effort) required to arrive at that decision. The decision environment is composed of four factors. The model suggests that more analytic strategies will be selected when decisions are not reversible and very important, and when the decision maker is personally accountable. Also, analytic procedures are more likely to be used where there are no time or money constraints. (ii) Economic man model: In this model, it is believed that man is completely rational in taking decisions. It is accepted that man takes decisions based on the best alternatives available. An econologic model of decision making is given in Figure 8.2

(iii) Administrative man model: This model assumes that though people would like to have best solution, they settle for less because the decisions may require more information which they may not possess. Thus, there is a kind of bounded (or limited) rationality in decisions. The following three steps are involved in the process of this model. Sequential attention to alternative solutions: In this step, all the alternatives are identified and evaluated one at a time. If one of the alternatives fails then the next alternative is considered. Use of heuristics: A heuristic is a rule which guides the search for alternatives into areas that have a high probability for yielding satisfactory solutions. In this step if the previous solution was working then a similar set of alternatives are used in that situation. Satisfying: Here the alternatives which are workable are found to be satisfying. A bounded rationality model of decision making is explained in Figure 8.3.

(i) Social man model: This model was developed by the classical psychologists. This model feels that man being a social animal is subjected to social pressures and influences. Here the decisions are taken under the following conditions: Certainty: Because of certainty, accurate decisions can be taken. Uncertainty and risk: Several decisions are taken under conditions of risk.

Identification of Alternatives
In order to generate alternatives three main processes are generally used. These are brainstorming, synectics and nominal grouping. (i) Brain storming: This is developed by Alex F. Osborn. It is the best technique in stimulating creative thinking. The objective of this method is to produce as many ideas as possible. In this method 'criticism' is prohibited. 'Freewheeling' is welcome. Generating a number of alternatives is the motto. Combination and improvement are sought. This method does have limitations. They are time consuming and costly. Care should be taken to select group members who are familiar with the problem to be considered (e.g. Parent - Teacher Association meetings). (ii) Synectics: Here members are selected from different backgrounds and training. The leader poses the problem in such a way that the members deviate from traditional ways of thinking. Various methods employed include role playing, use of analogies, paradoxes, metaphors and other thought provoking exercises. This is a widely used method and though it has limitations like brain storming, it is very useful for complex and technical problems. (iii)Nominal grouping: It means group in name only. This model is useful when it requires a high degree of innovation and idea generation. Here the search process is proactive rather than reactive. It is also time consuming and costly.

CREATIVITY AND DECISION MAKING

Creativity involves a novel combination of ideas which must have theoretical or social value or make an emotional impact on other people. Creative decisions and the quality of such decisions is influenced by many factors. It would depend upon the quality of the information input and any prejudices introduced because of our perceptual processes and cognitive constraints. In addition to the outside factors, the characteristics of the decision maker greatly affect the quality of the decision. The primary characteristics are the attitude of the decision maker towards risk that he/she may be facing and the types of social and cultural influences on him/her. Some of the factors and. personal characteristics that have an impact on the decision maker are: (i) Information inputs: It is very important to have adequate and accurate information about the situation for decision making; otherwise the quality of the decision will suffer. It must be recognized, however, that an individual has certain mental constraints which

limit the amount of information that he/she can adequately handle. Less information is as dangerous as too much information, even though some risk takers and highly authoritative individuals do make decisions on the basis of comparatively less information than more conservative decision makers. (ii) Prejudice: Prejudice and bias are introduced by our perceptual processes and may cause us to make ineffective decisions. First of all, the perception is highly selective, which means that we only accept what we want to accept and hence only such type of information filters down to our senses and secondly, perception is highly subjective meaning that the information gets distorted to coincide with our pre-established beliefs, attitudes and values. For example, a pre-conceived idea that a given person or an organization is honest or deceptive, good or poor source of information, late or prompt on delivery can have a considerable effect on the objective ability of the decision maker and the quality of the decision. (iii)Cognitive constraints: A human brain, which is the source of thinking, creativity and thus decision making, is limited in capacity in a number of ways. For example, except in unique circumstances, our memory is short term with a capacity of only a few ideas, words and symbols. Secondly, we cannot perform more than a very limited number of calculations in our heads which are not enough to compare all the possible alternatives and make a choice. Finally, psychologically, we are always uncomfortable with making decisions. We are never really sure if our choice of the alternative was correct and optimal, until the impact of the implication of the decision has been felt. This makes us feel very insecure. These constraints limit us to use 'Heuristics', which means limiting the search for facts and data and using the limited information for decision making. This leads to 'satisfactory' decisions rather than optimal decisions. (iv) Attitudes about risk and uncertainty: These attitudes are developed in a person, partly due to certain personal characteristics and partly due to organizational characteristics. If the organizational policy is such that it penalizes losses more than it rewards gains, then the decision maker would tend to avoid such alternatives that have some chances of failure even though the probability of substantial potential gains is very high. The risk taking attitude is influenced by the following variables: Intelligence of the decision maker. Higher intelligence results in highly conservative attitudes and highly conservative decision makers are low risk takers. The less intelligent decision makers are generally more willing to take calculated risks if the potential rewards are large and there is some chance of success. Expectations of the decision maker. People with high expectations are generally highly optimistic in nature and are willing to make decisions even with less information. The decision makers with low expectations of success will require more and more information to decide upon a course of action.

Time constraints. As the complexity of the personal habits of the decision maker and the complexity of the decision variables increases, so does the time required to make a rational decision. Even though, there are certain individuals who work best under time pressures and may out-perform others under severe time constraints, most people, by and large, require time to gather all the available information for evaluation purposes. However, most people under time pressures rely on 'Heuristic' approach, considering few characteristics of alternatives and focusing on reasons to reject some alternatives. This approach may also be in use when the cost of gathering information and evaluating all such information is high.

(v) Personal habits: Personal habits of the decision maker, even though formed through social environmental impact and personal perceptual processes, must be studied in order to predict his decision making style. Some people stick to their decisions even when these decisions are not optimal and try to shift the blame for failure on outside factors rather than their own mistakes. For example, Hitler found himself bound by his own decisions. Once he decided to attack Russia, there was no coming back even when it was realized that the decision was not the right one. Some people cannot admit that they are wrong and they continue with their decisions as before even ignoring such evidence which indicates that a change is necessary. These personal habits have a great impact on organizational operations and effectiveness. (vi)Social and cultural influences: The social and group norms exert considerable influence on the style of the decision maker. Ebert and Mitchell define a social norm to be "an evaluating scale designating acceptable latitude and objectionable latitude for behavior, activity, events, beliefs or any object of concern to members of a social unit. In other words, social norm is the standard and accepted way of making judgments". Similarly, cultural upbringing and various cultural dimensions have a profound impact on the decision making style of an individual. For example, in the Japanese organizational system, a decision maker arrives at decisions in consensus with others. This style is culturally oriented and makes implementation of the decision much easier, since everybody participates in the decision making process. In America, on the contrary, the decision making style is highly individualistic with the help of decision models and decision techniques.

SOME COMMON ERRORS IN, DECISION MAKING

Since the importance of the right decision cannot be overestimated, because the quality of the decision can make the difference between success and failure, it is imperative that all factors affecting the decision be properly looked at and fully investigated. In addition to technical and operational factors which can be quantified and analyzed, other factors such as personal values, personality traits, psychological assessment,

perceptions about the environment, intuitional and judgmental capabilities and emotional interference must also be understood and credited. Some researchers have pinpointed certain areas where managerial thinking needs to be re-assessed and where some common mistakes are usually made. These mistakes that affect the decision making process as well as the efficiency of the decision should be avoided as far as possible. Some other errors are: (i) Indecisiveness: Decision making is a very heavy responsibility. The fear of its outcome can make some people timid about making a decision. This timidity may result in taking a long time for making a decision and this may result in the loss of a good opportunity. This trait is a personality trait and must be looked into seriously. (ii) Postponing the decision until the last moment: This is quite a common practice and results in decision making under pressure of time which generally eliminates the possibility of a thorough analysis of the problem since such analysis is time consuming. It also makes it practically impossible to establish and compare all possible alternatives. For example, I many students who postpone studying until their final exams usually do not fare well in the exams. (iii)Failure to isolate the root cause of the problem: It is a very common practice to cure the symptoms, rather than the causes. For example, a headache may be a symptom of some deep rooted emotional problem so that just a medicine for the headache would not cure the problem. It is necessary to separate the symptoms from the causes. Success of a decision is dependent upon the correct definition of the problem. (iv) Failure to assess the reliability of informational sources: Very often, we take it for granted that the other person's opinion is very reliable and trustworthy and we do not check for the accuracy of such information for ourselves. Many times, the opinion of the other person is taken so that if the decision fails to bring the desired results, the blame for the failure can be shifted to the person who had provided the information. However, this is a poor reflection on the manager's ability and integrity and the manager must be held responsible for the outcome of the decision. Accordingly, it is his moral duty to analytically judge the accuracy and reliability of the information that is provided to him. (v) The method for analyzing the information may not be a sound one : Since most decisions and specially the non-programmed ones have to be based upon a lot of information, and many factors and variables, the procedures to identify isolate and select the useful information must be sound and dependable. Usually, it is not operationally feasible to objectively analyze more than five or six pieces of information at any given time. Hence, the model must be built which incorporates and handles many variables in order to aid the decision maker. Also, it is desirable to define the objectives, criteria and constraints as early in the decision making process as possible. This would

assist in making the process more formal so that no conditions or alternatives would be overlooked.

LET US SUM UP
In this unit we have discussed the importance of decision making, the process involved
and different models of decision making and how decision making is helpful in everyday life. We discussed various characteristics of decision making. Four types of decisions have been discussed in this unit. We have also discussed four major models: contingency model, economic man model, administrative man model and social man model. Various factors and personal characteristics that have an impact on decision making have also been discussed.

LEADERSHIP STYLES
Structure Introduction Objectives Concept of Leadership Changing Concepts of Leadership Types of Power Leadership Styles and Power Concepts Effective Leaders Educational Implications Let Us Sum Up Unit-end Exercises Suggested Readings

INTRODUCTION
Suppose you conducted a survey in which you asked different people the following question: Mat is common to Mahatama Gandhi, Martin Luther King, Abraham Lincoln and Nelson Mandela? You would find that most people would reply "good leadership". There is a wide spread belief that leadership is a key ingredient for success in many areas of life-business, educational set-ups, sports and politics, to name a few. But what precisely is leadership? Like love, it is something we can readily recognize but cannot easily define. Leadership is a topic of great importance to people who are leaders, who aspire to be leaders or who are on the receiving end of leadership. This includes nearly everybody at work. As a teacher, you are also a leader since the future of so many students is in your hands. This unit examines what leaders in the work place are like, what they do, and what they should do. It also looks at different kinds of situations facing leaders and the various strategies available for dealing with them. The main aim throughout is to show the reader the essential factors in effective leadership, in so far as they can be identified. No particular approach to leadership is better than all the others,

but several approaches offer useful insights. This unit will also deal with the educational implications derived from leadership theories and concepts to enable you to implement some of the aspects in your own professional life.

OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit, you should be able to:

define leadership , discuss the changing views of leadership, describe the types of leaders, distinguish between different styles of leadership;, explain the types of power and their role in organizations, discuss the functions fulfilled by an effective leader, discuss the traits of effective leaders, apply the concepts in your own life situations

CONCEPT OF LEADERSHIP
Keith Davis defines leadership as the ability to persuade others to seek objectives enthusiastically. It is a human factor that binds a group together and motivates it towards its goals. It deals with the process of influencing the behavior, action, attitudes and motives of a group of people and satisfying their needs, aspirations and expectations in the process of achievement of institutional objectives. The concept of leadership covers all the interpersonal relationships in which influence/attempts are involved and relates to the structure of power in these relationships. In a school situation, how the school will function, what will be the policies and practices which are followed etc. are all determined by the leadership role of the principal. It is unusual to find a group where the same person is always the leader. Different people at different times are able to influence the group's activities. Some people may lead more often than others, but depending on the time and circumstances, we are all leaders and followers. However, there is a general agreement that all leadership involves behaviors or practices, many of which can be learned. As a result, many of the studies of leadership have focused on identifying these leadership behaviors. The results of one such attempt are shown in Table 7.1

Roles of the leader

The ten commitments of leadership. Guiding the process Inspiring a shared Vision Enabling others to Act Modeling the way Encouraging heart the

Specific functions to be performed

1. Search for opportunities 2. Experiment and take risks 3. Envision the future 4. Enlist others 5. Foster collaboration 6. Strengthen others 7. Set the example 8. Plan small wins 9. Recognize individual contribution 10. Celebrate the accomplishments

The roles and actions of leaders identified in Table 7.1 can serve as meaningful guidelines for you in your role as a teacher Characteristics of leadership in a school system: Some of the characteristics of leaders in any educational or institutional setting may be described as follows : They set the pattern and guide the outcomes of co-operative action. They guide the educational programs, but rely on shared decisions. They give common understanding to common purposes and goals. They produce cohesiveness without which co-operation is impossible. They communicate with all school personnel with a sense of mutual understanding and mutual loyalty to the ideals of education. They generate enthusiasm for projects and inspire working towards their completion. They resolve the differences which frequently arise in growing organizations.

Leadership usually appears in two forms: Formal leadership: This refers to the influence exerted by persons appointed to or elected to positions of formal authority like the principal or manager in a school. Informal leadership: This deals with the influence exerted by persons who become influential because they have special skills that meet the needs and resources of others. Any teacher or student can become an informal leader.

Both types of leadership are important in an institution, although most of our emphasis in this unit is on formal leadership.

CHANGING CONCEPTS OF LEADERSHIP

Who becomes a leader and on what basis? Traits and situations or both? Are some people born to lead? Common sense suggests that this is so. Eminent leaders of the past, such as Alexander the Great and Abraham Lincoln seem to differ from ordinary human beings in several respects. Such observations lead researchers to formulate a view of leadership known as the great person theory. According to this theory, great leaders possess certain traits that set them apart from others. However, this theory

failed due to unsupported test findings, as researchers could not formulate a short, agreed-upon list of key traits shared by all leaders. What then are the key traits of leaders? What are the characteristics that suit them for this important role? The findings of research on this topic are t summarized in Table 7.2 Table 7.2: Characteristics of Successful Leaders

Traits/Characteristics Drive

Description Desire for achievement, ambition, high energy, initiative Trustworthiness, reliability, openness Desire to exercise influence over others to each shared goals Trust in own abilities Intelligence, ability to integrate and interpret large amounts of information Originality Ability to adapt to the needs of followers and to changing situational requirements Knowledge of the group's activities, knowledge of relevant technical matters

Honesty and integrity Leadership motivation

Self-confidence Cognitive ability

Creativity Flexibility

Expertise

As you can see from Table 7.2, leaders appear to be higher than other persons in terms of such characteristics as drive- the desire for achievement coupled with higher energy and resolution, self-confidence, leadership motivation and in the desire to be in charge and exercise authority over others. Perhaps the most important single characteristic of leaders is the ability to recognize what action and approaches are required in a given situation and then to act accordingly. To measure traits, one researcher Ghiselli used a test called self-description inventory, a portion of which is presented in the Exhibit given below. In this test persons are asked to describe themselves by checking which of a series of adjectives applies to them. For

example, a person might describe himself/herself as discrete, thorough, co-operative and cheerful. Based on this test Ghiselli identified a number of traits which he called: Supervisory Ability Intelligence Initiative Self assurance Decisiveness Masculinity/Femininity Maturity Affinity for working-class values Need for self-actualization Need for power over others Need for high financial rewards Need for job security

Exhibit: Portion of "Self-description Inventory" The purpose of this inventory is to obtain a picture of the traits you believe you possess, and to see how you describe yourself. There is no right or wrong answers, so try to describe you self as accurately and honestly as you can. Ghiselli found that several of these traits characterized effective leaders. Supervisory ability or the capacity to direct the work of others and organize and integrate their activities so that the goal of the group can be attained was the most significant leadership trait. Next in importance was a cluster of five traits. As might be expected, effective leaders were more intelligent and decisive than less effective leaders as well as more self-assured, Effective leaders are more achievement oriented in that they seem driven to achieve high level positions. Finally, they had a high need for self-actualization in that they seemed to need and seek the opportunity to utilize their talent as well as that of others to the fullest extent. Similarly researchers have isolated several other traits that seem to characterize effective leadership. These include: aggressiveness, selfreliance, education and dominance. While these findings may not be conclusive they do suggest that trait theory can be useful in predicting leader effectiveness. Trait theory proposes what leaders are. Behavior approach states that the best way to study and define leadership is in terms of what leaders do. According to the behavior theory 'Initiating Structure' and 'Consideration' are two dimensions of leadership. Initiating structure refers to the extent to which a person is likely to have job relationships that are characterized by mutual trust, respect of subordinates' ideas and regard for their feelings. He/ she shows concern for his/her followers' comfort, well being, and status and job satisfaction.

A third approach-situational approach to leadership argues that situational variables

such as the needs and structure of the group, and outsider-threat determine who emerges as the leader. Hence, being in the right place at the right time is the critical variable. For example, research has shown that the person seated at the head of the table often becomes the group leader because; he or she can maintain eye contact with the other group members. More recent approaches to leadership take an interaction approach. This approach argues that the emergence of a successful leader is determined

by a combination of leader traits, the needs of the group and the situation. This approach also states that people with different traits will be successful at different times. For example, Fred Fiedler (1478) found that the leaders whose main aim is to complete a task are more effective in groups that have either a high degree of structure or very little structure. Structure here means that group members have well defined role or work assigned by the leader in an organization. On the other hand, leaders whose main concern is the satisfaction and happiness of group members are most effective in groups with a moderate degree of structure and in situations where the requirements of the task are not completely clear. Taking all this into account, the bottom line is that in order to have effective leaders we must match the loader's characteristics to those of the group and the situation. Transformational leadership: Leadership though Vision and Charisma Transformational leaders are those who exert profound influence over followers by proposing an inspiring vision and through charismatic appeal. Leaders who change their society are called charismatic or transformational leaders. These two terms are used interchangeably. Such persons do indeed transform social, political or economic realities of people. They seem to possess special skills that equip them for this task. (The word Charisma means gift in Greek). Examples of charismatic leaders are persons like Mother Teresa, Medha Patkar etc

TYPES OF POWER
Power refers to a capacity that 'A' has to influence the behavior of 'B', so that 'B' does something he or she would not otherwise do, Probably, the most important power is that it is a function of "dependence". The greater B's dependence an 'A', the greater is A's power in a relationship. Dependence in turn is based on alternatives that 'B' perceives and the importance that 'B' places on the alternatives that 'A' control. A person can have power over you only if he/she controls something you desire, For example, teacher in school totally depends on the principal's direction and resource support to facilitate his/her functioning. He/she recognizes the power that the principal has over his/her. Suppose, after a few years, he/she is made in charge, now he/she can take some decisions on his/her own and less power is exerted over him/her by the head of the institution. Take a moment to consider the people who have power over you. Where does this power come from? Social psychologists have identified at least six roots of power. These are given below: (i) Coercive power: This type of power relies on threats and punishment in order to influence because this type of power is easy to use and achieves quick results. It is used frequently. It has two critical drawbacks, however. The low-power person dislikes the

high power person and is motivated to end the relationship as soon as that becomes possible. The use of coercive power requires that low power person be watched so that he does not try to deceive or avoid the grip of the high-power person. (ii) Reward power: This relies upon positive reinforcement as a means of influence. In this case, the low-power person is motivated to stay in the relationship. Keeping a watch is not necessary. Reward power is costly to high-power individuals because lowpower persons are influenced as long as the high-power person continues to possess rewards. (iii)Legitimate power: This exists when a person has a specific role, for example, as the principal, head boy or head girl in a school. One cannot "use up" legitimate power, but this power is limited to specific domains. (iv)Expert power: Expert power is taken by an expert in a certain area. The use of expert power does not require that low-power persons be watched. (v) Referent power: This comes to those who are liked and admired. When we want to be similar to those we admire, we change our behavior to be like theirs. Referent power does not weaken, when it is used nor does it require surveillance. (vi)Information power: Information power is held by those who possess information that someone needs or wants. For example, a teacher can influence students because of the fund of information he/she has. Simply, having power does not mean that a person will use it successfully. An important ingredient in successful leadership is knowing how and when to use power. Sometimes power does seem to "go to the head" of the power holder. A number of forces may tempt people to take advantage of their power.

LEADERSHIP STYLES AND POWER CONCEPTS

Leaders differ greatly in personal style and these differences really matter. Consider the behavior of two different types of teachers. In one class a teacher truly "ran the show". He/she took firm control of all class activities and left no doubt about who was in charge. He/she made all the decisions and never asked for students' inputs. He/she even posted a long list of rules in front of the room, telling-learners what to do or not to do in a wide range of situations. Another teacher offered a sharp contrast to this approach. He/she seemed to enjoy sharing his/her authority with students and let the class vote on many decisions. And while he/she too had rules, they were much more flexible and were never posted in a formal list. Can you guess which style of leadership was superior to the other in terms of encouraging better performance? Obviously the second one,

since students were more relaxed, felt encouraged and were happy to work in collaboration with their teacher. Bradford and Lippitt refer to four types of leadership styles. For each of these styles they postulate the characteristics, group reactions and group personalities. Let us study them briefly: Autocratic style: An autocratic leader is a rigid disciplinarian and believes that praise will spoil the students. He/she constantly checks subordinates' performance, gives orders and expects immediate acceptance. He/she is statusminded and does not trust the employee's initiative. The group tends to be insecure, tense and aggressive. Benevolent authoritative style: A benevolent authoritative leader dominates all employees and is the source of all standards. Failure to meet these standards on the part of employees makes his/her feel hurt, angry or surprised and he/she interprets this as personal disloyalty. The group is submissive and shows no initiative without checking with the leader. Laissez faire style: Laissez faire leaders often busy themselves in paper work so as to stay away from group members. Such a leader sets no goals, makes no decisions and provides no direction. Frustration, failure and insecurity are typical in the directionless group. Democratic style: A democratic leader shares group decisions, gives reasons for decisions and devotes time to planning. The enthusiasm is high among group inembers and their basic needs tend to be satisfied. Democratic leaders work in a democratic frame-work. They recognize that meetings are necessary for group thinking and action and that the group should have definite goals.

It is clear from the above that autocratic leaders make decisions unilaterally, while democratic leaders invite inputs and participation in decision making from their followers. Another important dimension is the one involving the extent to which leaders dictate how followers should carry out the assigned task versus giving them freedom to work in any way they wish. This is referred to as the directive-permissive dimension. Any leader will tend to show one of the four different patterns of leadership style described above and as teachers these are the possibilities with their consequences available to you. It is clear that the democratic style will get you the best results. Your students will feel happy, relaxed, involved and committed and you will be able to generate an optimum classroom climate. Basic dimensions of leadership style: Leaders differ greatly along the two dimensions shown here: democratic-autocratic and directive-permissive. This is shown in Figure 7.1

We should know that a leader's style also differs along two other important dimensions. These are: task orientation and persona/employee orientation. Task orientation refers to the extent to which a given leader focuses on getting the task done-whatever it happens to be. Person orientation, in contrast, refers to a leader's interest in maintaining good, friendly relations with the followers. A leadership continuum: The two leadership orientations described above can be broken down further into several different leadership styles. The leadership continuum represented in Figure7.2 uses the task and person orientations and styles identified to demonstrate the range of possible leadership.

Task orientation is the strongest at the extreme left side of the continuum and becomes less dominant as we move to the right. By the same token, the strongest person orientation is the far right and decreases in strength as we move to the left on the continuum, nearly all leaders have some blend of pawn and task orientation in their

leader ship styles. Interestingly, no single style seems to be best; rather, which one is most effective depends on the specific circumstances. For example, leaders such as a school principal who is high on person orientation and who has friendly relations with his/her subordinates, may then not receive from them any negative feedback such as poor progress of class XI1 students. The result is that the principal may get into serious trouble because he/she is not receiving vital feedback from staff members. They tend to take him/her for granted because he/she is friendly with them. In contrast, leaders high in task orientation often do bring out a high level of performance from their followers. These people may feel that the leader has no interest in them and this may weaken their commitment to the group. To most experts, power is not equivalent to leadership. Instead, it is an essential ingredient of leadership. From our early discussion we can easily interpret that power stems either from dependence or legality. Adding power would involve action that enhances the legal power of a person's position. For example, a supervisory head is appointed as the principal of a school because he/she can extract work from others and has shown tremendous improvement in the working of the school system at various levels. India being a high power distance country, subordinates accept the power of superiors. Bypassing of superiors is considered inviting trouble to oneself. In low power distance countries such as Israel and Denmark, employees expect to bypass the boss frequently in order to get work done. It has been found that people perform any actions to create situations favorable to the use of power. Hence, norms are laid down to reduce the misuse of power by leaders.

EFFECTIVE LEADERS
Like the conception of leadership, ideas of leadership effectiveness differ from writer to writer. One major distinction between definitions of leadership effectiveness is the type of consequences or outcomes selected to meet the effectiveness criteria. These outcomes include group performance, attainment of group goals, group growth, group capacity to deal with crises, subordinate satisfaction with leader, subordinate commitment to group goals, and their psychological well being. The most commonly used measure of leader effectiveness is the extent to which the leader or organization performs its task successfully and attains its goals. Subjective assessments of performance are used including ratings of leader's effectiveness in carrying out his/her duties and responsibilities. The attitude of followers towards the leader is another indicator of leader effectiveness i.e. how well does the leader satisfy their needs and expectations? Follower attitudes are measured with questionnaires or interviews. Leader effectiveness is also measured in terms of the leader's contribution to the quality of group processes, as perceived by followers or by outsiders. It deals with the issues of whether the leader improves the quality of work life, builds the self-confidence of followers, increases the skill and contributes to the psychological growth and development of the group?

Effective leadership is a complex matter involving: traits and behavior of the leader, characteristics of individual subordinates and the group as a whole, traits and behavior of the leader's supervisor, objectives of the organization, systems and policies related to matters such as role design and requirements, Training and compensation.

An effective leader should be technically competent and possess a high problem solving ability. The effective leader is one who is interested in his/her leadership role and has a strong drive to get things done.

EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS
Educational implications of different leadership styles are given below: The ability to provide leadership in the classroom may lie with teachers, students or both. Students as well as teachers exert leadership in the classroom. Most teachers identify the student leaders in their class and develop ways to focus their leadership abilities on the attainment of goals that benefit the entire class. Teachers should encourage their students to develop leadership skills and aim towards educating them for good citizenship values. By providing leadership practice, teachers guide students towards the important life goals of becoming autonomous, accepting responsibility and influencing others to respect their opinion. It has been noted that teachers with a democratic style of leadership are preferred to those with authoritarian styles. Democratic teachers create a more positive atmosphere characterized by greater student enjoyment and co-operation and less competitiveness and frustration. According to one study, "hostility, competitiveness and high dependency" marked the autocratic group, while "openness, friendly communication, and independence" were shown by the democratically led group. Teachers' leadership style and power unquestionably affect the climate and the quality of human interactions in the classroom. Student councils, class leaders/monitors, class meetings and school assemblies planned by students are forms of student government that offer leadership opportunity and the means of practicing democracy. To create a democratic classroom is not easy. It takes time, patience, skill and a willingness to share power. However, the rewards for teachers who implement democratic principles can be significant. Group spirit and school pride ate often enhanced, students' attitude towards learning improves and achievement can rise. According to the task or situation, a principal in a school has to adopt a flexible role and leadership style to meet successfully the requirements of his/her job.

LET US SUM UP
In this unit you have studied that:
Leadership is a process in which one member of the group (its leader) exerts influence over other members towards the attainment of common goals. Leaders differ from each other in certain respects-traits, behavior etc. Transformational or charismatic leaders exert profound effects on their followers and often on entire societies. Leaders adopt different styles and use various types of power to exercise influence over others. Leadership effectiveness has been conceptualized by using varying criteria. Effective leadership is characterized by various qualities/traits.

LEADERSHIP
Structure
-

Objectives Introduction Meaning of Leadership Leadership Theories Leadership Qualities Functions of Leaders Leaders as Executive Leaders as Teacher Techniques of Leadership Styles of Leadership Hazards of Leadership Let Us Sum Up Key Words Some Useful Books Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises

OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit you should be able to: define leadership explain theories of leadership and styles of leaders describe the functions and qualifications of leaders discuss the techniques of Leadership; and

Explain the problems and hazards of leadership.

INTRODUCTION
The most important task in the public service is to guide and direct work of the group as whole cowards desired objectives. Leadership assumes much more importance in the modem government since the size and the number of organizations continue to grow. Further, there is a need for effective participation of hundreds and thousands of individuals who are continually joining the organization with little prior knowledge of what the organizations are striving to do. They involve in more and more complex functions of individual duties. A combination of several factors separates the individual members more and more from a personal connection with the organization he joins. The tie becomes impersonal cold and un-inspiring. Generally, in many Government organizations work is divided departmentally. Each will work independently. To provide link there is a need for a leader. Again, the division of labor tends to separate and isolate individual members from the central purpose. In every organization the tendency is both for the departmental heads and for the rank and file members to see the organizations problems in terms of primarily of their functional effort. Only competent leaders can correct the tendencies which functionalism and division of labor create. The leader alone can keep the entire group committed to the goals which could produce the best results. Thus, the multiplication of organizations, functions, departments, and subordinate geographic units lead to [he increased importance of leadership. In this connection it is necessary to mention that formerly it was thought born leaders were enough to handle the situation. Now the scene underwent a change. The demand is for effective leaders in many fields, on many fronts and at successive levels of authority. There are not enough born leaders to go round. We have to develop them. In view of our need the idea of leadership should also change. We do not look towards a unique individual set apart with usual personal qualities. Organizations requires people who can administer it. In this connection it is necessary to clarify certain doubts. Generally, leadership tends to be expressed in terms of power to command or ability to dominate. Commanding by itself is not adequate as a basis for getting things done. Command is an exercise of power over people. But leadership is interested in how people can be brought to work together for a common end effectively and happily. It implies the use and creation of power with people. It is concerned about the process by which result is attained. Thus, we may conclude at in every organization the whole man has to be appealed to and persuaded to do the job. There is n need for total involvement in the organization. This will be ensured only by a good leader.

MEANING OF LEADERSHIP
Let us try to define leadership. Every executive whether he deals with the people directly or indirectly is potentially in a position to lead people. He has the task of bringing them into an effective working harmony. To achieve this, there is a factor known as leadership. Leadership is defined as the activity of influencing people to cooperate towards some goal which they come to find desirable. This definition may be elaborated further. There are at least four distinct factors in the definition. First, it is useful to explain the way by which people rise to leadership. Second, the process of influencing requires study. Thirdly, the nature of goals which people will find desirable has to be analyzed. And fourth, the qualities exhibited by leaders in action can be considered. Some details, though brief, are required to explain the above mentioned factors. The executive who is also the leader, sometimes gets his chance to lead because the situation in which he finds himself' is one where the best results come in terms of leading than in terms of commanding. It is the situation and not the person alone which allows the leader to function. Thus every leader is as much a product of the setting of his life and times as of his own will to power. Sometimes we find self constituted leaders who will push his way up by a combination of a strong personality with a vigorous, assertive ego and a steady determination to accomplish certain results. The second process is through a democratic political process where a leader is selected from the group. In this there is a understanding between the leader and the led. In this situation the leader chosen by the group has the most advantageous conditions for success. Yet in another way he is in comparatively greater difficulty because he is always being tested. However, the leader selected by a group has the best chance of winning and holding his following. Finally, people get the chance to be leaders through a method commonly found in many organizations where boards of directors or trustees appoint top executives who in turn select the lower executives. Here the group has vested interest which brought all of them to a common platform. The problem of the leader is to show them that in serving the corporate group they are serving themselves; that in being loyal to the organization as a whole they are also loyal to themselves.

LEADERSHIP THEORIES
Leadership is one of the most important topics which was widely researched both by the individuals and institutions. Studies by Ronald Lippitt and Ralf K. White, at the University of Iowa, Bureau of Business Research of the Ohio State University and University of Michigan have undertaken pioneering studies on leadership. The important theories of

leadership are trait theory, situational theory, group theory, etc. We will now discuss some of these theories to gain a broad understanding of leadership. Trait Theory Studies on leadership in the beginning concentrated on the qualities of leaders. The major question that was always asked was what qualities or traits make a person a leader. Some believed that leaders we born and are not made. This is what is popularly called the 'Great man Theory' of Leadership. These born leaders possess certain traits and characteristics, certain natural abilities which allow them to become leaders. The trait approach is particularly concerned with identifying the personality' Waits of leaders, Later, behavioral studies have revealed that the leadership qualities are not totally inborn and they can be acquired through learning, training and experience. Several studies tried to identify the important traits and there was wide variation in the traits identified by the scholars. Keith Devis for example, identifies four important traits for a successful leader viz., intelligence, social maturity and breadth, inner motivation and achievement, drive and human relations attitude. We will study some of these characteristics later in this unit. Group Theory Group theory was also developed by social psychologists. This theory emphasizes that the leader provides benefits to his followers. According to this theory, the followers depend upon those leaders who satisfy their needs. They extend support and cooperation as long as the leaders satisfy their needs and motivate them to achieve the objectives and goals of the organization. Halander and Julion have emphasized this point when they said. The person in the role of leader who fulfills expectations and achieves group goals provides rewards for others which are reciprocated in the form of status, esteem, and heightened influence. Because leadership embodies a two-way influence relationship, recipients of influence assertions may respond by asserting influence in turn..... The very sustenance of the relationship depends upon some yielding to influence on both sides.
...

Situational Theory Both trait and group theories were found inadequate to provide an overall theory of leadership. Therefore, the scholars turned their attention to the situational aspect of leadership. They begun a search for situational variables which influence leadership roles, skills and behavior. This theory believes that leadership emerges from the situation and is influenced by the situation. As a result leadership differs from situation to situation. F.E. Fielder, who is important proponent of this theory, feels that people

welcome leaders because of situational factors. He emphasizes that it is not meaningful to speak of an effective Leader or an ineffective leader. We can only speak of a leader who tends to be effective in one situation and ineffective in another situation'.

LEADERSHIP QUALITIES
Certain qualities are essential in any leader because they are vital to take the individual towards success. Deficiencies can be eliminated by conscious effort. Good qualities can be strengthened. But it is not possible to cultivate all the attributes since some are more innate than others. An exhaustive list is not possible. However, certain specific and easily identifiable traits are enlisted here on the basis of practical experience although; several of them fall under psychological terms. All the, qualities listed however, do not necessarily appear in every leadership situation nor are they all equally required of every leader. The aim is to present a comprehensive picture of all desirable qualifications. i) It is generally agreed that possession of a generous and unusual endowment of physical and nervous energy is the secret of the most successful leaders. Those who rise in any marked way above the general public have more drive, more endurance, greater vipour of body and mind than the average person. Robust health and basic strength is an asset for the effectiveness of the leader. Every one of us realize how important is the physical and nervous conditions in our working. Sluggishness, apathy, fatigue are generally considered to be the stumbling elements of good leader. The leader also must recognize that his job is more demanding than the average worker. Therefore, the leader should be careful about his health and vitality. ii) The second quality which is clearly predominant in every good leader is a strong sense of a dominant purpose and direction. The leader is one who knows much better what he wants to get it done and where he wants to go. It means he possesses clarity and precision as to the objectives, purpose or aims he want to achieve. iii) The next quality pertains to enthusiasm. The mere presence of a sound purpose is not enough. It must be felt to be sound by all. A sound purpose must be supported by dynamic emotion, hope, will to win and a robust sense of joy in the job. Thus enthusiasm is essential. It is important because it is self sustaining. If the leader has real vigour on the physical side and definite objective on the manual horizon, then enthusiasm is an automatic offspring. Enthusiasm can be deliberately increased but it requires great energy, and deep intellectual conviction. A good leader is always conscious of this fact. He should be a known enthusiast. Iv) Affection and friendliness are essential in a good leader. In fact, affection and friendliness are positive motivating forces over the conduct of those upon whom it is expressed. This will work in more than one direction. The tendency is for friendliness

and affection to evoke a reciprocal response. However, the leader has to guard against sycophancy and other evils associated with it in the name of friendliness and affection. V) The followers must be able to trust their leaders. The followers want to feel a sense of solidarity, of honesty and reliability towards the leader. The people should gain the trust or confidence. In short they want the leader to possess integrity. It is not necessary being a paragon of virtue because it is not possible. But what is required is acting appropriately to the expectations of the group we may hasten to add here that where there is a divergence of views relating to the major objectives of the organization then the leader should maintain his integrity and convince the followers. If he fails, he should quit after giving a reasonable time, making clear to the group the grounds on which he has acted. But these are extraordinary illustrations. Integrity is demanded for another reason also. In a complex society like ours there are conflicting demands. It becomes impossible to have a competent opinion about many issues. Yet the opinion is sought and a decision is expected. In this situation, people expect the leader to possess complete integrity. This is a major problem of entire life philosophy of the individual. To these above general qualities, Chester Barnard adds four other qualities of leader. They are (i) vitality and endurance; (ii) decisiveness; (iii) persuasiveness, and (iv) responsibility and intellectual capacity, in that order of priority. Millet identifies eight qualities which a leadership should possess. They are (i) good health; (ii) a sense of mission; (iii)'interest in other people; (iv) intelligence; (v) integrity; (vi) persuasiveness; (vii) judgment and; (viii) loyalty.

FUNCTIONS OF LEADERS
Leader has a significant role in the organizational Life. The success or failure of organizations are greatly dependent upon how well the leaders performs his functions. It is necessary, therefore, to know as to what function a leader performs. Hick and Ciullett have identified eight important functions of a leader. They are (i) arbitrating, (ii) suggesting; (iii) supplying objectives; (lv) catalyzing; (v) providing security; (vi) representing; (vii) inspiring; and (viii) praising. Chester Barnard identifies three main functions of the executives. They are to maintain communications in the organization, to secure essential services from individuals, and to formulate purposes and objectives. The work of a leader is restricted neither to the eight functions identified by Hicks and Gullett nor to the three functions identified by Barnard. Broadly, the work of a leader, who will be an executive, includes the following: i) Planning and defining policies and procedures. ii) Organizing the activities of all the individuals. iii) Delegating authority and responsibility

iv) Controlling them towards the desired results v) Supervising the work of the group vi) Giving general orders and guidelines vii) Interpreting and transmitting policies viii) Training the key subordinates to carry executive load ix) Coordination and x) Stimulating and vitalizing all the individuals who are contributing their efforts. A leader should support definite objectives in the organization so that it becomes easier for the people to understand the goals of the organization. If the objectives are sound then it is possible for the leader to become sound. The leader must be certain that he has a sound and therefore an appealing purpose before he tries to win followers. In this exercise the leader should try to interpret the experiences of his followers occasionally so that the finer points could be explained to them. It could be convincing since the experience would benefit the followers. In sum it means the leader should take the followers into confidence while supporting the objectives of the organization. The process of drawing out support from the followers for any aim is often a crucial one for the leader. It is possible only when the followers are convinced that the interest's and the desires of them are being taken adequate care. Leadership is not a matter of hypnosis or salesmanship. It is a matter of bringing out from within the individuals, positive impulses, motives and efforts. In fact leadership is known by the personalities it enriches and not by those it dominates or captivates.

Leader as Executive
The most important aspect of the leaders with which we are really interested is that of executives whose primary duty is to direct some departments or its units or some enterprise. In this respect they must first be able to do the executive job. It means they should see that it is done. This requires a detailed analysis. In every organization there are many tasks and activities to be carried out. There is always a need for sub-division and functional distribution of duties. It requires coordination. Further, the executive at the top cannot possibly know all the details. This situation is confronted by all the top executives corporations, Government departments etc. As the size of the organization increases the technical command of the top executive who is the leader of the organization seems to decrease considerably. It is true that in every leadership situation the leader has to possess enough grasp of the ways and means to give wise guidance to the staff as a whole. Due to the complexities, the job of leading has its own special techniques and these are different in kind from the special techniques of directing or operating line or staff departments. In a large organization the top executive posts require primarily a coordinative responsibility. The executive leader in such a situation should be more than a goad technician. The conductor of an orchestra is the best example of coordinator. Thus, the coordinative

technique means ability to formulate, transmit, interpret and supervise the working of people from top to .bottom. There may be some variations in the organizations. But there are certain broad aspects which are common in many leadership positions. The effectiveness with which the purpose is being realized depends mostly on the technical grasp of the leader. It means he should be familiar with standards of sound performance and related matters of technical importance. The leader should be in a position to make use of the available expertise shrewdly. The expert should be on tap and not on top. Now it is for the leader to take advantage of this situation, hl addition, there is more and more to leadership in other directions. It is the ability to make a team out of a group of individual workers, to foster a team spirit, to bring their efforts together into a unified total action. It is in this broader sense that the real skill of leaders is being increasingly viewed. Ultimately the leader has to get results. There must be action and accomplishment. The group objectives should be realized. This is very important and also vital. It is essential that the leader should take human experience in hand and make it the way he believes it should take. Decision-making is, psychologically, one of weighing evidence, sorting out alternatives, and making n choice by which one is willing to stand. Exercising sound judgment is essential. The leader has to understand certain very well known elements. If these are carefully followed, the results of judgments are sure to be better than if no conscious attempt is made. Let us list out those elements. In the first instance, the leader should recognize the problem he faces. Secondly he has to gather all the facts and data relevant to the problem. The next step is its classification and arrangement into related groupings. The fourth step is the formulation of possible solution. The fifth step will be checking of this possible solution and finding out whether it is the good solution. Thus testing is necessary to get sound results. Finally, adoption or acceptance of the trial solution as valid and useful. This kind of procedure is called inducting thinking or sometimes called scientific method. Decision made as a result of a careful adherence to these steps will be far sounder than the random selection. The procedure has certain difficulties but under the circumstances it is the best method. The leader must be careful about announcing the decisions. We most impress upon his followers with the fact that a decision has been reached and there is no scope for functions in opinion, hesitation; delay etc. He must act and support his decision. It is his responsibility and cannot escape it. Sometimes it is at this point that many leaders reveal their weaknesses. The capacity and the willingness to make decisions can be cultivated. Prior planning and standard routine will be useful in several decisions. There is a need for taking counsel, eliminate confusion from the followers. It is necessary to state that there is no place for stubbornness, obstinacy or inflexibility on the part of the leader. Finally, the real leader

will stand ready courageously to pay the price of seeing his decision through without blaming others for his own errors. The next important function of leader, particularly in public organizations, is the capacity to delegate authority to subordinates, to carry out their essential duties. Leadership becomes effective when others are persuaded to accept the assignments given to them and proceed to carry out their duties. In effect, leadership is dependence upon the faithful performance of one's associates and subordinates. Some people try to do everything by themselves. They do not trust others. They dislike inter-dependence. But in every organized effort in large groups dependence upon one another becomes essential. The leader has no choice except to delegate authority to others. The essence of delegation is to confer discretion upon others to use their judgment in meeting specific problems within the framework of their duties. Management leadership must then accept the responsibility for how this discretion is exercised. Intelligence in a personality is completely in-built than most others. In the context of organization, the intelligence of a person is seen as the capacity to see the problem. It is also the ability to appraise situation readily and tackle it. This capacity differs from person to person. It is difficult to develop the intelligence by conscious effort. But it can be safely stated that there are many leaders who have made up the deficiency through determination, integrity and friendliness. In this connection, mention may be made regarding two other qualities as special evidences of intelligence-namely imagination and a sense of humor. The capacity for imagination can be improved by deliberate effort. Imagination is essential in more than one way. A sense of humor is important as a lubricant. It will facilitate smooth flow of communication without hurting anybody.

Leader as Teacher
The next important aspect of leadership is that of staff development. In this connection it is important to mention that a good leader is a good teacher. A good teacher is never a boss. He is a guide who will set up a goal, pose some problems, guide the activities and hold a person to a new way of mind and conduct. This is true of evkry executive in the organization. Let us examine some of the tested principles of a good teacher which will ultimately be of immense use to the leader. In the first place, the good teacher tries to build up a feeling in the learner that he is engaged in an activity which is very important for him. Thus a good leader like teacher has to generate a desire to learn and willingness among the learners. In the second place, learning' should begin at the point of the learner's-Present total outlook and equipment. The new objectives should be related to what he now knows and feels. The third aspect is that learning involves the whole organism. One has to think, feel and act appropriately for the process to go on successfully. Briefly, it is said that the leader has

to be sure that his followers are given a chance to go through much the same experiences as have led him to believe in his objectives. The fourth aspect in this analysis is in regard to the duty of the executive to guide the follower and provide him a chance to think and supply the information which constitute the immediate subject matter of the learning. The leader should help to arouse interest in the objectives of the group. A good leader may sometimes win temporary support for his objectives by verbal advocacy but the real support has to come from an experience which is deeper than learning to exhortation. One can say with a sense of conviction and emotion. One final aspect of the teaching process needs a mention here. Learning takes time. Beyond a point we cannot hurry up. The teacher and the leader alike should be aware of the capacity and competence of the learners and direct their experiences and thus lead them on to the desired changes in attitude. In conclusion, it is clear that the learning process requires an active experience of participation for a favorable result by those being led. The leader cannot afford to be in haste. It is a slow process? But it is essential

TECHNIQUES OF LEADERSHIP
In any art there are definite techniques. This is true of leadership. There are certain techniques which deserves mention. Conscious cultivation of them can bring about improvement in general and leadership value in particular. Giving orders occupy the first position. Order is a functional fact. It is implicit the tasks or duty to be performed. Every individual is expected to know, as a result of good training, what is expected of him and what the standards of good performance are. This is what scientific management teaches us, and which every executive is expected to adopt. Thus on the basis of this definite and sound method, order giving can be reduced to a minimum. But it cannot be entirely dispensed with. There are certain exceptions to this. Emergencies and other contingencies must be attended to by the leader because the followers always look towards the leaders for the line to follow. Under these circumstances the leader must step in and take command of the situation. Problems of working method will arise. The relationships among the individual, workers, or the inter-relationships of groups or of departments require special adjustments which may entail giving orders. The leader must be clear while giving orders, remove all possible doubts and confusion. The words used must be carefully chosen and should convey the same meaning to the speaker and the listener. The order should be explicit. If the order is oral then the leader should impart the order in a natural, vigorous and firm tone of voice. It should not lead to anger or annoyance. If warranted, the order may be repeated. Any superficial behavior is not a healthy sign of a good leader. The leader should phrase the orders courteously. Avoid terms like 'Do this' or 'Do that courteous phrase may seen weak but

it is the most effective method. In conclusion, good leadership implies good manners, from top to bottom in any organization. It is very essential in every democratic society. The leader has to avoid giving too many orders at one time. This creates confusion, slowness of assimilation and bewilderment. Keep orders simple, keep them in time sequence, space them according to priorities. The orders should be positive in contact. It means one has to avoid negative commands. Finally, make sure not to issue contradictory orders. Let us look at the problem of handling followers who do not attend to their duties seriously. The process of reprimand, punishment or criticism should be based on clear facts and figures. Penalties should be definite and administered even landed without partiality or animosity. Failures on the part of individuals have to be dealt with carefully because there may be reasons beyond their grasp. Hence, careful consideration of various factors is essential. Another factor of tremendous importance is the assurance that good performance is being appreciated by the leader. The leader should not hesitate while giving praise for good work. The executive, however, has to follow some standard procedure. Whenever, a standard procedure and method is followed, the leader has a definite piece of information for a conclusion. Commendation can be given in public where the group will know that the merit has been recognized. The total hearing and appearance of the leader is another important factor. The leader should be straightforward in personal dealings. There is need for proper balance between friendliness, cordiality, and undue familiarity.
A good leader has to encourage the followers to evolve new ideas. It is possible through

organized group deliberations. Fostering a sense of group identity among the followers is another important element the leader is expected to develop in the organization. This improves the morale of the group. Self disciplines in the group is another item which deserves attention by the leader. Finally the leader has a clear duty to see to it that on all important issues the followers are informed of all relevant facts about new policies as quickly and fully as practicable. Now let us look at the factors affecting leader's influence over others? There are a number of processes through which the leader influences others. The most important of these are: (i) suggestion; (ii) imitation; (iii) persuasive argument; (iv) publicity; (v) reliance upon the logic of events (vi) a show of affectionate devotion;(vii) the creating of a typical problem situation. It is not possible to generalize in advance as to when the leader should wisely use one method or another. Often several of them are in operation at the same time. But a conscious knowledge about how each influence works will help the leader. Suggestion may be either direct or indirect. It is used normally to build up or maintain the prestige of the leader. It is also adopted to avoid the danger of offending the pride

or disturbing the self confidence of the followers. Suggestion is also useful in getting supporters. Imitation is not an active process for the leader. It is rather a support upon which he can frequently rely upon. It is said that nothing succeeds like success. It is because people will imitate; copy and follow along as soon as success, status and esteem are present. Persuasive argument is important and also very essential to influence individuals for an agreement on specific issues. It is an art in which the leader has to gather all the evidences and opinions and convince the follower to adopt a desired course. Publicity is another technique, of which all of us are fully ware in the modern times. It will build prestige; interpret facts, attitudes and conclusions to all concerned. The leader has to choose the media and methods of publicity depending on the size and character of the followers. It is necessary to differentiate between publicity and propaganda. The leader has to be watchful to sense the trends and tendencies at work and find out the logic of events and direct the followers accordingly. Devotion to the leader, perhaps sometimes blind, is always a powerful weapon. Lastly, let us consider the most efficient method of influencing others. This is explained in terms of helping to create in and around the group of followers a definite set of conditions and circumstances which the followers feel problematic or difficult. In this situation a leader recognizes a difficulty and helps to give it a sharper focus and then offers a solution. A further fact not to be ignored is that people are influenced by a leader because he becomes a symbol of some higher cause.

STYLES OF LEADERSHIP
The style an executive selects greatly influences his effectiveness as a leader. Leadership style provides motivation for the achievement of organizational goals. Improper styles may cause irreparable damage as the employees may feed dissatisfied and resentful. Broadly three leadership styles are identified viz., autocratic, participative and laissezfaire. Each of the styles has both advantages and disadvantages. The leaders adopt different styles at different points of times depending upon the station. We shall now briefly discuss each of these styles. Autocratic Style In this, policy and decisional authority is concentrated in the hands of the leader. It is the leader who decides policies and modifies them according to his own wishes. This type of leaders expect unquestioned acceptance of the leadership by their subordinates. It is very difficult to anticipate the behavior of the leaders because of their autocratic

style. Leader tends to be personal and remains aloof from the group. He considers himself superior and all his colleagues inferior, inexperienced and ignorant. This type of leadership has the advantage of quick decision-making. But it causes pain to the employees and results in dissatisfaction. In the process employees may become passive towards organizational goals. Participative Style This style is also called the democratic style of leadership. In this, leaders obtain the cooperation of the employees in achieving organizational goals. They allow the employees to participate in decision-making process. All policies and decisions are arrived at through group discussions. Leader encourages and assists his colleagues and only provides alternatives instead of dictating the final decisions or policies. The members of the group enjoy greater freedom. Leader is generally objective both in praise and criticism. Leader recognizes the work of subordinates. He believes that the subordinates are capable of making decisions. Participative style leads to improved employee-employer relations, higher morale and greater job satisfaction. It also seduces the burden on the leader. A major problem in this type of leadership is dilution in the quality of decisions as every view point has to be taken into consideration in formulating policies and taking decisions. It is also time consuming because of consultative process.

Laissez-faire Style
In this type of leadership, the organization does not depend on the leader to provide external motivation. The employees motivate themselves. They enjoy greater freedom and the leader's participation in decision-making is minimal. No attempts are made to regulate the course of events in the functioning of the organization. Leader only assumes the role of one of the members of the organization. This style of leadership has advantage of giving freedom and independence to the employees. But unfortunately in the absence of a strong leader the employees may not have proper direction and control. This may lead the employees to become frustrated and may even result in organizational chaos.

HAZARDS OF LEADERSHIP
There are certain-constraints on good leadership. In the first place, leaders should properly regard other people as ends in themselves, not as mere instruments to realize ends imposed by a leader. Secondly, any normal, healthy minded person will exercise power by persuasive influence rather than by coercion. The manifestation of various causes and occasions of mental disturbance show themselves under the following:

Every leader gets an opportunity to satisfy an inner urge for enhancement of his ego. But this love of self aggrandizement can easily get out of hand. This is a dangerous tendency. This excess may take several farms. It may lead to a feeling of superiority and aloofness, vanity, pride etc., He may demand too much. Flattery and personal loyalty and therefore gather a set of 'yesmen' or sycophants. There are several ways through which the leader will have set right his behavior. In the next instance, a leader should guard him-self against emotional instability. This will take the form of chronic irritability and quick temper. Another hazard in the leadership style pertains to obsessive few complexes. The leader in some cases entertains the feeling that he is not good enough for his task or is on the verge of failure. All such feelings undermine self confidence. They curb enthusiasm. They are inhibiting factors and tend to destroy the sources of personal power. The leader has to avoid such self defeating propositions. In certain other instances, good workers just below the level of top executives, seem to be well qualified to lead but are afraid to try when a chance is given. This inferiority feeling also becomes one of the powerful hazards of leadership. Another aspect which is equally dangerous is the tendency to legitimize irregular activity. Legitimization means that whatever we do we try to defend it and support it as a correct decision. This is not a healthy symptom. This will generate an attitude of self-righteousness in the leader. This tendency will create a feeling among the followers that their leader is a hypocrite . Finally, the leader must be vigilant about the sadism. It means any form of behavior from which the individual derives satisfaction, which imposes suffering pain or cruelty upon others. This is the most unfortunate trait for a leader to have. One manifestation, not always thought of as sadistic, is the use of sarcasm. This is also not desirable. In conclusion, the corrective line to be followed is reduction in the light of full knowledge of the causes of the maladjustments. Discover and confront the realities. That is the general dictate which must be followed wherever any of the several kinds of potential hazards of leadership listed above are found to be present.

LET US-SUM UP
In this Unit we have discussed that leadership has an important role to play in the efficient functioning of organizations. In particular we have discussed the theories of leadership, functions of leaders, qualities of a good leader, leadership styles and problems and hazards of leaders.

SELF AND OTHERS

Structure Introduction Objectives Communication of Self: An Inevitable Phenomenon Understanding the Context of Relationship: Self and Others Concept of Self and Its Characteristics Types of Identifies - Personal Identities - Interpersonal Identities - Social Role Identities - Interrelatedness of Identities Types of Self -Other Relationships - Self below Others - Self above others - Self with Others Freedom, Autonomy and Choice in Self - Other Relationship Let Us Sum Up Unit-end Exercises Answers to Check Your Progress Suggested Readings

INTRODUCTION
Individuals in a social setting, by and large, make a series of decisions to guide their behavior under conditions of social events. These decisions are based on the schemata (cognitive mapping of elements), which are developed from their perceptions of the environment in general and self and other relationships in particular. Effective interpersonal communication depends mainly on this self and other relationships (Selfother Orientation) as perceived by the individual. This unit discusses the inevitability of interpersonal and personal communication in social or group situations, the context of self-other orientation, the concept of self with its characteristics, different types of identities, types of self-other relationships and freedom, autonomy and choice in different types of self-other relationships.

OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you should be able to: discuss inevitability of communication in interpersonal relationships in group settings,

describe the context of self-other orientations, explain the concept of self and its characteristics, discuss the different types of identities, classify different types of self-other relationships, discuss different types of self-other relationships in your interactions, describe autonomy, freedom and choice in different self-other relationships, Discuss self-other interaction patterns in different categories.

COMMUNICATION OF SELF: AN INEVITABLE PHENOMENON

In any social/cultural situation, it would be impossible for any of us to live without communication. In the first place, we can hardly succeed in avoiding people even if we desire to do so and secondly, we cannot communicate in the presence of others. Even if an individual does not communicate verbally, he/she communicates messages through body language, Facial expressions etc. It is through this process that messages are carried out either verbally or nonverbally, consciously or unconsciously, or purposefully or non-purposefully, while a part of our communication is carried verbally, under conscious control and towards the intentional attainment of a specific goal, much of our presentation is non-verbal, casual, habituated and natural in our daily conversation. Many a time, these non-verbal messages have more impact on interpersonal relations than occasional, overt, or verbal statements, For example, if a teacher ignores the presence of other teacher in a group consciously or unconsciously, he/she is only disconfirming them, Therefore, there appears to be very little room for disagreement with the conclusion that interpersonal communication is inevitable, In fact, the quality of our interpersonal communication influences personal growth, psychological health, success, and a sense of wall being in general, Thus, it is essential to understand selfother orientation for effective communication and well being.

UNDERSTANDING THE CONTEXT OF RELATIONSHIP: SELF AND OTHERS

In social psychological theories of personality, adaption to social environment by any individual is presumed to be mediated by self-other concept. It is proposed that social stimuli are screened and translated into personal meaning through mappings of the self in relation to significant others. This is shown in Figure

A fundamental framework of the theory of self-other orientation derives from Brunswick's (1956) theory of perception. He stressed the interaction of organism and environment. Cues of the environment are presumed to be processed by an individual in relation to needs. In terms of interpersonal perception, social stimuli are presumed to be mediated by schemata, which map the relation with self and other. In this framework the crucial link is between social stimuli and social response, which is mediated by selfother schemata. The social stimuli are coded by individuals in terms of self-other orientations using mappings of self and significant others. For example, an individual in a discussion group may use the schemata of his/her self-other relationship i.e., selfranking among the group members to help his/her decide whether or not to speak or how often to speak. Thus, the way we perceive other people has a strong effect on the way we relate to them. The way we relate to each other is affected by the way we relate to ourselves and particularly, how we perceive ourselves. With the aid of these mappings of self-other orientations, decision making for interpersonal behavior is facilitated. Now, let us understand how individuals learn these mappings and what constitutes them.

CONCEPT OF SELF AND ITS CHARACTERISTICS

The concept of self is very important in relational communication because it greatly determines a kind of self-presentation and the interpersonal response that we make to others. In this context, let us understand certain basic questions that hold good for interpersonal relationship. (i) How do we come to view ourselves and find initial answers to the question of "who am I?" (ii) What kind of self-concept will develop as a result of communication?" (iii)What kind of a person do we choose to present to others?" This concept of self is most frequently expressed in the questions "who am I". The answer to this question largely determines and describes our lives and relationships. A better understanding to this question is to experience it. Through this exercise, you will come to realize that human identity is nothing more than the cognitive image (schemata) that we have of ourselves by which we define and differentiate ourselves from others. A number of individual self perceptions, which we call identities, constitute self-concept. All the responses (self-perception) made on this Twenty Statements Test could, thus, be considered as identities while the total of all the self-perceptions will constitute self-perception.

Identities are the building blocks of self-concept, which are developed as a result of interpersonal communication. The development and maintenance of identity or selfconcept is based on certain basic characteristics, therefore, it is required to understand the basic characteristics of identities. These are: (i) Identities represent the unique Interpretations of culture and group : The way we learn to view ourselves is a product of how we have been taught to view a particular cultural or family value and how important it is to subscribe to or hold this particular interpretation of social reality. For example, a boy brought up in a traditional, conservative Brahmin family has much value for conventional 'pooju and "karmakanda than a child brought up in an urban, free liberal family. This characteristic has very important implications for interpersonal relationships. There is a range of interpretation as to what constitutes a "good" life-style, an "appropriate" behavior, a "meaningful" use of time and energy, as well as what constitutes the "correct" social position. The point is that different value orientations may result in different forms of identities which affect interpersonal relationships. (ii) Human Identities are learnt through a continuous process of interaction with others: The main focus of this characteristic is that all the ways in which we come to view ourselves are learnt through the process of socialization and through communication with others. One of the roles of education is to teach succeeding generations what it is to be good and how one should behave, as well as the perspective from which one should view the world. In other words, this is an attempt by teachers, parents and adults generally to impose their worldview or their own perspective related to various social realities on the minds of the young. One of the implications of this assumption is that children not only learn identities that are supported by their environment, but also they learn only those identities that they have access to within their environment. For example, comparison of self-concept of children living in the urban rich families with that of their counterparts in the villages has a wide range of identities between them. Although the learning process is the same, the identities that the children from rural and urban areas have access to are drastically different.

(iii) Human identities are observable or have observable manifestations:

Identities and self-concepts are mentalist concepts, and they exist initially and primarily in the mind or cognitive processes of the individual. How we perceive ourselves is often subtly communicated to others or, more frequently, is openly presented to all those who have interest in perceiving and evaluating us. Paul Watzlawick has suggested that, indeed, there is no such thing as not communicating, that all behavior that is observed has information value. And certainly a major aspect of that information value has to do with the self-concept of the individual being observed. For example, most of us have probably sat in a public place observing people as they walked by and then speculated about who they were, what their job profession was, what their tastes were like, whether they were single or married, etc. And on the other side of the fence, we have been keenly aware that we were being observed and speculated about. In these instances we usually became consciously aware and sensitive to the impression we were making or to the identities that we were presenting. Thus, both verbally and nonverbally, we are constantly communicating our identities and our self-concepts. It is our power of observation that can make an important contribution to our ability to predict the behavior of others. But it is very important to remember that our perceptions are bound, not only by the time frame, but also by the social and interpersonal context in which that observation occurs.

(iv) Human Identity is dynamic and ever changing:

The very basic idea that underlies this assumption is that people and events are constantly changing and are never the same from one moment to the next. Although some changes in identity are 'expected and indeed sanctioned by culture, much of the change that each person undergoes is unique. These changes occur as we interact with different individuals at different occasions and in different contexts. This is to say, each of the individuals with whom we come in contact and each new experience, to which we are exposed, changes our worldview, and self-concept to some extent. The impact may be strong and readily apparent, or it may be subtle and leave no immediately visible effect. There is no disagreement that change is indigenous to life; it is built into the system and each of us will pick up, try out, and undoubtedly discard a large number of identities in our lifetime as we are exposed to new experiences, people, and ideas. Recognition of this will become extremely important when we begin talking about interpersonal relationships and especially those relationships that are designed to be enduring and long term, that is, those we engage in with teachers, marital partners, parents, children, close friends, and colleagues. Thus, we have discussed that human identity or self-concept is defined as the cognitive image that each individual holds of himself. According to the basic assumptions, human

identity is directly drawn from cultural and group values, acquired through the process of learning and, as a result of the varied experiences of human life, constantly subject to change. In addition, identity possesses observable manifestations and more importantly, must be supported and maintained through interaction with others. Therefore, human identity should be viewed as a relational concept.

TYPES OF IDENTITIES
We have discussed that the individual's self-concept is composed of a number of selfperceptions or identities, each of which is unique in its meaning to that individual. Let us now look at the levels and types of identities that make up one's self-concept. As you might be aware, self- concept consists of three types of identities: personal, interpersonal and social-role identities. Each of these types is derived from different levels of analysis. Although each type represents a different level of analysis, all three types are interrelated. Let us discuss each type of identity in brief. Personal Identities The first level of analysis is the intra-personal level and identities of this level are termed as personal identities. One can infer from the term intra-personal that identities of this level can best be conceptualized as within the individual and only indirectly acquired as a result of interaction with other people. This type of identity has some observable physical or measurable mental referent that has some genetic basis. Therefore, personal identities refer to those self perceptions that are based on genetic traits or that are directly derived from the inherited characteristics of the individual. For example, if we view ourselves as either tall, short, heavy, pretty, smart, intelligent, male, female, black, or white, we are talking about personal identities. In addition, there are a number of derived self-perceptions that result from combinations of personal identities and thereby can also be considered as personal identities. Examples of such self-perceptions are athletic, intellectual, feminine, or attractive. To elaborate, the self-perception of attractive may be viewed as a product of personal identities as tall, pretty, smart and female. In total, personal identities refer to that part of the self-concept that was genetically dealt to us at conception and later interpreted for us by other people in our lives. Interpersonal Identities The second level of identity is the interpersonal level and the identities at this level are accordingly called interpersonal identities. As the term suggest, interpersonal means between people. Interpersonal identities refer to those self perceptions that reflect our own interpersonal style of communicating- that is, how we see ourselves relating to others in our interpersonal lives. Examples of such identities include self-perceptions as

quiet, reserved, .warm, friendly, sincere, open, dynamic, outgoing, gregarious, talkative, shy, or cooperative. These identities are communicated to others through verbal and nonverbal communication. Verbal communication includes our selection of words and the way we qualify them vocally, with inflection, tone, etc. It indicates to others how we see ourselves in relation to other people and the manner in which we wish to be perceived and supported in regard to that particular interpersonal identity. Similarly, our facial expressions, eye movement, and the spatial distances we elect to maintain between ourselves and others, and the gestures we employ to complement our verbal speech, all indicate that we see ourselves as relating or communicating with others in a personalized manner that is fairly consistent over time. One of the avenues through which all types of identities are presented is through the art-factual code of the nonverbal band of communication. These kinds of manifestations of self-concept are the artifacts- that .is, the clothing, automobiles, books, office and home furnishings etc. with which each one of us surrounds oneself. Social Role Identities The third level of analysis is the cultural level and the corresponding identities are termed as social role identities. The identities of this level refer to those self-perceptions that are derived from culturally defined roles and the behaviors have been specified by that culture or subculture. More specifically, social role identities refer to those selfperceptions that have been learned through interaction with others and that they carry certain rights and privileges, as well as behavioral duties and obligations, consistent with a particular role location or position in the social system. Examples of social role identities include such self-perceptions as mother, father, husband, wife, businessman, homemaker, teacher, student etc. Like personal and interpersonal identities. Social role identities are communicated to some extent through the verbal channel; they largely depend on nonverbal artifacts and behaviors for presentation. Certain roles prescribe very specific artifacts that individuals must display if they are to receive support for those identities. For example, the wearing of uniforms by policemen, nurses, nuns, wedding rings by husbands and wives and business suits by executives are all important in maintaining the existing social order. Along with the other identities, the most important feature of social role identities is that the individual is expected to fulfill or at least act in accordance with them. If an individual fails to live up to the role expectations that others have for his social role, they are likely to withdraw the role or at least withdraw their support for that role. And social roles typically provide a great deal of identity support.

Interrelatedness of Identities It is obvious that personal, interpersonal and social role identities are interrelated. They are built on one another, and they are not mutually exclusive. In effect, the individual determines the type of identity on the basis of the meaning that he/she attaches to it. Thus, a self-perception given to the self represents him/her. For example, with the identity of mother, if a woman views herself primarily from a child-bearing capacity perspective, then that identity may be classified as a personal identity, since it is connected with her physical feminine being. If a woman views herself as being nurturing toward her child, then it can be grouped with the interpersonal identities, as the motherly identity is manifested in the type of interpersonal behavior. And if a woman is primarily concerned with performing those behaviors which are deemed socially appropriate for that role, then that role is termed as a social role identity. Therefore, how you classify any given identity depends heavily on how you perceive that identity: whether you view it as to its inherent physical and/or mental uniqueness to you (personal identity), in relation to or with others (interpersonal identity), or in relation to cultural context and norms (social role identity). Figure 6.2 shows the interrelatedness of identities and its configuration.

TYPES OF SELF -OTHER RELATIONSHIPS

As discussed above, an individual's perception about himself/herself in relation to others plays a significant role in interpersonal communication. By and large, individual's perception about himself/herself in relation to others is classified into three major categories. These are: Self below others Self above others Self with others

We will discuss each category of self in brief. Self below Others Individuals in this category perceive themselves as inferior in relation to others. They are usually estranged or withdrawn from other persons whom they are ordinarily expected to associate with. It is basically an expression of non-belonging or non-caring. In fact, this is a mode of experience in which a person experiences himself/herself as an alien in group settings. They are passive, inactive and dependent on others in any of the decision making processes of the institution. The individuals of this category usually experience powerlessness, meaninglessness, normlessness, isolation, estrangement, etc., in situations such as meetings or participation with colleagues for example the individual who maps himself/herself apart from and inferior to friends. teachers, colleagues is expected to perceive himself/herself as excluded from others and behaviorally tends to move towards activities, which do not require companionship. One can observe the individuals of this category communicating more through their non-verbal behavior (facial expression, body language, intonation etc.) rather than verbal behavior as they communicate less verbally. Teachers of this category are basically not bothered and not sensitive about the things that happen around them. However, their statements express weakness, helplessness and submissiveness. For example:

Showing pity: "Oh! Poor fellow! That is terrible! I feel so sorry for you; what a thing to happen to you".

Ignoring students and their feelings: "Madam, I got the first rank in the class." A teacher reacts, "Um... Go and do your work."

Self above Others Individuals of this category perceive themselves as superior in relation to others. They are usually dominating, controlling, criticizing or showing power to the persons with whom they interact. It is basically an expression of authority and power. The individuals of this category usually feel themselves to be not dependent on others, or not controlled by others; they expect others to do what they want to do. They are independent and active in the decision-making process and expect others to follow their decisions. They are usually independent, powerful, norm-makers, etc., in all situations. For example, the individual who maps himself/herself apart from and superior to friends, teachers, and colleagues is expected to perceive himself/herself as independent of others and behaviorally tends to move towards activities which do not require companionship. Teachers of this category are usually found to be interacting in the following manner:

Giving orders: "Just get on with your work and stop arguing with me." Threatening: "If you talk once more, I am going to send you to the principal." Moralizing: "A boy of your age should be able to behave in a more mature manner." Giving advice: "Go and tell him that you are sorry; explain why you did not do the work." Interrogating: "What on earth do you think you are doing? Did you not know that these things happen? Didn't you realize he would be angry if you don't do the homework? (Too many questions even before students start thinking of answering).
Self with Others Individuals of this category consider themselves as a part and parcel of the community or a group. They are usually in contact with others. It is basically an expression of interdependence, mutual respect and cooperation with others. Individuals of this category are open, democratic, and are ready to accept others' opinions in group settings. Individuals of this category involve as many people as possible in the decision making process. They are usually concerned about others; are supportive, innovative, empathetic and genuine in their relationship with others. Teachers of this category are usually found to be interacting with students in various manners. For example:

Attending to students problems: " Why did you not bring your homework?" ('Attending to be with ' both physically and psychologically with the intention of knowing the reasons for not doing the homework). Also, they are found to be actively listening to the students' problems, being friendly with students/colleagues, cooperative with the staff, empathetic in their responses and accepting individuals unconditionally. Let us try to understand all these three categories with the help of an example: An individual who perceives self below others tends to speak less or does not speak at all in a group discussion, whereas an individual who perceives self above others tends to speak more frequently and forcefully in a group discussion. On the other hand, an individual who perceives self with others tends to listen, support and cooperate with the group in the decision making process.

FREEDOM, AUTONOMY AND CHOICE IN SELFOTHER RELATIONSHIP

As different individuals perceive themselves differently in their relation to others, they use autonomy, freedom and choice differently. The three categories of individuals mentioned above differ in using freedom, autonomy and choice in terms of degree. The individuals, who perceive themselves below others, do not realize their freedom; they are normally submissive to others choices and decisions. They do not think that they have their own choice; they allow others to choose for them even for their personal lives. The individuals who perceive themselves above others exhibit their freedom in every aspect/dimension of their interaction. They don't allow others to use their freedom and they try to choose for others. They perform everything by their choice in every relationship. The individuals who perceive themselves with others exhibit their freedom. Unlike the individuals who perceive themselves above others, they allow others' freedom as well as choice. In every/ most of the interactions, they use their freedom and choice and also allow others to use their freedom and choice. It is desirable for teachers to use their freedom and choice and to allow their students to use their freedom and choice in their interaction. This relationship has been shown in Table.

LET US SUM UP
Communication is the characteristic feature in interpersonal relationships. It is an inevitable phenomenon in the presence of the others. Individual communication depends on the perception of self in relation to others which is known as self-other orientation. Each individual's self-concept is composed of a number of his/her selfperceptions called identities. The development and maintenance of identity or selfconcept have certain characteristics. These are: i) Human identities represent the unique interpretations of culture or group. ii) Human identities are learnt through continuous process of interaction with others. iii) Human identities are observable or have observable manifestations; and iv) Human identities are dynamic and ever changing. The self-concept is viewed as being comprised of three types of identities: personal, interpersonal and role identities. These identities have perception of self, constitute the uniqueness of self and form the base for self-other relationships. Individuals' perception of self can be classified into three categories: self below others; self above others and self with others. Individuals belonging to 'self below others' category generally consider themselves to be inferior to others and are submissive, withdrawn and dependent on others in their interactions. Individuals belonging to 'self above others' category usually consider themselves to be superior to others and are dominating, active and independent in their interaction with others. Individuals belonging to 'self with other' category consider themselves to be one among the group and are supportive, cooperative and interdependent in their interactions with others. These categories are situation specific and the individual adapts according to his needs and interests. Individuals of these categories differ in use of autonomy, freedom and choice in their interaction patterns.

MOTIVATION
Structure Introduction Objectives What is Motivation? Theories of Motivation Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation How to Motivate the Self? How to Motivate Others? - Motivating Colleagues - Motivating Students Let Us Sum Up Unit-end Exercise Suggested Readings

INTRODUCTION
Teaching is one of the most demanding and challenging jobs. Teachers are perpetually engaged in imparting knowledge and shaping/molding the minds of the young. As teachers, you are expected to guide and assist your students to realize their potential. For this purpose, you must help your students to maintain a certain level of motivation. While you are in this job, you expend a lot of your energy, both physical and psychological. For doing well in your job as a teacher, you need to constantly motivate yourself. In this unit, we will focus our discussion 6n the concept of motivation and how to motivate ourselves and others.

OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you should be able to: explain with examples some of the main concepts of motivation, discuss intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, devise strategies to increase your motivation, analyze how your behavior affects the motivation of others, Develop effective strategies to increase the motivation of your individual student.

WHAT IS MOTIVATION?
"Why don't the students pay attention"? "How do I make Raju learn"? You must be making these laments often and hearing the same from your colleagues too. Can you really make Raju learn? I think, you know that the truth is that you can try to make Raju learn by facilitating the learning process. But you will first have to create the desire to learn in him. We seem to think that there is something needed to push the students towards a particular behavior (goal), like learning math, spelling etc. Yes, we are talking about motivation or increasing the motivation so that a particular behavior happens. Motivation refers to those factors which increase or decrease an individual's vigour for some activity. Motivation is something that energizes and directs behavior. There are two identifiable components of motivation. These are need and drive. A person has to be in a state of need or desire so that he/she is activated to do something to satisfy the need or desire. When you are watching television or reading a book and you feel thirsty, you may ignore your thirst for some time, but as your throat becomes parched youre feeling of discomfort increases (need for water) and-you get up and move towards the kitchen for satisfying your need by drinking water (goal). You felt a deficit (thirst) within you that drove you towards the goal (water). The deficit or a requirement which you first ignored but when it grew stronger, you were goaded into activity (walking to the kitchen and drinking water). We can say, needs are based on a deficit or a requirement within a person which may be physiological or psychological. Physiological needs such as needs for water, food, sex, sleep, warmth, etc. are more obvious than psychological needs which are more subtle and less identified, such as, needs for affection, approval, prestige, etc. When the need goads or impels a person into action, we say, that the person is in a state of drive. Therefore, a drive, although based on need, has the feature of an observable change in behavior. There are four phases involved in the process of motivated behavior: 1. A need is aroused in the organism (thirst). 2. Behavior directed towards satisfying the need is set in motion (reaching for water and drinking it). 3. The need is satisfied. 4. The organism relaxes. When a person is in a state of tension, a condition of unrest or discomfort between the arousal and satisfaction of a need occurs. When the need is satisfied the person relaxes and equilibrium is restored. Motivation, we can say, is a stimulating condition, either external or internal or both, by which a process of behavior is initiated and continued until a state of equilibrium is restored. Successful teaching brings effective and meaningful learning. Motivation is an essential part of learning. Teacher's effectiveness lies in understanding the motivation of learners.

How to motivate students in the classroom for learning is a crucial problem which concerns all teachers at all stages of teaching. Uma Rani of Government College of Education, Pudukkottai, and Tamil Nadu conducted a study to find out the effect of activating motivational strategies on enhancing competencies in teaching science among student- teachers. She selected a sample of twenty two student-teachers from the physical science group. A single group, pre-test---treatment---post test experimental design was used. The experiment was conducted in six phases. The study revealed that post-test scores were higher than those of pre-test. This finding implies that the competency in teaching science using activating motivational strategies had a positive effect and helped in producing competent science teachers. So far, our attempt has been to understand the concept of motivation. We have attempted only a brief description because as students of Educational Psychology, you are already familiar with the concept. A lot of research has been focused on understanding more about motivation and various theories have been formulated. We will briefly go through some of the theories of motivation.

THEORIES OF MOTIVATION
Hedonism The theory was originally propounded by ancient Greek philosophers. According to this theory, human beings deliberately attempt to seek pleasure while avoiding pain. The Hedonistic theory is criticized for it cannot explain certain human behaviors which inflict pain or injury. But psychologists Young and McClelland interpret the theory on the basis of approach and avoidance behavior rather than pleasure and pain. Approach or avoidance behavior is determined by the state of pleasure or pain aroused by the stimuli.

Drive theory
According to the drive theory, an organism is motivated to act when a need has to be satisfied. Hull, a prominent proponent of the theory suggested that all motives are related to basic physiological needs. Physiological or social drives are learned behavior of the organism to satisfy these needs. Many psychologists felt that the drive theory is only a partial explanation for motivation as psychological and social motivations may not be directly tied to primary physiological needs. Needs theory Abraham Maslow has influenced the understanding of motivation more than any other modern psychologist. Maslow, a humanistic psychologist, advocated the theory of human needs. He classified needs into five categories:

His main thesis is that motivation comes from within which means that a human being pursues a goal to suit or satisfy his or her own needs. According to Maslow, the needs are hierarchical in order. When a lower level need is satisfied, the focus shifts to the next level in the hierarchy. It is not necessary that needs at all levels are fulfilled as the wants at lower levels may get expanded more and more. People who cannot satisfy their physiological or security needs may not look for higher level needs of self-esteem. For example, people who are plagued by war, famine or natural calamities would try to satisfy their physiological and safety needs rather than their need for prestige. The highest order needs for self-discovery, self-development, or creativity may not be reached by many. Maslow's five basic levels of need have been modified by Alderfer into three categories called existence (E), relatedness (R) and growth (G). This categorization has come to be known as the ERG theory. All kinds of physiological and material needs are existence needs. Relatedness needs are those which Maslow called safety, social and esteem needs. Growth 'needs include personal growth and development. Some of the needs in the esteem needs category and the needs in the self-actualization category of the need hierarchy form the growth needs. Alderfer contends that the three sets of needs are distinct categories and do not exist in a hierarchy. When concrete lower level needs are fulfilled, a person is left with more energy to seek less concrete higher level needs. If less concrete needs are not satisfied, the person would seek to compensate it by increasing the urge to satisfy more concrete lower level needs. There are more theories on motivation other than what we have discussed till now. It is hoped that the theories discussed above have helped you to understand the concept of motivation. In the next section we discuss the intrinsic and extrinsic motivation.

INTRINSIC AND EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION

Intrinsic Motivation

We sometimes engage in activities merely because we like to do them. You read a book purely for the pleasure of it. You have no examination to appear for, no lecture notes to be prepared or no assignment to work for at the end of the reading activity. In effect there are no external goals to be fulfilled or met. There is a high relationship of the activity (reading) to the goal (enjoy reading). In such a situation, we say, the person is intrinsically motivated. Congnitivists hold the view that curiosity, interest, or a sense of accomplishment is sources of motivation which are intrinsic (internal) rather than responding to external forces. An intrinsically motivated activity will always be rewarded due to the direct relationship between the activity and the goal. This secures a continuous motivation to do the activity. The element of joy experienced in doing the activity actually sustains the activity. Pursuit of our hobbies which give us pleasure are also examples of intrinsic motivation Extrinsic Motivation When an activity is performed to accomplish the goal of an external reward, the person is said to be extrinsically motivated. As in our previous example, if reading a book (activity) leads to preparing for an assignment (goal), the action is externally motivated to accomplish the task of preparing the assignment, rather than for the sake of it or interest in it. This is motivation based on external rewards and has nothing to do with the activity directly. The Behaviorists approach to motivation mainly focu ses on the external rewards of reinforcement and punishment. Selecting a job because of the salary one gets, and not because one likes the job is an example of extrinsic motivation. Are there situations where intrinsic and extrinsic motivation operates in combination? Some theorists suggest intrinsic and extrinsic motivation are additive. For example, if a person enjoys a particular work (intrinsic) and is paid for it (extrinsic), the combination would increase the work motivation. The contrary view is that giving external reward for a work one enjoys may reduce the effect of internal satisfaction. We can say that both are effective. While extrinsic motivation is controlled by external circumstances, and therefore, subject to change, intrinsic motivation remains constant due to the high relationship between the activity and the goal. Now, having gone through the concept of motivation, do you think you would like to attempt to solve the kind of questions we began this unit with, 'why don't the students pay attention'? If so, it means your energy level has changed. Does that tdl you something about motivation? In the next section, let us take, 'how to motivate' as our key point for discussion.

HOW TO MOTIVATE THE SELF?

We have to understand the self and others to lead an effective life. Therefore, motivating the self is important, and unless the self is motivated you cannot motivate others. We play multiple roles in our lives. All these roles are integrated into the self. You have a professional life; therefore, a professional mission. You have a personal life; therefore, a personal mission. One role influences the other: and yet they are different. Meaning in Life What is your personal mission? What is your professional mission? Do you set goals in life? What is your meaning in life? How often do you feel meaninglessness in life? When meaninglessness sets in your life, you have two choices-either to grope in the dark or look for a new meaning in life. Our life is never static, it is dynamic. The multifaceted roles we are required to play in our lives take us through various ups and downs and often through events over which we have no control. What you held as meaningful yesterday, a year before, or ten years before may not give you the same intensity of meaning today. At this juncture, it is important to get in touch with these experiences so that new dimensions can be added to the existing experiences, or one can look for totally new experiences. The above activity was meant to take you through experiencing the self. You cannot motivate the self without experiencing it. Repeat the activity to take you through the experiences of different facets of your life, for example, as a parent or as a friend. Realizing My Worth If I ask you to write a brief description of your good points, would you find it a difficult task? Try anyway. Try hard. Write at least ten points you are good at professionally, and which your friends and family admire in you at an interpersonal level. Take your time. Now it was not all that difficult. Was it? You have worth, you have good attributes. You notice elation in your energy level, well for you! Often in the humdrum of everyday life, people forget to take the inward journey into the self and experience one's own worth and acknowledge it, unless you realize your self-worth through self- evaluation, you cannot motivate yourself, and only a self-motivated person can hope to motivate others.

Taking Control of My Life

You are demotivated when things don't happen the way you want them to happen. You feel things are not within your control. No doubt, there is truth in it, But if you want to bring change in your life, you have to go for it despite external factor. To begin with, you have to believe that you have control. You have to tell yourself that you want to change, If you wait for others to change your life, you may realize that it never happens, So taka charge of your life, It would be foolish to compare your life to the rosy events (as you see them) in others' lives and wanting that kind of change. Have your own dreams and realize them in your own way: You need to make your own plans and take control of your life. The only way you can change your life is by wanting to change it.

Does Failure Threaten Me?

Will I succeed? The fear of the unknown plagues you. Is success very Important in your life? Is failure too difficult to handle? When you think of change, feel positive that you too can change. Face failure boldly and positively and move ahead. When children learn to ride a bicycle they keep falling and get hurt. That does not stop them from the change they want to make, that is, being able to ride. As adults we hesitate. In the above case study, the marriage was a major failure of Ritu's life, from the social point of view. Her life was totally shattered. Instead of feeling negatively about her miserable life and wallowing in self-Pity, she chose to think positively about her life ahead. She changed the course of her life and her daughters life. One disastrous failure in l ife did not deter her from changing positively. Always live in a spirit of possibilities and hope.

Setting Goals
If you want to change your life, you need to set goals. What are your short- term and long term goals? After setting your goals, you have to manage ways to accomplish the goals and set a time limit to accomplish your goals so that you can check your progress. We have discussed meaning in life, self-worth, taking' control of life, positive thinking and goal seeing. Has the ongoing discussion helped you to delve deep into your inner self and look for that personal and professional mission or calling in your life? Why am I a teacher? What is my calling as a teacher in relation to my students? Unless you

understand yourself, know your worth, find your own meaning in life, want to change your life, and set your goals, you cannot motivate yourself. When you have goals for the future and take them to the higher levels of your calling you are highly motivated to pursue and accomplish them. We will now discuss the second part of the question 'how to motivate others?'

HOW TO MOTIVATE OTHERS?

You are teachers, and therefore, you interact with your students. This is the group of 'others' you are expected to motivate for accomplishing various goals. Then, there is another group you constantly interact with: your colleagues. We will consider how to motivate others from these two perspectives. Motivating Colleagues In a job situation like yours, interacting with colleagues on a daily basis is inevitable. Your behavior has an impact on others' behavior. Your behavior may motivate them into action or demotivate them from reaching a goal. Here, we will discuss some of your behavior that motivates your colleagues and some behavior that may demotivate them.

Leadership Style Let us assume you are the team leader of a group of teachers assigned for a particular task. In Unit 7, we have discussed leadership styles. What would be your style as the leader of the group? Do you think the style you adopt has an impact on the motivation of the team members? You can be a leader who takes all the decisions without consulting your colleagues. Another choice is that you discuss with your colleagues and take a collective decision. In between the above two positions is the choice of consulting with colleagues and then taking the decision. Of the three styles, which will be the most appropriate leadership style where the team members are likely to be highly motivated? I would say, it is the democratic style of including your colleagues as participant decision makers. It is highly likely to motivate the team members. My reason for holding this view is that in this situation all team members are presumed to be at par with each other. Therefore, the motivation would be to satisfy higher order needs (decision making) rather than the lower level needs. There is no one leadership style for optimum motivation formula. For different situations, different leadership styles may be needed to motivate the team members depending on what needs they want to satisfy. Delegating Responsibility How does delegating responsibility motivate people? In a group, when you give responsibility to individual members for accomplishing a task, you are showing trust in hem. Your trust in their ability to perform the task is a, motivating factor. If you give a

new responsibility and new task each time, the need for creativity is satisfied. Your trust in the ability of the members may be misplaced at times. But it is important that you show trust so that the member is motivated to try harder. The sense of freedom (control over the task) accompanying the responsibility of accomplishing the task and the final result of the task are the other motivating factors. Goal Setting A team leader who promotes goal setting behavior is indirectly motivating his/her colleagues to perform. The person derives satisfaction by achieving the goal. When put acknowledge and praise the achievement, the process is reinforced. Your role is to help each member to set a goal which is achievable. When a specific goal is achieved, the person is motivated to set another goal, may be of a more challenging kind. What is important to the person is the sense of accomplishment. Therefore, your effort should be to help each member set goals according to his/her ability. Your Interpersonal Relationships

Every individual is different. You are different from your colleagues and they are different from you. All of us bring our own individual baggage into any group situation. To that extent all members will remain different always. Since people are different, their needs are different too. Therefore, different people need different kinds of motivation to perform. For some people, working in a group is important for satisfying the need for being with others. For others, it may be the need for the intellectually stimulating and challenging task that motivates them to work. You have to recognize and acknowledge these differences and gear your interpersonal skills accordingly. Your Demotivating Behavior Let us summaries the discussion on 'how to motivate colleagues' by understanding some demotivating behavior. Of course, demotivating behavior is to be avoided. Some people refuge to delegate work, We have seen earlier that delegating work means trusting your colleague with a given responsibility, This is a vote of confidence in the ability of your colleague to carry out the work. Now, refusal to delegate work can stem from your insecurity of losing control, or your belief that you are the only one who can do the work, or you are uninitiated and don't know that delegating work can be productive, Whatever be the reason, your refusal to delegate work demotivates your colleagues. An inefficient leader is inconsistent too, your inconsistency throws your colleagues off balance so that they find it difficult to achieve the goal, For example, you take a decision without' giving much thought and your colleagues start acting on it. When they are half way through it, or nearly reaching the goal, you change the decision because you had a second thought. This comes across to others as inconsistency and depletes their energy level, if you are confused and lack direction regarding the task in hand; you definitely demotivates your colleagues. Your poor interpersonal skills or the lack of them

demotivate other. Nobody likes to work with an aggressive and ill-tempered person, even if you have reasons to be ill-tempered, your behavior puts pressures on your colleagues and demotivate them. LET US SUM UP Motivation is something that energizes and directs behavior. When a person experiences deficit or requirement of any kind, physiological or psychological, the person is forced into action to fulfill the need. When lower level needs or concrete needs are satisfied a person aspires for higher level needs or less concrete needs. Motivation comes from within a person, others can only create conducive environments to promote it. It is important for a teacher to create various conductive environments so hat student motivation is increased. THE PROCESS OF EMPOWERMENT

Objectives
After going through the Unit you should be able to: Understand the concept of empowerment Have insight into the process of empowerment appreciate the need of self-empowerment develop ideas empowering different organizational units

Structure
The concept of Empowerment Empowerment at the Societal Level Empowerment in Organizations Empowerment of Different Organizational Units Empowerment Audit Power Enhancers of Leaders Self-Empowerment Summary Self-Assessment Questions Further Readings

THE CONCEPT OF EMPOWERMENT We can define empowerment as the process of multiplying power, or creating autonomy in a social system, to help people take charge of their efforts, promoting the ability to act collectively to solve problems, influence important issues and contribute to the achievement of the main, objectives. Empowerment has been conceived in a variety of ways. The major difference has been between community related thinkers interventionists on the one hand, and the organization related scholars and practitioners on the other. While the latter emphasize competency building and involvement through delegation, the former emphasize collective power as the central theme. Power can never be given. Empowerment helps people to recognize their internal power and exercise it for the benefit of themselves and others. EMPOWERMENT AT THE SOCIETAL LEVEL Social action thinkers and interventionists have emphasized equity, participation, access to opportunities, sharing of resources and influencing decisions as the elements of empowerment, Kari and Michels (1991) definition of empowerment as "the ability to act collectively to solve problems and influence important issues" seems to aptly summaries these views. Rappaport et al. (1984) defined empowerment as "a process through which people become strong enough to participate within, share in the control of and influence events and institutions affecting their lives." Distinction has been made between 'psychological empowerment (raised consciousness and subjective experience of efficacy) and community empowerment (modified structural conditions for the purpose of reallocating resources) (Swift and Levin, 1987). Empowerment in society includes psychological empowerment, a political action component and the achievement of redistribution of resources or decision making (Rissel, 1994). Borrowing the concept of Rissel (1994), empowerment can be seen as having passed through 5 main phases: critical consciousness of lopsided distribution of power in the 50's; social action ideology of 60's; self-help orientation of 70's; centrality of the individual as a citizen in community psychology in 80's, and citizens' control of most matters in the 90's. The new decade of the next century will probably be the decade, connecting integrating and widening network for collective thinking and action. UNDP has been doing great service in focusing on human development defined as "enlarging peoples choices", which includes three elements "equality of opportunity for all people in society, sustainability of such opportunities from one generation to the

next, and empowerment of people so that they participate - and benefit from development". Let us look at the situation in todays world. As the Chapter heading of the UNDP report says it is "Still an unequal world" (UNDP, 1995). Let us look at some figures. The richest top fifth almost have 85% of GNP, world trade domestic saving and domestic investment, contrasted with the poorest bottom fifth have only about 1 percent or below. The trend shows that this gap is widening. The tragedy is that instead of the affluence the rich countries are increasingly facing social and human problems because of overemphasis on economic growth: ozone depletion, disintegration of the social fabric, divorce, broken homes, drug addiction, HIV, Cancer, violence. Within the poor or developing countries also, power is unequally distributed and we have our own problems. Another aspect of social empowerment relates to gender equality. UNDP has given two indices, GDI or Gender-related Development Index and GEM or Gender Empowerment Index. "GEM examines whether women and are able to actively participate in economic and political life and take part in decision making. While GDI focuses on expansion of capabilities in economic and political life and take part in decision making. GDI focuses on expansion of capabilities; the GEM is concerned with the use of these capabilities to take advantage of the opportunities of life" (UNDP, '1995). GEM concentrates on participation: economic, political and professional. The conclusion of UNDP is that gender equality does not depend on the income level of a society that a lot needs to be done, although significant progress has been made. The four Scandinavian countries have the highest four ranks in GDI as well as GEM. While USA ranks no.2 in Human Development Index, its ranks on GDI and GEM respectively are 5 and 8. China and Cuba made remarkable progress in gender empowerment. They have demonstrated that strong policy and political commitment can manage to achieve empowerment similar to that of countries with much higher per capita incomes. The main tools of empowerment in societies are of two types: structural and process interventions. In the former are political and policy commitment, legislation and effective implementation. In India a new policy decision backed by legislation will help in having one third women legislators at all levels. India since its independence has been implementing the policy of reservation in employment and seats in professional schools for minorities according to their proportion in the society. But these are not enough. Gandhi taught us that process interventions are very important and more difficult. These include conscientization through dialogue, mass movement and mobilization of people through agitation on issues. Today in India we have a large number of mobilization interventions, from environment and ecology-related "Hug the Trees" or "Save Narmada' movement to "Science for People and Adult Literacy mobilization. This is the result of the great impact of Gandhi. Organization Development practitioners working in social development are helping in sharpening community mobilization process interventions.

Participatory research is an important tool of empowerment (Tandon, 1981). It has three major components: research (people collectively analyzing the problems they face), education (creation of common knowledge by people, development of critical awareness, including "dis indoctrination, i.e. unmasking the myth of personal deficit as the cause of misery and transfer of knowledge to participants), and social 'action (see Yiech, 1996 for a recent application in creation of a homeless persons union). To summarize, empowerment in society is concerned with equality, participation, access to opportunity and influencing decisions, especially by minorities, weaker or marginalized groups, and women. Both structural and process interventions are necessary for effective empowerment in societies. A society needs to connect with other societies dealing with similar issues. EMPOWERMENT IN ORGANIZATIONS A-pragmatic concept of empowerment has been suggested as "recognizing and releasing into the organization the power that people already have in their wealth of useful knowledge and internal motivation". (Randolph, 1995). In OD literature it has been suggested that empowerment is "giving people the skills and the information they need to make good decisions and take informed deliberate actions o organizational members can solve problems and manage change on their own." Smith and Tesmer, 1995) . Empowerment has been defined in a simple equation of Direction x support x Autonomy (Koestenbahm, 1991), where all the three elements are equally important in enhancing or reducing empowerment. In order to assess empowerment level in an organization, we need to examine empowerment not only of individual employees, but also of other organizational units: roles, including leaders, teams and the total organization. It is necessary to assess the level of empowerment as perceived and experience by individual members of the organization, role occupants, those in leadership roles (senior managers), teams permanent, semi-permanent and temporary teams), and the total organization. EMPOWERMENT OF DIFFERENT ORGANIZATIONAL UNITS Individual members feel empowered if they are listened to their ideas are valued; they are recognized for their contribution, encouraged, projected as important members, consulted, etc. Empowerment or roles is also important. In fact, motivation can be increased in employees by motivating and empowering the roles (see Pareek, 1993 for detailed discussion). If different roles have scope for initiative, creativity, discretion, growth, linkages, etc., they are empowered. One role deserves special attention, that of the leaders (senior managers). Teams have their own dynamics, and need to be empowered by clearer goals and freedom to work, with enough support by, the

management. Finally, the organization must also be an empowered organization, inspiring and supporting other units in this process. In Exhibit 1 the indicators of empowerment are mentioned for each of the five organizational units. In the next column are mentioned the instruments which can and have been used to assess the empowerment level. Empowerment is both the process and the outcome. So it is difficult to separate the indicators from the enablers of empowerment; indicators mentioned also contribute and enhance empowerment in an organization. Indicators-enablers in a way define empowerment. Empowerment is facilitated by some other factors which also be seen" as its consequences; these are called enablers/first-level outcomes. These are mentioned below, and in Column 4 of Exhibit 1. In the next column 5 are mentioned the relevant instruments to assess these. Finally, empowerment results in some consequences for making different organizational units more effective; these, are called second level outcomes.

Individual. A feeling of empowerment is generated by recognition, autonomy and support to work on their tasks and develop strategies to achieve the goals to which they are committed. Role. For the roles, two aspects are important. The first one is role efficacy or potential of the role to be effective (perceive scope for using one's assets, take initiative, try out new ways, solve problems; have a sense of being valued; opportunities of growth; and working for a large cause). The second aspect is to have optimum role stress and capability of effectively coping with stress. Leadership. Leadership role requires special attention. Some functions are more important for an effective leader (called transformational, functions, like visioning, the boundary management, searching and developing talents etc.) compared with what are called "transactional" functions (eg. planning, coordinating, rewarding competence, etc.)

Teams. Teams need to have a clear sense of direction, enough autonomy to work on their tasks, and enough support to do their work. Organization. The organization needs to have structural mechanisms of empowerment. One such mechanism is delegation. Three aspects are important for. Delegation: amount of delegation by the role occupant (8 areas), the process of delegation- (6 aspects) and facilitating factors for delegation (7 aspects). The other aspects of structural empowering are: (a) Dehierarchisation, usually called delayering - i.e., reducing the levels in an organization in making decisions; (b) decentralization, i.e., decision making to levels where action is involved; (c) debureaucratisation, i.e., reducing paper work and red tape in decision making and simplifying rules and procedures resulting in faster sharing sensitive and strategic information at various levels, and facilitating horizontal, top-down and bottom-up communication; (e) decontrol i.e., reducing outer control to increase others' autonomy and to free oneself for more strategic influence.

Enablers/First-Level Outcomes
The following are both enablers (those which facilitate empowerment) and the first level outcome of empowerment The first 2 are individual - related, No.3 role - related, 4 and 5 are leadership related, and 6 to 8 organization related aspects. Persuasive power bases. Bases of power have been classified into two categories: coercive, which control and reduce the autonomy of others, over or in relation to whom power is being used (e.g. authority, punishment, emotional relationship, reflected power, etc.), and persuasive which empower others and increase their autonomy by widening their choices (e.g. expertise, competence, role modeling, helping; etc.) Greater use of persuasive bases compared with coercive bases is both an indicator and consequence of empowering. Enabling managerial styles. These are those which encourage and nurture subordinates, reflect problem- solving behavior, and indicate creativity, resilience and ability to explore, contrasted with similar but dysfunctional styles. Role Efficacy. As already commented, role efficacy has 10 aspects, under three categories: role making (self-role integration, proactivity, creativity, confrontation), role-centering (centrality, personal growth), role linking ( interrole linkages, helping relationship, and confrontation). Transformational Leadership. Transformational functions (visioning, boundary management, role modeling, setting standards, culture building, synergizing, searching and nurturing talent) need to be given more importance than transaction functions (policy making, planning, coordinating, monitoring performance, rewarding, developing systems, coaching). Decontrol and Dispossession. Developing mechanisms which will reduce outer control by the leader, releasing his/her energy for more strategic roles (see Pareek, 1994, Chapter for discussion of the concept). Octapace Ethos. Like climate, the organizational ethos 9the main values reflected in the working of the organization and thinking of significant members) is important for empowerment. Ocutapace ethos is characterized by eight values of openness confrontation trust, authenticity, pro-action, autonomy collaboration and experimentation. APE Climate. Organizational climate promotes motivation amongst some individuals more titans in others. APE climate is one which promotes concern for excellence (achievement), develops expertise (expert power), and concern for people in the organization and society at large (extension). Such a climate is

contrasted with CAD climate, which promotes need to control, for example, through rules and regulations, concern for developing close personal relationships (affiliation) and need for getting approval and conformity (dependency). Use of APE climate is both an indicator and an outcome of empowerment. Entrepreneurial culture. Promotes concern for an pursuit of excellence. Such a culture is differentiates from autocratic, bureaucratic and technological cultures.

Second Level Outcomes

Empowering results in the following outcomes in the organization, amongst its individual members and teams: Pride and joy in work. Sense of ownership (i.e. taking responsibility for action). Higher sense of controlling what happens to oneself rather than a sense of helplessness. Moderate risk taking, contrasted with playing safe or gambling. Taking initiative, rather than waiting to be told what to do, or only carrying out tasks given. Creativity (trying out new ways of solving problems, experimenting). encouraging subordinates to use autonomy EMPOWERMENT AUDIT The term 'audit' has been used in accounting. It has been defined by the New Encyclopedia Britannica 91990, Vol.1, p. 695) as "examination of the records and reports of an enterprise by accounting specialists other than responsible for their preparation". The spirit- of audit is objective analysis of available data by independent examiners. The term is used more widely now, including internal audit, and audit of functions other than accounting, this term means- examining the process and outcome of empowerment in an organization by independent evaluator(s). There can also be internal audit of empowerment, undertaken by people belonging to the organization. The methodology of empowerment audit includes ways of collecting data, its analysis, interpretation, and developing action ideas for promoting empowerment. Four main methods can and have been used for data collection in empowerment audit; instruments; individual interviews; group discussions; and observation of various departments, important places like canteens, common facilities, work place, etc.

The following instruments are used for the various indicators/enablers and Enablers/first level outcomes. MAO-B (Pareek, 1986) had also been used in early work on empowerment audit. The second level outcomes have not been measured. All the instruments listed below, except No.1 are contained in Pareek (1996). The Instruments 1 to 3 are for individuals, 4 for role, 5 to 7 for leadership role, 8 for teams, and 9 to 12 for organizational climate and culture. Empowerment Scale( Das, 1992) is a 26- item questionnaire which measures the perceived empowerment at the individual level in terms of support, recognition and encouragement received from senior people. CPP Scale (Pareek, 1997, Chapter 18) measures the value given to and need for coercive power bases and persuasive power bases. SPIRO-M (Pareek, 1997, Chapter 23) measures operating effectiveness of a manager in nurturing and regulating subordinates, problem solving, creativity, resilience and confronting problems and issues. Role Efficacy Scale (Pareek, 1997 Chapters 35, 36) is a 20-item scale, in measuring 10 aspects of role efficacy. SMF Schedule (Pareek, 1997 Chapter 49) gives assessment of the time and energy given by senior managers to the seven transactional functions and seven transformational functions. 6 PE Scale (Pareek, 1997, Chapter 52) assesses the mechanisms of reducing the amount of outer-control, and thereby helping senior people to use their energy on more important matters. VBM (Pareek, 1997, Chapter 50, 51) Survey measures the amount of visioning, sharing of vision and getting employees' commitment to the vision by top management, and boundary management (protecting the organization, getting resources, lobbying for the organization, etc.). Team Empowerment Scale assesses the level of clarify about the team's task and related issues, among autonomy and. support experienced by the team. Delegation Assessment Questionnaire (Pareek, 1997, Chapter 53) has three parts. It contains items on the amount of delegation in various areas, process of delegation and facilitating factors of delegation. OCTAPACE Profile (Pareek, 1997, Chapter 57) measures the level of eight values of openness, confrontation, trust, authenticity, pro-action, autonomy, collaboration and experimenting. MAO-C(Pareek, 1997, Chapter 55) measures six types of motivational climate (achievement, expert power, extension, control affiliation, dependency ) for 12 organizational processes orientation interpersonal relationships, supervision, problem management, management of mistakes, conflict management, communication, decision making, trust, management of rewards, risk taking, and innovation and change). Organizational Culture Profile (Pareek, 1997, Chapter 58) gives an organization's profile on four types of cultures: autocratic,

bureaucratic, technocratic and entrepreneurial. Interviews/ Group Discussions: Individual interviews and group discussions are done in a non-structured way (Pareek and Rao, 1980). However the focus of the interviews usually is on the respondents' concept of empowerment, strengths and weaknesses of the organization in the empowerment context, hierarchical structure, bureaucratic practices (rules and regulations, paper work, etc.), communication, functional autonomy (interference, dysfunctional use of discretion), involvement and participation, accountability (taking responsibility), initiative, creativity, coordination, collaboration and team work, functioning of HRD sub-systems.

Observation
Observations are made more in what Nevis (1987) calls undirected awareness or Colombo Style, contrasted with directed awareness of Sherlock Holmes Style. Instead of "well organized, precise, knowing and deductively oriented" as Sherlock Holmes did. "Colombo may be said to act like a sponge immersing himself in a milieu and waiting for important clues to be drawn to him" (Nevis, 1980. p.110), being here-and now and noticing whatever seems to be significant. In one unit, a common canteen' (common for the CE to workers), or different toilets for different levels of employees in another office were significant indicators. Observations also include experiences of the auditors.

The Audit
Responses to the instruments are scored and analyzed. Responses during the interviews and group discussions are also analyzed. Notes are made on observations. All these are analyzed and integrated to get a profile of the organization. The audit report on various aspects can then be prepared. In one group of companies (A) working in information technology, with young highly skilled employees, only data collected with the help of the instruments were analyzed and reports were prepared. In the second group of companies, (B) data from all the sources were analyzed and the report was based on the integrated analysis.

Post-Audit Action
Action recommendations are made on the basis of the analysis. These are discussed by the groups/levels concerned for implementation. In company A, action ideas were discussed with each individual top manager for his/her own improvement in style, etc. and for implementing suggestions in their concerned groups. In the second group of companies (B), the reports have been prepared for each company, level-wise, with suggestions for improvement.

POWER ENHANCERS OF LEADERS Leadership is increasingly seen as catalyst for empowerment, and the influence or power of a leader may be in proportion to his or her ability to "dispossess" the organization, or become "dispensable". Withdrawing from controlling functions are then the power enhancers for the leadership: They enhance the leader's real power, not the coercive power, but his/her indirect influence. This is possible only when the leader is released from attending to routine tasks and from the use of his/her discretion in most routine matters. Let us take the example of house or vehicle allotment. A leader has directive influence if he/she uses his/her discretion to allot vehicles or houses to people. In that case he/she will not have enough time to plan for a new vision. However, if clear rules are made, so that the leader does not play any role, and has no discretion, his real power and influence will increase, as he/she will be able to perform more important tasks of visioning, boundary management, lobbying for the organization etc. In this sense these can be seen as power enhancers rather than as leadership substitutes. What are these power enhancers? Based on the research literature and interviews with some senior Indian managers, a list of power enhancers was prepared, and then edited. Finally, the following 14 power enhancers were selected.

Professionalization
Four enhancers fall within this category. Competence Building: Professionalization is attained through competent people in the organization. Competence development through various programs and HRD practices contributes to this the more competent people there are in an organization, the greater the opportunity the leader will have to exercise higher leadership functions. Rewards System: Rewards plays an important role in building a culture and multiplying power. If creativity, innovation and initiatives are rewarded, people will develop power relating to these, the leaders then have great resources available to them, adding to their overall power. In this way, rewards are very effective power enhancers. Feedback System: well- developed system of giving to the employees feedback on their performance develops professionalism and reduces the subjective element in decision making by the leader. In fact, the feedback system in a releases time to leaders to perform this function. Professionalism: A professional orientation in the organization develops several "substitutes or enhancers of power. Professionalization will include recruiting trained and competent persons with expertise in their fields, use of appropriate

technology, and periodical competence building of personnel at various levels. Leadership in a professional organization deals with functions at higher levels.

Team work
Team work is an effective power enhancer, as it relieves the leader of attending to many routine matters, and multiplies power in the organization by increasing the effectiveness of teams. This factor has five enhancers, out of which professionalism is one, (already discussed). Two enhancers are given below; two others are common with the next factor and will be discussed later. Strong Teams: "Strong and cohesive teams "is a major power enhancer. The more cohesive the teams are, the more the leader is able to exercise high- level power, leaving most of the internal matters to the teams. Self-Governing Teams: When teams can function or their own, with minimum direction from the top, leadership can be qualitatively different. Such teams help in the process of decentralization. For example, autonomous work groups seems to reduce the role of supervisors (because the teams themselves make most of the decisions) on the one hand, and on the other they add value to the supervisor's role in helping them to become real leaders in attending to resource mobilization, boundary management, competence building and consultation when needed by the group. Branches of organizations with enough autonomy have the same effect.

Formalization
Informality in organizations functions as a lubricant. But too much of it may create messiness and slipperiness. Some formalization is needed to increase the effectiveness of leaders and others, in terms of better use of discretion by them. Four enhancers are in this group. Two enhancers are common with the previous factor (tasks and roles) and are discussed first, followed by two others. Satisfying Tasks: intrinsically satisfying tasks are likely to promote both formalization and team building. Well - designed tasks which are seen as worthwhile by employees will build employ motivation and involvement, and the leader need not have to spend energy on this aspect. These will also contribute to the effective use of discretion by the concerned employees, and thereby enhance power in the system. Rules and Procedures: Clear rules and procedures for most routine matters, an important element in formalization, reduces the need for attention and. time to be given by the leaders to such matters. Moreover, they minimize the anxiety level of employees about these matters, again helping in increasing their own sense of power. For example, most organizations have clear cut rules and

procedures for compensation, perks, facilities, amenities etc. Although not directly related to team building, such rules reduce bickering and help in building of teams. Organizational Structure: A clear well-defined structure helps in formalization. The structure reduces the leader's discretion in many matters, and "forces" the leader to pay attention to other important functions, and use the power available to increase expertise in the organization. Management Systems: In effective organizations well designed systems replace leaders' roles in most matters. For example, good planning, budgetary, and information systems generate most processes of decision making. Recruitment and other human resource systems ensure that these functions are performed well, without any need for the leaders to attend to them.

Expert Power
Development of expert power in an organization multiplies power within the organization, and relieves leaders of the necessity of paying attention to most matters which can now be shared by experts. There are three enhancers in this category, one (staff functions) being common with the previous factor of formalization, Staff functions: Advisory and staff functions on the one hand develop formalization by introducing structured and formalized special functions, on the other hand these help to develop expertise. Power is then distributed and gets multiplied, and strengthens the leader's ability to lead the organization. Objective Rewards: when rewards are decided on the basis of clear criteria, are developed by a team, and are also managed by a group of persons (teams), they become more objective. Experts are involved in such decision making. The leader gives up his role of deciding about rewards and passes this responsibility to a team. This will release the leader's time and energy for higher level tasks. Spatial Distance: Decentralization contributes to the development of expert power. When functionaries are removed from the central or head office, and located away from it, they have to use more autonomy, thereby enhancing power in the system, and sharing power (and responsibility) with the leader whose power is also enhanced.

Task Clarity and Autonomy

There is-only one enhancer in this group, although self-governing teams can also be included here. Task Clarity: Well defined tasks are important for autonomous functioning of individuals. This increases their power, as also the power of the leader who need not be bothered with these matters.

In brief, leaders can empower people and teams at. various level, thereby multiplying power in an organization. Based on work with 10 companies Randolph (1985) has suggested a 3 pronged approach to empowerment.

1. Share information Share company performance information. Help people understand the business. Build trust though sharing sensitive information Create self-monitoring possibilities

2. Create autonomy thought structure Create a clear vision and clarify the little pictures Clarify goals and roles collectively Create new decision making rules that support empowerment Establish new empowering performance management processes Use heavy doses of training

3. Let teams become the hierarchy Provide direction and training for new skills Provide encouragement and support for change Gradually have managers let go of control Work through the leadership vacuum stage Acknowledge the fear factor.

SELF EMPOWERMENT

The core of the empowerment process is the individual. While the century of great leaders is coming to a close, we already have enough signs that the next century will be the century of great leadership. Individuals will matter, not a few of them, but a large number. We shall continue to derive inspiration from great leaders like Mahatma Gandhi who demonstrated the highest degree of authenticity. He practiced what he preached. Each individual needs to take charge of him/her, and take steps for self-empowerment; five lessons can be learned from Mahatma Gandhi about self-empowerment. Develop a strong identity, mainly in relation to the race, class, country or vocation. This identity should give a sense of pride to oneself. Distinguish this identity from pseudo or narrow identities. Break out of the narrow or pseudo identities, is e.g. of sex, language, caste, religion etc. In other words, empowerment means emancipation from narrow identities. This thought is at the core of the Indian culture. For example, connecting the male with the female part of the self is reflected in one of the highest forms of God called ardhanarisvra, which translated means the "half man and half woman god", also depicted so in the statue, half being a man and the other half a woman. Although this thought was in the Indian traditional concept of androgyny, male domination for centuries clouded this. Gandhi brought it out, and emphasized that the complete self would require an integration of the two. He used to say that he was first a mother and then a man. His emphasis on values of non-violence, caring, compassion, empathy etc. was to balance the tilt which was more on male values of confrontation, competition, aggression etc.

Expand your identity to larger identities - or connect with others. But before connecting with others, connect with yourself. After integration of the self, by connecting within with several aspects of the self, connecting with others add a qualitatively different dimension to empowerment. Individuals and groups are no more in isolation. Connecting is empowerment. With his deep identity of religion-spirituality of Hinduism, Gandhi was able to connect with other religions like Islam, Christianity, Buddhism, Jainism etc. He used to say that he was a true Muslim, a true Christian, India, with deep spiritual tradition, with its later connection with Islam, learnt new lesson of serving the needy and the community. The Indian identity or psyche is an integration of these. And Gandhi, through his life, taught millions of young Indians these basic lessons of empowerment. Connecting with larger groups and significant individuals in other parts of world, gave a higher degree of empowerment. The youth during the freedom struggle used to participate in meeting to listen to Paul Robinsons inspiriting music, or Chilean poet Pablo Neruda's poems of the Turkish poet Nazim Hikmet. And much later young people were inspired by Martin Luther King, Fiedel Castro, etc. This gave a sense of empowerment with these connections - a sense of vibrating support coming from dozens of irresponsible individuals and groups from all over the world. Gandhi emphasized the need of going back to self whenever in doubt. Whenever his action resulted in unintended violence, he used to discontinue his program, and go on fast, introspecting and reflecting, and then he discussed his analysis with his colleagues. Gandhi's lesson was that the core of all empowerment is self, a liberated self-strengthened with introspection and reflection. And finally, he emphasized the need to go beyond the self and served other individuals, groups and the society. This was the link between individual empowerment and empowerment in the society. Gandhi gave up his busy schedule; he used to find time to serve needy (e.g. taking care of a friend who had leprosy). Even in USA, based on a longitudinal research it has been reported that "the more individuals and blocks get involved in helping their neighbors, informally or through religion and other service organizations, the more they also get involved in grassroots community action...."(Perkins, Brown & Taylor, 1996, p.106) Such concern for others (called extension motivation (Pareek, 1997, Chapter 50 or what Mehta (1994) calls social achievement), along with internal locus of control is the basis of individual empowerment, and a building block of social empowerment.

SUMMARY

The primary objective of this unit is to let you understand the concept of empowerment. The ultimate goal of empowerment is to help achieve the organizational goals and objectives basically by making people realize the internal power and help them use it for the benefit of themself and others. For achieving the above goals, empowerment at various levels, Becomes imperative viz.; Empowerment at societal level, organization level and at various units level in the organization. Having done so it should be checked whether this has adequately been done or not, we need to audit the whole process and identify the lacunae, if any at these levels and then chalk out the strategy to bridge the gap._ Towards the end this unit talks about the power enhancers of leaders. Further such power enhancers have been identified and may be clubbed under five sub-heads. Finally the unit also explains how to empower one's own self. TRANSFORMATIONAL LEADERSHIP

Objectives
After going through this unit, you should be able to : understand the concept of transformational leadership appreciate the transformational processes understand organizational framework of the processes Examine diagnostic aspects of transformational processes for creating a motivational vision.

Structure Introduction The Need for Transformational Leadership The Transformational Processes and the Organisation Individual and the Transformation The Alignment Task: Adjusting to the Future Creating a Motivating Vision Summary Self-Assessment Questions Further Readings/References

INTRODUCTION

The concept of leadership as such has been much debated and researched topic in management as well as other social sciences. Starting from Lewin and his students' famous experiments on group dynamics involving leadership till the present time, there has been little unanimity in explaining and defining this concept. However, in the organizational world, this concept has enormous importance (despite the prevailing confusion) where one has to keep in mind both the context as well as the person in order to utilize and optimize the efficiency and effectiveness. This is especially so at a time the economy of the entire industrialized world is in the midst of major upheaval and transformation and a new type of leadership in the middle and senior levels of our organizational world is desperately needed. One needs to come out of the clutches of traditional thinking which tells about task oriented, person 'oriented or goal oriented leadership. In this present world scenario, the corporate world cannot afford to look for scapegoats in order to account for the ineffective use of their resources. The time has come to talk about how our corporations, our wealth producing institutions, can develop the type of leadership with the courage and imagination to change the organization life style. According to James McGregor Burns, what is needed is not the old style transactional leadership, but a new transformational leadership. Transactional leaders were fine for the earlier era of expanding markets and nonexistent competition. In return for compliance they issued rewards. They managed what they found and left things pretty as much as they found them when they moved on. Transformational Leadership is about change, innovation and entrepreneurship. One has agree with Peter Drucker that these are not provinces of lonely half mad individuals with flashes of genius. Rather, this brand of leadership is a behavioral process capable of being learned and managed. It is a leadership process that is systematic consisting of purposeful and organized search for changes, systematic analysis and the capacity. to move resources from areas of lesser to greater productivity. This strategic transformation of organizations is not something that occurs solely to the idiosyncratic behavior of charismatic geniuses. It is a discipline with a set of predictable steps.

Transforming an organization to make it strategically competitive is a complex task. Transformation, if one uses the metaphor of a drama, then it can be visualized in terms of a three act play: Act I: Revitalization-recognition of the need to change. Act II: Creating a new vision. Act III: Institutionalizing change. The leaders in this drama go through tough, grueling and extreme challenges in their effort to transform companies, save employee jobs and strengthen the fabric of the society. These people are in a race against time and it is not entirely clear whether they will be successful or not (The Reliance Group especially the Arnbanis for example). Whatever the outcome, one thing is becoming clear by day that the traditional styles of Leadership would not have worked in the present turbulent times - with mergers, megamergers and fast speed of globalization and spread of informational technology. The message is clear - one has to spread a new way of thinking about corporate transformation, to make true leadership and everyday way of acting rather than, a talent limited to a few select individuals. Transformation can be accomplished and new leadership style can be learned. The Genesis of the Concept Abraham Zaleznik contrasted leaders and managers in a 1977 Harvard. Business Review article, Managers were characterized as individuals who maintain the balance of operations in an organization, relate to others according to their role, are detached, impersonal, seek solutions acceptable as a compromise among conflicting values and identify with the organization. The leaders on the other hand were characterized as individuals out to create new approaches and imagine new areas to explore; they relate to people in more intuitive and empathetic ways, seek risk where opportunity and reward are high and project ideas into images to excite people. To sum up, the managers do things right, leaders do right things. Michael Maccoby's book the leaders specifically shifted our attention to the important bridge between Burns's work on Transforming leadership and industrial settings. Maccoby argued for "Gamesman": The gamesman's daring the willingness to innovate and take risks are still needed. Companies that rely on conservative company men in finance to run technically based organizations lose the competitive edge. But unless their (the gamesman's) negative traits are transformed or controlled, even gifted gamesmen become liabilities as leaders in a new economic reality, a period of limited resources cutbacks, even the team can no longer alwaysbe controlled by promises of more and one person's gain may be another's loss. Leadership with values of caring and trust that no one will be penalized for cooperation and that sacrifice as well as rewards will be equitable.

THE NEED FOR TRANSFORMATIONAL LEADERS Competitive pressures are forcing companies to reassess the implicit and explicit employment contract they have struck with employees. The opinions and feelings of middle managers and others caught up in the organizational change are a part of growing chorus of anger, confusion and dismay. The change they are being asked to make is not marginal; it is fundamental, It demands the commitment of the many not the few. Its nature is revolutionary not evolutionary. It cries out for leaders not managers, to effect the transformations required by most organizations. And across the industrial landscape we see the emergence of a new breed of leader, to meet the challenge - the transformational leader. These people take on the responsibility for revitalizing an organization. They define the need for change, create new visions, mobilize commitment to those visions and ultimately transform an organization.

Transforming an organization is a human drama that involves both joys and sorrows. Winning - beating the competition is exhilarating, but it is painful to lay off workers, sell off business and disrupt traditions. These phenomena are often part of a renewal, for what worked in the past may have become the cause of failure in the present. Transforming' an organization also requires new vision, new frames of thinking about strategy, structure and people. While some entrepreneurs can start with a clean slate, transformational leaders must begin with what is already in place. They are like architects who must redesign out mated factories for a new use.

The traditional managerial skills such as financial acumen, manufacturing expertise, and marketing prowess, are important ingredients in most organizational success stories, but not sufficient for organizational transformation. We focus on the most critical element - leadership - as organizations are challenged by an increasingly competitive environment. Systems can be designed to create operating efficiency, but it is leadership that enables an organization to maintain a dominant position in its industry. Organization must be revitalizing because continued dominance requires adaptation to changing market conditions. This need for transformation is not limited to particular country, it is a universal phenomenon.

The managers caught in the maelstrom of change express feelings of anguish, helplessness and acute anger. From a psychological point of view their feelings are predictable. The human desire to balance the search for variety and adventure with the need for constancy and security has been documented by poets and philosophers alike. The reluctance to act is perhaps the main reason behind inefficiency and productivity loss.

As organizations try to change, they must learn to deal fairly with the anxieties and criticisms of both managers and employees who will have to adopt to change. Ironically, still healthy organizations sometimes encounter greater resistance to change than organizations in the midst of crisis. For example, seeing the prospect of bankruptcy made change an immediate and acceptable priority at Chrysler.

THE TRANSFORMATIONAL THEMES

Transformational processes develop around three basic themes. As we watch organizational struggle for the need to change, the developmental sequence involves three basic themes (as mentioned earlier). 1. Recognizing the Need for Revitalization This facet centers on the challenges the leader encounter when he or she attempts to alert the organization to growing threats from the environment. 2. Creating a new Vision This involves the leaders struggle to focus the organization's attention on a vision of the future that is exciting and positive. 3. Institutionalizing Change Here the leader seeks to institutionalize the transformation so that it will survive his or her tenure in a given position.

THE PARADOX OF TRANSFORMATIONAL LEADERSHIP

The leaders must deal with the tension revolving around a sense of loss regarding the "good old days". This loss centers around some real and some wishful thinking about how the things were or could have been. Leaders deal with these feelings by creating organizations that embrace the paradox. The organizations are characterized by the ability to manage uncertainty in their environment. The paradoxes create the dramatic tensions in the transformational enactment. They include 1. A Struggle between the Forces of Stability and the Forces of Change Successful organizations must find ways to balance the need for adaptation with the need for stability. Organization that cling too tightly to tradition fail eventually decline while organizations which fail to regain their equilibrium after embarking on change spin out of control and eventually destroy themselves. 2. Tension between Denial and Acceptance of Reality Potential revitalization may end up as tragedies when key players attempt to deny reality and hide from its implications.

3. A Struggle between Fear and Hope Organizations, like legendary phoenix, are capable of regenerating themselves. The process, however, demands that the ageing and increasingly impotent forms must be destroyed before the new form can emerge to again dominate its environment. This leap of faith that destruction will result in rebirth is tied to the tension between stability and change and countered by the denial that change is necessary. 4. A Struggle between the Manager and the Leader Managers are dedicated to the maintenance of the existing organization whereas leaders are often committed to its change. The philosophical difference between doing things right and doing the right things create tension in organizations that are being pressured to change. The transformational act is played both at the individual as well at the organizational level as portrayed in Figure - A. Leaders must pull the organization into the future by creating a positive view of what the organization can become and simultaneously provide emotional support for individuals during- the transition process.

THE TRANSFORMATIONAL PROCESSES AND THE ORGANIZATION

Recognizing the Need for Revitalization

The need for changes is triggered by environmental pressures. But not all organizations respond to signals from the environment indicating change. The external trigger event must be perceived and responded to by leader, then, the key decision makers in the organization must be made to feel dissatisfied with status quo. The felt need for change provides the impetus for transition, but this process does not always go smoothly. A key to whether resistant forces deter the organization from making the needed adjustments to environmental shifts is the quality of the leadership that is brought to bear. Lee Iacocca created a vision of the "new Chrysler", mobilized the employees and later institutionalized the change.

Creating a Vision
The leaders involved in organizational transformation need to create a vision that a critical mass of employees will accept as a desirable change for the organization. Each leader must develop a vision and communicate it in a way that is congruent with the leaders philosophy and style. The long term challenge to organizational revitalization is less of "how' she visions are created and more of the extent to which the visions correctly respond to environmental pressures and create transitions within the organization. There is a need for the leaders to tap into a deeper sense of meaning for their followers.

Institutionalizing Change
Revitalization is just empty talk until the new vision becomes reality. The new way of thinking becomes day-to-day practice. New realities, actions, and practices must be shared so that changes become institutionalized. At a deeper level this requires shaping and reinforcing a new culture that fits with the revitalized organization. How people are selected for jobs, appraised and rewarded on their performance and developed for future responsibility are of utmost importance.

What happens at the organizational level is by itself not sufficient to create and implement change. Major transitions unleash powerful conflicting forces in people and individual psychodynamics of change must be understood and managed. Change invokes simultaneous personal feelings of fear and hope, anxiety and relief, pressure and stimulation, threats to self-esteem and challenges to master new situations. The task of transformational leaders is to recognize these mixed feelings, act to help people move from negative to positive emotion and mobilize the energy needed for individual renewal. INDIVIDUAL AND THE TRANSFORMATION 1. All individual transitions start with endings. Employees who cling to old ways of doing things will be unable to adjust to new demands. They must follow a process that included disengaging from the past; dis identification with its demands; disenchantment with its implication and disorientation as they kern new behaviors. Transformational leaders provide people with support by helping replace past glories with future opportunities. This will happen only if they are able to acknowledge individual resistance that is derived from a sense of loss in the transition. Leaders should encourage employees to accept failures without feeling as if they had failed. It does not help to treat transition as if the past did not exist. The past will hold the key to understanding what went wrong as well as what worked and can frequently provide a useful map to the future. 2. Employees need to work through their feelings of being disconnected with the past and not yet 'emotionally committed to the future. This phase causes most trouble in action oriented organizational cultures, but it tends to be viewed as non-productive. Yet the difference between success and failure in organizational transformation can occur during this stage. Passing successfully through this zone requires taking time and thought to gain perspective on both the endings - what went wrong, why it needs changing, and on what must be overcome to make a new beginning. It is during this phase that skills of a transformational leader are really put to test. A timid bureaucrat who revels in the good old days will not provide the needed support to help individuals to traverse the neutral zone. A strong dictatorial leader may also fail, by forcing a new beginning before people have worked through their feelings and emotions. 3. Once a stage of psychological readiness to deal with a new order of things is reached, employees must be prepared for the frustration that accompanies failure as they replace thoroughly mastered routines with a new act. Adequate preparation time will be needed before everyone learns their new lines and masters their new roles so that the play can become again a seamless whole rather than set of integrated scene.

Conditions for Playful Opportunism

Conditions that facilitate playful opportunism involve diagnosing the source of problems. Transformational leaders look to four arenas to find the basic information they need, to make a good diagnosis of their organization. 1. The leader engages in personal introspection to determine his or her strengths, weaknesses, and blind spots. 2. The leader facilitates analysis and introspection among a critical mass of individuals who make up the top management team to ensure that they work together for a common organizational goal and not against one another. 3. Organizational control systems must generate good data on the relative health of different aspects of the organization. 4. A careful scan of the environment must be made. Good data are essential to the continued good health of the organization because the environment in which it is operates is always changing. Thus today's solutions frequently are the root of tomorrow's problems. Transformational leaders must be sure that the organization has sensing mechanism that provides early warnings of possible serious trouble. It did not take Blumenthal and Iacocca long to discover the extent of the problems they inherited. Blumenthal explained his initial discomfort with the state of Burrough's health when he discovered that some of the conditions for playful opportunism did not exist in the organization. Burroughs had the reputation of having been an extraordinary company. It hadn't had a down quarter in eleven years.That viewpoint, however, was very quickly dissipated. I would say almost within the first week - I may exaggerate with the first week - but certainly within the first month. Because I began to sense that the quality of the people that were there, that I was meeting and talking to, seemed oddly at variance with the performance of the company. They were very unimpressive. Not only thatbut they didn't know where their profits were coming from - where they were making profits. They didn't have data; they didn't collect data; they didn't use computers! Transformational leadership requires several simultaneous levels of diagnosis. First, leaders must make sense of the organization's ability to survive in the competitive environment they confront. Second, they must be aware of their own abilities; motivation, and skills in relation to the organization's posture. Third, they must, assess the individual capabilities, motivation, and skills of their key team member.

Organizational Framework
What make a transformational leader's job so difficult is the dynamic and complex nature of large organizations and the unpredictable nature of the world in which they operate. Donald Schon states, The first and perhaps most critical leadership task is framing the problem.... The process by which we define the decisions tobe made, the ends to be achieved the means which may be chosen....they muse: be constructed from materials of problematic situations which are puz2iicg, troubling and uncertain.... When Fred Fiammer entered the Chase Manhattan Bank, he spent a considerable amount of time getting the lay of the land. I basically feel the first year you have to keep your head down, you smile a lot and ask a lot of questions and then you decide what you want to do and how you're going to do it - tinning, purpose, and rationalization. I was lucky with the management team at Chase because it was the first time that the bank was feeling a need for change...By the end of the first year, it became apparent that we were losing money and to change that we would have to segment the markets and sacrifice share. This was a dramatic shift for retail banking within Chase we were going to have to do less volume, be more selective about our customers, and we weren't going to grow. If we were going to grow, we were going to have to go nationwide. I came to that conclusion after looking at some hodgepodge data about our customers. We divided them into deciles and then tried to determine how much money we made in each decile. It turns out we made a lot of money in the first decile - the top 10 percent. We made a little money on the second and basically broke even on the third and lost money on 70 per cent of our customers. The first thing that became apparent was that we had to get our fixed costs down. But, the high thing was that we were going to price services in such a way that we would get rid of a lot of customers. We would not seek to do business with a broad spectrum of the potential customer base.

As it turns out, it was not so important what we did but where we did it. Since virtually the entire industry raised their price: quickly after we did, we never got the bad publicity we expected. We were beginning to develop the mentality of looking at profits, not just volume. This helped resolve a major question about the retail business at Chase, whether 141' were there to generate funds for use by the rest of the bank or to operate as profit center. I said right away that we were a profit center. Framing of the problem is not always conscious, yet there is evidence in all of the interviews conducted and other leadership studies analyzed that was done. Transformational leaders framed the set of organizational problems differently, yet all had a comprehensive systematic approach.

The Technical System

The management literature frequently offers advice to decision makers on the technical challenges involved in running an organization. Leaders must choose their goals from among the feasible set of alternatives the organization could pursue and design the organization to carry out the chosen strategy. 1. Mission and Strategy. The most important technical task facing the leader is determining the appropriate product or service mix and market targets for the organization. Leaders are not equally involved in determining the content of strategy. Some, like Lee Iacocca at Chrysler, dominate the decision making in this area while others are much more likely to be influenced by other senior executives when making decisions about their product service mix and market targets. The degree of technical expertise that the transformational leader brings to the discussion obviously affects the role that he or she will choose to play. Iacocca's early success at Ford with product breakthroughs like the Mustang established his credentials in this area, but his personality and experiences with Ford also played a role. Whom he started talks with Chrysler's former CEO, Riccardo, about the possibility of joining the company he said, Unless I had full authority to put my management style and policies into effect, going over to Chrysler would be major exercise in frustration.

At General Electric, where strategy issues span a, large number of products and market, Jack Welch and the other three members of the office of the CEO, Vice Chairman Larry Bossedy. and Ed Hood along with Executive Vice President Paul Van Orden spend their time thinking about the relative viability of businesses in General Electric's portfolio and leave the determination of specific business strategies to the general managers running the more than 30 business in the CE/RCA portfolio. Relevant data are collected from those in the organization whose opinion is most likely to be accurate. he data are analyzed and plans are formulated optimizing the organization 's long-term success. The plans are communicated through the organization so that employees have a clear sense of what is expected of them. 2. Organization Structure. The leader's task is to design organizational structure which are technically sound in terms of the technology and response time demanded by the environment. What division of labor and what integration mechanism will permit the organization to effectively achieve its mission? Blumenthal talks about these concerns in his early days at Burroughs: I started thinking about how to organize the company because I am not used to everything being related to everything else and I was looking for profit and loss (P & L) centers. I couldn't find any. It was all one giant P & L center. Everybody depended on everybody else. I started experimenting with how to break the company apart and give some responsibility to individuals... This is where the fit between strategy and structure emerges. For example, in the late 1970s and early 1980s in U.S. many chemical companies found that uncertain supplies and rising prices of petroleum feedstock placed them at a disadvantage in the commodity chemical market where they were forced to compete with chemical companies owned by major oil producers like Exon and Shell. They repositioned themselves so they would be less vulnerable to these external threats. For example, one large chemical company was organized as matrix organization in which the different lines of business shared production and R &D facilities as well as marketing capabilities. This arrangement permitted substantial economies of scale which were critical in the price sensitive commodity chemicals business. The new strategy called for a move to marketing value-added products targeted to smaller market niches. The structure was changed from a centralized matrix structure to a more decentralized form that provided the lines of business with separate marketing capabilities as well as some separation of production and R & D. While there was more functional managers to respond more quickly to market demands and was therefore consistent with the new strategy.

3. Human Resource Management. The final technical task the leader faces to design a human resource system consistent with the organization's goals and structure. This involves a proper match between people and roles, specification of performance criteria for different organizational roles, a way to systematically measure the required performance, and control systems to ensure that staffing and development practices are capable of meeting the organization's long-term human resource needs as dictated by the business strategy. Only in the most sophisticated companies do we see management's recognition of the strategic importance of effective human resource systems. All too often lip service is paid to the idea that "People are our most important asset," but company action do not reflect the concern. Organizations that fail to evaluate the selection, appraisal, and reward systems when they wish to change the organization run the risk of producing organizational schizophrenia, as employees simultaneously try to achieve organizational goals and their own person interests. General Motors' managers spent a considerable amount of time and energy developing a set of criteria for evaluating people in the new organizational structure. Lloyd Reuss describes their process: We talked about the change process, what were the things that were really important if General Motors was going to succeed? And as Alex (Cunningham) said, all of a sudden, what were the givens: performance, profitability, and return on investment. But that sort of standard business school wisdom. Going forward, what were the new criteria? What kinds of things were really going to make a difference? We talked about competitive edge; we talked about quality of work life; we talked about commitment to quality. And we used those criteria to choose our people. Because we had guys who'd be on everybody's first choice list frame a technical standpoint that weren't there when some of the other criteria were considered:

The Political System

Political activities are rarely talked about openly in an organization, but they frequently absorb significant amounts of senior management time. While the political activities that accompany decisions about resource allocation may not he discussed at management committee meetings, they are often the major topic of conversation at lunch, cocktails, and one-on-one meetings. These discussions frequentlycenter on who is going to be promoted to an open position, what group is in power, who is going to influence strategic decisions, how budgets are going to be allocated across business or divisions, which functional areas have the inside track with the CEO, and who will then benefit from the lates formule to distribute salary and bonus pools. The problem is that

in most organizations it is culturally unacceptable to say that a given decision is political. Yet political process are an inevitable part of the allocation of scarce resources. It is the task of the transformational leader to ensure that the processes produce results that further the organizational goals that they are perceived as fair and equitable by the parties involved. Clearly, the ability to decide what the mission and the strategy of the organization will be is a source of significant power. Technically focused textbooks and consulting groups advise organizations on how to do strategic planning, but they do not shed much light on how to allocate power in the actual strategic decision-making process. What levels of the organization should be involved in the process? Should technical decisions be made by those with technical expertise or by general managers? Should the chairperson make the decision alone? A set of decisions must be made to determine who will influence the formulation of the mission and strategy. In the absence of leadership on these issues, coalitions will tend to form to protect the personal interests of key groups in the organization. Decisions to enter new businesses or markets, to invest in start-up businesses rather than acquire an existing competitor, or to sell a "dog" business will affect some people's careers in a positive way while it will have an adverse effect on others. The allocation of budgets and people will depend on which choices are made in the strategic process, and it is a rare instance in which key players are indifferent about the outcome. Therefore, weighing the interests of one group within the company against those of another is an important part of the political decision making process. Transformational leaders must carefully think through how to allocate political power in the strategic decision-making process. The appropriate allocation will depend on an analysis of the interests of stakeholders, such as suppliers, board members, customers, employees, and management groups. The key variables are, who has the best information? For example, when Lee Iacocca accepted the challenge to turn Chrysler around he wanted the ultimate responsibility for strategic decisions, but he clearly understood that he needed the cooperation of many constituencies. He spent a great deal of time lobbying groups in Washington to get the government to guarantee a loan. He placed Douglas Fraser, president of the United Auto Workers, on Chrysler's board and worked with management constituencies to get the cooperation he needed to lay off 20,000 whitecollar and 40,000 blue-collar workers. He negotiated important concessions from dealers and suppliers to help Chrysler achieve its strategic objectives Iacocca understood that if any of the key stakeholders felt the need to confront rather than cooperate with Chrysler during this period it would have been doubtful that the organization could have survived. Transformational leaders like Jack Welch and Jack Sparks are trying to avoid crisis situations at General Electric and Whirlpool, but their success, like Iacocca's, could easily hinge on how well they manage the coalitions that emerge as they attempt to reposition their respective companies. Performance is always affected by the degree to which the

leader effectively manages the organization's governance structures and obtains the cooperation of key coalitions within them.

Organization Structure. The technical issues in this area focus on how to

differentiate and integrate the organization, the political issues involve the distribution or power in the organization, now much power should be exercised at corporate versus strategic business unit levels of the organization. How much discretion should subordinates have versus their supervisors? These decisions are reflected in the scope of decision-making authority regarding budgets and selection and promotion of personnel. Thus when John Harvey-Jones identifies his task as "making leaders of ordinary men and women", he implicitly reveals a desire to decentralize power far down into the organization. A second political design issue involves the distribution of power across organizational groupings. What is the relative power position of engineering vis-a-vis production, or production vis-a-vis marketing, or marketing vis-a-vis sales? These are political allocation decisions that distribute power across the organization and simultaneously affect individual careers. The transformational leader must think of power along two dimensions - vertical and horizontal. Vertically, how centralized is the power in the organization? Horizontally, how equal are the divisions or functions in the organization? Iacocca moved to centralize power at Chrysler during the fiscal crisis, but in the fall of 1985 he announced a restructuring of the organization that would decentralize power. The purpose of this move, like the restructuring of General Motors, was to increase the flexibility of the organization and enhance its ability to embark on a strategy of diversification.

Human Resource Management. The other area in the political system is human
resources. One of the most important tasks for a transformational leader to manage in this arena is the succession process. Decisions must be made as to who will get ahead and how they will do so. In most organizations the nature of the existing opportunities is such that there are more qualified candidates than there are positions for them. Promotions are the most basic win-lose decisions the organization makes. The level of political activity that surrounds then will correlate with the relative scarcity for alternative moves. In some organization the succession system is highly structured. The succession process and attendant politics tends to be most visible at the top of the organization. If we look at the recent successions in General Electric and Citibank in the U.S. we find divergent approaches to these important events. At General Electric, Reginald Jones worked hard to minimize the uncertainty that normally attends CEO succession. He managed a process that produced not only a new chairman but also two vice chairmen who could work together to guide the company. The identity of these three individuals, chosen from a field of seven or eight candidates, was known for 18

months before Jones actually stepped down. At Citibank, by contrast, the identity of Walter Wriston's successor was still not known at the time of a board meeting that was held 4 weeks before he retired. Indeed, the announcement was made only days before he stepped down. One can be fairly certain that the level of uncertainty was greater at Citibank than it was at General Electric, and that substantial time and energy were spent speculating on who the successor would be and what each alternative would mean to the future of businesses, functions, and individual careers. While the succession processes at Citibank and General Electric differed, their goal clearly was to produce the most qualified candidate as CEO. As we watch other organizations struggle with problems of CEO succession in the business sections of newspapers or in business weeklies, we realize that the psychological task of letting go is not always easy. For example, Harry Gray at United Technologies and William Paley at CBS groomed and dismissed a whole set of successors, ostensibly because they were not qualified for job, but more likely because they were incapable of turning over to someone else the reins of companies they had built. A similarly destructive process takes place when a CEO facing mandatory retirement is influential in picking an unqualified successor. The reason is that the outgoing CEO cannot accept the fact that the company could continue without his or her direction. Blumenthal describes the events that took place at Burroughs in the years before he was asked to assume of role of CEO. The company had been run for a long time by one individual. When that individual left, his_ successor was an obvious choice because he was the only possible choice, he was the president. He was the number two man, so he was sort of automatically promoted by the board to the top job. The board, being used to working only with that previous very strong CEO, had no real knowledge of anyone else - the CEO was going out reluctantly. His successor was at that point 62 and had two or three years to go until retirement. He stepped into the job and as he was moving toward retirement, the board became uneasy over the fact that they were really not very impressed with any of the other people they knew anything about, so they pressed strongly that maybe someone from the outside should come in. And that is how I came to be here. The second political human resource task is the design and administration of reward systems. There are many variations in way that people are rewarded. There is not evidence that the amount of money one makes is in any sense a measure of the organization's success or of the individual's relative contribution to the bottom line. Certainly, a perusal of Business Week's annual list of the highest paid executives in the United States shows that the relationship between organizational performance and the

amount paid to the chief executive is best. The distribution among levels in the company also varies considerably without any discernible pattern that would enable us to say the distribution was technically rational. Indeed, Blumenthal points out that McDonald's pay as chairman had been comparable to other chief executive officers, but that the pay scales of those reporting to him were considerably lower than their counterparts in other companies. Clearly, this distribution is not meant to attract the type of people who are able to confront the leader on issues of importance. Transformational leaders also must consider the impact that short-term bonus plans have on motivation and performance. When Tom Murrin told the general managers how important it was to invest in improving productivity, he did not address the issue of how their bonus was being calculated. Certainly, general managers nearing retirement had little incentive to make the necessary capital investments in improving the productivity that would not pay off for a significant time at the expense of this year's bottom line. Similar conflicts between organizational good and individual gain existed at General Motors during the decade of the 1970s, when the Japanese made significant inroads in the U.S. Automobile market. Finally, an important political issue in organizations involves the performance appraisal system. Who is appraised by whom and who sets the criteria are important issues because of the link that often exists between the appraisal issue and the distribution of pay and promotions. Indeed, an interesting conflict surfaces in this arena between the technical and political systems. Research on appraisal shows that a person's subordinates and peers are in a better position to evaluate that individual's performance and potential than his or her supervisor is the original studies date back to World War II, when peers were better able to predict who would be a successful pilot than were the flight instructors. This finding, along with one that shows that subordinates also make more accurate judges than do supervisors, has since been relocated in a number of industrial settings. In spite of this knowledge, more than 99 percent of U.S. Corporations are not able to tolerate politically a system in which peers and subordinates evaluate people in the organization. Some leaders have decided to bite the bullet and deal with the political implications of appraisal systems. For example, Walter Wriston decided that it was important to evaluate how effective key managers were in managing people. Therefore, part of the appraisal of the manager is based on the results of an attitude survey administered to the executive's subordinates. Performance on these measures is used as part of the bonus calculation. The message from Walter Wriston is that making the numbers is a necessary but not sufficient criterion for a manager's performance. The use of this technique must be carefully monitored. The survey should be administered at irregular time periods to random samples of employees to ensure the validity of results. At General Electric data are also collected from peers and subordinates as part of the analysis of key executives' accomplishments. The data are collected and evaluated by a

human resource stall ultimately responsible to the chairman and not to the general managers in the business. Such data collection must be handled in a way that protects subordinates' from the possible abuse of power by supervisors in the event that the evaluation is not favorable. It must ultimately be supported by a philosophy that values equity and believes that superior performance by the individual provides the organization with a competitive edge.

Cultural System
The first technical challenge that the transformational leaders face in the cultural arena is to separate out the relative impact that the values of philosophies of key decision makers have on the choice of strategic alternatives. We are not suggesting that values should not play a role in the choice among strategic alternatives but rather than these value issued involved should be identified. This helps organizations avoid the scenario in which individuals distort technical analysis that support certain business decisions because they are philosophical opposed to them. The leader's second concern in this area is to ensure that the organization's culture supports its mission and strategy. This is critical when a change in the strategy has occurred. AT&T, for example, must shift the values in the organization from those which support a regulated telephone monopoly to those which support a competitive hightechnology business. The new culture must support innovation, competition, and profit. Westinghouse and General Motors are also involved in shifting the values in their organizations to those supporting strategy based on productivity and quality.

Organization Structure. The leader must also align the culture with the
organization's structure. An organization that moves from a functional to a matrix structure requires a different style of management. Since power is balanced on at least two dimensions in a matrix organization, the management style must allow for more open confrontation and negotiation conflict as opposed to the more authoritarian style that accompanies a traditional chain of command in a functional organization. A second; cultural issue is the self-conscious development of subcultures to support different parts of the organization. Thus the leader must encourage a tolerance for the seemingly deviant behavior needed to foster high levels of innovation in a production oriented organization. To the extent that variety of subcultures are required to effectively accomplish the organization's mission, the leader must design mechanisms to integrate them into a companywide culture so that factional, geographic or business subdivisions in the organization work to accomplish common goal rather than expand rather than resources to create personal freedoms. Companies like Exxom and IBM go to great extremes to create an organizational culture that transcends its subcultures. The transformational leader must carefully weigh the advantages and disadvantages of integrating, subcultures into an overarching corporate culture. Leaders in

conglomerates like ITT and Gulf and Western have concluded implicitly that the price paid for maintaining such a culture is too high, whereas General Electric believes that such a culture is necessary so that senior management focuses on the need to do what is best for the entire company rather than for some portion of it at the expense of the whole organization. Millions of dollars are spent creating common ways of thinking and acting about issues. Much of this socialization is disseminated through extensive management development programs carried out at the management development facility. In addition to formulized development experiences, organizations like GE, Exxon, IBM and Hewlett-Packard rely on systematic rotation and movement of key executives to spread the gospel to plants and installations far removed from corporate headquarters.

Human Resource Management. The final area for managing culture is the human
resource system. It is in this area that Japanese management has been more sophisticated and more attentive than American management. The Japanese have used the human resource system very skill fully to shape and reinforce cultures that provide the organization with a strong commitment to organizational goals. The process begins with the selection of people who are carefully evaluated as to how they fit in with and reinforce the dominant culture of the organization. In companies where this method is used, the interviewing process involves many people, and workers have a large role in the decision to select one of their peers. Like their Japanese counterparts, American firms that are committed to maintaining their culture employ a careful screening process to candidates who are technically equal to assess the best fit in terms of values and philosophy. As Fred Hammer found out, you can also systematically create dysfunctional subcultures in an organization. In his diagnosis at Chase he found that the retail banking subculture was going to be one of his biggest hurdles in transforming the organization:

It took me about six months' to figure out what was going on, what they were doing. I used to talk with a lot of people and then I would realize there was a timid quality about the human resources in this sector.... I said, well these people are not going to lead us over the hill regarding change. But it was also evident that the rest of the bank had people that were outstanding, bright, well-educated, and aggressive. It was clear that this group was at a different level. The problem was exacerbated when all the lending authority was taken out of the branches the month before I arrived. After indoctrinating people that "real bankers" make loans, remember the culture of chase was one that worshiped at the feet of lending authority, this decision figuratively emasculated branch personnel. Morale was devastated. It was not that the decision was wrong, but that the culture was one that stifled the growth of retail banking. The second human resource tool for shaping the culture of the organization is the way in which people are developed and socialized. Organizations that use the human resource system to shape culture invest heavily in training and development. Much of this education is aimed at inculcating people with the dominant values of the organization. An explicit part of the IBM and GE training programs, for example deals with company values. Finally, the management of rewards is a potent tool to shape and reinforce the culture of the organization by promoting and compensating those who fit best with the dominant value of the organization. The human resource system can be a very powerful tool in making the cultural system congruent with the technical and political system.

THE ALIGNMENT TASK; ADJUSTING TO THE FUTURE

The transformational leader's task is to align the organization with its external environment. To do this, the organization's TPC systems must be adjusted to enable the organization to deal effectively with changing issues. The challenge for these leaders is to recognize that the drama is best represented as a dynamic jigsaw puzzle with pieces that need to be fitted together. The fit is never perfect and constant adjustments must be made. The extent of these adjustments depends on the relative stability of economic, political, and cultural factors in the organization's environment.

Self-Diagnosis
Transformational leaders know their strengths and weaknesses. Along with the organizational diagnosis, a process of self-assessment occurs. Like an actor approaching a new role, the leader must understand the scope of his or her technical skills and then decide what nuance of the role they will highlight, Jack Sparks technical strength at Whirlpool was in marketing, not the engineering or production end of the business. Both Jim Renier and Mike Blumenthal moved into computer business needing revitalization without in-depth knowledge of computers. Blumenthal's technical expertise was in finance, whereas Renier brought an outstanding track record in implementing a change effort in the control systems division at Honeywell. Lee Iacocca, however, had made his mark with his product and marketing skills at Ford. In a television interview NRC News, Iacocca frankly assessed his strengths and weaknesses when he discussed the options he considered in the summer after he was fired by Henry Ford. He had offers to paper and steel companies, but he turned them down, because he thought it would take too long for him to learn a new business. Iacocca's technical expertise, coupled with his need to run the show, determined his decision to accept Chrysler's offer. Once technical capabilities are understood, the leader must assess personal feelings about the exercise of power. If things are to be accomplished in organizations, the leader must understand what motivates his/her behavior and the behavior of others in the organization. Finally, the transformational leader must have insight into his or her values-what is the source of the commitment that must be made to the organization. In his television interview, Iacocca also addressed the issue of values when he said that he believed that everyone has to be accountable to someone, and that his primary concern during the crisis period at Chrysler was the 6,00,000 jobs that would be lost if the company went bankrupt. His sense of values is also apparent when he talks of the need to ensure that both the sacrifice in difficult times and the rewards in good times are equitably shared in the company. No single individual is persuasive enough and energetic enough to transform a large, complex organization single handedly. There must be a critical mass of managers in the organization who share the leader's sense of urgency about the need for change and who joining in framing the problem. The same analytical issues, therefore, must be addressed with regard to this cadre of leaders.

The importance of a cohesive group of leaders is illustrated in Mike Blumenthal's reaction when he first learned of Burroughs's problems the summer before he was to take over as CEO: It seemed there were lots of problems. At this point I did not feel very qualified to deal with them because they involved technical issues and judgments - I really had no technical judgment where was I going to get it from? I had reached the point where I did not trust anyone.... I felt there were only two or three people capable and willing to give me honest answers if I asked them questions.... So by the time we got to the third quarter I realized there would have to be substantiate change.... There would have to be a new team of people, since there were people here that clearly I could not work with. It was also one of Lee Iacocca's first concerns at Chrysler : What I found at Chrysler were 35 vice presidents, each with his own turf there was no real committee setup, no cement in the organizational chart, no system of meetings to get people talking to each other. I couldn't believe, for example, that the guy running the engineering department wasn't in constant touch with his counterpart in manufacturing. But that's how it was. Everybody worked independently. I took one look at that system and I almost threw up. That's when I knew I was in really deep trouble

Diagnosis: Avoiding the one-minute quick-fix seduction

The systematic, organizational, individual and team diagnosis characteristics of our transformational leader provide the best antidote against the snake oil cures so readily used by U.S. managers. Instant gratification is part of modem culture. Managers are no exception. Over the years they have picked up and discarded hundreds of "management hula hoops" developed to solve fundamental or organizational problems. Taylor's scientific management, time-motion studies, human relatives gimmicks, management by objectives, zero based budgeting, quality, and Japanese management are a few example of business search for a quick fix. The One-Minute Manager and all of its follow-up books are a symbol of this search. There is nothing wrong with the basic message, which is to set goals with your subordinates, give them positive feedback when they do something right and negative feedback when they do something wrong. There is also nothing new in these ideas. What, then, captured set many managers' fancy that they purchased more than a million copies? For many managers the seduction was that this was a simple "managing people" program that they could utilize - it offered a quick solution for difficult problems.

Unfortunately, difficult problems rarely lend themselves to simple solutions. The message is not harmful unless the manager sees it as a quick fix in a complex world. Other quick-fix seductions (most of them did take more than a minute) that we have seen in the past decade include many of the strategic planning techniques, the recent focus on corporate culture, and the search for excellence. If properly interpreted and implemented, many of these prescriptions would have led to more effective organizations. The more likely scenario, however, was similar to the reaction of many managers to In Search of Excellence. As the bad news spread about Japan's ability to achieve dominance in industries that the United States had controlled for decades, American managers looked for something that would make them feel good. After all, it was not reassuring to hear that the Japanese success story emanated from a societal culture that was very different from our own. Theory Z and In Search of Excellence arrived in the midst of this self-doubt with the reassuring news that U.S. companies, too could be excellent. Peters and Waterman wrote an important book. The focus was an attempt to identify the cultural characteristics of "excellent companies." Many managers latched onto the eight dimensions as a cookbook for success. Two quick-fix scenarios all too often emerged. The first occurred in companies, where the CEO got a copy of the book, became upset because his company was not listed as excellent, and asked the management team to read the book and then go on a retreat to figure out how the organization could implement the eight dimensions of excellence. This approach is equivalent to finding an involved recipe for French pastry and copying the list of ingredients without noting the quantities, the method, or the banking directions, and assuming that the finished product will be a success. A more sophisticated use of In Search of Excellence is as a catalyst for change. In some companies a great deal of excitement has been generated about the first stage of a change process. In this scenario, the CGO reads the book and comes to the conclusion that the organization should have clearly articulated set of values. Many of the excellent companies identified by Peters and Waterman have their values explicitly stated and understood by employees. In this case the offsite meeting that follows the reading of the book is devoted to coming up with the 10 commandments of XYZ Corporation so that, like Hewlett-Packard; they can be widely disseminated to the employees. Frequently, there is a very strong commitment on the part of the group involved in the development of the 10 commandments of XYZ Corporation. They return as it were from the mountain and ask those responsible for internal communication to tighten up the language and print a sufficient number of impressive brochures to distribute to all of the employees so they will know what the company's values are. And so ends the "excellence" program. Companies tempted to write their own 10 commandment it is useful to remember what happened when Moses were down from the mountain with

the original tablets of stone. The people were involved in an orgy and were not terribly negative to the new rules and values. Indeed, thousands of later we are still struggling with the problem of implementation. Implementation is a very difficult task. Going off-site for a few days to articulate the organization's core values is a good last step, as long it is done with the realization that it takes literally years to implement new cultural values in the organization. It is not enough to distribute the message; it is probably more important to review the control systems in the organization to see if they reinforce the espoused cultural values. It is only when managers come to the realization that they are no quick fixes that they can start to transform their organizations with patience and hard work.

Diagnosis : Setting the Stage for Creating a vision

Perhaps the most essential component of a transformation is a vision of the future desired state.. Transformations require a dream and require the organization to aspire to be something. Yet some way of assessing the current reality is also required in order to determine whether the vision fits with reality. We have discussed the diagnostic portion of the transformation process as a linear process, but in is a less ordered exploration. It is a period when hypotheses are generated and tested out with some data. Nevertheless, we argue that the basis for future action depends on this process of diagnosis. It's here that the capacity for plant it opportunism is created. It readies the organization for its own renewal. Iacocca says that Robert McNamara, whom he worked for at Ford, was a master of diagnosis: McNamara knew more than the actual facts-he also knew the hypothetical ones. When you talked with him, you realized that he had already played out in his head the relevant details for every conceivable scenario... Ed Thompson talks about new systems to frame the problem at Schneider Trucking when he says

Our industry has been largely internally focused. We are going directly to the customer. We will do the work to define their real needs and set up partnerships. The temptation is to assume we know what's going to play out in our new environment and jump rapidly into the organizational and technological changes we already know about. This would be shortsighted. We have the opportunity to be detailed rather than feeling driven. We want to know what our customers are thinking and what they need to do to be successful in their marketplace. This data collection and competitive analysis will take time at a point in our history when there is a pressure to move fast. As this piece of the picture clears up we will do a better job of formulating ways to organize around the cost and service desired outcomes. Three principles emerge as we think about what happens during diagnosis. Leader can apply them in a variety of circumstances from very systematic, quasi-scientific analysis to more artistic, intuitive problem solving.

Principle Number I - Frame the Problem.

The transformational leader must have a coherent view of the world so that a diagnosis can take place. It enables leaders to focus on the best technical alignment for the organization while addressing the political and cultural alignment issues' that may well determine the success or failure of the transformation process.

Principle Number 2 - Collect Data.

The transformational leader is always collecting and analyzing data obtained through vast informal networks as well as through systematic studies. Perhaps the most systematic and formalized diagnosis occurred at general Motors. In September 1982, the General Motors executive committee created a special task force to study organization. Roger Smith selected John Dehhink; former general manager of Delco Marine Division was called, to lead the task and called in McKinsey and Company as consultants. The mission of the study was to: Examine each element of the organization; particularly the structure and the systems that tie it together, so that they could identify where changes could improve their effectiveness. In short, they wanted to make certain that the organizational structure end systems provided them with the most effective delivery system.

A clear distinction was drawn between effectiveness and efficiency was defined as simply doing a task well; effectiveness was defined as doing the right task in the right way. The focus of the study was on effectiveness, knowing that efficiency was a natural by-product of an effective organization. A second aspect of the study was described by Roger Smith: A fundamental principle from the beginning was that the organization itself would generate the new organization concept. The ideas which are being implemented today in a very real sense came from the operating people in the corporation. Over a 15-month period, more than 500 General Motors employees, representing all levels of the company, were interviewed and surveys. These surveys revealed that while GM had certain strengths in its financial reserves, brand, loyalty, dealer network, technical know-how, and people, it also had some key weaknesses. These weaknesses were identified as a poor decision-making process, product decisions that were not market driven, and lack of strategic planning. One GM engineer characterized the problems from his perspective: We had some really fine modern cars to offer. Things are as good as or better than the Japanese goods. But big executives from downtown would come in and point to the models and say "make this one and that one and that one." They were always the same cars, the muscle cars. It killed us when we stayed with them too long.

The study also discovered that GM's employees recognized that GM had to change and were willing to help in that change. What was needed was an organizational concept that would keep the strength while addressing the problems... A task force examined a wide variety of options before making its recommendations to the executive committee. As Roger Smith noted, "We did not start with preconceived notion that we were going to do something." Fred Hammer Kent generating hypotheses about retail banking, But he would then test them empirically. He described one such incident:

There was no question in my mind that we were very close to being the number one credit card bank in the country. We were the first bank to understand what the opportunities were. We could issues cards outside our banking territory. You know the old wives' tale that the only place you got credit card was in your own bank, and the argument was that, you can't issue these things out of your own area because as soon as someone gets into a financial bind, he won't pay you, he will only pay a local bank. Some of us did not believe that so we said lei's test it. We put together a small, well designed test and we went to four states and it turned out that we had fewer collections problems than we had in New York. Then we checked delinquency and loss patterns because we wanted to make sure, since this would be a big step for us, and it turned out that the delinquency and loss rates were lower.

Principle Number 3 - Dumb It Down.

Complex realities must be reduced to a few central issues before others are asked to consider them. There is no inference here that the audience is incapable of understanding the full complexity of the diagnoses but rather than people confronted with pressing operational will be more likely to respond to a parsimonious presentation of what changes the organization needs make..: Ongoing diagnosis creates significant demands on an organization stretched to deal with operational problems, but it is a critical managerial process that frequently separates the best performers in an industry from those who are mediocre. Transformational leaders must find ways to motivate employees to stay alert to the warning signs of danger and to the opportunities to gain on the competition and make the organization more secure. CREATING A MOTIVATING VISION The soul.... never thinks without a picture. Aristotle Transformational leaders mast not only diagnoses their organization's strengths and eaknesses and match them against the environmental opportunities, but they must also find ways to inspire employees to meet these challenges. This vision- of the future must be formulated in such a way that it' will make the pain of exchanging worth the effort. Dr. Martin Luther King created an enormously inspiring vision in his famous "I Have a Dream" 'address at the Washington Monument. In that speech he painted a picture of a /United States that would be a better place. He talked about the little children, white and ' black, playing and holding hands in the rural towns in Alabama; blacks and whites working together in urban centers. That vision had a motivational pull. It created a positive image that people could strive for.

The challenge for transformational leaders is both to find and create a vision of an organization that is in some way better than the old one and to encourage others to share that dream. They must provide people with an image of what can be and motivate them to move ahead into the future they envision. Jeff Campbell told us how he developed his vision for Burger King and shared it with his management group:

While I was running the New York region, I was complaining to the then chairman about a number of things. He said, "Why don't you put your thoughts on paper?" Well, I wrote a memo that must have been 10 pages long. I said, "Here are all the things. I think are wrong and here's how I would attack them." I never heard from him about any of it, but after I had been made president of Burger King, I said, "Hey, I've been thinking about this for a long time. I know what we need to do short-term but as I thought about what we were and where we might go, a vision took shape. About one year into the turnaround, I was made chairmen. We had a meeting of all the officers, at Marco Island, Florida. I was sitting in my den thinking about where we had to go and listening to a recording of the theme from chariots of Fire and I got an idea of making a speech about where we needed to go and punctuating it with music just to get the guys thinking about it. I know that sounds corny, but sometimes corny things work and I decided to go with my gut on this one. So I talked about us becoming not only the best company in the portfolio, but the best convenience restaurant in America by 1992. I talked about what kind of a company we would be and the kinds of careers we would build for people. At the end I said, `I'm going to put on one more piece of music and I want you to think about everything we've talked about. Don't talk to your friend or look at anybody else. Just sit there a second and listen to the musk and ask yourself if it's something you really think you can do and - if you really want to do it. Then, when the music is over, get up and I will be waiting at the back door to shake your hand., I was pretty nervous, but when the music ended guys in their early sixties not just the younger people - started coming back you know it was a corny thing to do but what happened was magic. We had a 76 per cent increase in earnings. Campbell is an example of a transformational leader meeting an important challengemobilizing energy in the organization. While diagnosis prepares the leader and the organization for change, it is the vision that launches them into action.

Diagnosis is never enough, nor is ad-hoc action a satisfactory basis for continuity. Certainly it does not give meaning to the organization nor form a coherent focus for the needs of the people in it, nor does it provide a structure to translate that meaning into continuity of organizational behavior. The point to note therefore is that each of our CEO's took charge of his organization and took it in a new direction... Jones and Watson pushed into electronics, Wriston into consumer financing, McGregor into aluminum manufacturing, Hanley downstream into proprietary products, and Sulzberger into acquisitions. When we look at these CEO's who took their organizations in new directions, we certainly find leaders who used diagnosis to assess their new business opportunities, But these leaders and the ones that-we studied were able to effect transformations because they developed new frameworks for the future. This resulted in new standards, .new values, and new ways of looking at the world and new kinds of actions. These leaders developed holistic visions of the future. What may separate transformational from transactional leaders is that transformational leaders are more likely to be proactive than reactive in there thinking; more creative, novel and innovative in their ideas; more radical or reactionary than reforming or conservative in ideology: and less inhibited in their search for solutions. Transaction leaders may be equally bright but their focus is on how to best keep the system running for which they are responsible reacting to problems generated by observed deviances: looking to modify conditions as needed and remaining every mindful of the organizational constraints within which they must operate.

It is up to all of our transformational leaders to develop these holistic visions of the future for the organization and to stimulate a critical mass of leaders within the organization to do the same. Jack Sparks did not arrive at the helm of Whirlpool when that company was in the valley of the shadow of death. But he did have a vision that involved transforming the way Whirlpool did business and in the process making it stronger in the face of competition:

I set out to change the image of the corporation from a conservative operation with some marketing skills to a marketing operation with some manufacturing and engineering skills.... I will know when I get there because you will see more excitement; you will see people really trying to accomplish things. You will see a better operation in total end of course you will see the things that go along with that, like growth. In fact my goal is....a very sophisticated organization with a broader vision. One of the first things I did as CEO was take all the officers down to Washington for two-and-half days to meet senators, congressmen, bureaucrats - even take a tour of the White' House, the Executive Building - because these guys were so out of touch with what was going on in the world, I was the only executive officer in this corporation that was doing this kind of thing... I wanted these guys to know you're in a big, grown-up, world. There's more twit than Michigan, Indiana, Illinois, and Arkansas. I hope to have a more sophisticated team. Jack Welch is a transformational leader who keeps articulating and reiterating his vision. In speaking with his managers four years after becoming CEO he told them: That drive to be number one or two, to be more competitive in an ever' increasing competitive world, has got to be at the forefront. And I don't mean static competition; we asked every person who comes into a meeting in our place to be sure to have a session on competitiveness in the first 15 minutes of the meeting. Immediately the bureaucracy got fired up, memos went out, let's get those damn static strategic planning pages out again... Who are the five competitors? What is their share? How many employees do they have? They didn't look at the dynamics of what these competitors: will look like in 1990, what moves would you make if you were running those companies: How many plants should they close? What investments should, they make? What they should do? Thats what competition is .about, Competition is about 1990, not some strategic planner's view of today. So we desperately want to take a look at: our competition in a live, vibrant, passionate way. At what they are going to be doing to beat the hell out of you over the next five years.... In the end that drives to be number one and two is still the biggest focus we must keep in this company, and yes it is going to get tougher and tougher and tougher and tougher. As we move down this road we are playing in an ever increasing competitive world You can't feel "I am at GE and therefore I am safe." GE is not safety your own competitive business is safety, winning in your markets is safety GE has no wall around it

that can protect anything.......... Candor is calling it as you see it.... dealing with it, getting it up on the table.... talking about it here with people who can do something about it, not people who can commiserate with you about it.:.. We are concerned both with what the characteristics of motivating visions are, as well as the process transformational leaders use to transmit that vision to others in the organization creating a vision is much more than traditional, rational business planning. If involves both right and left brains -- both intuition and creativity. It is holistic in its view of the organization, dealing with business strategies, values, and inner political relationships. Thus, in order to achieve an organization, driven by vision, transformational leaders need to call into play a new set of leadership skills.

Holisitc Vision
The vision is the ideal to strive for. It releases the energy needed to motivate the organization to action. It provides an overarching framework to guide day-to-day decisions and priorities and provides the parameters for playful opportunism. A successful vision has a tension that's the result of its having been created both from intuition (right-brain thinking) and logical analysis (left-brain thinking). This is not an easy task. Managers often resist right-brain activities. Alex Cunningham describes the birth of the vision at General Motors. It was a very intuitive and organized process that laid the groundwork for the greatest transformation of GM since Alfred Sloan's leadership.

Basically it was very simple. The first key word that everybody said was "effectiveness - we wanted to create a more effective organization. The next one we hammered one was "responsiveness" and that's responsiveness to the market, to the customer. So we wanted to be more effective, we wanted to be more responsive. And those two words really sum it all up. Responsiveness was our ability to react both with product and timing to the demands of the market place, effectiveness was to do things in a better manner. Then they brought in all the things that go with effectiveness - being able to do more with the same number of people, and so on.,..

Transformational leaders talk about, visions as a phenomenon. For example, Ed Thompson of Schneider Port talked about the development of a vision for his company:

We started the process with rather structured approach. We picked a time period out three to four years to get us out the influence of the pressures of the current state. We worked in make statements of what we would look like at that point-revenue levels, number of employees, equipment types; maintenance and support systems, technology and operating methods, desired customer base, and so on. As we involved more people in the process the focus shifted and became more mature. For example, working through a lot of the human dimensions generated direction. We explored new ways to align end, empower people. You know in service' industries like ours over half our people touch the customer in some, way each day. We really have some ideas on new ways to do the human side of trucking. The vision also grew as we pushed ourselves in areas like building in an ongoing change orientation, and viewing ourselves as innovators in asset management, we kind of picture that this visioning will be an organic or ongoing part of our work. We are getting more and more of our people involved. Mike Blumenthal talks about his vision for Burroughs six years after he became CEO:

It's amazing to me as I look back on it now, because when I look back I realize that I went by the seat of my pants. Today it is very clear and tomorrow I will leave for a press conference in New York where we are announcing major new products. I would say the vision has evolved. In preparation for the speech I will give tomorrow I looked back at the speech I gave to this group back in the spring of 1981 and to the speeches that Paul Stern and I have given since that time and I realize that you can see a trend. There is no one flash-no one moment when the vision is established. The vision has evolved helped along by executive retreats- we went to Vermont for three days, we went to upper Michigan for three days and we went to the Homestead for three days. The Recurrent theme as these transformational leaders talked about the development of a vision for the organization is that while vision of a founder/entrepreneur, visions in large organizations tends rarely to be one person's dream but expressed commitment of a group. Jim Renier explains it in the following terms: Developing a vision in a big organization I believe is a completely different process than developing a vision in a small entrepreneurial business, because there are many possible visions as opposed to a vision. In a large organization you must get the whole organization to buy in. You can't just say, we're heading for this place or that with an immediate buy in. We are apt to end instead with a bunch of people reacting with something like, "listen to that smart bastard." What you've got to do is constantly, engage in iterating what you say and what they say is possible. And over a couple of years the different visions come together. If you try to jam them together on day one in an organization like this, it will not work. In these cases the vision was a complex collage of what their organization should strive to become. It included a basic component of business strategy (namely markets, product, and services) but it also included a strong sense of how the organization should be structured and the part that the human resources would play. A vision is motivating for two reasons. First, it provides the challenge for which the organization and its members strive; it is the reach for excellence and the source of selfesteem for the members. The second purpose is to help provide a conceptual road, map or a set of blue prints for what the organization will be in the future. Utilizing the metaphor of erecting a building the vision starts with the architect's renderings ---the idealized project that inspires people to move ahead - and then specifies the particulars that will be needed to get there.

At the core of the vision is the organization's mission statement. Since the organizations we are discussing have an economic, rather than a normative purpose, we frequently find that the mission is not clearly articulated. This may be the reason it is so difficult for people to develop a sense of purpose about their membership in these organization apart from their own career goals and economic security. It is frequently the absence of a sense of purpose that causes organizations to fail in their efforts to bring about needed change and to gain commitment from employees. The Japanese understand the importance of developing a sense of common purpose, and much of the commitment they gain from their employees results from organizational socialization processes that clearly outline how the parties involved share responsibility for the survival of the company. Japanese employees are told that their job security depends on the economic viability of the firm and that both management and workers must always do their best to ensure a safe future for all. Many American firms that have been labeled paternalistic have basically had the same concern for their employees as was voiced by Renier. IBM, whose core value is "Respect for People developed the concept of lifetime employment during the depression; employees understand that the promise was of an exchange between the worker and the company that could be kept only if the firm continued to prosper. Somewhere in the intervening decades this understanding has eroded in many organizations. A colleague of ours, Vlado Pucik, who was in Czechoslovakia and has spent a great deal of time in Japan as a researcher, pointed out that in America it is more favorite sports team than it is to be enthusiastic about one's job. Our people show an eagerness to be part of the organization when they are hired. We can only wonder what we do breed the enthusiasm out of them in the workplace. Thus a major challenge for transformational leaders is to develop missions for their organizations that enable all stakeholders to commit themselves to the survival of the venture.

Element of the Vision

Vision has two fundamental elements. One is to provide a conceptual framework or paradigm for understanding the organization's purpose - the vision includes a roadmap the second important element is the emotional appeal: the part of the vision that has a motivational pull with which people can identify. Both the cognitive, intellectual understanding and the emotional pull give the vision meaning. Fundamental or quantum change requires shifting the basic assumptions, values, and paradigm that the organization uses for problem solving. This is true whether creating a new paradigm for world competitiveness. The notion of a holistic vision is at odds with most practices in organizations that utilize a static planning model rather than the projection of images in visions of the future. If

one were to go randomly into the Fortune 500 companies and ask for any documents that capture the future of the organization, one would most likely be handed the strategic plan. Most strategic plans are kept in thick three-ring notebooks. The majority of them are filled with short, concise mission statements followed by strategic objectives, followed by hundreds of pages of data on market share, return on investment, return on assets, manufacturing, productivity, and engineering figures and so on. It's not surprising that an outsider does not get a vision of the future reading through this material. If, however, you randomly interview senior management and asks them to describe the future organization, there is often great variance between their own intuitive, verbal vision of the future and what is captured in the planning documents. Again, it is like carefully examining the blue prints of a complex building structure and trying to get a visual image of what the finished project will look like. An artist's rendering of the building lacks a great deal of the technical detail that is an actual part of a structure because attention is given to creating a model with the purpose of communicating the concept and the architect's vision.

Why Visions are Motivating

People regulate much of what they do by following fairly standard routines. There are more complex areas, problems that occur less frequently and that involve some degree of uncertainty, such as meeting new people, entering new organizations, dealing with a subordinate who is having a problem, or running into problems with the business. In these situations, we develop what some social psychologists refer to as scripts. A script is a set of way of dealing with different problems some us have specific ways in which we enter new groups and get to know people. Others have specific scripts for dealing with peers or when faced with a new project. These behavior patterns become embedded in our minds and form a part of our self-image, a part of our behavioral repertoire. Over time, they define our self-worth and self-esteem. To alter these scripts we must go through the psychodynamics of change described by Bridges that is, go through the transitions which include working through the endings or disengaging from an old script. As with other transitions there is confusion. Frequently it is impossible to begin this process unless we can first write a new script based on a new vision of the future. Without the vision, we tend to get stuck in the middle of the process of change. The old behavior pattern, or the old script does not work, but no new one has been found. If we think of making difficult life transitions of any kind, we just imagine or develop a vision of what it is like to live on after the death of a loved one or what it will be like to put a life together after a divorce or after having been fired. To be revitalized we need

to get in touch with something that will pull us into the future. These same basic dynamics operate in the work setting, when we dramatically redefine global competition and put a whole new set of demands on management in terms of how they will manage people, resources, and their competitors. Organizations are made up of thousands of people, each with his or her own set of psychodynamics. Thus, at the organizational level, it is important to go beyond the technical view of the future most often captured in strategic plans - the product market mix of the organization, how it is going to be organized, and so on. If people are going to visualize themselves in the future organization, they need a vision of what the political system will be like, who will be influencing, decisions, who will have power, how much power they will have, how people will get ahead, and how the rewards will be allocated. They will envision themselves paying out their own personal agendas in the future political environment. Understanding all this will be the values. What are the norms going to be like in the future? What values will be needed to drive the business strategy, what will be the style of management, how will people treat each other, what kind of people will be selected, what values will be used as a screen for admitting people to the organization and permitting them to climb the corporate, ladder? Thus the vision needs to incorporate the TPC systems of the organization. Not all of our transformational leaders define their visions in such holistic terms. Nevertheless, we have seen them articulate and refine their visions, it is clear that they provide glimpses, of all three of these systems. Jim Renier at Honewell started with the value system and clearly articulated role models. He mobilized the work force around a new set of values about the way people were going to be treated. At the same time a great deal of energy went into redefining the technical strategy for Honeywell Information Systems, articulating that there would be integration with the rest of Honeywell and control systems. Those certain mainframe computers would depend on product developments of NEC not only Honeywell driven product development and that people with different skills and values were going to get ahead. Control systems people were coming over from that side of Honewell to take key positions in the computer business, people with entrepreneurial flair' were moving ahead, and bonuses were going to be allocated differently. When we look at Welch at General Electric, we see him stressing the need to be competitive GE people had to achieve a dominant position in .the industry if they wanted to stay at GE. Beyond that he began to articulate a set of cultural values that were going to be important in implementing that strategy. And as his vision unfolded over the early years of his chairmanship, it was clear that a different set of stars had begun to emerge at General Electric. Some of the people gaining power came from the inside, some from the outside. Some traditional managers were being moved aside. Different criteria were developed for distributing rewards. After three or four years,

Welch's vision of the company he wanted General Electric to be in1990 began to' come into focus for more and more people. Finally, in his fifth year, Welch led the largest not oil acquisition in U.S. history when he initiated the purchase of RCA. This move lent credence to the theory of quantum change that he had been espousing at General Electric since he became chairman. John Harvey-Jones, a visionary, who had a great deal of fun shaking people up and trying to shift paradigms and scripts at ICI, reported in his interview that the management meetings he ran were marked by frequent laughter. He sees the primary thrust of his vision as the cultural shift needed at ICI, even though his first years were spent in technically pruning, reshaping, and repositioning the organization. Lee Iacocca's great success m turning Chrysler around was due to his ability to create a motivating vision of the new Chrysler Corporation while simultaneously tearing 60,000 people out of the workforce: 'He was able to get those who remained excited and signed, up by helping them understand the new business strategy, the new niches they were going after, the importance of productivity and quality. He was able to negotiate deals with the UAW, the bankers, the government, his own management, his board, the dealers, and the suppliers, and make them all see in that vision how they would get something out of the turnaround. As he communicated this vision he also began laying the foundation for a new culture at Chrysler. The irony of Iacocca's success in turning Chrysler around is that it created tremendous pressure in 1985 and 1986 for him to develop a new long-term strategy for the company that was not based on crisis. Across town at General Motors Corporation, Roger Smith started out as a real sleeper. Any people saw him as a traditional financial man coming into the chairmanship. They anticipated an emphasis on control, not innovation, but he fooled them. He acquired EDS, Hughes Electronics and the Servicing Business of the Northwest Corporation and the Colonial Group CG of Core States Financial Corporation. He launched the most significant reorganization of General Motors since the days of Alfred Sloan and oversaw the launching of the Saturn organization. Smith has created a vision of a high-tech, somewhat diversified automobile company. At the same time he sent signals about the new political structure, the new visions for who is going to get ahead at General Motors. He started a major cultural change to get the bureaucracy out of the company and to stimulate more entrepreneurial behavior and participation. John Akers at IBM is the transformational leader for the next decade. Soon after he became CEO, he announced his goal to transform IBM into a $ 185 billion company driven by software and systems rather than hardware. This transformation will require major reorientation and reprogramming. Individuals will be asked to write new scripts. The dilemma will be that the company is so successful and so profitable that the urgency for change will be difficult to create. What is common in all these cases is that the leaders kept working at a holistic vision. None of them had a vision of an ideal organization appear to them in a dream, but all of

them knew the importance of being able to visualize the organization in the future. All of them shared that vision with the organization and continued to articulate, develop, and elaborate on it. Michael Blumenthal described the process of developing a vision at Burroughs. I tend to gather six or eight people around me awl we talk about everything, we are very open: I am very open and I listen to them, and I travel around and talk to a lot of people, and then eventually I try to enunciate what it is that we have learned and I suggest that this is what we are going to do. And then people react to it and at the end I say, okay. We develop a set of priorities which involve first of all strengthening the product line, closing the holes, and managing the company in at least rudimentarily intelligent fashion, with some numbers, some forecasts, introducing variance analysis, getting some kind of financial measurement, assigning responsibility for decision-making farther down the organization. Beginning to talk to people about 'what it means to take responsibility, what it means to match authority with responsibility, and how to find the right balance in taking individual responsibility and yet being a member of a team.. They agree that that's really what we ought to do.

Creating a Vision of the Future

People can be encouraged to project themselves into some future time period by asking them to write an article to appear in their favorite business publication describing the organization five years from now and the role they played in the transformation of the organization. They are asked not to talk about the changes and their accomplishments in a rational linear format but rather to use a journalistic style in describing how the projected organization differs from its present state. Since journalists engage our interest by using words to paint graphic pictures, the exercise forces executives to "abandon the terse outline with bullets backed by data that they favor when they make presentations to their peers and superiors. While some people resist trying this activity, it is useful to ask that they do what all writers ask us to do when we begin to read a story - willingly suspend our disbelief. Criticism is to be reserved for the finished product, not for the process. Once involved most people find the activity that we find pleasurable-daydreaming.

Identifying the Themes

Once the article is completed, the individual is asked to identify both the personal and organizational themes in the article. It is useful to be able to discuss the article with someone who can be used as a sounding board.

Creating a Common Vision

In large organizations this activity can serve as springboard for reaching a consensus about the organization's future. Strategic plans frequently focus people's attention on quantitative projections, and that can lead to arguments about their accuracy. Lost in the shuffle is a discussion of whether the basic thrust underlying the numbers is the correct direction for the organization to take. This exercise tends to focus attention on the overall direction of the company - what would it look like if the plans were to succeed? The leader can gain valuable information from such an exchange about the degree of consensus that exist amount key decision makers in the company. The result can be a vision that most of the team shares, or it may result in a less democratic decision, which CEO understand he or she must sell to the team.

Creating a Mission Statement from a Vision

A vision contains an implicit mission statement, for embedded in every vision is a sense of what kind of a company we want to be at some point in the future. When Jack Sparks poke of a more sophisticated, aware management team at Whirlpool, he would begin to identify the values such a company would espouse. Blumenthal was explicit about the things that the "new Burroughs" would and would not do. The themes that comprise a mission statement were embedded in their visions.

Developing a Leadership Agenda

Once the vision has been created and the mission statement has been articulated, a transformational leader must develop an agenda. This agenda will contain a set of priorities that are necessary if the dream is to come true. If the vision and mission statement have been developed as part of a team exercise, each member of the team can work up a personal agenda setting priorities for him or herself. The major benefit derived from this exercise is that it provides a culturally acceptable way for many people to 'tap into their right-brain thinking, while the cultures that support people engage in artistic endeavors permit a greater deviation from rational norms than we find in cultures geared to business organizations, the use of a business media fantasy is one to which most executives can relate. As a matter of fact there is a

videotape of Jack Welch filmed at the Harvard Business School soon after he became chairman of General Electric, in which he ends by telling the audience what he would like Fortune or Business Week to write about him in 1990. Another technique is that used with the senior management team at Detroit Diesel Allison, where the top management team was attempting to develop a vision of the organization in the future. In preparation for a two-day workshop, each of the ten senior executives was asked to picture his or her ideal organization three years into the future. They approached the activity in a left-brain way. Each drew an organization chart, specifying some of the characteristics of the roles, and how things would be carried out. Essentially, they developed a set of blueprints. When they arrived at the workshop, they were asked to engage in an exercise that opened them, up to right-brain visioning activities. They were put in pairs, with half of them assigned to the role of reporter for the Wall Street Journal, writing a story about Detroit Diesel Allison three years into the future. The other half of the group was to fantasize what they would say to that reporter. The results of this exercise were similar to those obtained when executives are asked to write scenarios. After the "interviews" were presented to the group, organizational and leadership themes were extracted and abridge was made to a fairly disciplined left-brain planning activity.

Without Vision, No Revitalization

One message should be clear in this unit: leaders are responsible for the creation of a vision, and the vision provides the basic energy source for moving the organization toward the future. The vision is completely complex because it mirrors the organization. Staying with our architectural metaphor, we can talk about the difference between designing a building to fit a specific site and renovating an existing structure. Both are creative endeavors, but the design of a new structure is clearly the easier task because it is frequently more difficult to imagine what can be when confronted with what is. We are limited and constrained by the current structure, and it is often harder to visualize how it can differ in both function and form; The difficulty comes from the inability of the architect to assess the total-structural soundness of the building before work begins. Just as Jim Renier talked about the fact that deep-seated organizational problems often exist before the numbers go down, so the architect of a renovation project is frequently forced to guess about the condition of the writing, plumbing, and support structure until the wall are torn out. The renovation is also complicated by the fact that the existing tenants may have to live in the building while it is being renovated. The inconvenience frequently results in second thoughts about the wisdom of the decision to rebuild the structure.

A Case Study
After being fired by Henry Ford from his position as the President of Ford Motor Company, he joined Chrysler Corporation in 1971. The Chrysler Corporation at that time was on the brink of bankruptcy. He managed to assemble a new top management team at Chrysler and mobilized the organization to fight its way through one of the most wellknown turn around in American history. In the process Iacocca became the best known business leader in America and assumed the status of a national folk hero. SUMMARY

The objective of this unit is to create awareness about the transformational leadership processes, concept and various other dynamics. The individual and the transformation is one issue which needs to be tackled very carefully. The organizational framework of this process is equally sensitive, if not taken care of properly. Any overdoing may boomerang and an understatement may lead to further complication without showing any result. Diagnosis for identifying and filling the gap is another area which needs careful attention with clear motive. Diagnosis has to be done with reformative approach for creating a long-term motivating vision and identifying themes for developing a longterm agenda for the leadership to sustain the motivation. ORANIZATIONAL CULTURE

Objectives
After going through this Unit, you should be able to: Understand the concept and dynamics of organizational culture Understand what is organizational culture, what makes it up and what function does it perform Appreciate the correlation between organizational culture and organizational climate, and Identify the radical changes taking place in various organizations.

Structure
Different Minds but Common Problems The Organizational Cultural Perspective Radical Changes in Organizations Essence and Functions of Organizational Culture Patterns of Behavior Sub-cultures and Organizational Culture Organizational Culture: A Dynamic View. Summary Self-Assessment Questions Further Readings/References

DIFFERENT MINDS BUT COMMON PROBLEMS The world is full of confrontations between people, groups and nations. Who think, feel and act different. At the same time these people, groups and nations carry on within themselves indelible patterns of problems which demand cooperation for their solution. Ecological, economic, military, hygienic and meteorological developments do not stop at national or regional borders. Understanding the difference in the ways the leaders and their followers think feel and act in search of solutions to wide ranging problems and issues, is a condition for bringing about worldwide solutions that worst. Questions of economic, technological, medical or biological cooperation have too often been considered as merely technical. One of the reasons why so many solutions do not work or cannot be implemented is because differences in thinking among the partners have been ignored. Understanding these differences is at least as essential as understanding the technical factors especially in the organizational context. However, despite the fact that people differ in their thinking, feeling and acting, there is a structure in this variety which can serve as a basis for mutual understanding. This structure of the mind or as Hofstede (1997) calls it "Software of the mind" or mental programs have their origin within the social program in which one grew up, collected one's life's experiences. The programming starts within the family, it continues within the neighborhood, at school, in youth groups, at the work place and within the living community. A customary term for this mental software is culture. This ward is loaded with surplus meaning. The origin of this term is in Latin which refers to tilling of the soil. In most Western languages 'culture' means civilization or retirement of mind.

Culture is always a collective phenomenon, because it is at least partly shared with people who live or lived within the same social environment, which is where it was learned. It is the collective programming of the mind which distinguishes the members of one group or category of people from another. Culture is learned, not inherited. It derives from one's social environment, not from one's genes. Culture should be distinguished from human nature on one side, and from an individual's personality on the other (Figure - A), although exactly where the borders lie between human nature and culture is a matter of discussion among social scientists.

The three levels of uniqueness in human mental programming (Hofstede 1997)

Layers of culture
Almost everyone belongs to a number of different groups and categories of people at the same time, people unavoidably carry several layers to mental programming within themselves, corresponding to different levels of culture. For example: Appreciate the value A national level according to one's country (or countries for people who migrated during their life time); A regional and/or ethnic and/or religious and/or linguistic affiliation level as most nations are composed of culturally different regions, ethnic groups or language groups; A gender level, according to whether a person was born as a girl or boy; A social class level, associated with educational opportunities and with a parents occupation or profession; For those who are employed, an organizational or corporate level according to the way employees has been socialized by their work organization.

Additions to this list are easy to make. The mental programs from these various levels are not necessarily in harmony. In modern society they are often partly conflicting.

THE ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURAL PERSPECTIVE Organizational culture means two different but related things. First, it is the culture that exists in an organization. When the phrase is used in this sense, it means something similar to the culture in a society and consists of such things as shared values, beliefs, assumptions, perceptions, norms, artifacts, and patterns of behavior. It is the unseen and unobservable force that is always behind organizational activities that can be seen and observed. According to Kilmann and associates, (1985), organizational culture is a social energy that moves people to act. "Culture is to the organization what personality is to the individual - a hidden, yet unifying theme that provides Meaning, direction and mobilization". Second, organizational culture is a way of looking at and thinking about behavior of and in organizations, a perspective for understanding what is occurring. When used in this sense, organizational culture refers to a collection of theories that attempt to explain and predict how organizations and the people in them act in different circumstances. For clarity, Organizational culture is used to mean the culture of an organization, and the organizational culture perspective means the use of organizational culture as a frame of reference for the way one looks at, attempts to understand, and works with organizations. The organizational culture perspective represents a counterculture within organization theory. Its assumptions, theories, and approaches are very different from those of the dominant structural and systems perspectives. The organizational culture and systems perspectives challenging the views of the structural and systems perspectives for example, how organizations make decisions, and how and why people in organizations behave as they do. Organizational culture is the newest and perhaps the most controversial of the organizations and people that depart based on assumptions about organizations and people that depart radically from those of the mainline perspectives. One important difference is that the organizational culture perspective does not believe that quantitative, experimental-type, logical-positivist, scientific research is especially useful for studying organizations.

In the structural and systems perspectives of organization theory, organizations and assumed to be institutions whose primary purpose are to accomplish established goals. Goals are set by people in positions of formal authority. In these two schools of thought, the primary questions for organization theory involve how best to design and manage organizations so that they achieve their declared purposes effectively and efficiently. The personal preferences of organizational members are restrained by systems of formal rules, by authority, and by norms of rational behavior. In a 1982 article Karl Weick, a leading writer about symbolic management, argues that four organizational conditions must exist in order for the basic assumptions of the structuralisms and systemizes to be valid: Self-correcting systems of interdependent people Consensus on objectives and methods Coordination is achieved through sharing information Organizational problems and solutions must be predictable

However, Weick is forced to conclude that these conditions seldom exist in modern organizations. ASSUMPTIONS OF THE ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE PERSPECTIVE

The organizational culture school rejects the assumptions of the modern structural and systems schools. Instead, it assumes that many organizational behaviors and decisions are almost predetermined by the patterns of basic assumptions existing in the organizations. Those patterns of assumptions have continued to exist and influence behaviors because they have repeatedly led people to make decisions that usually worked for the organization, With repeated use, the assumptions slowly drop out of people's consciousness but continue to influence organizational decisions and behaviors - even when the organization's environment changes. They become the underlying, unquestioned - but virtually forgotten - reasons for "the way we do things here," even when the ways are no longer appropriate. They are so basic, so totally accepted as the truth that no one thinks about or remembers them. Thus a strong organizational culture controls organizational behavior; for example, it can block an organization from making changes needed to adapt to a changing environment.

From the organizational culture perspective, the personal preferences of organizational members are not restrained by systems of formal rules, authority, and norms of rational behavior. Instead, they are controlled by cultural norms, values, beliefs, and assumptions. In order to understand or predict how an organization will behave under different circumstances, one must know what its patterns of basic assumptions are - its organizational culture. Every organizational culture is different for several reasons. First, what has worked repeatedly for one organization does not for another, so the basic assumptions differs. Second, an organization's culture is shaped by many factors, including, for example, the societal culture in which it resides; its technologies, markets and competition; and the personality of its founder(s) or most dominant early leaders. Some organizational cultures are more distinctive than others. Some organizations have strong; unified, pervasive cultures are quite pervasive, whereas others have many subcultures in different functional or geographical areas. RESEARCH BIAS OF THE ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE PERSPECTIVE

Knowledge of an organization's structure, information systems, strategic planning processes, markets, technology, goals, etc. provides clues about an organizational culture - but not accurately or reliably as a consequence, an organization's behavior cannot be understood or predicted by studying its structural or systems elements: its organizational culture must be studied. Quantitative research using quasi-experimental designs, control groups, computers, multivariate analyses, heuristic models, and the like are the essential "tools" of the structural and systems perspectives. More and more the organizational culture perspective is turning to qualitative research methods such as ethnography and participant observation. The reasons for terming the organizational culture perspective a counter culture within the field of organization theory should be becoming evident: The organizational culture perspective believes that the mainstream structural and systems perspectives of organization theory using the wrong "lenses" to look at the wrong organizational elements in their attempts to understand and predict organizational behavior.

RADICAL CHANGE IN ORGANIZATIONS

It takes to challenge the basic views of mainstream perspective in any profession or academic discipline. Yet this is just what the organizational culture perspective is doing when it advocates radically different ways of looking at the working with organizations. For example, from the organizational culture perspective, AT&T's basic problems since deregulation and court-ordered splintering of the Bell System are not in its structure, information systems, or people. Rather, they rest in an organizational culture that no longer is appropriate for AT&T's deregulated world. The long-standing AT&T culture has been centered on assumptions about: The value of technical superiority The AT&T's possession of technical superiority AT&T's rightful dominance in the telephone and telecommunications market

Working to improve AT&T's goals, structure, differentiation and integration processes, strategic plans, and information systems will not solve AT&T's monumental problems. The solution requires changing an ingrained organizational culture: changing basic unconscious assumptions about what makes for success in a competitive to telephone and communications market. Lee Iacocca (1984) faced a similar problem (but different in its content) when he took over leadership of the Chrysler Corporation. Chrysler was a 'Loser' in just about every way imaginable - in the eyes of employees, potential employees, investors, car dealers, financiers, suppliers, and car buyers. It was simply assumed that Chrysler could not compete head-on. Iacocca had to change not only an organizational culture but also just about everybody's perception of that culture. The organizational culture perspective is especially useful for describing, explaining, and to a limited extent, predicting behavior when organizations are facing fundamental changes, particularly changes involving their identities. The usefulness of the organizational culture perspective is not limited to radical change in organizations. It also is helpful for understanding and predicting a host of other types of holistic organizational phenomena and behaviors involving, for example, employee commitment and loyalty, leadership effectiveness, leadership succession, creativity, and innovation and organizational survival strategies. Furthermore, it seems logical to expect that there are strong relationships between aspects of organizational culture and an organization's productivity and quality of

outputs - but the existence of culture-productivity relationships has yet to be established. Other perspectives of organizations (in other words, other groupings of organization theories) are not well suited for explaining or predicting these kinds of holistic organizational phenomena. Moreover, they are least useful during periods of major organizational change, especially when change in an organization's identity is involved. There has been no serious attempt to present a historical analytical study of the organizational culture perspective in its totality. The situation is equally bleak relative to methods for identifying or deciphering organizational cultures. Why is there a dearth of good comprehensive integrative writing about organizational culture? The answer requires some reasoned speculation. The first reason is that perspective is young, and there are few good precedents for researchers and writers to follow and build on. Second, since the late 1960s the dominant, mainstream perspectives on organizations have assumed that organizations are rational, goaloriented institutions whose behaviors can be understood by studying their goals, structures, and processes for making decisions. For example, the dominant mainstream perspective, usually termed the structural and systems school or the structural systems framework relies on quantitative analytical methods to analyze structures, information, information systems, and decision processes. In contrast, the organizational culture perspective does not assume that organizations are necessarily rational, goal-oriented entities. Whereas the mainstream perspectives tend to work with hard, tangible, quantifiable, organizational variables --often using computer models - the organizational culture perspective focuses on soft, less tangible, more eternal variables such as basic assumptions, cognitive patterns, values, myths, and unspoken beliefs. Using another analogy, organizational culture is like ordinary air. Usually, it cannot be touched, felt or seen. It is not noticed unless it changes suddenly. The mainstream perspectives of organizations are not comfortable with air-like variables and concepts. Computerized information systems and statistical, quasi-experimental research methods of the structural and systems perspectives are not designed to measure ethereal concepts such as values, myths and preconscious underlying assumptions. Thus, organizational culture perspective is a counterculture within organization theory. The assumptions, theories, and approaches of countercultures are not readily accepted by members of dominant cultures. They are challenging existing assumptions and beliefs about what are important, how research. It takes courage to advocate new and different ways of looking at and working with organizations just as the organizational culture. Third, a comprehensive and integrative study of organizational culture requires analyzing and synthesizing theories and research findings from a wide array of academic disciplines. The task is formidable. The fields of organization theory, archeology,

anthropology, psychology, sociology, organizational communication, and even biology contain knowledge, theories, research methods that are important for understanding organizational culture and using. When one also considers contributions from sub disciplines such as material psychology, social constructionism, clinical psychology, and transactional analysis, it becomes readily apparent why few attempts have been made to synthesize it, to "pull it all together." Despite the problems, or, more important, because of the problems, the need for an integrative, pulling-it-all-together study is evident. The perspective holds too much potential to be ignored or to remain in its current state of rampant disagreement about even its most basic concepts. The overall purpose to make usable sense out of organizational culture and the organizational culture perspective by analyzing and synthesizing information from a board of array of existing published sources and from field data collected in several very different institutions. It can only be accomplished by taking small steps, one at a time. These steps or sub-purposes and the chapters in which they may be addressed are:

1. To clarify what organizational culture is, what makes it up, and the functions it performs
This purpose is accomplished by examining the elements that make up different levels of organizational culture, the functions they perform, and their relationships to other elements of organizational culture. The organizational culture perspective is important to practicing managers as well as students of organizations, for it provides a new approach for viewing, thinking about, analyzing, understanding, explaining organizational behavior. For example, the organizational culture perspective is ideal for understanding what happened at AT&T and Chrysler. Despite its usefulness, the organizational culture perspective has major problems and limitations. First, it is only of many ways of looking a organizations. It is not the ultimate answer - the magic key for understanding all complexities of organizations. Second, the organizational culture perspective has many problems that reflect its youthfulness. Although the phrase "culture of a factory" was used by Elliot Jaques as long as in 1952, and "the organizational culture" was used by Philip Selznic in 1957, few students of management or organizations paid much attention to organizational culture until about 1978. Even then, the subject typically was addressed narrowly, and the writings did not receive much notice. The turning point for the organizational culture perspective came in 1981 and 1982, when it suddenly became a very "hot" topic in

books, journals, and periodical aimed at both management practitioners and academicians. The perspective's problems and limitations of youthfulness remain today. Minimal consensus exists about much of anything concerned with organizational culture, even among its proponents. The disagreements start with what an organizational culture is. So,- it is no surprise that the debates are even more pronounced and heated about its nature, components, and the appropriate situations and methods for applying the perspective. Lack of agreement about these very basic issues causes serious problems for those inclined to use the organizational culture perspective for managing or studying organizations. It creates doubts about the very legitimacy of the perspective. To be more concrete: consider a few conflicting views about changing an organizational culture. Should a manager even try to do so? If so, what change strategy should be used? For example, Allen and Kraft, (1982) are proponents of changing organizational culture by changing behavioral norms. Davis (1984) disagrees, arguing for chief executive officer-imposed, top-to-bottom, organization wide change efforts. Schein (1985); Sathe (1985); and Martin and Siehl (1983) all predict failure for any singlestrategy organizational culture change program. Schein (1985) cautions that attempts to change organizational cultures can be harmful and, in many situations should not even be tried. Leadership provides an excellent second example of the debates. Can a manager change existing leadership styles and practices in an organization by changing the organizational culture, or does one modify the organizational culture by changing leadership practices: Or both? Some writers, including Davis (1984), postulate that dominant, charismatic, organizational founders and chief executive officers are the primary sources, transmitters, and Maintainers of organizational cultures. On the other hand, Sergiovanni (1984) describes organizational leadership and the leaders' decision patterns as cultural artifacts. He believes that leaders, leadership styles and practices, and patterns of decisions are created and shaped more by organizational culture than by the leaders themselves. The youthfulness of the organizational culture perspective is evident in the dearth of the comprehensive and integrative writing about it. Schein (1985) and Sathe (1985) bemoaned the problem: Unfortunately, most of the writers on organizational culture use different definitions, different methods of determining what they means by culture, and different standards for evaluating how culture affects organizations. These conceptual and methodological differences make it almost impossible to assess the various claims made (Schein).

Although the importance of corporate culture is now widely acknowledged in both business and academic circles, the available literature leaves something to be desired... This literature is also generally not well grounded in systematic theory and research (Sathe, 1985). Depending on one's viewpoint, the first comprehensive and integrative studies of organizational culture did not appear until 1984 or 1985. There are now only a few such studies. Schein's (1985) Organizational Culture and Leadership is the most notable.

2. To analyze how organizational cultures form, develop, are perpetuated and changed, and transmitted to new organizations members
Where do organizational cultures come from? Why do they differ between organizations engaged in the same line of work? How are they maintained and transmitted to new organization members?

3. To assess the applicability of different tools and methods for identifying and deciphering organizational culture for different purposes and under different circumstances
Selection of research method for studying organizational culture needs to take such things into account as (a) the purposes for the investigation: for example, an urgent need to :increase the viability of an organization facing a crisis that threatens its survival, versus academic research; and (b) the specific concept (or level) of organizational culture that is operational.

4. The trace and analyze the historical evolution of the organizational culture perspective, its concepts, assumptions, methods, and language through the history of organization theory and other academic disciplines.
In order to appreciate the depth, richness, and potential applicability of the organizational culture perspective, it is necessary to understand its roots and historical development. The historical analysis also raises numerous unanswered research questions.

5. To explore some of the more important practical implications of the organizational culture perspective

THE ESSENCE AND FUNCTIONS OF ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE

The importance of language Every culture, discipline, perspective, organization, profession, school and theoretical frame has its own unique set of conceptual components and elements on which its language or jargon is built. The language, then, becomes the medium through which the perspective's concepts, elements, values and beliefs are communicated. In this sense, a language serves beyond basic communication. Perhaps most important, language controls cognitive patterns it affects the way people think about things. Morgan, frost, and Pondy (1983) and Evered (1983) assert that language defines and shapes reality. Goodall (1984) proposes

The words and other symbols we use to generate understanding... attain in the quality of powerful, literal truths. Powerful truths, because they can be used to explain a situation, induce cooperation, or control outcome, and literal truths because once they are used to inform a perspective they tend to become it.

Greenfield (1984) goes further: he contends that "language is power. It literally makes reality appear and disappear. Those who control language control thought, and thereby themselves and others." For example, the Navajo language contains no words meaning superior, subordinate, boss, or hierarchy. Navajos historically did not think about and obviously did not respect hierarchical organizational relations. The absence of words for boss and subordinate symbolizes the Navajo belief that a person is a person. One does not accept orders from another simply because of his or her relative position in an organizational hierarchy. Thus language reality has caused serious problems as the Navajo Nation has attempted to develop its economy by attracting and retaining manufactures enterprises from the non-Navajo world. One would also presume that it has strongly influenced the organizational culture of Caucasian-owned industries that have located in the Navajo Nation. On the other hand, the absence of such, words in the language helps the Navajo maintain a core element (basic assumption) of the culture.

The organizational culture perspective is no exception. It possesses its own language and jargon for communicating its concepts, components, and elements that also function to define and maintain its unique realities. The concepts and elements of organizational culture shape the language of the organizational culture perspective and the language in turn solidifies the perspective's concepts of organizational realities. Thus, the language of organizational culture is both an artifact of the organizational culture perspective and a shaper or controller of its assumptions, thoughts, beliefs, and concepts. "Kenneth Burke once said he was suspicious of communication studies done in the 'Burkeian tradition' because they 'focus on what people do with symbols, rather than on what symbols do to us" (Goodall, 1984). The most important elements and functions of organizational culture, what Vijay Sathe (1985) calls the stuff of organizational culture. The chapter is organized into sections that correspond to the levels of organizational culture defined in starting with the most concrete level (artifacts) and working up to the most abstract level (unspoken basic assumptions). However, it is impossible to appreciate the significance of any organizational culture elements and functions without an understanding of symbols and symbolism. Thus, the discussion begins with an introduction to these two concepts.

SYMBOLS
Symbols are sign that connote meaning greater than them and express much more than their intrinsic content. They use invested with specific subjective meanings. Symbols embody and represent wider patterns of meaning and cause people to associate conscious or unconscious ideas that in turn endow them with their deeper, fuller, and often emotion invoking meaning. A sign may be anything: a word or phrase, policy, flag, building, office, seating arrangement, picture of chief executive officer, or computer terminal. Any sign can be the raw material for symbol creation when a group of people subjectively -invest it with broader meaning and significance (Morgan, Frost and Pondy, 1983).

State Health
There is an unstated but pervasive belief at State Health that health care providers (such as hospitals, clinics, nursing homes and practicing physicians) cannot be trusted to act in the publics interest. Only-public sector public planning and regulatory organizations that do not provide health care can be so trusted. Thus, for executive at State Health a private physician sitting in front of the room in the State health Department Building, chairing an official, State Health sanctioned policy advisory committee meeting, carried intense symbolic meaning-core assumption of the organizational culture were being violated.

Symbols and symbolism- the management of symbols in an organization- are central to organizational culture. They help create, maintain, and transmit shared meanings, realities and truths within organizations. Because the meaning of a symbol goes beyond the intrinsic content of the readily visible or audible sign - and because meaning is created subjectively by members of an organization, often over a long period of timethe true significance of symbol rarely is apparent to an outsider or organizational newcomer. This introduction to symbols and symbolism provides a frame of reference to begin an exploration of the essence of organizational culture and the functions it performs. The exploration starts with relatively concrete artifacts and works up to the rather abstract basic underlying assumptions.

ARTIFACTS
Artifacts Include material and non-material objects and patterns that intentionally and unintentionally communicate information about the organization's technology, beliefs, values, assumptions and ways of doing things. A few examples of material artifacts are documents (such as annual reports, internal memoranda, organizational brochures and sales pieces); physical layouts or arrangements (for example of offices, distances between working areas, dividers or walls between offices, private or shared working spaces; open or closed doors, and leisure-time facilities); furnishings (such as carpeting, sizes of desks, and pieces of arts on walls); patterns of dress or dress codes; company cars; and so on. Some artifacts reflects and provide useful information about an information's technology such as computers on desks; centrally located equipment or machinery; the density and locations of filling cabinets (for example, centralized or dispersed 'in private offices); and the complexity of the telephone systems - that things that archaeologists and anthropologists would call the primeval carpenter's or the modern executive's tools of the trade. Nevertheless, not all artifacts are tangible things. Pattern behavior can be an artifact and thus a symbolic representation of the culture. Organizational language, jargon, metaphors, stories, myths, and jokes can be artifacts. Patterns of administration of organizational leadership are beginning to be described as cultural artifacts rather than expressions of individual leadership styles or patterns of behavior. It is not difficult to make a convincing argument that organization charts often are nothing more than artifacts Symbolic representations used to satisfy expectations of important constituencies inside and outside organization such as environmental protection groups, minority protection

groups and women advocacy groups. They are not working descriptions of organizational realities. Organizations themselves as totalities are cultural artifacts ": systems of meaning that can be understood only through the interpretation of meaning". Artifacts may be symbols or merely signs when they nothing more than signs, they serve rational-functional purposes: computers process information, an executives borrow others' secretaries to get needed work done.. When artifacts are symbols, they serve symbolic purposes first and rational-functional purposes only secondarily or not at all. It is in this manner that symbols and symbolisms are crucial to the organizational cultural purposes. They help create, maintain and transmit shared meanings and perceptions of truths and realities within organizations. This last point needs to be understood clearly. From the organizational cultural perspective, meaning, reality, and truth are social construction - they exist as meanings, realities and truths only because members of the organizations collectively have defined them as such. If truth, meaning and reality were absolute there would be no organizational culture perspective. These two roles of artifacts help to explain why seemingly non-rational artifacts continue to survive in organizations. Forman organizational culture perspective, nothing survives in an organization unless it serves purposes. Therefore, artifacts that do not serve real functional purposes but continue to survive such as the microcomputer covered with old posters and coffee cups in the Board meeting room. To the extent that artifacts are relatively passive products of an organizational culture, they are easily identified but unreliable indicators of the organizational culture. For example an organization's programs usually are visible manifestations or representations of cultural beliefs, values and assumptions. They are artifacts, and according to Stanley Davis (1984), they are "like pottery shards; each fragment has much to tell about the culture... This is why it is tempting to collect information about specific programs and to shy away from the harder tasks of interpreting the values and beliefs that lie behind them". Language: An Artifact, Communicator of Culture, and Shaper of Thought Patterns Language are absolutely integral and complex elements of organizational culture. It fills two very significant theoretical and practical roles. In its more obvious role, language is something that must be learned by organization members in order to communicate effectively and therefore, "Get along". An organizational newcomer or outsider observer will find much communication incomprehensible and will be unable to communicate on an equal footing. Sometimes an organization's language resembles the language of its dominant technology, such as electronics engineering or accounting. Most organization have formal and informal ways to instruct newcomers in the language of the organization - the unique terminologies, codes, acronyms and sign systems, as well as the symbols and metaphors that convey the culture of the particular organization. The more formal instructional methods include orientation sessions,

apprenticeships or designed mentor relationships, and training programs. Thus police departments typically assign fresh recruits to ride with and be "broken ire by veterans. A common language also serves to quickly identify members of social group or subgroup. Those who do not speak the language or the jargon are identified easily as outsiders-Kanter (1983) and Kanter and Stein (1979) have shown that many organizations have systematically excluded women and minority group members from participation in highly visible, upward mobility-promoting settings, (such as interdivisional, multiple-level task forces working on significant organizational plans) because of race or sex. The exclusion has prevented members of these groupings from learning the language needed to be identified as having upward mobility potential, and thus they are excluded from subsequent upward mobility-promoting settings. Cultural anthropologists have always viewed language as an artifact and as an active shaper or controller of thoughts and concepts. For example, currently there is wide "consensus among American Indian educators that tribal cultures cannot be maintained without also preserving use of language. And, without words for boss, supervisor, subordinate, and hierarchy, Navajos cannot be expected to revere directives from higher organizational' authorities. The repeated use of the words meaning, concept, and perceptions in this chapter reflects the central importance-of language in the organization culture perspective. Organizationally related concepts, meanings, and perceptions, all of which are socially constructed, are made available to the mind through language. They are communicated to others through verbal, written, or sign language. Language affects thought patterns and concepts: it can require or prevent patterns of thought. Language, as symbolic representation, has strange effects on us. The language prevents people from thinking about hierarchical reporting relationships. This is why Greenfield (1984) asserts that language is power, a force that makes reality appear and disappear. "Those who control language control thought, and thereby themselves and others" Like the tangible artifacts, language is both a product of the culture and a maintainer and transmitter of it. However, as was described earlier, language is most central to the organizational culture perspective because of its power or influence over thought and perceptions of reality:

Jargon: The shorthand of Language, Jargon concentrates meaning into a few words
that do not mean the same thing in the language of the organization as they do in everyday English. Jargon is, in essence, the shorthand of an organization's language, cramming as much meaning as possible into word or phrase that tend to be incomprehensible to those not members of the organizational culture. Jargon simplifies

the process of communicating among those who know it - but it complicates things for outsiders and new corners.

Metaphors: Metaphors, are powerful forms of organizational language because they

communicate symbolic meaning beyond the obvious content of the words. The Random House Dictionary of the English Language: The Unabridged Edition defines a metaphor as "the application of a word or phrase to an abject or concept which it does not literally denote, in order to suggest comparison with another object or concept, as in a mighty fortress is our God.- Metaphors are more potent communicators of symbolic meaning than analogies. Analogies simply denote a partial similarity between parallel features of two things on which a comparison may be based, for example, "a heart is similar to a pump." The metaphoric phrase is stronger: "the heart is 'a pump.' Metaphors are basics to the intellectual processes humans use to determine truth, facts and meaning (Nietzsche, 1968). They help people organize and make meaning out of experiences. Metaphors help organizations members put meaning into things they experience and resolve apparent contradictions and paradoxes they encounter. Metaphors help organizations tie their parts together into meaningful wholes. That is, they "help to organize the objective facts of the situations in the minds of the participants". On the down side, metaphors are potent controllers thought. "They may also act like fly bottles, to keep us trapped in invisible prisons". (Bates, 1984). As in the case with all artifacts, metaphors are both products and maintainers transmitters of the organizational culture. Geertz (1973) describes them as models of the situation and models for the situation. Bates (1984) places so much emphasis on the importance of metaphors that he defines organizational culture as "the links between language, metaphor and ritual and their celebration of particular social ideals or myths".

Myths: Extended Metaphors. Myths are extended metaphors. The story contained
in a myth has a metaphoric relationship to real events (Pondy, I983). In order to qualify as a myth, part of its story must be questionably historically accurate, and its content must focus on the origins or development of the beliefs and values of the organizational culture (Cohen, 1969). Myths are about events alleged to have taken place long ago and thereby serve to link the past, present, and future (Levi-Strauss, 1963), interestingly organizational myths often depict pure fantasies; and members know they are inaccurate but continue to relate them (Pondy, 1993).The known falsehood appears to add to rather than detract from the cultural functions of myths. Those functions include maintaining and expressing solidarity among organization members; legitimating practices (like violating rules); and "validating the rituals of the tribe" (Martin, 1982).

People at the Community Center (a nonprofit agency that arranges for the provision of human services to persons with developmental disabilities and that is funded exclusively with public monies) smiled knowingly and laughed while relating rather outrageously organization myths to each other in my presence, clearly communicating that they knew they were perpetuating falsehoods, and they were not concerned about hiding their deceit. Myths are too important for people to, be embarrassed about factual inaccuracy. One of the most frequently heard myths at the Community Center is about a woman manager who would arrange to sleep with the administrator of a state agency who had the power to allocate discretionary funds whenever the Community Center was short on funds (which was the case frequently). The myth conveys important messages about organizational beliefs and values to new members and functions as an important reminder to veterans. The messages include the irrationality of the Community Center's environment (including its primary funding source); that facts and logic are not useful tools for dealing with the environment (obtaining funds); creative self-sacrifices are required of staff to help the community.

Stories: Organizational stories are anecdotes about sequences of events in an

organization's history. They are similar to myths in form and function but are, or are perceived to be, historically accurate (Wilkins, 1983). Current or past organization members play the leading roles, and the stories always have morals that reflect important organizational beliefs, values, and basic assumptions. Typically, stories communicate their morals metaphorically and the morals usually speak to core elements of an organization's culture, philosophies, policies and/or practices. In order to qualify as an organizational story, the narrative should have a plot or plots complete with crises: and happy endings; central characters including heroes; and an organizational context (Bower, 1976). Stories communicate their core messages implicitly, metaphorically and usually symbolically. They tend to have greater impacts on attitudes than most other forms of verbal communication. Their messages are retained longer by organization members when they are transmitted in stories than through more explicit and less vivid communication modes. Thus Martin (1982) contends that stories should be used when new employees are learning the ropes of an organization or when an attempt is being made to form a counter culture or to change an organizational culture (Martin & Siehl, 1983).

Heroes: Heroes are the leading actors in organizational stories. They personify the
values and epitomize the strengths of an organization and its culture (or counterculture). They help to reinforced and maintain the culture by setting standards of behavior and providing performance role models. They provide living proof of the importance and viability of the morals embedded in organizational stories.

Organizational Script's: Organizational script is a phrase from cognitive social

psychology that refers to the backbone of an organizational story, the core theme that makes a story more than just a story. A script is the stripped-down skeleton of a story. It contains a setting, an organizational context, a plot with a sequence of events and central characters with roles. Most important, however, scripts are generalized and contain slots or general concepts. As conditions arise in which the basic script is applicable or needed, a story is created from it or 'draped over the skeleton that communicates morals reflecting beliefs, values, and/or basic assumptions specific to the incident or need of the moment.

Scripts are predictive: they are self-fulfilling prophecies Abelson (I976) defines a
script as "a coherent sequence of events expected by the individuals" which highlights a most important function of scripts: allowing organization members to know and predict how people and or the organization will act under different circumstances. While an organization is living out its script, members know what to expect; so it is safe to focus their attention elsewhere. Scripts provide previews of future incident. Individual and organizational responses and the consequences of each, they function like the automatic pilot of an airplane, causing things to happen by predicting their occurrence. The core element in a vignette, which Abelson defines, is "an encoding of an event of short duration, in general including both an image (often visual) of the perceived event and a conceptual representation of the event".

Sagas and Legends: Sagas and Legends are collections of stories about
organization's histories that provide useful information about an organizational culture. In the premiere study to date of organizational sages, Clark (1970) analyzed the sages or legends that evolved during critical stages (turning points) in the histories of Antioch, Swarthmore, and Reed Colleges. Clark used sages to assess why these three colleges became and remained distinctive. He focused on gages as the primary method the three schools used to communicate their distinctive qualities effectively to employees, aluminate, the general public, and potential 'contributors. "The organization with a saga is ... first of all a matter of the heart, a center of personal and collective identity". Clark (1979) provides perceptive insights into how and why sages not only communicate important information but also build allegiance, commitment, and emotional investment. They fuse individual and organizational identities. A saga, which Clark identifies as something in between an ideology and a religion, accomplishes these ends by capturing allegiance and committing the staff to the college and its central themes. "Deep emotional investment binds participants as comrades in a cause. An organizational saga turns an organization into a community, even a cult".

Ceremonies and Celebrations

Ceremonies and Celebrations of an organizational culture's values and basic assumptions, they celebrate the accomplishments of heroes and the defeat of threats to the organizational culture. Ceremonies place the culture on display. They are somewhat extraordinary experiences that usually are remembered vividly by employees. "Ceremonies are to the culture what the movie is to script or the dance is to values that are difficult to express in any other way" (Deal & Kennedy, 1982), Ceremonies and celebrations give meaning to organizational events. Jones & Jones stages three major annual ceremonies to celebrate events. The first is a paid annual company trip for all employees and their spouses or significant others to celebrate the end of each tax season. The second is an annual party for all employees and clients to celebrate the company's move from second-rate to first-class office space. The move symbolizes the firm's successful establishment in the most prestigious (and profitable) segment of the public accounting profession. The third is a party open to employees only, celebrating the simultaneous resignations of a partner and a senior manager. The two had generated deep conflict and divisions while attempting to steer Jones & Jones into specializing in a different segment of public accounting. Ceremonies are symbolic conveyors of meeting to important internal and external constituencies or stakeholders (Mitroff, 1983), the complex process of searching for and selecting new university president communities symbolic messages about the importance of the position and of the groups who participate in the search. Inaugural ceremonies (and firing ceremonies) often are used to placate powerful internal and external constituencies by symbolically communicating the reaffirmation of existing university directions and policies or a commitment to change them."

PATTERNS OF BEHAVIOUR
Every organization has patterns of routinized activities, such as rites and rituals, which through repetition communicate information about the organization's beliefs, values, assumptions, and ways of doing things. Patterns of behavior are things that members of an organizational culture continue to do (or that cause members to continue to do things), often without thinking. They include such familiar management practices as holding staff meetings, training, filling out forms, and conducting employee performance appraisals.

Rites and Rituals

Whereas ceremonies are conscious celebrations of values and basic assumptions, rites and rituals are more habits with roots in those same cultural values and basic assumptions. They are the mundane, systematic, stylized and programmed routines of daily organizational life that tell an alert observer much about an organizational culture. Bernstein (1975) and Popkewitz (1982) observe that rituals provide members with security, establish meaning and identity within organizations, and function as mechanisms of control. The meanings and relationships represented in rituals often are both metaphorical and visible manifestations of relative power. Thus all personnel at the Community Center for Developmental Disabilities ritualistically route even the most mundane outgoing letters to the director, Bill Snow, a retired Army officer and a very authoritarian style manager, for his signature. When they need to talk with him, they stand at his door silently until he invites them. Even if he does not notice or acknowledge their presence for several minutes, they will not speak or enter until invited. Bates (1984) found rituals to be so powerful and conformity to them so complete "as to govern movement, time, place, language, sequences of activity, participant's response, and the use of artifacts, their shape, the metaphors they utilize, and symbols that guide responses" (p. 276). Frequently, the meanings and purposes of powerful rites and rituals are forgotten and take on lives of their own. Pierre Boulle (1959) wrote a superbly believable fictional account of rites and rituals that took on lives of their own. The senior clerk at a British rubber plantation in North Africa continued to keep the most detailed and trivial corporate records even as the German army was approaching during World War II. He insisted upon taking along a large filling cabinet as the British plantation employees fled from the German army in small lifeboats. Life without corporate rituals records, and files was unthinkable. When rites and rituals take on lives of their, their functional purposes become lost, they survive only for the symbolic purposes they serve - providing stability for members by, communicating and perpetuating the organizational culture.

Behavioral Norms
While artifacts, rites and rituals are objects and patterns that reflect, maintain, and communicate information about organizational culture, norms, are not important. They are so pivotal to organizational culture that a few authors have defined norms as organizational culture (in fact or by inference) *Allen & Kraft, 1982; Hall, 1977).

Norms are prescriptions for behavior that exist in every social context, including organizations and work groups in organizations. Norms are behavioral blueprints for organization members in general and for people who fill specific roles. Schmuck (1971) contends that norms provide organizations with structure and coherence. Organization members behave in patterned and predictable ways "because their behaviors are guided by common expectations, attitudes, and understandings norms are strong stabilizers of organizational behavior". As standards of expected and allowed behavior and speech, norms may or may not reflect cultural beliefs and values. They deal with patterns of overt behavior. They are organizational sea anchors, providing predictability and stability. For example, at the Mountain State Chapter, the nonprofit organization where it s new president, John Thomas, tried to institute management changes that would have destroyed its extended family-like culture, open disagreements are prohibited at Board meetings. This is a norm. It reflects a deeply cherished and strongly held organizational culture value; the Board of Directors should be supportive extended family, and open disagreements endanger the extended Patterns of organizational behavior, including rites, rituals and behavioral norms, have been separated from discussions of other artifacts because they represent a slightly higher level of organizational culture. They are somewhat more complex in nature and from a managerial viewpoint; they perform perhaps more important functions in an organizational culture (particularly behavioral norms). Nevertheless, patterns of behavior are nothing more than high level artifacts.

BELIEFS AND VALUES

Beliefs, values; ethical codes, moral codes, and ideologies mean essentially the same things in the language of organizational culture as they do in ordinary English, so there is no need to discuss them as extensively as artifacts, Nevertheless, the shorter discussions should not be interpreted to mean they are less important to organizational culture than artifacts or patterns of behavior. Quite the opposite is true beliefs and values are absolutely central to organizational culture. For example, Deal and Kennedy's (1982) research concluded that organizations become institutions only after they are infused with values. Beliefs are consciously held, cognitive (mental) views truth and reality. Beliefs may be about almost anything: a belief that the world is round; a belief in God; the belief at the Mountain State Chapter that providing programs for people at the disabilities will increase their self-images; and a belief at AT&T that strategic planning and' other systems-type changes will make the companies more competitive.

Although many of us tend, to use the words beliefs and values interchangeably, there is a difference. Values are conscious, affective (emotion-laden) desires or wants. They are the things that are important to people: should, should not, and ought-to-be of organizational life. As with beliefs, values may be associated with almost anything: the value that one should have similar relationship with God and those others should have similar relationship with the Mountain State Chapter. In essence, beliefs are what people believe to be true or not true, realities or on realities - in their minds. Values are the things that are important to people (including their beliefs) - what people care about - and thus are the recipients of their invested emotions. People come to their beliefs (to know things) in many ways (Gardner, 1987), including, for example, through faith, experimental research, intuition, and because respected others hold them. The processes through which values are formed are less clear and appear to very more among people. Chester Barnard first argued in 1938 that the most important function of an executive is to establish and imbed a system of organizational values. Philip Selznick (1957) followed Barnard's lead and identified the construction and maintenance of a system of shared values as one of the critical tasks of management. Why? Because beliefs and values influence patterns of organizational behavior, which in turn yield artifacts. The contents of the different levels of organizational, culture are linked (artifacts, patterns of behavior, and beliefs and values) and beliefs and values are the shaping forces and energy sources for the other two levels. Beliefs provide cognitive justifications for organizational action patterns, and values provide the emotional energy or motivation to enact them. As Sproull (1981) argues, beliefs "can strongly influence organizational actions," for they underlie plans, they direct searches for information and thereby determine the reasoning patterns (systems of logic) that lead to action choices. To repeat an earlier assertion, beliefs and values provide the justification for organizational actions.

Ethical and Moral Codes:

In the language of organizational culture, ethical codes and moral codes are the composite systems of beliefs, values, and moral judgments. Philosophy and ethos have been used to mean the same thing (Davis, 1984) and are reasonable substitute terms as long as the term philosophy is used in the sense of "philosopher" - not as it is commonly being used today, to mean "meta organizational mission." Barnard (1938; 1968) describes the impact of moral codes with an example: Doing things the "right" way is the dominant moral code of musicians, artists, and other true professionals, and no other code on earth dominates their conduct in case of conflict (between codes). . . . It is not a matter of better or worse of superior or inferior processes. It is a matter of right or wrong in a moral sense, of deep feeling, of innate conviction, not arguable, emotional, and not intellectual, in character.

Ideologies
Ideologies usually are defined as pervasive and dominant sets of interrelated systems of thoughts, beliefs, and/or values. They are integrative frameworks that allow members to piece together and make sense of the many different organizational beliefs and values. Ideologies, like ethical and moral codes are "macro systems" that function to organize organizational beliefs and values and thereby justify patterns of organizational behavior. It is very difficult to draw clear distinction in practice between ideologies and moral and ethical codes. As Harrison observes the term organizational ideologies is "unfortunately ambiguous". Conceptually, moral and ethical codes connote systems of right and wrong, whereas ideologies tend to mean patterns of thinking. However, for example, Barnard's (1938, 1968) categorization of things the "right" way as a dominant professional moral rather than as an ideology demonstrate how fuzzy the distinction can be in practice. Shared beliefs, values, moral and ethical codes and ideologies are central to organizational culture. They provide the justification for why people and organizations behave as they do. It is virtually impossible to understand the meaning and importance of patterns of behavior or to predict them without knowing the beliefs and values that shapes and drive them. It would he like trying to predict tomorrow's weather by studying yesterday's and today's weather but ignoring the movement of fronts and other causes of weather changes. Beliefs and values are pieced together into system of moral and ethical codes and / or ideologies. Beliefs and values are the elements of organizational culture where ethics, philosophy and organization meet as do persons and organization has its own personalities, character and culture it cause it to think, feel and behave uniquely.

Basic Underlying Assumptions

The highest level of organizational culture is basic assumptions, a relatively new concept that only recently has begun receiving attention in the literature. Edgar Schein first defines organizational culture as its basic assumption in a 1981 Sloan Management Review article entitled, "does management style have a measure for American managers?" Since 1981 a few writers have pursued the concept including Schein (1984, 1985), Jonne Martin (1984) and Vijay Sathe (1985). Reference materials on basic assumptions are sparse; nevertheless some organization theorists now are defining organizational culture as its basic assumptions and are presenting convincing arguments for their positions. According to Schein, Sathe, and Siehl and Martin, basic assumptions are likely to have moved out of members' conscious into their preconscious, for they have yielded successful results repeatedly over time. It is like applying brakes while

driving a car. After years of pushing the brake pedal and the car slowing, we quit thinking about brakes and braking: we just hit the brakes instinctively, assuming the car will slow down. If hitting the brakes works repeatedly, we cease thinking about braking, our belief in the relationship between braking and slowing turns into a basic assumption. Two important distinctions need to be made between beliefs and basic assumptions. First, beliefs are conscious and thus can be identified without too much difficulty; for example, we can interview people or administer diagnostic instruments. On the other hand, basic assumptions are likely to have dropped out of awareness-they are there but have moved back into the recesses of the mind. Second, beliefs are cognitions (cognitions), whereas basic assumptions include not only beliefs but also perceptions (interpretations of cognitions) and values and feelings (affects) (Schein, 1985). Thus, basic assumptions can be thought of as a comprehensive, potent, but outof-conscious of beliefs, perceptions, and values. At first glance, there is an apparent contradiction in this conception of basic assumptions, if basic assumptions are likely to have dropped out of awareness, how can they be taught to new members? How does an organization socialize or enculturation its new members if the basic assumptions have dropped out of consciousness? The answer lies in the ways new members are taught. Seldom is such teaching done consciously or explicitly. Rather, it is accomplished somewhat unconsciously through stories and myths and by modeling patterns of behavior that new members must piece together like jigsaw puzzles in order to discover the basic assumptions lying beneath them. These teaching and learning processes are aided by the ever-present discrepancies between the morals of stories and modeled patterns of behavior, and stated organizational beliefs and values. These discrepancies force alert new members to look beyond stated beliefs and values for underlying patterns of unspoken basic cultural assumptions. In some organizations they are relatively easy to find-but not in others. Some new members find them and become acculturated quickly (or reject them quickly); whereas others do not: As with beliefs and values basic assumptions about almost anything that involves a an organization's relationship to its environment such as its view of its clients or customers, its competitive or collaborative postures in the market place or among other government agencies or its openness to using technologies form other industries to solve problems. They also can be about almost anything connected with an organization's internal integration processes. For example, Schein (1981) groups assumptions into categories dealing with the nature of the human nature, the nature of human activity, and the nature of human relationships.

Every organization has its basic assumptions: At AT&T, technological superiority eventually will (would) prevail in the marketplace. At State Health, private health care providers do not act in the public interest. At the Mountain State Chapter, the primary purpose of the Board of Directors is to provide directors with a supportive extended family. At the Community Center, respite for parents of clients is the Center's most important responsibility. At Scenic Mountain State College, the faculty and administrators are not and never will be sufficiently competent for the College to be, a full member of the academic world or to compete for financial resources in the state political arena.

Espoused Values and Values-in-Use

The people at Jones & Jones, State Health, the Mountain State Chapter, the Community u Center, and Scenic Mountain State College unanimously and emphatically denied these basic assumptions when I first tried to discuss them. The existence of this assumption was acknowledged at Jones and Jones and Scenic Mountain State College only after several months had passed. Acceptance at the Community Center took about one year. Two years had gone by before even limited acknowledgment was made at the Mountain State Chapter. Officials at State Health never have been willing to acknowledge the presence or accuracy of their assumption about private providers-but ex-members of the EMS subculture have! Why were the organization members so reluctant to acknowledge the existence and validity of these basic assumptions? The answer to this question has practical andtheoretical importance. It is the reason why Sathe (1985); Schein (1981, 1984, 1985); Siehl and Martin (1984); and this book view organizational culture as basic assumptions rather than as beliefs and values. The assumptions were resisted because they vary dramatically from consciously held and publicly stated organizational beliefs and values. They are not rational (in the classical sense of the word); and they are not acceptable to important organizational constituencies. They are "secret coping devices" that help organizations deal with problems of external adaptation and internal integration but that, for many reasons, members do not want to face up to-somewhat akin to a person's deeply ingrained defense mechanisms. Beliefs and values are what people will admit to. Basic underlying assumptions are what people actually believe and feel and what determine their patterns of behavior, whether or not they are aware of them. In Argyris and Schon's (1978) words, the difference is between "espoused theory" and "theory-in-use".

Organizational Scripts
In transactional analysis, the subfield of clinical and social psychology popularized by Eric Berne(1964) and Thomas Harris(1969), there are cultural and organizational scripts just as there are personal scripts. Jongeward (1976)and James and Jongeward(1971) describe cultural and organizational, scripts using concepts that sound very similar to organizational culture's basic assumptions, Jongeward (1976) asserts that scripts include the "institutionalized injunctions and permissions regarding expectations. . . . They are the dramatic patterns that give an organization. its identity. . . ," James and Jongeward (1971) describe cultural scripts as: The accepted and expected dramatic patterns that occur within a society, they are determined by the spoken and unspoken believed by the majority of the people within that group ... The same drama may be repeated generation after generation . . . scripts themes differ from one culture to another. Because transactional analysis scripts appear quite similar to basic assumptions, they are discussed here with the basic assumptions. If assumptions and scripts are as similar as they seem to be an entire body of applicable theory and research may exist that.to date has been virtually untapped by organization theorists.

SUBCULTURES AND ORGANIZATIONAL CLIMATE

Before moving further to related concepts need to be introduced: subculture and organizational climate. They are in these separate sections because they are not component elements of organizational cultures.

Subcultures
Organization and organizational cultures are not monolithic. All institutions of any size have subcultures, pockets in which the organizational culture varies to some degree from, the culture in other pockets and from the dominant culture. Subcultures may develop in any organizational groups: Subcultures may exist in a building, a floor of a building, and among employees who take breaks in a lounge or ride in a car pool. They may form in groups that cross horizontal or vertical organizational boundaries. Thus an organization may have subcultures made up of people who work on a program or project, perform similar functions, and share ethnic or religious backgrounds.

Subcultures interlock, overlap, partially coincide, and sometimes conflicts. Just as the dominant organizational culture, they may be strong, pervasive, and controlling; or they may be weak and hardly affect behavior. Siehl and Martin (1984) identify three types of sub-cultures: enhancing, orthogonal, and countercultural: 1. Assumptions, beliefs, and values in enhancing subcultures are compatible with and often are stronger and held with more fervor than those in the dominant culture. At Jones & Jones, the partners and senior managers make up an enhancing subculture. 2. Members of orthogonal subcultures accept the basic assumptions of the dominant organizational culture but also hold some that are unique. Jones & Jones tax accountants and support personnel are cautious, conservative and detail-oriented; but the management advisory services subculture is somewhat more freewheeling, risk taking, and marketing-oriented. Yet the Jones & Jones subcultures are consistent orthogonal-with the dominant culture, which has been heavily influenced by professional accounting values and assumptions. 3. Countercultures, such as existed in the EMS Office of State Health, have basic assumptions that conflict with the dominant culture. Thus subculture may enhance, refine or challenge a dominant organizational culture. They may cause divisive behavior. They may provide pockets of creativity and innovation as do the functional subcultures.

Organizational Climate
The term has been used to denote many different concepts, both historically and currently. Miles and Schmuck (1971) and Lippitt, Langseth, and Mossop (1995) conceptually interchange organizational climate and culture. Gellerrman (1968) implies that organizational climate is something like an organization's personality, consisting of hopes, attitudes, and biases. Davis (1984) defines it as a "measure of whether people's expectations are being met about what it should be like to work in an organization". There appears to be as little agreement in the literature about the nature of organizational climate as there is about the nature of organizational culture. In the absence of any generally accepted definitions, organizational climate to mean an amalgamation of feeling tones, or a transient organizational mood, As such, organizational climate is not an element of organizational culture. It is a related but separate phenomenon.

ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE: A DYNAMIC VIEW The attribution of a 'culture' to an organization is a relatively recent phenomenon. The term organizational culture first appeared in the 1960s as a synonym of 'climate'. The equivalent corporate culture, coined in the 1970s gained popularity after a book carrying this title, by Terrence Deal and Allan Kennedy appeared in 1982. It became

common parlance through the success-of a companion volume from the same McKinsey Harward Business School team, Thomas Peters and Robert Waterman's 'In Search of Excellence' which appeared in the same years. Since then an extensive literature has developed on the topic, which has reached other language areas . Peters and Waterman wrote "Without exception, the dominance and coherence of culture proved to be an essential quality of the excellent companies. Moreover, the stronger the 'culture and the market place, the less need was there for polity manual', organization charts, or detailed procedures and rules. In these companies, people way Down the line know what they are supposed to do in most situations, because the handful of guiding values is crystal clear. However, where one combines the meaning overloaded term culture with another common used word "organization" one is almost certain to have conceptual and semantic confusion. The notion of organizational culture is associated with some of the common meanings: 1. Observed behavioral regularities when people interact, such as the language used and the rituals around deference and demeanor 2. The norms that evolve in 'work groups, such as the particular norm of a "fair days work for a fair days pay". 3. The dominant values espoused by an organization, such as "product quality" or "price leadership". 4. The rules of the game for getting along in the organization, "the ropes" that is a newcomer must learn in order to become an accepted member. 5. The feeling is a climate that is conveyed in the organization, by the physical layout and the way, in which members of the organization interact with customers or other outsiders. All these meanings and many others reflect the organizations culture, but none of them is the essence of culture. Schien (1987) considers that the term ""culture" should be reserved for the deeper level of basic assumptions and beliefs that are operate unconsciously and that define in a basic "taken-for-granted" fashion an organizations view of itself and its environment. These assumptions and beliefs are learned responses to a group's problems of survival in its external environment and its problems of internal integration. They come to be taken for granted because they solve those problems repeatedly and reliably. This deeper level of assumptions is to be distinguished from the "artifacts" and "values"" that are manifestations or surface level of the culture, but not the essence of culture. However, this brings us to a problem of identifying the locale of a given culture - is it "group" or is it "organization". This problem arises as we do not have a concrete existence of organizations. Organizations are hypothetical constructs, they are not easy to define in time anti, space. They are themselves open system in constant interaction with their many environments, and they consists of many subgroups,

occupational units, hierarchical layers, and geographically dispersed segments, If we are to locate a given organization's culture, where do we look and how general a concept we are looking for? Culture should be viewed as a property of an independently defined stable social unit. That is, if one can demonstrate that a given set of people have shared a significant number of important experiences in the process of solving external and internal problems, one can assume that such common experiences have led them, over time, to a shared view of the world around them and their place in it. There has to have been enough shared experience to have led to a shared view, and this shared view has to have worked long enough to have come to be taken for granted and to have dropped out of awareness. Culture in this sense becomes a learned product of group experience and is, therefore, to be found only where there is definable group with a significant history. Whether or not any company or organization has a single culture along with multiple subculture can only be answered empirically by identifying stable groups within the given context of the company or organization and determining what their shared experience has been, as well as determining the shared experience ha4 been, as well as determining the shared experience of the members of total organization. It will not be surprising to find that there are several cultures operating within the layers social unit called the company or the organization a managerial culture, various occupationally based cultures in functional units, group worker culture based on shared hierarchical experiences, and so on. The organization as a whole may be found to have an overall culture if that whole organization has a significant shared history but one cannot assume the existence of such a culture ahead of time. The concept of organizational culture is rooted in theories of group dynamics and group growth that in anthropological theories of how cultures evolve. While studying organizations, one need not deciphers a completely strange language or set of customs and mores. Instead, the problem is to distinguish within a broader host culture - the unique features of particular social unit in which one is interested. This social unit often will have a history that can be deciphered, and the key across the formation of that culture can often be studied and unlike the constraints imposed by anthropological approach due to lack of historical data, the organizational culture can be studied on the "as is -where is" basis. Culture is learned; it evolves with new experiences, and can be changed if one, understands the dynamics of the learning process. Learning theories and models can be of great help. If one is concerned with meaning or changing culture, one must look to what we know about the learning and unlearning of complex beliefs and assumptions that underlie social behavior. The term culture can be applied to any size of social unit that has had the opportunity to learn and stabilize its view of itself and the environment 'around it - its basic assumptions. At the broadest level there are civilizations referred to as Western or Eastern cultures; at the next level we have national culture - a conglomeration of mental programs known as Japanese, Indian, American culture etc. But we recognize immediately that within a nation we also have various ethnic groups to which we attribute different cultures. Even more specific is the level of occupation, profession or occupational community. If such groups can be identified stable units with a shared history of experience, they will have developed

their own cultures, they will have developed their own cultures, using the same logic, even within organizations, there are groups and such groups may develop group culture. Thus according to Schein culture may be defined as "a pattern of basic assumptions invented, discovered, as developed by a given group as it teams to cope with its problems of external adaptation and internal integration that has worked well enough to be considered valid and therefore, to be taught to new members as the correct way to perceive, think and feel relation to those problems". Because such assumptions have worked repeatedly, they are likely to be taken for granted and to have dropped out of awareness. The definition does not included overt behavior patterns. According to Schien, overt behavior is always determined both by cultural predisposition and by situational contingencies that arise from external environment. In the Indian industries for example, the cultural baggage in terms of assumptions, perceptions, thoughts and feelings that are patterned by the early socialization, especially in the family and school context. In such context if has been observed that the people get used to family hierarchy and paternal control and the school discipline, both are present in the organizational (external situation) context but with a, difference and that is the freedom to remain or leave that organization as personal will (if one is free from economic constraints). On one hand the individual is conditioned by the collective discipline, control and affection of family and school and on the other hand the same individual joins another collective and has the collective structure but does not process all the traits of earlier social institutions. If there is.., ' a vast sea of difference, the individual stands at a cultural crossroad, and adaptation become stressful. Roth the individual and the organization have to make mutual adjustment if both want to promise each others resources.

Behavioral regularities may be reflections of the environment as of the culture; therefore, it should not be taken as primary basis for defining the culture.

LEVELS OF CULTURE

There is a distinction between such elements of culture like physical layout of an organization, rules of interaction, value reflecting organizational ideology or philosophy, and the underlying conceptual categories and assumptions that enable people to communicate and to interpret every day, occurrences. (Figure -B)

Level-1 Artifacts
The most visible part of the culture is its artifacts and creations - its constructed physical and social environment in the organization. Every facet of a groups life produces the artifacts creating the problem of classification. In reading descriptions, one often notes that different observers choose to report on different sorts of artifacts, leading to noncompatible descriptions. If one wants to create a homogeneous level analyze the central values that provide the day-to-day operating principals by which the members of the organization guide their behavior. For example, the different artifacts created for the managerial level and workers level may cause a sense of incongruity if both the levels attribute dissimilar meanings, however, a central care value may reduce the incongruity in the meanings accorded and optimize the mental programming of organizational members in a homogeneous and acceptable fashion.

Level-2 Values
In a sense all cultural learning ultimately reflects someone's original values, their sense of what "ought" to be, as distinct from what is when a group faces a new task, issue or problem, the first solution proposed to deal with it can only have a status of a value because there is not yet a shared basis for determining what is factual and real.

Someone in the group usually the founder, has convictions about the nature of reality and how to deal with it, and will proposed solutions as a belief on principal based on facts, but the group cannot feel the same degree of conviction until it has collectively shared in successful problem solution. For example a young sales manager may say that one must advertise to increase the sales volume based on his/her own belief. The group that has never experienced the situation before will hear that assertion as a leader's values, "He/she thinks that one should advertise more when one is in trouble." What the leader initially proposes, therefore, cannot have any status other than a value to be questioned, debated and challenged. If the solutions works, the value gradually starts a process of cognitive transformation into a belief and, ultimately, an assumption only if the propose solution continues to work, thus implying that it is in some large sense "correct" and must reflect an accurate picture of reality-group members will tend to forget that originally they were not sure that the values were therefore debated and confronted. As the values begin to be taken for granted, they gradually become beliefs and consciousness, just as habits become unconscious and automatic. Not all values undergo such transformation. First of all, only those values that can be physically and socially validated and reliably solve the problem will be transformed into assumptions. Second, certain value domains, those dealing with less controllable elements of the environment may not be testable at all. In such cases consensus through social validation is still possible, but it is not automatic. The social validation refers to the values of interrelationships, exercise of power, defining aesthetics etc. which can be validated by the experience that they reduce uncertainty and anxiety. A group can learn that the holding of certain beliefs and assumptions is necessary as a basis for maintaining the group. Many values remain conscious and are explicitly' articulated because they serve the informative or moral function of guiding members of the group in how to deal with certain key situations. A set of values that become embodied in an ideology or organizational philosophy, thus can serve as a guide and as a way of dealing with the uncertainty of intrinsically uncontrollable or difficult events. Such values will predict much of the behavior that can be observed at the art factual level. But if these values are not based on prior cultural learning may also come to be seen only as "espoused values" which predict well enough what people will say in a variety of situations but which may be out of line with what they will actually do in situations where those values should be operating. Thus a company may say it values people but its record in that regard may contradict what it says.

Level-3 Basic Underlying Assumptions

When a solution to a problem works repeatedly, it comes to be taken for granted. What was once a hypothesis, supported by only a human or values, comes gradually to be as a reality, and exudes little variations For example in a capitalistic nation, the organizations fail to see any reason to sell its products at a loss and create organizations for the safe of social uplifting only. These assumptions tell group members how to perceive, think about and feel about things. Basic assumptions tend to be non-controllable and non-debatable. These may also cause some problems. For example the manager proposes a solution to a given problem. His subordinate knows that the solution will not work, but his unconscious assumption requires that he remain silent because to tell the boss that the proposed solution is wrong is a threat to the boss's face. It would not even occur to the subordinate to do anything other than remain silent or even reassures the boss that they should go ahead and take the action. SUMMARY

The basic focus of this unit has been to understand the concept of organizational culture from various angles. This unit examines in detail the very concept of organizational culture and provides the organizational perspective, assumptions and research bias in organizational culture. As we move ahead the sources and functions of organizational culture have been discussed at length. The role of values, beliefs, ethical and moral codes and ideologies has been evaluated in inculcating organizational culture.

SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITIES OF ORGANIZATIONS

Objectives After going through this unit you should be able to: Define and explain the role of organizations towards the society Appreciate the organizations co-existence in the society.

Structure
The Beginning Defining the Social Existence of the Organizations Organizational Role Extended Towards the Society Summary Further Readings/References

THE BEGINNING

Organization constitutes one of the most important elements that make up the social web of modern societies. Most citizens of modern society are born in a hospital, educated in a school, work in one organization or another, and to the degree that they participate in religious and political activities, these too, frequently take place in the organized contexts. In short members of modern society obtain a large part of their material, social, and cultural satisfactions from large organizations. The way to understand modern man and society is, therefore, to study the organizations political, educational, material and many such important functions. The organizations are principal vehicles for societal guidance. That is, such units especially those that a part of or link to the state are major instruments for setting, pursuing, and implementing collective goals for nation. Goods, services and capital society's wealth are created and dispersed mainly by organizations. Health, education and social services are now largely the responsibility of organizations. Whether we can overcome the pressing problems of our time (inequality, pollution, energy crisis, alienation and so on) depends heavily honor society's "organizational potential". Good ideas and good intention alone cannot eliminate human miseries. Thus organizational analysis provides a key to understanding of modern society, its prospects for transformations. DEFINING THE SOCIAL EXISTENCE OF THE ORGANIZATIONS Organizations play a leading role in modern world. Their presence effects some would insist that it infects - virtually every sector of social life. Peter Drucker thus observes: "Young people today will have to learn organizations the way their forefathers learned farming". Ours is an organizational society - the organizations are a prominent, if not dominant characteristic: of modern society. Organizations were present in older civilizations - Chinese, Greek, and Indian - but only in modern industrialized societies do we find large number of organizations engaged in performing May highly diverse tasks. To ancient organizational assignment of soldiering, public administration and tax collection have been added such as discovery (research organization) child and adult socialization (schools and universities), socialization (mental hospitals and prisons),

production and distribution of goods (industrial firms, whole sale and retail establishments), provision of services (organizations dispensing assistance ranging from laundry and shoe repair to medical care and investment counseling), protection of personal and financial security (police department, insurance firms, banking and trust companies), preservation of culture (museums, art galleries , universities, libraries), communication (radio and television studios, telephone companies, the post office), and recreation (bowling alleys, pool halls, national park service, professional football teams). Even such a partial, listing testifies to the truth of Parson's statement that, "the development of organization is the principal mechanism by which, in highly differentiated society; it is possible 'to get/things done', to achieve beyond the reach of individual". The prevalence of organizations in every arena of social life is one indicator of their importance. Another rather different index of their significance is the increasing frequency with which organizations are singled out as the source of many ills besetting contemporary society. C. Wright Mills way back in 1956 pointed out with alarm to the emergence of a "power elite" comprised of members occupying the top positions in three overlapping organizational hierarchies: the state bureaucracy, the military and the larger corporation. At about the same time Ralf Bahrendorf (1959) in Germany was engaged in revising and updating Marxist doctrine by insisting that the basis of the class structure was no longer the ownership of the means of production but occupancy of positions that allowed the wielding of organizational authority. Such views which remain controversial; focus on effects of organization on social stratification systems, taking account of the changing basis, of power and prestige occasioned by the growth in number and size of organizations. ORGANIZATIONAL ROLES EXTENDED TOWARDS THE SOCIETY Like media, organizations represent extension of our selves. Organizations achieve goals that are quite beyond the reach of any individual - from building skyscrapers and dams to putting the man on the moon. But to focus on what organizations do may conceal from us the more basic and far reaching effects that occur because organizations are mechanism - the media by which those goals are pursued. For example, when we visit any hospital or clinic, we seek 'health' but what we get is 'medical care'. Clients are encouraged to view these outputs as synonyms although there may be no relation between them. In some cases relations can even be negative: More care may result in poorer health as immunity. Another example may be that products manufactured by organization reflect the manufacturing process. They often reflect the need to subdivide the work and to simplify task, and the manufacturing pressures towards standardization of parts and personnel. Customization in genuine sense becomes prohibitively expensive. Metal replaces wood and plastic replaces metal in many products to satisfy organizational, not consumer, needs.

To suggest that our organizational tools shape the products and services they produce would appears to be a' relatively sweeping and unsettling generalization on which might be content to rest our case. We fail to perceive the importance organizations for our lives if view them merely as tool for achieving goals. Organizations must be viewed as actors in their own right, as corporate persons. They take actions utilize resources, enter into contracts. Coleman (1974) describes the rights of organizations as they have developed gradually since the Middle Ages to the point where now it is accurate to speak of two kinds of persons - 'natural' persons (like you and me) and corporate or 'juristic' persons (like the Red Cross and Maruti Udyog Limited). The social structure of modern society can no longer be described accurately as consisting only of relations among natural persons: our understanding must be stretched to include as well those relations between natural and corporate persons. In brief, we must come to the recognition that society has changed over the past few centuries in the very structural elements of which it is composed. Further, organizations provide the setting for 'a wide variety of basic social processes, such as socialization, communication, ranking, the formation of norms, the exercise of power and goal-setting and attainment. If these generic social processes operate in organizations, then we can add as much to our knowledge of the principles that govern their behavior by studying organizations as by studying any other specific type of social system. Organizations are characterized by somewhat distinctive structural arrangements that affect the operation of the processes occurring within them. For example, social control processes occurs in all social groups, but there are some forms or mechanisms of control for instance a hierarchical authority structure - that are best studied in organizations, since it is within these systems they appear in their most highly developed form. Thus, the study of organizations can contribute to the basic knowledge by increasing our understanding of how generic social processes operate within distinctive social structures.

The Social Boundaries of Organization

The problems controlling organizations in setting and policing their boundaries are complex and subtle. Given the essence of organizations as open systems, their boundaries must necessarily be sieves and not shells, admitting the desirable flows and excluding the inappropriate or deleterious elements. Determining what is desirable or harmful can be a difficult decision, in part because the criteria can vary from time to time and from location to location in the organization.

The Boundaries of Collectivities

The collectivity can be viewed as an identifiable "chunk" of the social order. The criteria for determining the existence of a collectivity are (1) a delimited social structure, that is, a bounded network of social relations and (2) a normative order applicable to the participants linked by the network. All collectivities - including informal groups, communitys organizations and entire societies - possess, by definition, boundaries that distinguish them from other systems. Many different indicators can help to identify the boundaries of collectively, some focus attention on the behavioral structure and some on nominative. A widely used behavioral indicator is interaction rates. Attentively, we may focus on the nature of conduct of the activities being carried out; we would expect to observe a change in the activities performed by individuals as they cross the boundaries between collectivities. Organizationally controlled recruitment criteria are important mechanisms fostering insulation of the organization from its social environment. As the number and variety of people recruited in organizations grow its supplies new identities and sources of power, salient identities can also develop as the result of interactions and exchange processes occurring among participants within the organization, and these give rise to informal status distinctions. There are barriers that the total institutions place between its incumbents and the external world marks the first curtailment of self. In civil life, the sequential scheduling of the individual's roles both in the life cycle and in the repeated daily routines ensures that no one role the individual plays will block his performance ties another. In total institutions in contrast, membership automatically disrupts role scheduling, since the incumbent's separation from the wider world lasts around the clock and may continue for years. However, except in total institution, generally the usual kind of organizations, do not produce such role dispossession or totally segregate the organizational roles from non-organizational ones. Thus, by now it must be clear, the significance for organizations in the modern society. If one wants to identify the specific responsibilities of organizations it will be a mammoth task. However, to reorganize our thoughts towards the issue, we may identify the responsibilities from two angles. One pertains to the social responsibility of the organization towards its own individual self the corporate and the responsibility towards the external environment consisting of communities, physical and other types of environment etc. The second angle is a more wide spread as well as difficult one as it takes into account a wide range of issues which may vary from context to context.

While talking about the inner social responsibilities, we would like to raise the issues of organizational structure, its processes, its culture and the like. Here one may examine the meaning of work in the lives of workers. The positive values of work become issues of paramount interest and concern. During the last century technology and legislation have changed the nature of duties and the implications of jobs for the lives of workers. The skills have changed so have the attitudes of worker. Every organization needs to think and understand the implications of such changes. The "privilege" of having a job and the personal, responsibility of job holders to develop the necessary skill and prove their worth have shifted toward the "right" to have a job and the organizations responsibility to provide training and guarantee full employment. The meaning of work has also been influenced by shift in the power positions of the employers and the employees to protest collectively and feel secure regarding the job. Social securitys provide income to retirees and death benefits to the surviving f amily members. The workers compensation benefits cover accidents long-term disability. Technology has dramatically changed 'the nature of work. From labor intensive industry, the shift to slowly growing towards the capital intensive industry, such changes are especially in the mining, heavy machinery and such industries where the hand and strenuous jobs are being taken care of by machines. One looks are the prospect of having a paperless office. The psychological and social implications of such a change have to be understood by this organization because today's worker does not use much of his cognitive skills. The use of such skills has been left to the top management. The stress of being mindless worker is a serious threat to the employees mental as well as physical health. The organizations need to look into the requirement of job design and redesign from psycho-social perspectives along with the need to humanize the work place to keep away workers alienation. Many managers complain that today's work force does not have the same values as previous generations. There is a lack of work ethic. It is true that today's young worker who is more educated than the earlier generations do not have the same attitudes toward importance of handwork and craftsmanship and their reasons for holding a job is quite different. There is a tremendous uncertainty about the working values of today's workers. It is the responsibility of both the organization and its members to think collectively and create an appropriate work culture not only to extend the enhancement of profit and productivity but also to give a dignified work life to the employees. The responsibility that is coming through the external sources is reflected in the composition of work force in the form of minorities and female employees. Of course the political and economic uncertainty is also a significant factor but the organizations (except the political one) can only contribute indirectly. It is now very important to understand interactions in groups composed of people of different cultural categories or states.

Uniform groups have only one kind of person, one significant social type. They acquire salient statuses such as sex, race or ethnicity. Skewed groups are those in which there is a large preponderance and one type over another. Few of the skewed groups can be called as tokens because often they are treated as representatives of their category as symbols rather than individuals. Next tilted groups begin to move towards the less extreme and less exaggerated effects. They begin to become individuals differentiated from each other as well as a type differentiated from the majority. In today's world the major concern is emanating from the skewed group especially the women in organizations. The use of term 'token' for minority members especially women is rather prevalent. The proportional scarcity of women is not unique to them, the uniqueness lies with them entering the all-male fields of occupation. The proportional rarity of tokens is associated with three perceptual phenomena: visibility, polarization and assimilation. Regarding visibility, the women as tokens capture a large share of the groups' awareness. Polarization of difference and exaggeration of the same is another common dynamic. In assimilation usually there is a use of stereotypes or families generalizations is used to define the persons social type. Visibility creates performance pressure on the token. Polarization leads to group boundary heightening and isolation of the token. And assimilation results in the tokens role entrapment, all these dynamics create a glass ceiling effect and restrict the career movements of the minority whether it is based on gender, race, or language. The social responsibility of the modern organization is preventing such harmful effects and optimizes the resource in its diverse forms. SUMMARY

Organization being the principal vehicles for societal guidance, play very important role in setting, pursuing and implementing the collective goals for the nation. The objective of this unit has been to explain and examine the role of organizations in the society, to prove its social existence in the society. Surroundings around any organization have vital linkages (tangible and intangible) with the organization. It becomes the duty of the organization to discharge its due for the society, which even in the long run will be beneficial for the organization.

ORGANIZATIONAL ETHICS AND VALUES Objectives After going through this unit, you should be able to: Explain the organizational ethics and values Explain why it is so important and what are the issues involved Understand various theories on ethics Appreciate the uniqueness of Indian Ethos Explain relevance of ethics in various management function, and Explain how ethics can be incorporated in organizational culture.

Structure History of Modern Business Ethics Why Business Ethics Issues Involved in Business Ethics Why Business Ethics has become so Important Today Theories of Ethics Values Indian Ethos Ethics and Marketing Ethics and Purchasing Operations Management and" Ethics Human Resources Management and Ethics Issues Involved in Ethics Related to Finance and Accounting and Business Scams Examples of Good Ethics in Indian Organizations Creating an Organizational Culture for Ethics - The Tool to Promoting Ethical Corporate Behavior Case Studies and Examples on Ethics Summary Self-Assessment Questions Further Readings

HISTORY OF MODERN BUSINESS ETHICS

Business Ethics is the study of morality in business and is concerned with the conducted and wisdom related to business decisions. Business ethics has emerged recently as an important area of study in view of the sordid events of the past few years in public affairs. The nexus between business, crime and politics has forced us to ask a basic question -Is business leading to any deterioration in society instead of growth and harmony? Increasing number of business scams, unethical use of mass media appeals, destruction of earth environment, etc. has led to a new approach that ethics and values needs to be taught at management schools so that future management leaders are fully aware of the consequences of their decisions and can restraint themselves. Although our classical books and scholars like Chankya has written a lot on ethics for practice and the society, businessman has been adopting it, the modern day business ethics as a subject in management was introduced around 1976 at premium business schools of USA like Harvard and Wharton. USA itself has now more than half a dozen journals on business ethics. In India the sustained research efforts on values were started by Indian Institute of Management Calcutta way back in 1978 and it has now established a center for Human values in Management with an estimated budget of Rs. 4 crores fully supported by many big organizations. Many organizations are quite well known for starting code of ethics for their executives and staff and specific names to be counted can be Punjab National Bank, Alacrity foundation etc. Ethical education should be designed to produce balanced: pleasant, flexible and effective managers with the powers of insight and the courage to create and use ethically desirable means to sustain organizations in an age of competition and liberalization. They must also learn that people are basically good but sometimes they can be vicious and education on ethics and values can provide that wisdom to prevent the vicious. Business ethics are the desired norms of behavior exclusively dealing with commercial transactions. Moral values are-deep-rooted ideas and feelings that manifest themselves as behavior or conduct and are not so easy to express or measures in words: Hence if we know the consequences of our actions we can convert values into rules of behaviors that can be described as ethics.

WHY BUSINESS ETHICS

i.

Ethics helps the Market do its best

200 years back Adam Smith has said in his book wealth of Nations "Our system of capitalism does not work well unless it has moral cooperation of its participants. Every time we bribe or use corrupt practices we lower down the efficiency of market to generate true wealth as decision in such cases are not based on price and quality but on other consideration Wall Street magazine quoted Japans secret weapon of success as courtesy. Even a low paid employee can harm a billion dollar organizations by being rude to customers. Companies like Procter & Gamble uses more than 800 toll free telephone booths merely to allow the customers to give complaints freely. Honesty of Taxi Drivers and others involved in Hospitality services of Singapore is considered a major factor in promotion of tourism of that country and they are specially trained on ethics values and etiquettes. Tata's- credibility has been rated very high the world over because it started joint consultative process, and supported their employees with measures like education; housing and medical and other welfare facilities much before the law was created in India. In a business round table report in USA, the myth about the contradiction between ethics and profit got thoroughly debunked by the attitudes and actions of top managers who stated that good reputation for fair and honest business is a prime corporate asset that all employees should nurture with greatest care. It does not hurt to be ethical.

ii.

Law cannot alone protect society but Ethics can

No regulation can go to a deep extent where ethics can. Technology races ahead much faster than any Government, can regulate. People in Industry only know better the danger of any technology than Govt. In the well-known Chiso corporation case at Minimata Japan, mercury was dumped in the water along with effluents which got absorbed by fishes and finally eaten by human beings leading to eye and birth defects. While the lawyer could establish in the court that there was no violation of norms prescribed by the Govt. the corporation was held responsible on moral grounds and bad to suffer a lot.

Law only speaks of a minimum. Of course the Govt. in most of the countries are getting awakened at a faster rate with stringent punishment for violation of norms or adoption of non-desired behaviors by business and organizations but the issue can only be handled fully by ethics and morality.

iii.

Ethics is good in itself

Following ethics give one courage, satisfaction, peace and leads to overall growth and harmony in society. Gandhi has said that if you treat your employee merely an object as a means to make profit you are basically demeaning the humanity. Gita the holy book written to guide us in our actions says that we should act without carving for outcomes. In Christianity the concept if stewardship has a meaning that we do not own properties but act as steward so that others can benefit. Fairness has to be consistent. If a father punish his child for stealing the pencil of his class fellow but brings- one from his office he is not consistent and hardly provides a good example of ethical behavior. There are well known example of Indian Business Organizations who failed due to not following the ethics or the owner has to face humiliation and close his business (Examples provided later on in the text).

ISSUES INVOLVED IN BUSINESS ETHICS

i.

Ethics and profit:

California management review has published a report under which business results of 7 years period was studied for various companies and it was established well that most companies which showed the highest concern for ethics tended to show highest growth and profits. In India also the Alacrity Foundation a Chennai based housing development company is an excellent example of ethics. It adopted honesty and fair practices as its values and discouraged its employee to pay any bribe while dealing with any Govt. official. While for a few months its projects got delayed and it had to pay even extra interest to its customers but it earned a strong goodwill which helped later on for more business and reputation as provider of good housing units. Johnson & Johnson which followed ethics in its practices and is well known for the loss it had to incur in lifting back its stock of certain capsules of Tylenol which got laced with poison in transit. J&J has grown at a much faster rate in the last 35 years with a high stock market appreciation.

ii.

What is an ethical responsible organization?

It is concerned with stakeholders not merely stockholders. It cares in business all stakeholders like employees, suppliers, and people who live in surroundings, consumers, future citizen's etc. It undertakes its responsibility to society and stakeholders as a social contract for the benefit it draws from society. It has a management structure to facilitate ethical functioning. In the well-known Bhopal Gas Tragedy of Union Carbide it came clear that no one was a culprit but people did not know what other part of corporation is doing as functioning and accountability was found lacking.

iii.

Codes and Culture:

Ethics comes by values, which are not a one-day outcome but shaped by the long traditions followed in an organization and the examples set by its top leaders. The key leader's role is very important in the beginning. When Mr. Deepak Pareek CMD HDFC was awarded the businessman of year award he has stated ethics as -"Do not do anything in your dealing which if becomes public you have to feel ashamed".

iv.

Economy and Environment:

Ethical organization encourages a harmony with environment. Do not destroy -the mother earth and its equilibrium.

v.

Competition and Ethics:

Organizations / Companies known for their ethics adopted their high values not when they had become big and prosperous but when they were small outfits. And it is precisely these values that gave them backing of the public, which enabled them to grow to their present giant size. Delta Airlines started its ethical code when it just had 12 planes with 2.5 million and today it has crossed the turnover of more than 2.5 billion. Tata started value based organization way back in 1904 in a small way and it emerged as one of best organization. Tisco had no strike in the last 58 years. Johnson & Johnson started practicing values when it was very small and imbibed these values with its growth.

vi.

Values help a better decision making in the organization:

If the organization has defined its code of conduct and values to be followed it becomes easy for managers and employees to decide.

WHY BUSINESS ETHICS HAS BECOME SO IMPORTANT TODAY

Why suddenly the ethics has become so important today in business. The answer lies in some of the changes that are taking place around us. Examples

I.
a) b) c) d) e)

New Products
Are all products needed Plastic bags Do people know its safe use - Pesticides Do they deliver what they promise Are there any side effects / long term repercussions What is its impact on environment / natural resources

II.

Affluence

Are the rich not becoming richer and can a society live in harmony by the exploitation of poor.

III.

Marketing techniques

a) Marketing cost is going up. b) Desire to win at all cost; it is not leading to bribes, corruption. c) Harmful advertisement - Imagine the 3 years old Luck now child who jumped from a building after seeing an advertisement of a famous cold drinks in order to fly like the hero.

IV.

Customer getting more educated

Today can you fool a customer by hiding relevant information

V.

Litigation Cost

Just image the cost Union Carbide had to pay for Bhopal Tragedy

VI.

Changing business relationship

Dealing with unknowns across the globe Use of Internet avoiding face to face dealing Need for more trust and a better brand name

VII.

Rising Personal Expectations

Customer want better product at low cost Need for continuous improvement Employees want respect and dignity Stockholders want more voice Management wants to be trusted Environmentalist wants better control

VIII.

Resources Scarcity
Increased role of business in public life All business is now becoming a public affair with public money and for benefit of public at large Social audit of business Professional codes of ethics for all emerging Business ethics is a global phenomenon today International trade

THEORIES OF ETHICS A. Non-Cognitive theory of ethics is subjective in nature and is based on the attitudes. It believes that there is no truth or false and nothing is either good or had in behavior but our thinking makes it so. Attitudes towards religions, race, and subgroups are all result of moral relativism. As a result of which one State Govt. prohibits the use of alcohol while other does not find anything wrong with it. One society does not encourage the woman to work while others would call it exploitation. In certain countries bribe is still acceptable as a norm because public servant is low paid and it may be considered as extra motivation to allow him to take: initiative beyond his duty. While in other society such a corruption is dealt with severe punishment. In other society where the dealing public servants are paid good salary as a norm itself the problem may not even exist. Only the circumstances make a situation good or bad. Similarly the attendant system or giving tips in hotels cannot be evaluated, as good or bad and are all subjective based on relativism. In other words certain culture has discovered a practice as morally right while other culture found it wrong. B. Religious Morality: This theory is based on the concept that if God exist who, better than God can decide what is wrong or right. Under Divine command theory God will reward the righteous with a joy of heaven and those with wickedness to hell. Accordingly all religions has prescribed to its followers certain ethics and codes which binds people together since belonging to a community required following of certain obligations. Compassion, honesty, fairness &. Justice, giving of surplus, equanimity, truthfulness etc. is mostly found in all religions and has allowed us to survive to the present day.

C. Consequentialism theory on ethics: This theory is dependent on the measurement of consequences as to what is good in that and what is bad in that and allows us to decide on the weightage while non-consequentialism is principle centered approach which clearly specifies, what is good or bad or what is beneficial or harmful based on that something is just right or wrong. Consequentialism provides us answers which are more pragmatic. For example, if in a factory there is shrinkage (loss of stock pilferage by employees) the non-consequentialist would clearly argue that stealing is bad and needs to be punished severely. A consequentialist would weigh the consequences in terms of its morals on employees, cost of extra security, impact of dismissal etc. Both agree that stealing is wrong, they differ in their understanding of why it is wrong. One thinks of the socially disruptive effects of the stealing as practices while the other feels that there is something intrinsically wrong in the act of taking someone's property. Similarly-in the case of abortions, consequentialist would argue about the social effect of unwanted pregnancy (Pro-choice lobby), while no consequentialist would argue about the unborn child's right to life (Prolife lobby). Adherence to principle is the basis of non-consequentialist under which only one response gets elicited while other person responds with situation and this can produce the best result possibly. D. Utilitarianism i.e. ethics of welfare is based on consequential approach and on the concept of welfare. Utility means capacity in action to have good results i.e. usefulness. Accordingly actions are not good or bad in themselves but only in what they are good or bad for utility means happiness and an action would be right if it leads to maximization of happiness or minimization of unhappiness and one can take a decision based on this principle. It has to be sum totals of human happiness which needs to be maximized and not simply our own individual happiness. It is called greatest happiness principal which majority feels happy. However this principle can be modified further that unhappiness or suffering is felt more than happiness and needs to be given extra weightage. The decision on various long projects like dams etc. can be evaluated based on the above concepts as nothing in such situation can be said right or wrong. E. Kantiasm: The ethics of duty - It is based on the concept that all of us have certain duties to perform in our roles like a mother has a duty to a child and does not see what benefit she will gain in bringing up the child. We should perform our actions without motive and a sense of duty. A personnel officer has a duty to maintain confidentiality of employee's personal history.

VALUES

Can Wealth Satisfy a Man

In an age of consumerism where success is getting measured by comparisons, man is sacrificing his happiness. Over ambitious and keen ness to earn fast is leading to a stage of excessive burnout where the person is forced to think how much his need for money is. Even when we are giving is it really for giving or for the sake of recognition. There are who have a little but give it all and they are never empty. Much of management education unfortunately is converting human being into a money making machine. "People who work only for money making, gets slowly enslaved by the desire for getting more money by exploiting others which becomes a conditioned reflex with these people, resulting restlessness, tension, secret, fear and total loss of peace." BAGWAT GITA

NEITHER MAXIMUM NOR MINIMUM BUT OPTIMUM

In our day to day functioning we are faced with many contradictory values over a time and have to face which one to follow. We can seek an optimum mix in such values that can function satisfactorily in real life. Some of these values are. 1. Controlled greed: This is the most crucial value needing discussion in business ethics because most people would agree that business entity cannot operate unless an element of greed is inbuilt into its operations. How much of it is the debatable issue. Indian thinkers mostly depend on internal controls, genetic cultivation and family culture to curtail greed. There is nothing wrong in materialism if it is secondary i.e. secondary to honestly, love, equality, justice, and compassion. If it comes first it can lead to exploitation, misery and loss of peace. 2. Pursuit of Pleasure: (An and) Happiness and Pleasure are not just Pleasure of flesh but also of mind. Pleasure must be distinguished from greed .Absence of greed can indeed be a cause of giving pleasure, like in the case of Alacrity Foundation of Tamil Nadu whose shareholders accepted with pleasure a lower return on investment in favor of high ethical values of honesty. Excel Industry of Gujarat is also a similar example where Mr. Narayanan CEO, called Guru by his staff draws a greater pleasure in social welfare program of the firm. This company even goes to jails to recruit the reformed inmates as an investment and great pleasure. If you are keen to know the impact on business, this company has done wonderful in results too. You get pleasure only when you are detached

by the outcome which has been beautifully described as "management by detached involvement" by Dr. Jagdish Pareekh. Phd. (Harvard) in his bestselling book managing yourself.

3. Efficiency and Action: Action only leads to improvements and productivity'of resources: "They only live by right who 'till the soil and raise their food. The rest are parasites". Kural Virse - 1033. 4. Truthfulness: Truth is ethically valued because of its Universalizability and in business or organizations it is the first step to build trust.

5. Transparency and honesty: It requires total openness and nothing to be hidden from those who would be affected by the information. 6. Compassion and Charity: All religions have laid a strong emphasis on these values and Jains have extended it even to all living beings, Charity should never be combined with arrogance.

7. Self-Sacrifice: Where individuals undertake intensive effort of great deprivation to themselves but yielding immense social benefits had greater impact in terms of contribution and is strongly advocated by Jains, Buddhists, Vedanta and other scholars. What Swami Vivekananad said is truly relevant. "Unselfishness pays a lot only the people have not the patience to practice it." Indian tradition had always searched for ideal heroes as models for living an ideal life of work. The Mahabharata offers us two powerful models, one in Arjun and the other in Duryodhana.

Both are equally brilliant, powerful, having intensive organizing capabilities. In fact, Duryodhana, as a statesman, was more sagacious than Arjuna. Yet why did Duryodhana fail and Arjuna succeed? The simple answer is that with his entire extra-ordinary valor, Arjuna accepted the message of Krishna: "Those who accept all works as a sacrifice for the welfare of all, they are freed from all sins (and attain success). But those who work only for their own benefit and profit, eat only sins (and they get defeated in their purpose). Gandhari the symbol of righteous knowledge advised her son, before the war, just as Krishna advised Arjuna; but Duryodhana refused to listen to his mother. In Mahabharata Gandhari said (Udyoga Parva) (128:2:21)

"O my extremely brilliant and mighty-powerful son, no one can get Kingdom if he fights only for his personal benefits; even if he gets it, he can neither keep nor enjoy it". Again Gandhari says to Duryadhana "Unless the leader is self-controlled, the assistant ministers will never listen to him, nor can he give punishment to evil-doers if he takes rash decisions with an unsteady-mind. The Goddess of Wealth never comes to such a person". (128:2:30) She predicted to Duryodhana that, the Pandavas were going to win over him because they had excelled him in dharma (righteous action) - Dharmastu Abhyadhikoh tatah (128:2:51-52). P. C Roy lived an aster life but developed the basic pharmaceutical and chemical industry in India. He Who Sacrifices is a True Leader:On his way to India, young Alexander and his huge army were gripped by severe drought and thirst. Some soldiers dug the soil and with great difficulty brought a little drinking water for their leader. Alexander smiled and spread the water on the burning sands. He was one withthe army. It is with such a spirit of sacrifice that Columbus had succeeded to steer to the new continent, even when his convict-sailors turned against him. "Kill self first if you want to succeed", says Vivekananda. And again, he said, brought death to many institutions. Aurangzeb with his pious geocentricism brought ruin on the Mughal Empire. "He who will offer his own head, will lead other heads too", says the Sikh Slogan - Sardar Sirdar. 8. Evenness of mind -The Secret of successful management: Should one always expect success? No, All movements in the world are non-linear, with regular ups and downs like sound wave, light wave, and the waves of joy and sorrow in one's life. If with all the efficiency and struggle success does not come, what should the Manager do? He should be calm and accept the situation with equanimity. This equanimity is the secret of facing all situation in work - Yogah Karmasu Kausalam (Yoga is skill in action) - says the Gita. That skill, according to Shankara, consists in maintaining the evenness of mind in success and failure, in the performance of work as one's duty. The calm mind in failure will lead him to deeper introspection and see clearly where the process went wrong and eventually lead the person to lasting success.

Face Adverse Situation with Strength and Calmness:

Once an executive asked, How to face the situation when things fall apart and workers go wild? Vivekananda's answer was. Face the brute Face it with all the infinite strength and courage of the Self within. `Abhayam' (Fearlessness) is the first requisite of a man of action, according to Gita. And this strength and fearlessness which comes from the infinite strength within must be combined with the calmness, evenness, tranquility of mind and spiritual approach for solution. "Religion is the manifestation of the natural strength that is in man", said Vivekananda. Krishna's immortal exhortation to Arjuna "Yield not to unmanliness O Partha, it does not befit you", has become the classic Indian invocation for fearlessness. It is tragic that Arjuna, the scorcher of foes, got suddenly frightened by the specter of the colossal army of the enemy and lost all faith in his own world-conquering power. Krishna, by sheer power of words, the celestial song (Gita), removed his delusion and restored the faith. "Faith is not belief, it is a grasp on the ultimate, an illumination", said Vivekananda: A man of faith is invincible. He can turn the tides of history. And this faith comes out of the knowledge that there always is the Self, the ever-present divinity which is the repository of all strength, and bliss. All executives in. troubled times will derive immense strength and benefit if they remember the few lines Vivekananda had written to his young enterprising Madras disciples: "Try to manifest the divinity within and everything will be harmoniously arranged around it". (Complete Works 4:351) 9. Trust, Cooperation and Working together: Without trust business transactions can become tortuous, whimsy and expensive after globalization it has become all the more important. Without working together as a team, organizations can work at low efficiency. The Brass industry of Moradabad and Hosiery units at Tripura provides an excellent example of collaborative working where excess order is passed on to the neighbor which has enabled these cities to be the leader of industry and many benefits in terms of lower cost of production, 'good quality, export incentives gets automatically passed to all manufactures with industry growing as a whole because an importer knows that he can always be assured of getting his order fulfilled from these cities in view of the norm and values followed by manufacturers. Nature knows that fighting is foolish, it wastes time, it wastes energy, it risks unnecessary injury and it makes no sense. Peaceful co-existence mutuality and cooperation shall achieve the highest welfare" writes K Matsushita in his book `thought on Man! "If Japan forty years ago had been firml y resolved to seek mutual prosperity instead of dominance in Asia, the country would have been spared the devastation of war and the horrible suffering that came with being the world's first victim of a nuclear attack.

10. Gratitude and Respectfulness: The importance of these values in business is obvious and it is to be seers in conjunction with other values. It helps the person in avoiding jealosy leakage of efforts, ego trap and will bring the support of others. The famous Japanese Company Matsushita uses these in its value education and Japan's success is also attributed a lot by this value in their society: In the book "The Art of Japanese Management" by Richard Tanner Pascale and Anthony G. Athos, the authors give a whole chapter entitled "Spiritual values" where `Matsushita philosophy' and `Matsushita values' are described as the most powerful trend-setter in today's Japanese management. The authors wrote: "The Matsushita philosophy provides a basis of meaning beyond the products it produces. Matsushita was the first company in Japan to have a song and a code of values. It seems silly to Westerners, but every morning at 8 a.m. all across Japan, there are 87,000 people reciting the code of values. It is like we are all a community". The Matsushita "Spiritual Values" are: National Service through industry Fairness Harmony and Co-operation Struggle for Betterment Courtesy and Humility Adjustment and Assimilation Gratitude 11. Harmony with Self, Society and nature: With the resurgence of environmental ethics these trends are now fending universal acceptance all over the world.

INDIAN ETHOS

Indian ethos derived from Vivelcananda, other scholars and relevant to management are listed here which are based on holistic approach and values like personal purity, self sacrifies (Tapasya), internal happiness, forgiveness, donations of excess (Dana), Compassion (Daya), Responsibility (Karma), Modesty (Vinayam), dedication (Samarpan) etc. Some. of the saying are highly relevant in our life: work and otherwise:

"Karamyogi is a person who is committed to truth i.e. the wellbeing of others. Only a pure mind in its serenity and calmness discovers the truth".

"Happiness has to be searched internally. The inner should be given priority in human development. If the inner world is not coherent things will remain complicated".

"Purity, patience and perseverance are the three essentials of success and love".

Knowledge comes from others and is a great power; wisdom is your own understanding. Knowledge along without wisdom can bring sorrow

"One can enjoy life by sacrificing selfishness".

"We are normally focused on what is missing in life. The 'moment you start operating from what you do not have, then whatever you have also goes into darkness "Every human being has potential".

"All work is an opportunity for doing well to the world".

"Strength and inspiration for excellence in work conies from the Atman, the Self, and the God -within, through prayer, meditation, holy readings and unselfish work".

"He who works with calm and evenness of mind achieves the most as he acts from his mind not reacts (Retaliation)".

"A calm mind touches the core of infinite and thus gets re-energized from that infinite which is the Self of man. Power, joy, hope, confidence, and introspection flow in the person who can make his restless mind calm".

"Face adverse situation with strength and calmness (Equanimity)". "Empowerment is the power that lives within each one of us. It is a self-realization that I am responsible for the choice I make".

"By mutual co-operation, respect and fellow-feeling, all of us will enjoy the highest good, both materially and spiritually".

"Righteous action leads to wealth, victory, general welfare of the masses, and constant justice".

"Trust leads to trust and mistrust leads to mistrust".

"Morality comes to a manager by constant introspection and self-discipline".

"The moral person like the Saint arouses the enduring faith of his followers. This is the faith that will lead to better performance".

"The king's (Leader) behavior should be such that each of his subjects thinks that he is very dear or close to the king - If a Leader has this quality, the organization will run most satisfactorily".

Chankya's Quotation, on Leadership and Management

"The root of kingdom lies in the Self-controlled life of the ruler".

"The root of self-control lies in genuine humility".

"Humility comes from serving enlightened persons".

"From the services of enlightened persons comes wisdom".

"By wisdom is gained the knowledge of the Atman-Self ".

"A man of Self-Realization conquers everything in the Universe"

Jain Dharam
Paropkar (doing good to others) and Parahita Chinta (thinking good of others) are the first two values in Jain religion towards a joyful living. In Jain tradition a true leader must have his life based on the following holistic qualities: Maitri Bhava (Friendliness towards all). Pramoda - Bhava (Joy in seeing qualities in others). Kiruna Bhava (Respect and Compassion even to inferior beings). Madhyastha Buddhi Bhavana (Impartial, calm, even attitude of mind towards all people and all situations).

Guru Nanak

"Main Jite Jag Jit (A man of self-control conquers the world)".

Mahatma Gandhi

"No one can take your self-esteem away unless you choose to give it away".

Inter-connected - Sapta Sheela - Principles 1. The Basic Principle: "AHAM BRAHMASMI TATTWAMASI"

Each soul is potentially divine. I have immense potentialities. You have infinite Potential. 2. Why work? "ATMANO MOKSHARTHAM JAGAT-HITAYA CHA":

For your own salvation (uplifting) and for the good of the world, synchronize your private benefit with the public benefit. 3. What is work? YAGYARTHAT KARMANAH/ PARASPARM BHACYANTAH" Karma is to be done in the spirit of YAJNA Nurturing each other.

4. How to work? SEVA +IYAGA

Serve others. Give your best for the good of others. 5. Spirit of work: YOGAHA KARMASU KAUSHALAM

Excellence in work is YOGA. 6. The resources: SUKSHMA STHULA: PRAGYANAM BRAHMAN

Subtle / subjective factors are more important than gross/ objective factors ETHICS AND MARKETING

Some ethical issues involved in marketing are listed below: i. Deceptive advertisement ii. Price fixing iii. Withholding test data iv. Falsifying Marketing research behavior v. Marketing strategies Making the other competitor lose, Pepsi vs. Coca Cola Warfare terms - attaching competitors vi. Impulsive and pyramid marketing (influencing innocent buyers as one gets a commission) vii. Selling out-dated products viii. Pricing - higher prices Cartel marketing Taking over small firms and fixing higher prices. ix. Doubtful reliability x. Poor customer service and lack of responsiveness after sale

Coming to the specifics of the ethics of advertising, Hymen et al. (1994) cover the following issues: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Does it misinform? Does it mislead? Does it make false promises? Does it criticize other products - truthfully or otherwise? Does it create socially undesirable demands? Does it cause socially undesirable action by the target audience? Does it try to influence target groups who are not mature enough to understand and discriminate, e.g. children? 8. Is it any way offensive to good taste? 9. Is it in using money power to blackball fair competition? 10. Does it lower the dignity of women? 11. Does it revel in intimate physical details which good taste should leave alone? 12. Does it defame any person or class of persons? 13. Does it build a stereotype which results in some class of persons having a disadvantage in normal social relationship? 14. Does it manipulate the viewer by subliminal suggestions or emotional blackmail by wrongly, unreasonably, irrationally invoking basic and hidden fears of death and injury, or visions and fantasies?

ETHICS AND PURCHASING

Ethical issues involved in purchasing may relate to the following. 1. Gifts and commissions - Diwali gifts, there is nothing as free gift 2. Kick back 3. Free holidays and inducing the buyer 4. Deceptive orders - promising too large an order which may not exist 5. Calling quotation without intention of buying 6. Favoritism- Giving chance to only known persons or disclosing important information to a selected few. 7. Information disclosure - Passing the secret of one competitive to other OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT AND ETHICS

Some issues involved 1. Employees theft 2. Fiddling with expenses account 3. Misuse of company assets 4. Environmental pollution and effluents 5. Delayed payments 6. Poor quality and service - like hospitals (A case when a patient was discharged in 4 days instead of 5 days needed to adjust a new patient) 7. Political donations 8. Giving excessive gifts HUMAN RESOURCES MANAGEMENT AND ETHICS

A few areas where ethics can be an issue in HRM 1. Recruitment of favorable persons 2. Wrong advertisement, No full information 3. Sex discrimination in selection / promotions 4. Not maintaining confidentiality. 5. Tie up with recruitment agencies. 6. Discrimination in compensation fixation 7. Wrong method used in separation - using union leaders to intimidate employees in opting for V.R.S 8. Curving genuine trade unionism 9. Wrong incentive calculations

ISSUES INVOLVED IN ETHICS RELATED TO FINANCE AND ACCOUNTING & BUSINESS SCAMS

Finance
1. Seeking rewards not from productivity but from speculative forecasting. 2. Focus of management not on governance for a long term trust building but on the naked greed of high profits. 3. Transactions are hidden from public. No transparency. 4. Systems can be such that rewards for risk taking goes to one set of persons whereas cost are likely to be borne by many others or public. 5. Looking for astronomically high rewards 6. Weak internal controls for several reasons

Accounts
Accounting is supposed to provide information to the accountee even if it is uncomfortable to accouter as this information helps in decision making and for accountability. 1. Undue dependence on junior level staff or untrained persons by over committed certified accountants. 2. Charging fee higher than needed 3. Compromising on ethics of accounting 4. Receiving undue hospitality and favors 5. Hiding information or facts and not advising correctly for the fear of loosing contract

Bank Scams
a) Are the Banks supposed to invest public money in highly speculative areas b) Is not certain portion of their investment to be made in no risk areas c) Banking regulations requires certain standards of public disclosure of information.

Reason of Indian Banking Scam: Harshad Mehta Case

An unscrupulous operator forged documents and created fake transaction which seems to satisfy banking regulations. He took the money from banks for temporary periods and paid them handsome returns till overheated market of his creations collapsed. Govt. securities, had very low rate of returns whereas the interest rate of market was high (unwise interference by the Govt. in market mechanism) Failures of internal control system

Most of the banks were running inlosses till 1993. Various banks like Allahabad Bank, - Bank of Baroda, Bank of Maharashtra, Canara Bank, Syndicate Bank, State Bank of India were reporting losses and were under pressure to turn around. However the banks had the direction to invest in priority sector with low interest (No profit even with efficient operations appeared possible). Labor cost in banks was very high as no computerization was allowed by staff unions. Inadequacy in disclosure standards of banking in India, Still banks were expected to make profits and their rewards were dependent on it. It was then natural to compromise and cut ethical corners by the bank officials

What is inside trading

To buy or sell shares / securities on the basis of privileged information, it is a breach of trust and requires strong monitoring boards for control by the Govt. agencies.

The Other Sides of Mergers and Acquisitions

It is commonly believed that in India also companies merging or acquiring other companies will become a trend soon. It is well understood that these mergers and acquisitions have an ethical side; some of which has been incorporated into laws. Many others have not. The ethics of mergers and acquisitions have six basic issues: 1. Manipulations of market and share purchase transactions 2. Processes of valuation of companies and their share prices 3. Unfair consequences for the shareholders 4. Unfair consequences for the genuine investors as against those who have never grown even a blade of grass 5. Unfair consequences for the consumers and society 6. Unfair consequences for the employees

EXAMPLES OF GOOD ETHICS IN INDIAN ORGANIZATIONS A. The Housing Development Finance Corporation (HDFC): Thanks to this organization, one million middle-class Indians have been able to buy their own homes. About 5,000 new applicants approach HDFC each day. As they enter any branch of the organization, they know they will be treated efficiently and fairly, as wanted customers. The customer orientation percolates down all the way from the corporate headquarters to the branches located at different places. To quote Deepak S Parekh; CEO, HDFC, who was conferred the JRD Tata corporate leadership award by ALMA for the year 1996: "A house is the biggest and single most important asset that a family buys, and it is for life. So, we have to be helpful." This business philosophy coupled with good ethics catapulted HDFC into the leadership position in the home mortgage market, growing at 30 per cent on an average every year and adding to shareholder wealth. B. Ratan Tata(1993), in an interview, said: "Ethics for Tatas means conducting business in a manner which is fair and just to employees, suppliers and shareholders, having a concern for the community in which one is operating. It would involve putting combined interests above personal gain or exploitation. A similar view was echoed by Russy Mody, who was in Tata Steel for half-a-century when he said: "My values were fashioned by the House of Tatas. These were to so conduct your business that profit was not your only motive. C. Infosys Technologies Ltd: "The peon of the company is worth Rs 6 lakh, and an executive, anywhere around Rs 25 lakh". Thus, reads the write-up on Infosys in Business India. This company is a dream employer for all its employees, thanks to the employee stock option plan in vogue. Every employee is made a partner in the common endeavor to achieve excellence in the software industry. No other fact testifies to this more than Infosys annual sales revenue, which zoomed from about Rs 10 crore in March 1992 to about Rs 135 crore by March 1997 (i.e., in just 5 years)! One, we recognized that, to succeed, we had to operate to go public, we made sure that wealth is created within the business." A transparent company to the core, Infosys became the first Indian company last year to prepare its accounts in compliance with US Generally Accepted Accounting Practices and Securities Exchange Commission disclosure norms; a step, indeed, towards attaining global-level transparency.

D. Hero group: Hero cycles entered The Guinness Book of World Records as the world's largest manufacturer of bicycles. The patriarch chairman, Brijmohan Lail Munjal, has come a long way in the last 20 years. From bicycles, he demonstrated his business acumen in a fiercely competitive two-wheeler market, and he has now set his eyes on the passenger car segment Commenting on Munjal, Tejendra Khanna, former commerce secretary, once said: "His complete humility, humaneness and cordiality in dealing with all sorts of people - other businessman, government officials and employees - resulted in everyone wanting to help him. Munjal was also one of the first to introduce just-in-time inventory and provide support to ancillary units. They provide support to ancillary units whose production is dedicated to Hero's requirements. Hero Honda, for instance, is recognized as one. of Honda's best managed units outside Japan. The Japanese have found the highest rates of labor productivity in the world in all the Hero group companies. E. Alacrity Foundation: This medium-sized property developer became a household name in. Tamil Nadu in less than 10 years. The company has the courage to pronounce its business philosophy aloud i.e., "it still pays to be honest". Alacrity promises to develop, build and market residential accommodation without any black money, fulfilling, all the taxation and legal requirements. The company gets all clearances for the title deeds, building permission, drainage, water and power without any bribes. That, too, in an industry riddled with corruption. The company strictly adheres to the delivery schedule and indemnifies the customer for delays beyond time delivery period. F. Maruti Udyog Ltd (MUL): Just a few months ago, we had seen the- biggest ever recall of cars in this country. The company concerned was MUL, and the product, the Maruti 800 passenger car. Of the Maruti ' 800s sold between January and April 1997, about 50,000 cars were recalled, the story goes like this: "In January 1997, Sona Steering's raw material supplier, Mukand Limited, supplied it low alloy steel dubbed SCM 415 for manufacturing the pinions. But due to an error at Mukand's stockyard, the batch of raw material consignment dispatched to Sona Steering was of a different grade of steel, which was not meant for pinion manufacturing". Fortunately, it was detected during the grueling test drives the cars are subject to, and the whole batch of 50,000 cars has been recalled at the company's expense. G. A look at the Indian corporate sector enables one to identify many more relatively bigger entitles than discussed so far. Mention may be made of the Tata group companies, the Aditya Birla group, Choksi's Asian Paints, NDDB in the public sector, the TVS group, and many others. All these companies, known for their distinct corporate philosophies, largely aim at sound business practices. H. Bad and Unethical Practices: The list of companies that usually indulge in unethical business practices perhaps far exceeds the list of good companies. A few companies which could attain the dubious distinction of appearing in the business papers are presented here along with the kind of unethical practice the company was associated with - (the names of the company / group has been changed and fictitious name are used).

A Group: 'Between 1976 and 1986, the group floated half-a-dozen companies and rose about Rs 500 crore from the capital market. Its outstanding loans to the FIIS are estimated to be around Rs 700 crore. The group's recipe for fast growth was - Raise money for an existing profitable company, start a new project, spin off the project into a separate company, and raise further money from the market for another new project. B Group: The Hyderabad Stock Exchange recently delisted the B group for failing to submit its annual results. In a hurry to join the big league, the group started, in less than ten years, six companies, and drifted too far. And as if that were not enough, it entered the newspaper industry, and conceived a mega cement project! As a result of such hasty decisions and over ambitious plans, the entire group is now languishing. C Group: The less said the better about the C group, the rage of investors tills a couple of years back. The group rose more than Rs 7,000 crore in the last five years, and went to the public for money ten times between 1991 and 1995. The shares of almost all the group companies are now quoting below par. Agro, Paper, Tea Gardens, Airlines, TV, Textiles, and what not, the group owes money to its suppliers and faces numerous court cases. D Group: Its owner was in the, news in 1995 for having misled the investing public. The company has not given a true picture to the investors regarding the share price movement of the existing company. The whole episode led to the subsequent arrest of promoter. E Group: Kabra was instrumental in wrecking the fortunes of about half-a-dozen companies he had acquired with much fanfare in the eighties. He is now busy facing investigations on FERA violations, piling up of debt and interest burdens, several raids, the ire of his senior galore that his main intention was to 'siphon off the funds from the acquired companies. All `his' acquisitions do not have much left to cheer. Many other scams , claims of a host of others engaged in teak plantations, violation of excise laws all point to how management, out of greed to make more money and achieve goals, take the various constituents of the company for a ride in the most unfair ways.

CREATING AN ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE FOR ETHICS - THE TOOL TO PROMOTING ETHICAL CORPORATE BEHAVIOUR Where does the solution lie? The practice of good ethics in various operational areas of business does not happen on its own. In companies where organization culture is strong, in terms of the top management's commitment to good business practices, open communication, share values, beliefs and norms for the good of all, ethics, obviously, take center stage, influencing the organizational behavior. As Per Mordsjo, the global quality manager for Volvo Trucks, which is setting up a plant in Bangalore, puts it: "Even if we have a truck which is 99 per cent assembled and holding up its full assembly, we will not use that part just to keep our delivery schedule". Such pronouncements from the top functionaries of any organization obviously signify the company's commitment. Culture in the organizational context refers to the set of values, dominant beliefs and guiding norms of a people. It denotes 'mental program shared by the members of an organization. A strong culture provides a basis for the productive ethos of an organization. Excellent companies rich in legends, anecdotes, a sense of pride, excitement and achievement orientation and a unique corporate folklore provide the basis for a strong culture. Such a culture spearheads the company's commitment in respect to quality, reliability, customer service, employee welfare, etc. The concern for the values the company holds dear is diffused throughout the organization. Kilmann, one of the prominent writers on organizational culture, views culture in terms of `right' or `wrong' i.e., he holds that culture governs people's behavior in either the right or wrong direction. As organizations are viewed as systems composed of ideas, metaphors, myths, rituals and ceremonies, rich networks of legends and parables of all sorts pervade effective organizations. Having understood the interface between corporate ethics and culture, let us examine the ways in which conductive culture can be fostered in an organization to promote acceptable ethical behavior.

Top management's initiative

Top managers have to serve as exemplary role models for the young as the latter draw meanings easily from the behavior of their bosses. The `superiors', through pronouncements, decisions, interpretations and communication, should demonstrate their disposition towards ethical business practices. Their role is crucial in developing and institutionalizing creation of symbols, ideologies, language, beliefs, rituals and myths. A summary of the research findings in this area made by Kao indicates how top management builds a strong culture by: Creating, diffusing and sharing a vision of the organization's mission and purpose; Communicating openly, clearly and persuasively towards securing and sustaining shared perceptions; Providing an environment for supportive interpersonal relationships; Exhorting and coaching towards high standards of ethical behavior; Praising and recognizing accomplishments of good behavior through symbols, rituals and ceremonies. CASE STUDIES AND EXAMPLES ON ETHICS

EXAMPLE: Textile Engineering Company

The firm's practices are as detailed by one of the personnel officers. The company carefully scans the legal decisions and lists the offences in which dismissals will not be overturned by the courts. It is seen that violence inside the factory never gets any sympathy. It marks its victim and asks a confidante to pick up a fist-fight with him. An inquiry is ordered. The confidant turns approver. The witnesses are cooked up. The marked man is found guilty and sacked. The state labor department is `kept happy'. Sounds like a typical Indian movie but is nevertheless true to life.

EXAMPLE: Dr. Jacquelline Verret

Dr. Jacquelline Verret (JV) was a scientist in the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) of America. She was working on the sugar substitute cyclamates. She found that chick embryo injected with cyclamates developed cancer, and held a press conference to release this information. As a consequence, a national television network sought her interview. She informed her superiors of the TV interview and assured them that it would not be conducted to cause panic. Nevertheless, the FDA accused her of being unethical as the correct procedure would have been to punish her work in a scientific journal and subject herself to peer review. They felt that research on chicks did not necessarily mean that the results would be the same for human beings. JV replied that publications in scientific journals take too much time and there was an urgent need to take action. FDA could not fire her as meanwhile a public outcry ensued, nor could they cut her budget as she had built up a reputation. But JV admitted that the press had unfortunately used panicky language. Nevertheless, it was the moral duty of scientists to keep the public informed without creating any panic.

Analysis for the reader

Can we see this in terms of only absolute ethics or also in terms of its consequences? If we think over the consequences, we haveto realistically assess (a) the pressure that could be building on the FDA by asymmetry of information among the users, scientists and producers.

EXAMPLE: Murarka Market Research Consultants

Murarka hires Arun Menon, a fresh MBA, and puts him in charge of a major market consultancy contract. The consultancy was obtained by them on the assurance that it would be functioning more or less unsupervised as the partners had other international commitments. Arun is a novice and knows next to nothing, Should he tell the clients about this?

EXAMPLE: The Ultraviolet Ink

Usha, an executive in a firm of market research consultants, is assigned a massive postal market research of 30,000 respondents. The client Fas been assured of a thorough job. Her boss Ram Saxena tells her this can be done only if she personally cross-checks with the respondents. This would require the names and addresses, of the respondents to be recorded on the response sheets. But the client has said that as the products is for personal use; the respondents should be informed that their names would not be recorded. Saxena suggests that the names should be recorded in ultraviolet ink and decoded at the office. Usha is told that if the project goes through, both she and Ram would get a promotion. Should Usha agree to this?

EXAMPLE: Gita Garment Exports

Gita Garment Exports had a flourishing business exporting garments to the USA. Suddenly, the US administration banned the imports because they found that the garments, made of synthetic material, could cause dermatitis, a skin disease. Faced with this debacle, Gita Exports explored other markets and found that several African countries may like to import this product. The profits would be lower but the company would avert financial disaster. Should they export to Africa without confirming that there would be no risk of dermatitis?

EXAMPLE: Hyderabad Asbestos

Hyderabad Asbestos had two pricing which were investigated by the MRTP Commission (RTPE 1987 decided on 26 December 1980). The first involved very high variations in pricing between different order sizes. The second was that they sold below cost to the public sector and the government (predatory pricing) due to excessive competition. The Commission allowed it to continue. As for discriminatory pricing, they instructed the company to follow uniform pricing with suitable discounts based on cost savings subject to the size of the orders.

EXAMPLE: Philips India

Philips India used to give the 'recommended price' in their price lists. This gave the impression that the product should not be sold below that price. The MRTP Commission (RTP 5 of 1978 decided on 26 September 1979) directed that the price lists should show the maximum retail price and the dealers should have the freedom to charge less.

EXAMPLE: The Statesman

The Statesman was offering concessional rates for advertisements published in all its issues. The MRTP Commission (RTP 53 of 1974 decided on 2 April 1976) decided that there should be separate rates for the Calcutta and Delhi editions, and the combined rates should not be less than-92.5 per cent of the individual rates.

EXAMPLE: Snowline Clothiers

Snowline Clothiers advertised an unusually high discount of 50 per cent. The MRTP Commission (UTP 13 of 1984 decided on 2 May 1986) ordered the following guidelines for the future: 1. The period of discount should not be less than ten days and should be mentioned in the advertisement. 2. The normal price of each category should be mentioned. 3. The quantity of the articles for the maximum and minimum discount should be mentioned.

EXAMPLE: The Grim Mother-in-Law

A masala (spices) advertisement shows the mother-in-law menacingly standing in front of her trembling daughter-in-law who is trying to pick up the right ingredients for cooking. She makes the inevitable mistake, to the glee of her mother-in-law. If only she had chosen this, masala powder, she would have got it all right - so goes the advertisement. Can mothers-in-law object to the stereotyping?

EXAMPLE: Deepak Ghosh and the Campaign Sale

Deepak's company had a special compaign sale in March 1995. Knowing this, Deepak held back the sales figures of January and February, and included these in the March figures so that he could get the bonus on the campaign sale. Since the campaign sale provided a special discount for the dealer, overall the company lost in the bargain. Had Deepak been ethical?

EXAMPLE: Rajesh Menon's Gift

This was Rajesh Menon's first job at HIPRO, a company which prided itself on its ethical standards. Rajesh had been inducted to this philosophy. Their sales targets were tight. At the year end, the only way he could meet the target was by gifting a clock to the purchase manager of the buying company. He decided to buy the gift from his own pocket as he was terrified of not being confirmed it he did not fulfill the target. Was he being ethical?

EXAMPLE: The Special Computers of HIPRO

Ram Kumar, a sales executive, had the best record for sales in HIPRO. He was very good at demonstrating his company's computers. He waxed eloquent on their ethics and their record of being the first computer company to get the ISO 9000. But he did not tell the clients that spare parts of their computers were non-standard and available only with them. Their systems also did not match others in the field. Consequently, other service companies could not carry out their repair jobs. HIPRO's own service department had therefore a monopoly. Were Ram Kumar and HIPRO ethically upright?

EXAMPLE: Territorial Restrictions on Hindustan Lever

The dealership contracts at Hindustan Lever (HLL) contained restriction on the dealers selling outside their territories. HLL was encouraged to insert this restriction as the Supreme Court in an earlier case allowed such restrictions to TELCO. The MRTP struck HLL down (RTPE 1 o f1974 decided in July 1975). HLL appealed to the Supreme Court but the court upheld the decision of the MRTP Commission (Appeal Number 650). They clarified that the territorial restrictions for TELCO enabled better servicing of their machines and could not be extended to consumer articles like soaps and detergents.

EXAMPLE: Sangeeta's Cost Reduction Drive

Sangeeta, a company manufacturing consumer electronic products, found its market dwindling. Wishing to reduce its prices, it undertook a major cost-reduction drive, It came, up with the idea of a new design for part X. Chandra, the GM Purchase, was given the task of negotiating the price with the vendor, within a ceiling proposed to Chandra. They wanted Chandra to also firm up the price. The part involved development of a costly mould by the vendor. Chandra painted a rosy picture of the firm's future production plans which he knew were not true. He also told the vendor that several others were eager to supply the parts to them. In fact, because of their poor track record of payments, supplier were dropping off. Lastly, Chandra offered the vendor a price much higher than his currei costs as encouragement, provided he held his prices.

Chandra knew through inside source that the raw material prices for the parts were to increase sharply six months from now. He did not share this information with the vendor. This way he succeeded in clinching the deal with the supplier. Once the moulds were made, Chandra knew that the vendor was it his clutches, unless he cheated him by supplying the design to the competitor. Was Chandra being ethical and / or wise?

CASE : Madhulika Bose

Madhulika Bose was an MBA. She had specialized in marketing and market research. She joined Mudrika. Her referee, her ex-professor of ethics, was asked for a confidential report by Mudrika before she joined the firm. The report said, `Madhulika is a competent marks researcher with a good understanding of statistics and the statistical computer packages to analyze data. She has varied interests in life and had to he counseled often during her stay at the institute to concentrate on fewer things so that she does not cut corners. Guided properly, she can work reasonably hard. She has a soaring ambition for a bright career. Her first assignment on market research involved working with part-time field investigators whom she had to train. Soon after training them she told her immediate boss Ajay Dixit that they seemed to be very poorly paid for their work and that their traveling allowances were hardly enough to look after their basic needs. She felt that they were likely to avoid traveling and fudge their response sheets. They would need too much supervision which would be very costly. Ajay ridiculed her line of thinking and said that the rates were competitive and not less than what others paid. When the response sheets started coming in, Madhulika found that many of them seemed to have similar answers. She told Ajay that she would like to supervise and recheck some, of them by re interviewing the respondents. Ajay had a look at the response sheets and so that this was not unnatural and could be quite representative of the population. He did not agree to her undertaking the tour to cross-check the response sheets. A little later, she was surprise by a call from the Managing Director Ram Ambani who said that the clients wanted the report a fortnight earlier and that if she accepted the challenge she could get a promotion and could directly report to him. Madhulika said she would accept the challenge. She requested for a generous travel budget. Ram accepted to this request. As she proceeded with her work, she realized that meeting the deadline was going to be difficult with the slow progress. She decided on a whirlwind tour to personally interview the respondents. Even then she found time overtaking her. She felt that the first sample of respondents she had interviewed herself confirmed Ajay Dixit's theory that the

population was homogeneous. She argued with Ajay that the sample size could be reduced without any risk of coming to the wrong conclusions. Ajay, without referring to Ram, said that the client had specified a minimum sample size and so she could not change it.. Madhulika in a panic just cooked up the data for a large number of respondents. She satisfied herself that the clients would not be misled with wrong results. Ajay guessed the evidence of this fudging and reported it to Ram. Here is what your favorite has done,' he said with a sneer. A furious Ram called up Madhulika. He knew that there was no time to cross-check and proves Ajay's accusation. But Madhulika confessed before he could verify anything. But she said that statistically she was satisfied that no harm had been done and the client would get a sound and reliable report and in time but Ram felt that his company would be in serious trouble if this were known outside. Moreover, his father the chairman was a moralist and would not tolerate this slip-up of moral behavior. (This case has been discussed with some of the top market research organizations in the country and they confirm that the situation is a realistic one.)

Analyze for the reader

What do you think Madhulika should have done as a good professional? Should Ram Ambani sack her?

EXAMPLE: The Barrings Case

Leeson, a young enthusiastic executive of Barrings Bank, was posted in the Singapore branch. He started with the less precarious arbitrage trading, where he made profits by using the difference in the price of security between different stock exchanges. It was just smartness and information-readiness that enabled him to make money. But then he moved .over to derivatives. Call and put options, straddles, index options and naked options, instruments which could be used less transparently and more dangerously. Lesson traded in derivatives with precarious takes. More disastrously, he did not put the loss-making transactions through the account hooks of Barrings; the day of reckoning could wait till the dealing parties pressed for the related settlement. It was also suspected that on some occasions he misclassified cash transactions deliberately to stow them away under heads where they would not attract attention. Lesson was given the combined responsibility of trading and its accounting in the books. This was atrocious internal control, never done that way anywhere, like a school-boy grading his tests'. It should have been plain to even a casual observer that losses were mounting as London had to send absurdly large funds to Singapore - 900 million - in a very short period to discharge pressing liabilities. Much earlier, in 1992, a Barrings executive had

warned against trusting Leeson with so much authority with such little independent check. On 8 February 1994, the treasurer of Barrings, Anthony Hawes, assured a worried Singapore Exchange that Barrings would honor its liabilities. But Peter Barring, the Chairman, woke up to the disaster only after Leeson had fled from Singapore on 28 February. Such was his trust in Leeson or alienation from reality or connivance with the scam, depending upon what one would infer his unusual behavior. Barrings' losses were more than its capital and there was no way it could survive. Several people all over the world including the British royalty who had trusted their money to the bank had to face a financial disaster. SUMMARY

The objective of this unit has been to make you aware of the various aspects and dynamics of organizational Ethics and Values. This unit raises various issues and tries to provide probably solution as well. The unit has successfully explained the history of ethics, why to study business ethics; issues involved in it and discuss the reason for its importance in today's world. Discussing Indian Ethos and various theories this unit identifies ethical issues involved in various functions of management. Having told you about all the above issues the unit, towards the end, explains various quotable ethical practices in Indian Organizations.

POWER DYNAMICS

Objectives
After going through this unit, you should be able to: Diagnose the extent, location and types of power in an organization; Understand how and by whom power is exercised in an organization; Examine different aspects of power dynamics in an organization.

Structure
Introduction Concept of Power Differentiating Power from Authority and Influence Sources of Power The Bases of Power Using Power Ethically The Dynamics of Power Summary Self-Assessment Questions Further Readings

INTRODUCTION

Power is a potentially sinister subject. Power says Bierstedt (1950), stands behind every association and sustains its structure. Without power there is no organization and without power there is no order. Paradoxically, the most potent exercise of power maybe invisible, Power relations can be subtly changing and ambiguous. In theory, managers command and employees obey. In practice, it is not always so. Indeed, what appears as unquestioning obedience may actually be a covert form of resistance? It is useful, therefore, to understand something about the nature of power in organizations. CONCEPT OF POWER Power is said to be like loved, impossible to define but easy enough to recognize (Martin, 1977). Power is understood as the ability to influence other people and events. In the words of White and Bednar, "Power is the ability, to influence people of things, usually obtained through the control of important resources."

A comprehensive definition of power is given byDahl (1957), when he wrote that "A has power over l3 to the extent that he can get B to do something B would not otherwise do." Russell (1938) conceptualizes power as "the production of intended effects." Dehl's definition suggests that power must overcome resistance in order to succeed whereas according to Russell, power need not imply resistance. All the above definitions suggest that power involves compulsion. There have been recent trends towards empowerment, the shifting of power away from managers and into bands of subordinates. Empowerment occurs in varying degrees in different organizations. DIFFERENTIATING POWER FROM AUTHORITY AND INFLUENCE

Usually, the term power is intertwined with another concept, authority. But there is a difference between the two concepts. Power refers to the capacity to influence others. The person who possesses power has the ability to manipulate or change the behavior of others. Authority, on the other hand, is the source of power. Authority is legitimate and it confers legitimacy to power. Power itself need not be legitimate. Authority exists where one person has a formal right to command and another has a formal obligation to obey. Authority may be seen as institutionalized power. For example, a police officer has authority to stop a motorist. The motorist is legally obliged to comply. Managers are said to possess a `right to manage'. Employees are legally obliged to obey the employer's instructions provided these are lawful and within the scope of the contract of employment. Whereas power and authority are potentially mandatory, influence, by contrast implies persuasion. Influence is usually conceived of being broader in scope, than power, Influence is more closely associated with leadership than power, but both obviously are involved in the leadership process. Marx was highly influential but not powerful in contrast Stalin was powerful but not influential. In organizations, employees may influence decisions through joint consultative committees and other mechanisms, yet the organization reserves the final say.

SOURCES OF POWER

Interpersonal Sources of Power

French and Raven identity five interpersonal sources of power: reward power, coercive power, legitimate power, expert power, and referent power. Reward power: Reward power is an individual's ability to influence others' behavior by rewarding their desirable behavior. Employees comply with requests and directives because of the authority of managers to grant rewards in the form of praise, promotions, salary increase, bonuses, and time-off. Reward power can lead to better performance, but only as long as the employee sees a clear and strong link between performance and rewards. Coercive power: Coercive power is an individual's ability to influence others' behavior by means of punishment for undesirable behavior. For example, subordinates may comply because they expect to be punished for failure to respond favorably with managerial directives. Punishment may be major or minor, depending on the nature of omission or commission. Legitimate Power: Legitimate power most often refers to a manager's ability to influence subordinates' behavior because of the manager's position in the organizational hierarchy. Subordinates may respond to such influence because they acknowledge the manager's legitimate right to prescribe certain behaviors. Legitimate power is an important organizational concept. Typically, a manager is empowered to make decisions within a specific area of responsibility, such as quality control, accounting, human resource, marketing, and so on. Expert power: Expert power is an individual's ability to influence others' behavior because of recognized skills, talents, or specialized knowledge. To the extent that managers can demonstrate competence in analyzing, evaluating, controlling, and implementing the tasks of subordinates, they will acquire expert power.

Referent power: Referent power is an individual's ability to influence others' behavior as a result of being liked or admired. For instance, subordinates' identification with a manager often forms the basis for referent power; this identification may include the desire of the subordinates to emulate the manager. Referent power is usually associated with the individuals who possess admired personality characteristics, charisma, or a good reputation.

Structural Sources of Power

Much of the attention directed at power in organizations tends to focus on the power of managers over subordinates. An additional perspective is that the characteristics of the situation affect or determine power, important structural sources of power include knowledge, resources, decision making and networks.

Knowledge as power: Organizations are information processors that must use knowledge to produce goods and services. The concept of knowledge as power means that individuals, teams, groups, or departments that possess knowledge are crucial in attaining the organizations goals. Intellectual capital represents the knowledge, knowhow, and competency that exist in the organization. This intellectual capital can provide an organization with a competitive edge in the marketplace.

Resources as power: Organizations need a variety of resources, including money, human resources, equipment, materials, and customers to survive. The importance of specific resources to an organizations success and the difficulty in obtaining them vary from situation to situation, the departments, groups, or individuals who can provide essential or difficult-to-obtain resources acquire more power in the organization than others.

Decision making as power: The decision making process in an organization creates more or less power differences among individuals or groups. Managers exercise considerable power in an organization simply because of their decision making ability. Although decision making is an important aspect of power in every organization, cultural differences make for some interesting differences in the relationship. For example, in Chinese organization, decision making power was more decentralized in manufacturing firms than in service organizations. The reverse was true in British firms, with power being more decentralized in the service organizations than in the manufacturing firms.

Networks as power: The existence of structural and situational power depends not only on access to information, resources and decision making, but also on the ability to get cooperation in carrying out tasks. Managers and departments that have connecting links with other individuals and departments in the organization will be more powerful than those who don't have.

THE BASES OFPOWER

Etzioni identifies three basic resources of power namely, coercion, (b) remunerative power, and (c) normative power. Coercion means the ability to manipulate physical sanctions including physical chastisement, forcible detention, to deprive a person of food, sleep and other physiological needs. Force is therefore required in order to obtain compliance. Examples of such organizations include jails, detention centers, concentration camps, and some psychiatric hospitals. Remunerative power refers to the ability to manipulate material rewards and sanctions including salaries, wages, promotions and training. Utilitarian organizations engage in producing goods and services for sale in the market place. Material inducement is required to procure compliance. Such organizations include factories, hotels and commercial enterprises.

Normative power rests upon human need for approval and recognition. It refers to the ability to manipulate symbols including medals, gadgets, badges and certificates. Normative organizations are those whose mission is primarily idealistic or value-based. Such organizations include voluntary organizations and political groups, schools, universities and hospitals. The members of these organizations are highly committed. According to Etzioni each form of power is associated with a particular form of involvement. Coercion is associated with alienation and hostility, remunerative power with calculative involvement and normative power with moral involvement. Another influential contribution to the literature and power in organizations is French and Raven's typology of power.

USING POWER ETHICALLY

To be considered ethical, power-related behavior must meet three criteria: 1. Does the behavior produce a good outcome for people both inside and outside the organization? If the power-related behavior serves only the individual's selfinterest and fails to help the organization reach its goals, it is considered unethical. 2. Does the behavior respect the rights of all parties? The question emphasizes the criterion of individual rights. Free speech, privacy, and the process are individual rights that are to be respected, and power-related behaviors that violate these rights are considered unethical. 3. Does the behavior treat all parties equitable and fairly? This question represents the criterion of distributive justice. Power-related behavior that treats one party arbitrarily or benefits one party at the expense of another is unethical.

THE DYNAMICS OF POWER Power is a part of the fabric of organization. To appreciate the reality of organizations it is necessary to know something about the nature and dynamics of power in organizations. Informal Power: In theory an employee is allotted sufficient power to enable him to do his job, no more and no less. In practice people in organizations can acquire power beyond what their formal role might suggest. Power without authority is sometimes known as illegitimate or informal power. Informal power arises because organizations cannot legislate for every contingency. Organizational rules specify what employees can or cannot do in particular circumstances. For example, financial regulations may stipulate which office holders have authority to sign cheques or enter into contracts. Yet in every organization there is inevitably room to exercise discretion. Discretion means that a person has the option of acting differently. Indeed without it the organization would run into difficulties. Power relations are inherently dynamic and apt to change over time. For instance, if rewards are administered regularly they may be regarded as coercion because of the threat of withdrawal. Informal power is usually legitimated in time. Any source or person who is regularly consulted becomes an authority. Resistance in Organizations: The impetus to resistance in organizations stems from the potential for tension between organizational and individual interest. What is good for the organization may be detrimental to its employees and vice versa. One form of resistance is where employees try to escape managerial domination by `distancing' themselves physically or symbolically from those in control, Another form of resistance involves demand for greater involvement in participative decision-making and implementation in the organization. The dynamics of power can be studied from several angles, viz., distribution, dependency, uncertainty, compliance, indicators, power determinants, power consequences, and symbols and reputation.

Distribution
There is no rational in the distribution of power among organizational members. Some may yield more power than others. Often, the power wielded by one member may be disproportionate to the organizational position he holds."

Those in power try to grab more of it. They strongly resist any attempt to weaken the power they wielded. An individual cannot have power at all places and at all times. He may be forced to forgo his power or he may be stripped of it. He resists attempts to weaken his power; in the event of failure he will try to form coalition. There is strength in numbers.

Dependency
As indicated earlier, power largely depends on dependency relationship. The greater X depends on Y, the greater the power of Y on X. The greater the dependency of an organization on a limited number of individuals, the greater the power these individuals enjoy, A person who cannot be easily displaced enjoys more power than others whose services can be easily replaced.

Uncertainty
Organizations seek to avoid uncertainty as far as possible, People who can absorb uncertainty wield more power, Uncertainty depends on the nature of the organization. In a marketing firm, for instance, sales executives confront uncertainty and naturally wield more power.

Compliance
Of all the types of power, People generally comply with legitimate power. People perceive reward and coercive powers as weak for complying with manager's requests.

Power Indicators
It is difficult to tell when power is being used. Those who use power usually do not want others to know about it. Indeed, power is most effective when it is not visible.

People tend to resist the use of power when they see themselves being influenced in a way that is contrary to their own desires. Individuals who are using power frequently fail to recognise what they are doing. They honestly feel that they are exerting rational influence that can be justified for legitimate reasons other than their personal wishes. They sincerely think their influence is rational rather than political.

Determinants of Power

One method of assessing power focuses on the potential to exert influence and consists of measuring how many determinants of power are available to each member. These are five bases of personal power. One of the bases of power is expertise. Individuals who possess better knowledge and expertise can exert higher influence in situations where their knowledge is important.

Consequences of Power
Since power is used to influence decision, those with the greatest power should be the ones who obtain the most favorable outcomes. The relationship between power and consequences needs to be interpreted carefully, It is also important to distinguish between the ability to influence a situation and the ability to force at what would have occurred at any event.

Symbols
The power of different individuals can be assessed by examining how many symbols of power they possess. Symbols include such things as titles, office size and location, special parking privileges, special eating facilities, automobiles, airplanes, and office furnishings. The location of offices on different floors often reflects the relative power of the office-holders.

Reputation
One way of assessing power in an organization is to ask its members to possess greater power or exert the greatest influence. However, potential activities of the most powerful and influential individuals may be understated or overlooked both by themselves and others. Another way of assessing power is to determine which individuals and groups are the most heavily represented on committees and other significant administrative positions.

SUMMARY
The concept of power refers to the capacity to change the behavior or attitudes of others in a desired manner. In organization, power derives from structure, i.e., the division of labor and communication system. Sources of power stem from interpersonal and structural factors in an organization. Interpersonal power sources can be categorized as reward power, coercive power, legitimate power, expert power, and referent power. Structural power differences stem from unequal access to information, resources, decision making, and networks with others. Knowledge is an important source of power in organizations. The dynamics of power can be perceived from different dimensions. People in organization can acquire power informally because organizations cannot legislate for everything. Executives can use power and authority in many different, concrete and symbolic ways. However, effective and really powerful executives tend to use power in a manner which contributes to organizational development.

CONFORMITY AND OBEDIENCE Objectives

After going through this unit, you should be able to : Understand and explain the meaning of conformity and obedience appreciate the nature of Compliance, Identification and Internalization understand the experimental designs and significance of Milgram's studies Appreciate the dynamics of influences on individual's response to group conformity.

Structure
Introduction Conformity Compliance Identification Internalization Reference and Membership Groups Cooperation Competition Milgram's Study Why and how of Empowerment Summary Self-Assessment Questions Further Reading

INTRODUCTION
Human society from the inception of its civilization has confronted several dualities. One particular duality which confronts us even today is between freedom and conformity, empowerment and obedience. At different points of human civilization it was believed that conformity and obedience are the best forms of social governance. It was also believed that freedom and empowerment gives rise to chaos and destabilization of social order. Although such thought basically reflects pre industrial mind set, it is not uncommon even today to come across people in the work organizations whose most important "wish-list" happens to be conformity and obedience from their subordinates. There is definite reason for which people expect conformity and obedience from others. To some extent the reason can be traced in the meaning of these words. Conformity is

defined as the act of compliance, acquiescing or yielding to a tendency to yield readily to others especially in a weak and subservient way. Obedience is defined as the state or quality of being obedient or the act or practice of obeying dutifully, in otherwise submissive compliance. An example of conformity and obedience can best be derived from any regimented structure - a totalitarian state and Military service can be considered as fairly god examples. It is also fairly known that, in these types of social structures problems are plenty. These social structures have to deploy enormous amount of resources to impost' control and suppress the human beings eternal desire for freedom.

CONFORMITY
Conformity can be defined as a change in a person's behavior or opinions as a result of real or imagined pressures from a person or group of people. 86 (Aronson 1976.' 17) `the action of a subject when he goes along with his peers, people of his own status, who have no special right to direct his behavior (Milgram 1974: 113) `a conformist might be defined as a person who has managed to avoid being defined as a deviant.' (Schur 1979: 18) Response to conformity pressures varies according to many different factors. While the most intelligent group members are less likely to conform, authoritarian personalities are more likely to do so: Where the membership of a group maintains both sexes, conformity levels are higher than in single-sex groups. Other variables that relate to increasing conformity are the size of majority in favor, the ambiguity of the situation, agreement among most other members and the open and decentralized nature of the group" communication systems (Shaw 1974). If a member sees that most of the other members are more competent than he or she is, then he or sheds much more likely to conform to the pressures that the group exerts. Conformity is related to security and acceptance, the sense of not being alone in having to face the problems of life, and it induces order into the group situation with the enhanced probability of integrating and coordinating individual behavior. Aronson (1976) suggests that in unfamiliar situations we tend to conform to the behavior of others whom we suspect `know the ropes'. Aronson asserts that behavior we learn in this way tends to be enduring because it is an exercise in determining reality, an attempt to make sense of a part of our world that, being unfamiliar, lacks security. Fear lies at the base of conformity, the fear of not being accepted. The greater the respect an individual has for the others of his group members, the more need there is to be accepted, and the greater is the pressure that the group can exert to produce a public conformity to its norms, rules, and standards. But public conformity is not

necessarily private acceptance and it is this (a continuing conformity even when the pressure to conform is removed) that is the element of change. Festinger's (1957) concept of cognitive dissonance helps to explain something of conformity pressure. The tension created by holding conflicting cognitions has to be resolved by first changing one element of the behavior; second, finding examples that reduce its dissonant effect; or third, creating cognitions that indicate that the dissonant behavior is in fact good and beneficial. The reduction of an individual's dissatisfaction in a social situation is achieved by producing behavior acceptable to the others or by redefining needs relative to the situation. If there are alternative sources, of need satisfaction available, for example, other groups, then, if there are no restrictions on movement, when the pressure to conform becomes too great it will tend to reduce an individual's level of satisfaction for his or her group below the point where these at alternative sources become more attractive. When this happens, individual will move, for even the dissatisfactions and consequences of moving can be overcome if the pressure is great enough. This is a serious consideration for groups where members cannot move and where pressure generating high levels of dissatisfaction exists. Psychological withdrawal may be one method of coping but others, much more disruptive and designed to change the situation, are equally likely. Allen (1965) suggested that apart from the problem of private and public acceptance there are ten situational factors that influence an individual's response to group conformity pressures: 1. The level of commitment to the group 2. The level of attractiveness of the group 3. Status in the group 4. The degree of interdependence within the group 5. The group's composition 6. The group's size and unanimity 7. The extent to which the nature of the group norms are extreme 8. Whether the group is task competent 9. What level of task' 10. How difficult and important the task is. Allen ended his essay on situational factors in conformity thus: `Neither should we fail to realize that other modes of response to group pressure are available to a person in addition to conformity or nonconformity' (Allen :1965: 142). Conformity is dependent behavior. It requires that those it affects should be of equal status. It spreads by imitation. The requirement to conform is implicit and the conformist believes that his or her autonomy has been retained. Tactical conformity may be an ingratiating' act but in general conformity means 'bringing one's behavior within bounds defined as acceptable

by group members and doing one's best to meet their expectations' (Sherif 1976:100). It is a democratic process in that it attempts to create sameness.

COMPLIANCE
This term best describes the mode of behavior of a person who is motivated by a desire to gain reward or avoid punishment. Typically his behavior is only as long-lived as is the promise of the reward or the threat of punishment. ' (Aronson 1976: 29) He that complies against his will so of his own opinions still. (Butler :1663: '33) Compliance is another possible response to the influence a group can exert. A consideration of compliance brings into focus the problems of public and private behavior. On the face of it, compliance appears to be conformity. The compliant person apparently accepts the norms, standards, and values of the system he or she currently inhabits. His or her reasons for this behavior are obvious. Like an animal that blends with its background, the compliant person becomes unnoticed and acceptable. In a word, he or she has ensured personal security, freedom to move about and an avoidance of being highlighted as being different. The newcomer to an established group' encounters problems precisely of this nature. If there is a strong need to belong and to be accepted, then there will be compliance with the demands made by the group without any realization of the real reasons for these demands. When the individual feels secure, he or she may not only be able to question or even resist some of the demands, but also be able to assess the consequences of such noncompliance upon his or her satisfaction. Compliance equates obedience and appears to arise as an attempt on the part of an individual to attract reward and avoid punishment. The behavior tends to last only as long as the promise of reward or threat is sustained as behavior can change when the situation changes. However, there is some indication that compliance with small demands facilitates compliance with, larger requests, probably because the complying person has already become involved and also because his or her attitudes may have been significantly changed by the first act of compliance. The basic factor in compliance is the compliant person's perception of the ability of the influencer to give rewards or punishments. This equates with the first of five social powers delineated by French and Raven (1959). If the power referent is constantly in attendance then compliant behavior assumes a greater durability. Similarly, if the compliant person's satisfactions are increased by the act of either in the actions themselves or the consequences of those actions then the compliant state will tend to endure. Generally speaking, the compliant person holds complying opinions and values lightly and does not believe in them. He or she is demonstrating a public compliance. Milgram

(1974) believed that the reward received by the compliant person may be a . profound emotional gratification' and suggested that compliant behavior took place in a hierarchical structure; it was not imitative, its prescriptions were explicit, and compliant people tended to resign their autonomy. Compliance perpetuates inequality and is concerned with the maintenance of differentials. But from the point of view of the compliant person it is one way of dealing with social influence; it provides security and. a breathing space without undue commitment.

IDENTIFICATION
Identification is another response to group pressure. To identify indicates a desire to be like the influencer and is concerned with attractiveness. Satisfaction in this case resides in taking on the values, opinions, and beliefs of the influencer, and creating a self denying relationship. Negative identification is possible in which dislike engenders rejection of all that the disliked influencer stands for. Identification appears to be a very powerful agent in advertising and selling because people whom the advertising audience like, and can identify with,' can influence opinion about products as long as these are not too important. Similarly, prejudices can be picked up by identification with people who hold them. The continuous pressure necessary in compliance is not essential in identification, which is associated with, and conterminous with, the perception of the source of influence. This can be seen as three important variables: 1. The influencer needs to remain important. 2. The influencer needs to continue to hold the same beliefs. 3. The identifier's beliefs are not challenged by opinions that turn out to be logically more convincing. The latter shows that identification contains as part of the satisfaction to the identifier a large element of the desire to be right.

INTERNALIZATION
Conformity, compliance, and identification are relatively transient responses to group pressure, internalization is not. As with identification, there is a strong element of the desire to be right in its formation. The satisfaction that internalization gives is thus intense and this allows the influence to become independent of the source and an integral part of the internalizer.

If the influencing agent, group, or person is perceived as trustworthy and as possessing good judgment, then the values and beliefs of that agent will become an integral part of the internalizer value system. The will become his or her values and will be very difficult to change. As the desire to be right (that is, not to appear to be stupid; ignorant, or foolish) is a very powerful and self-sustaining motivation, the continued presence of the influencing agent is not necessary and may even be forgotten after a period of time. Because of these factors the internalizer has more flexible responses than is allowed by any of the other responses because the system he or she is operating from is his or her private system based on credibility.

REFERENCE AND MEMBERSHIP GROUPS

In social psychological theory, it has long been recognized that an. individual's membership groups have an important influence on the values and attitudes he holds. More recently, attention has also been given to the influence of his reference groups: the groups in which he aspires to attain or maintain membership.' (Siegel and Siegel 1957: 300) Reference groups have been called `invisible committees' and appear to act as a standard against which an individual measures his or her performance. Even the knowledge that he or she may never actually come face to face with one of his or her reference groups - indeed, it may no longer be in existence like the childhood family does not appear to lessen the influence its norms can have on behavior. A degree of internalization of the standards and values of the reference group has taken place so that these values become integrated in the individual and need no continuing support from the source. It is this particular influence on an individual's action that is so hard to appreciate. Carolyn Sherif (1976) calls reference groups and persons `the social connections of self and illustrates the point by showing how the many groups of which she is, and has been, a member are her `social anchors', the links that tic her to the society in which in large measure give meaning to her life. In any one social situation most of these `social anchors' are not visible, but they can have quite a great effect on the behavior of the anchored individual. How can an observer interpret behavior that is not wholly related to the current observable scene but partly to a hidden and powerful pre-programming? The greater the individual's respect for his or her reference group, the more he or she will have internalized their norms. These will become the standards to live by, guides to relationships, and will establish attitudes and condition responses to major life events. Not all of the individual's reference groups will fit happily together and there may well be conflicting messages.

Some reference groups and persons may not be human or real in the sense that they can be -fictional, historical, or imaginary. What is important is that they represent and produce standards that can be integrated into an individual's value scheme. It is possible to stretch the concept to include ideas, abstract principles, and ideals as forming standards in the same way. As Sprott (1958:60) has said, `We are to a large measure the artifacts of our affiliations'. Two other responses need to be given brief consideration. These are co-operation and competition.

CO-OPERATION
Because co-operative behavior (that is, going along with others) has great survival value, it is a response to group pressure that is well understood by most people. It is dependent on the perception that in order to achieve a given goal individuals need one another. If the goal is important (i.e. super ordinate), then individuals will be willing to sacrifice other important personal issues in order co-operate with others in its attainment'. While, co-operative endeavor is in progress, a state of mutual inter dependence occurs and there is a tendency to reduce hostility and prejudice and to increase friendliness and attentiveness to others.

COMPETITION
Competition is formed strongly on the need to achieve and seems to be an essential element of Western society. Aggressive behavior, the need to dominate, to succeed arid to do well are all aspects of competition between individuals and groups. Prejudice, discrimination and stereotyping are all strengthened in the presence of competition. On the other hand work organizations expect some amount of conformity and obedience from its members. Work organizations by nature do not expect its members to behave like mature adults. Commitment and involvement are the two most civilized expressions; which are widely valued in the organizations. There are enough theoretical and empirical validity to prove that nature of commitment and involvement of the organizational members depends upon the nature of power used at micro and macro levels in the organization. When coercive power is used it gives rise to alienation, remunerative power gives rise to calculative involvement and only normative power gives rise to moral commitment on the part of the organizational members.

MILGRAM'S STUDY

It is some 30 years since the social psychologist Stanley Milgram began his study on the dynamics of obedience to authority. Some salient features of the studies can be summarized as follows. 1. The enormity of the basic findings - that 64 per cent of a sample average American adult men were willing to punish another person with increasingly higher voltages of electric shock when ordered to do so by an experimenter who possessed no coercive power to enforce his orders. 2. The studies represent one of the largest integrated research programs ever conducted in social psychology (Milgram conducted over 20 variations of his experimental design and used over 1000 subjects. 3. Milgram's studies have fundamental and far-reaching implications for our understanding of human behavior and, more particularly, the extent to which a person's behavior is determined by particular situational and organizational factors.

The basic experimental design of Milgram's studies

A typical male subject volunteering to take part in Milgram's early experiments at Yale University in 1963 is greeted by a stem-looking experimenter in a white coat. He finds that another subject has already arrived. The experimenter informs the two men that they are to take part in an experiment to discover the effect of punishment on learning and verbal memory. One subject will be the `teacher' and the other the `learner' during the session. The allocation of the respective roles is decided by lottery. The two men are told that the teacher is to read pairs of words to the leaner and then test the learner's memory by giving the first word of each pair and asking him to supply the second word. Incorrect answers are punished by an electric shock administered by the teacher by depressing one of 30 switches located on a `shock generator' in front of him. These switches are arranged in a row and are labeled according to the voltage they transmit to an electrode strapped to the learner's arm. The first switch is labeled 15 volts, the second 30 volts, the third 45 volts and so on. The final switch is labeled 450 volts. There are also a number of descriptive labels on the switch panel. For example, `Slight Shock' describes the 15-16 volt range and the 435 to 450 volt range is labeled `XXX'. The experimenter tells the teacher that he is to punish the learner's first recall error with an electric shock of 15 volts. The second error is to be punished by a shock of 30 volts, and so on until the learner has correctly memorized the list of word pairs. Before the session begins, the learner is strapped to a chair, his arm is treated with an electrically conductive paste to which an electrode is then attached. He mentions to the

experimenter that learner has mild heart condition. Her is assured that the shocks, although painful, will not result in any permanent tissue damage. Then the teacher is escorted to an adjacent room where the shock generator is situated. The experiment begins. The experimenter sits a few yards behind the teacher to remind him that every error must be punished by increasingly severe electric shocks. During a typical session the learner makes an error in approximately three out of four responses and the teacher steadily increases the shock level. At 75 volts the teacher hears the learner moan `ugh'. At 150 volts the learner calls out `Ugh' Experimenter, get me out of here. I told you I had heart trouble. My heart 's starting to bother me now. Get me out of here, please. My heart's starting to bother me. I refuse to go on. Let me out" The experimenter ignores these pleas and urges the teacher to . continue. At 210 volts, the learner demands to be let out. Still the experimenter urges the teacher to continue until all the word pairs are learned. At 300 volts prolonged agonized screaming can be heard and the learner shouts in desperation that he will no longer provide answers. The experimenter tells the teacher that silence represents an error and must be punished. In the first two experiments 64 per cent of teachers administered the maximum shock of 450 volts. In fact the learner was in accomplice trained to play the role and no electric shocks were administered. However, the actual subjects - the teachers - were completely unaware of this. As Milgram states: There is overwhelming evidence that the great majority of subjects, both obedient and defiant, accepted the victims' reactions as genuine. The evidence takes the form of : (a) tension created in the subjects; (b) scores on `estimated' pain (c) subjects ' accounts of their feelings in post-experimental interviews; and (d) quantifiable responses to questionnaires distributed to subjects several months after their participation in the experiment.

Experimental Variations
Greatly surprised by their initial findings, Milgram and his research team carried out numerous variations of the basic experimental design in order to ascertain the key situational factors governing the dynamics of obedience. These are summarized below. Note that, unless otherwise stated, all experiments were based on the basic design outlined above and used male subjects. Full obedience rates refer to the percentage of subjects and administering the maximum of 450 volts.

Peer administers shock: similar to basic design except the teacher reads out the word pairs and another volunteer administers the shocks on his behalf Full obedience rate 92%. Women as subjects: similar to basic design except that both teacher and learner are female. Full obedience rate = 64%. Institutional context: the original experimental design repeated in a rather shabby downtown building, ostensibly by an organization called Research Associates of Bridgeport. Full obedience rate = 48%. Increased proximity: similar to basic design except the learner is placed in the same room as teacher at a distance of meter. Full obedience rate = 40%. Touch proximity; as above but learner receives shock only when his hand is forced onto a Obedience plate by the teacher. Full obedience rate = 30%. An `ordinary' man gives the orders: experimenter selects one of the volunteers (a secret accomplice) to take his place. Experimenter remains in room as silent observer. Full obedience rate = 20%. Distant authority: experimenter leaves room halfway through the experiment. He explains he will be gone some time and asks the teacher to continue the experiment in his absence. Full obedience rate = 20%. Two peers rebel: three teachers participate. Halfway through the experiment, two of them (secret accomplices of the experimenter) refuse to continue administering electric shocks. Full obedience rate = 12%. Contradictory authority: two experimenters. One behaves as in basic design, the other expresses concern about the health of the learner and the legitimacy of his colleague's authority. Full obedience rate = 2%. Subjects are free to choose the shock level they administer. Full obedience rate = 2%. Learner demands to be shocked. Full obedience rate = 2%.

The results came as an unwelcome surprise both to the researchers themselves and to many other presumably sophisticated observers. Most experts had foreseen that very few subjects would push the shock buttons all the way to the maximum. In fact, about 50% followed orders to the hilt, even while believing that they were inflicting very

severe electric shock on a screaming middle age man with a heart ailment (something close to that figure holds up for different kinds of people) and the persons giving that orders had no "real" power. He was just a guy in a white coat running the experiment. What those experiments suggest that people have strong propensity to obey authority. It is not just because we fear sanctions - like getting fired that most of us obey orders. We seem to obey anybody who wears even simplest trappings of authority (in this case white lab coat). Even it is obvious that no different sanctions could be imposed on us for refusal to obey we must fuss and complain, but to disturbing and frightening extent, we also obey. Perhaps, then, we must be careful as managers in assuming that our organization run smoothly because we are such great managers, such effective users of authority. Rather they run because our subordinates were taught, long before they came to work for, to obey authority. May be we are not as masterfully authoritative as we would like to believe. Those people in fact would obey anybody. And if that is true, perhaps we should be more concerned about how not to use authority than how to use it. Perhaps we should encourage our subordinates to question our authority and to think for themselves before they obey that order. It is only through such learning experience we can create a condition by which people will learn to assume personal responsibility for their actions. This is an essential condition by which people can be transformed from being dependent to independent and interdependent. Many managers believe that it is too easy to use authority, and this misunderstanding arise because many of us often confuse between positional authority and authority. These two are not same, they are different. From this confusion arise the belief that authority is very simple to use. Authority in true sense originates from the word "author", in other words creating. A person who has started an enterprise is a creative person, he has more authority than the managers he has employed to achieve results through people. The entrepreneur who has originally started the business has authority, and the employed managers have positional authority. Positional authority has some amount of coercion with it. How it is simple to spank a child who misbehaves, and how difficult and complicated it is to distract the child, provide substitute satisfaction, or explain the situation. Given a hundred children it is much easier to keep them in line by punishing few recalcitrant than teaching them all to "feel responsible". And we cannot ignore the fact that exerting authority is personally gratifying to superiors, and therefore attractive. The exercise of discipline over others can be reassuring to those who need reassurance about themselves. Moreover authority fits neatly with organizational superior's needs if they have any, to blow off aggression arising from their own frustration. When parents spank the child they don't just want to change the child's behavior but provide themselves with an outlet for tensions built up in them, by their boss, or spouse, or the irritating, troublesome child.

Similarly, authority is sometimes seen, perhaps properly, as a way for organizational superiors to guarantee their superiority. If your subordinates know that you can and will punish readily, they are likely to behave respectfully and submissively, at least in your presence. The reassurance derived from this visible demonstration of respect may represent great distortion of true feelings, but can be helpful to the superior's own uncertain psyche. Positional authority has another kind of advantage i.e. speed. A do-it-or-else order eliminates the time consuming dilly-dallying of feedback. But speed may cost accuracy and morale. Where these issues are not critical, speed may be worth its cost. Positional authority, also has the advantage of imposing orderliness and-conformity in an organization. Large number of people can be made to conform to fundamental regulations: manager must make sure4 that his people stay through required eight hours of the day. Even though the great majority may conform without external threat, the superior has to guarantee minimum conformity by all employees. The job of obtaining willing or self-imposed conformity without threat may just look too big to handle. Moreover, such enforced discipline looks efficient because it can be used on large number of people at the same time, even when one doesn't know much about these people. To instill obedience and conformity in the work situation managers have to use power. Any discussion of power usually begins and sometimes ends with the five categories of the sources of power identified by social psychologists John French and Bertram Raven. Describing and analyzing these five classic types of power (reward; coercive, legitimate, referent, and expert) serves as a necessary foundation. Reward Power. This source of power depends on the person's having the ability and resources to reward others. In addition, the target of this power must value these rewards. In an organizational context, managers have many potential rewards, such as pay increases, promotions, favorable work assignments, more responsibility, new equipment, praise, feedback, and recognition available to them. In operant learning terms; this means that the manager has the power to administer positive reinforcement. In expectancy motivation terms, this means that the person has the power to provide positive valences and that the other person recognizes this ability. To understand this source of power more completely, one must remember that the recipient holds the key. If managers offer subordinates what they think is a reward (for example, a promotion with increased responsibility), but subordinates do not value it (for example, they are insecure or have family obligations that are more important to them than promotion), then managers do not really have reward power. By the same token, managers may not think they are giving a reward to subordinates (they listen with patience to employee problems), but if subordinates perceive this as rewarding (the managers are giving them attention by intently listening to their problems), the managers nevertheless have reward power. Also, managers may not really have the rewards to dispense (they may say that they have considerable influence with top

management to get their people promoted, but actually they don't), but as long as their people think that they have it, they do indeed have reward power. Coercive Power. This source of power depends on fear. The person with coercive power has the ability to inflict punishment or aversive consequences on the other person or, at least, to make threats that the other person believes will result in punishment or undesirable outcomes. This form of power has contributed greatly to negative connotation that power has for most people. In an organizational context, managers frequently have coercive power in that they can fire or demote subordinates or stop their pay, although the legal climate and unions have stripped away some of this power. Management can also directly or indirectly threaten an employee with these punishing consequences. In operant learning terms, this means that the person has the power to administer punishments or negatively reinforce (terminate punishing consequences, which is a form of negative control). In expectancy motivation terms, this means that power comes from expectation on the part of the other persons that they will be punished if they do not conform to the powerful person's desires. For example, there is a fear of punishment if they do not follow the rules, directives or policies of the organization. It is probably this fear that gets most people to come to work on time and look busy when the boss walks through the area. In other words, much of impression management behavior may be explained in terms of coercive power than reward power. Legitimate Power. This power source, identified by French and Raven, stems from the internalized values of the other persons that give the legitimate right to the agent to influence them. The others feel that they have the obligation to accept this power. It is almost identical to what is usually called positional authority and is closely aligned with both reward and coercive power in that it does not depend on the relationships with others but rather on the position or role that the person holds. For example, people obtain legitimacy because of their title (captain or executive vice president) or position (oldest in the family or officer of a corporation) rather than their personalities or how they affect others. Legitimate power can come from three major sources. First, the prevailing cultural values of a society, organization, or group determine what is legitimate. For example, in some societies, the older people become the more legitimate power they possess. The same may be true for a certain physical attribute, gender, or job. In an organizational context, managers generally have legitimate power because employees believe in the value of private property laws and in the hierarchy where higher positions have been designed to have power over lower positions. The same holds true for certain functional positions in an organization. An example of the latter would, be engineers who havelegitimacy in the operations area of a company, while accountants have legitimacy in financial matters. The prevailing values within a group also determine legitimacy. For example, in a street gang the toughest member may have legitimacy, while in a work group the union steward may have legitimacy.

Second, people can obtain legitimate power from the accepted social structure. In some societies there is an accepted ruling class. But an organization or a family may also have an accepted social structure that gives legitimate power. For example, when blue-collar workers accept employment from a company, they are in effect accepting the hierarchical structure and granting legitimate power to their supervisors. A third source of legitimate power can come from being designated as the agent or representative of a powerful person or group. Elected officials, a chairperson of a committee, and a member of the board of directors of a corporation or a union or management committee would be examples of this forf of legitimate power. Each of these forms of legitimate power creates an obligation to accept and be influenced. But in actual practice, there are often problems, confusion, or disagreement about the range or scope of this power. These gray areas point to the real concern that many people in contemporary society have regarding the erosion of traditional legitimacy. These uncertainties also point to the complex nature of power. Referent Power. This type of power comes from the desire on the part of the other persons to identify with the agent wielding power. They want to identify with the powerful person, regardless of the outcomes. The others grant person power because he or she is attractive and has desirable resources or personal characteristics. Advertisers take advantage of this type of power when they use celebrities, such as movie stars or sports figures, to do testimonial advertising. The buying public identifies with (finds attractive) certain famous people and grants them power to tell them what product to buy. For example, arguments, especially emotional ones, are more influential when they come from beautiful people, is a common experience in the field of commercial advertisement. Timing is an interesting aspect of the testimonial advertising type of referent power. Only professional athletes who are in season (for example, cricket players in the winter and football players in the summer) are used in the advertisements, because then they are very visible, they are in the forefront of public's awareness, and consequently they have referent power. Exceptions, of course, are the handful of superstars who transcend seasons and have referent power all year long, and even after they have retired. In an organizational setting, referent power is much different from the other types of power discussed so far. For example, managers with referent power are attractive to subordinates so that subordinates will want to identify with them, regardless of whether the managers have the ability to reward or punish or whether they have the legitimacy. In other words, the manager who depends on referent power must be personally attractive to subordinates.

Expert Power. The last source of power identified by French and Raven is based on the extent to which others attribute knowledge and expertise on the power seeker. Experts are perceived to have knowledge or understanding only in certain well-defined areas. All the sources of power depend on the target's perceptions, but expert power may be even more dependent on this than the others. In particular, the target must perceive the agent to be credible, trustworthy, and relevant before expert power is granted. Credibility comes from having the right credentials; that is, the person must really know what he or she is talking about and be able to show tangible evidence of this knowledge. There is basic research indicating he significant positive impact that credibility has on perceived power and much evidence from every day experience. For example, if a highly successful cricket coach gives an aspiring young player some .advice on how to defend googly, he will be closely listened to - he will be granted expert power. The coach has expert power in this case because he is so knowledgeable about cricket. His evidence for this credibility is the fact that he is a former star player and has coached champion teams. If this coach tried to give advice on how to play basketball or how to manage a corporation, he would have no credibility and thus would have no expert power. For avid cricket fans or players, however, this coach might have general referent power (that is, he is very attractive to them), and they would be influenced by what he has to say on any subject - basketball or corporate management. In organizations, staff specialists have expert power in their functional areas but not outside them. For example, technicians are granted expert power in technical matters but not in personnel or public relations problems. The same holds true for other staff experts, such as computer experts or accountants. For example, the young accountant in an office may be the only one who really understands the newest financial software and how to use it, and this knowledge gives him or her considerable power. As already implied, however, expert power is highly selective, and besides credibility, the agent must have trustworthiness and relevance. By trustworthiness, it is meant that the person seeking expert power must have a reputation for being honest and straightforward. In the case of political figures, scandals could undermine their expert power in the eyes of the voting public. In addition to credibility and trustworthiness, a person must have relevance and usefulness to have expert power. Going back to the earlier example, if the cricket coach gave advice on world affairs, it would be neither relevant nor useful, and therefore the coach would not have expert power. It is evident that expertise is the most tenuous 'type of power, but managers and especially staff specialists, who seldom have the other sources of power available to them, often have to depend upon their expertise as their only source of power. As organizations become increasingly technologically complex and specialized, the expert power of the organization members at all levels may become more and more important. This is formally recognized by some companies that deliberately include lower level staff with expert power in top-level decision making, in other words, they, mix `knowledge-

power people' with position power people' daily, so that together they make the decisions that will help them to cope with rapid changes taking place in the market. It must also be remembered that French and Raven did recognize that there may be other, sources of power. For instance, some organizational sociologists such as Crozier recognize the source of power of task interdependence where two or more organizational participants must depend on one another). An example would be an executive who has legitimate power over a subordinate, but because the executive must depend on the subordinate to get the job done correctly on time, the subordinate also has power over the executive. There is research evidence indicating that subordinates in such an interdependent relationship with their boss receive better pay raises and even that such interdependence can enhance the quality of the professor-student relationship. French and Raven also point out that the sources are interrelated (for example, the use of coercive power by managers may reduce their referent power and there is research evidence that high coercive and reward power may lead to reduced expert power), and the same person may exercise different types of power under different circumstances and at different times. The latter point has recently led to some contingency models of power in organizations.

Need to look for alternate source of power

Positional authority which is rooted in the employment contract itself is very limited in scope. Since it only obligates employees to perform duties assign to them in accordance with minimum standards. Therefore, use of positional authority alone does not make people devote much effort on their own or exercise initiative in carrying it out. Thus it shows that effective management is not possible within the confines of positional authority alone. The power process helps circumscribe idiosyncratic behavior and keeps it conferment to the rational plan of the organization. Any organization, for the survival requires certain amount of conformity as well as the integration of diverse activities of its members. The co-ordination and order created out of the diverse and sometimes conflicting interest and. potentially diffused behavior of its members is largely a function of power. The increasing number and complexity of organizations in modem industrial societies require large number of persons with a high level of technical and administrative expertise to play leadership roles. The demand for expert leaders reduces the suitability of those recruited on the basis of social status or family connections. Achievement replaced ascription as the basis for placing leaders, and their recruitment spreads to all strata of society. Similarly, political criteria, prevalent as the basis of recruitment during early stages in newly independent and even in revolutionary societies, become less meaningful. At the same time, training center for leaders are established in universities, business schools, and training institutes, and the possibility for career in industrial leadership is evenly distributed within the society. Management has become

professionalized. Although these developments are most apparent in business and industrial organizations and in some government agencies, they are also occurring in other organizations, including the military and labor unions. Most of these changes imply a rationalization of the power process in organizations consistent with Max Weber's bureaucratic model. However, further changes in the wayleaders exercise power are likely to accompany this rationalization, and these represent a divergence from a classical bureaucratic model. Leaders may rely on discussion and persuasion rather than on command exclusively. Attempts are made to elicit cooperation, sometimes by having organization members participate in the making of decisions that affect them in the work place. The rising level of education of the work force represents an important "constraint" that contributes to this trend. In addition, the specialized skills that are frequently required of persons at all levels in modern organizations may sometimes mean that subordinates are more expert in a particular specialization than their superiors, thus modifying the classical supervisory-subordinate relationship. Furthermore, professional managers are more inclined than their predecessors to consider the results of social science research, which has supported the growth of human-relations approaches to control in organizations. At the same time, political developments, particularly in some Asian and European countries, have led to the introduction of schemes of co-management and of worker's councils, with varying degree of success. These developments may not be fully consolidated in any contemporary society, but incipient support at least, can be found in many organizations for less autocratic control than was customary in the past. A survey in fourteen developed and developing nations (including India), for example, shows that managers overwhelmingly subscribe at least to the idea of ' participation by workers in decision making. They, however, express skepticism about the capacity of the workers to assume the responsibilities consonant with democratic leadership (Haire et. Al. 1966). Taken together, these developments imply the growth-actual in some places, potential in other - of new kinds of control in addition to those prevalent in the past.. Partly as a consequence of this and of developments in research, conceptions of the power process have been broadened. First, a change has taken place in the analyses of the bases of power. Coercion has played a prominent role in traditional analysis, consistent with the presumed conflict between leaders and followers. Leaders are obeyed out of fear of punishment or hope for reward. Weber, however, argues that the stability of social systems depends on acceptance by followers of the right of leaders to exercise control. This implied legitimate authority, and Weber defines three types: (1) "Charismatic" authority, according to which leaders are thought to be endowed with extraordinary, sometimes magical powers. Charisma on the part of a leader elicits obedience out of awe. It is illustrated in its pure form by "the prophet, the warrior hero, the great demagogue". (2) "Traditional" authority, appertains to those who have the right to rule by virtue of birth

or class. The traditional leader is obeyed because he or members of his class or family have always been followed. Its pure type is illustrated by certain patriarchs, monarchs, and feudal lords. (3) "Legal" authority applies to those who hold leadership positions because of demonstrated technical competence. Legal authorities act impersonally as instruments of the law, and they are obeyed impersonally out of a sense of duty to the law. Leadership in the legal bureaucracy is based exclusively on legal authority. Simon, however, points to the importance of social approval. Approval and disapproval represent forms of reward and punishment, but they deserve special consideration because they are frequently dispensed, not only by the designated leader, but also by others. Thus, a subordinate may obey a supervisor, not so much because of the rewards and punishment meted out by the supervisor, as because of the approval and disapproval by the subordinate's own peers. Confidence may represent a further basis for acceptance of leader's authority. A subordinate may trust the judgement and therefore accept the authority of the leader in areas where the leader has great technical competence. French and Raven make a further distinction between the influence of a leader based on confidence by subordinate in the leader's expert knowledge and "informational influence" based on acceptance by subordinates of the logic of the arguments that the leader offers. An expert leader, then, may exercise control, not simply because he is an acknowledged authority, but because his decisions, being based on expertise, are manifestly logical, appropriate, and convincing. Subordinates are convinced that the decisions are correct. This is related to some human-relations approaches that stress control by facts as opposed to control by men. Such "fact control" relies on understanding, and is illustrated by the participative leader who influences the behavior of subordinates by helping them understand the facts of a situation so that they may jointly arrive at a course of action consistent with their own interests and that of the collectively. Some of these conceptions represent radical departure from many traditional ones, assuring, as they do, an over-riding communality of interests among all members of the organization. Other researchers have defined power as the ability to encourage or force others to act in accordance with ones own wishes in order to bring to fruition ones personal goals or aspirations. Zald (1970) maintains the concept of deliberate or intentional control of others behavior but calls attention to a different purpose of the exercise of that power. He defines power as the ability of a person or group, for whatever reason, to effect another person's or group's ability to achieve its own goals (person or collection). In this definition therefore, attention is focused not on the source's attempting to satisfy his own goals but rather on sources ability to get Target to satisfy Target's goals. Others have been more liberal in their definition of power, simply indicating that any interference with autonomy is power, differing only in terms of the sanctions that source can bring to bear on Target for non compliance. All the definitions under this category perceived the locus (or cause) of power as residing in one person, the source, who is capable of generating change in the Target.

Psychologists too are generally given to claiming that power resides in the Source by virtue of that person's ability to marshal greater resources in the eventuality of the conflict. Most of the theories have a rather "chief chicken in the barnyard" flavor about them. Research carried out by the psychologists usually reflects this initial bias by. assuming that power resides in the source. One can "find in many laboratory or field experimental situations that the ability of Target to react to an influence or power attempt is severely limited to the purpose of experimental control. In laboratory situation, for example, experimental subjects defined as Targets may only be offered two or three potential courses of actions when exposed to an influence attempt. They may, for example, be able to resist the attempt or to comply with the attempt either partially or totally. It is perfectly obvious that such experimental procedures lead to the maintenance of the myopia of linear causality. The entire experimental procedure is structured to examine the power that resides in the Source" (Swingle, 1976). A variation in the conception of power relates to the mutuality - unilaterally of control. A view common to traditional analysts argues that the control process is unilateral; one leads or is led, is strong or weak, controls or is controlled. Simnel, in spite of his general adherence to the traditional conflict view of power, noted a more subtle interaction underlying the appearance of "pure superiority" on the part of one person and the "purely passive being led" of another. "All leaders are also led, in innumerable cases the master is the slave of his slaves" (Wolff, 1950). Contemporary analysts are more likely than earlier ones to consider relationships of mutual as well as unilateral power, of followers influencing leaders, and vice versa. Finally, traditional analysis of social power assumes that the total amount of power in a system is a fixed quantity and that leader and followers are engaged in a "zero sum game": increasing the power of one party must be accompanied by the corresponding decrease in the power of the other. Some social scientists are now inclined to question the generality of this assumption, and it is believed that the total amount of power in a system may grow, and leaders and followers may therefore enhance their power jointly. Total power may also decline, and all groups within the system may suffer corresponding decreases. In the contemporary times major challenge of the managers is to increase total, power in the relationships structure in work organizations. For this they have no other alternative but look for ways and means of empowering people around, and not to be concerned with conformity and obedience from their subordinates. Human beings show an eternal desire to be able to reestablish routines that are predictable, maintain their confidence about performing well, and reaffirm, and reaffirm their sense of personal control in the work setting. Otherwise, in the absence of such conditions, uncertainty prevails. Uncertainty leads to the experience of aversive feelings of loss, anxiety, and lack of control. When people feel that they have little hope of reducing uncertainty or reasserting control, they tend to develop feelings of helplessness. Attribution of lack of control even to global factors leads to generalization of helplessness symptoms across situations. Feeling of helplessness leads to many dysfunctional behavior syndromes in the individual, which has negative consequences

on the performance and on the work organization where the individual is employed. Helplessness often causes depression, lack of motivation, cognition, and emotion. More importantly, as the experimental researches indicate, the individual tends to generalize such feelings to new situations when uncontrollability no longer exists. Such feelings, especially among the organizational members prove to be too costly for any organization, since it is these very people who are important and responsible for the continuance, growth, and development of any organization. Probably, it is due to this realization that the managers always enjoy more power and authority so that things remain predictable to them. In fact, loss of power, and erosion of authority are the two major indicators of helplessness. A work culture characterized by obedience and conformity has strong potentiality to generate helplessness among the organizational members. As a result people become unable to give the best to the organization. Therefore, there is a strong need to examine obsessive concern for obedience since that may lead to the feeling of helplessness. Overcoming helplessness will go a long way in instilling confidence both to the organization and the organizational members.

WHY AND HOW OF EMPOWERMENT

Erosion of authority is a phenomenon permeating the contemporary Indian society, For quite some time, we have witnessed people showing utter contempt and disregard for authority - it is being questioned, disputed, resented, and also challenged. Work organizations, being a part of the larger, society, cannot shield themselves from the impact of such an onslaught. As a sequel, we hear managers complaining about reduced power. They experience reduced power because of the erosion of positional authority, which is a major constituent of managerial power following French and Ravens topology. Along with this, responsibility and accountability of an individual manager is also increasing substantially, and so is his span of control. In such a changed situation of increased responsibility, coupled with reduced authority, the managers have many options to follow. One approach could be to increase one 's power substantially by creating dependency in others. (Das and Cotton, 1988). The second approach is to "turning the so called followers into leaders". This is possible to achieve by empowering those who are deprived of power. Empowering seems to be beneficial in the work situation, as many researchers have observed that deprivation of power generate hostility, suspicion, and lack of commitment to what goes on in the organization. Whereas in work organizations by design, members in the higher echelons enjoy more power than people below, and the members from lower category are deprived of power. Arising out of such understanding is the concern for empowering the subordinates as a contributing factor of managerial and organizational effectiveness. It has been observed that the empowered subordinates develop a sense of competence, voluntarily share the superior's responsibility, participate in the change process, and assume personal responsibility.

Empowering subordinates has taken various forms in India over the years. Some reflections of empowering attempts can be seen in the efforts to involve the employees in decision-making; in other words, participative forms of management. In participation, power is shared. Sharing power is a lower form of empowering. As early as 1918, TISCO management made the first attempt to involve workers in management. Subsequently, in 1921, the Government of West Bengal urged the industries in setting up workers' committees as a remedial action to prevent industrial unrest. After that, different mechanisms were developed to democratize the work environment in the Indian organizations. Among these, work committees set up in 1947, joint management councils, in 1957, workers' directors, in 1970, and shop and joint councils setup in 1975 are noteworthy. Several researchers claim that participative management was a miserable failure in India. According to some the main reasons for the failure of participative management, among others, are: employer managers are skeptical about the capability of participating workmen, employer-managers believed that decision-making was their prerogative, and sharing power is equivalent to reducing one's own power. In recent years, quality circle (QC) has become quite popular in the Indian work organizations. Quality circle has many elements in it which lead to empowerment. For example, allowing a group to find solution to their own problem rather than to depend upon others for advice, has distinct possibility of increasing a strong sense of efficacy, leading to empowerment. However, there is some basic difference between the concept and practice of participative form of management and quality circle. The former always enjoyed the blessings of the powers-that-be, they always came as a part of the legislation or a government scheme. Whereas, participation in QC is more of a voluntary nature, and so far no government directive has been handed about QC (so good!). It is nonetheless, necessary to remember that quality circle too, like participative management, has encountered severe setbacks. These two traditional ways of empowering although do enhance the feeling of self efficacy among organizational members; the approach is basically formal and structural. The way innumerable wellintentioned government sponsored schemes fail in India is any indication; this sphere also was no exception. Nonetheless, there is a growing demand to know about the other ways of empowering people at the work place, because of its inherent benefits. However, empowering is also possible through informal social processes employed many senior organizational members. Singh, Bhandarker (1990), in their study on corporate success, have highlighted the importance of. Empowering leadership used by successful corporate chief executives. The authors observed that empowering management style "reduces anxiety, increases security and confidence, and encourages people to accept change and actively participate in it". All these five corporate executives' main concern was not to make people do something but to take their process of doing it possible, enable others, and enhance others' sense of competence. The mechanism used for empowering is not by the introduction of systems and

procedures but mainly through informal social processes. On similar lines, it has also been empirically demonstrated that employee motivation at work is, to a considerable extent, a function of social influence attempts made by organizational agents. One form of empowering in the work organization through informal social process can be easily perceived in the mentor protege relationships. Several studies of this relationship strongly indicate that it can be instrumental in supporting both, career advancement and personal growth. Mentors provide basically two types of functions career enhancing functions,- and psychological functions. The functions, such as sponsorship, coaching, facilitating, exposure and visibility, offering, challenging work, and protection are included under career enhancing functions. In the psychological domain, the mentor offers role modeling, confirmation, counseling, and friendship. Whereas career functions enhance the possibility of career enhancement, psychological functions enhance the sense of competence, clarity of identity, and role effectiveness of a protege. Mentors, through their inter-personal relationships, enable, the proteges to develop and grow in their organizational life. In some cultures, for example, the Japanese, the relationship between superior-subordinate fulfills all the requirements of mentorprotege relationships. Based on Bandura's (1977, 1986) self efficacy model, Conger, Kanugo (1988) demonstrate the empowerment in work situation helps feelings of self efficacy among organizational members. However, the authors are more interested to ensure that the informal social process in enhancing self efficacy beliefs should be meshed with formal organizational policies and practices. In the present competitive environment the onus lies with the manager to show results to demonstrate his effectiveness. Towards this objective it may be necessary for a manager to look beyond authority and power. The time has come when a manager is to be more concerned with encouraging self efficacy belief in their subordinates, to ensure that the subordinates assume personal responsibility etc. than merely ensuring obedience from their subordinates. This is only possible by learning new skills in empowering people. In a factor analytic study (Das, 1992) it has been observed that for empowering the subordinates managers have to basically demonstrate three sets of behaviors. The first set of behavior has been described as "giving exposure, visibility, and protection", and the second set has been described as "facilitating career advancement". These two sets of behavior are oriented towards developing the subordinates and helping them in career advancement. The third factor has been named as "acceptance and encouragement", which has a potentiality in enhancing interpersonal bondage.

SUMMARY
Conformity and freedom, obedience and empowerment has been a constant source of conflict since the inception of civilization, Having defined conformity and obedience this unit explains in detail ten situational factors that influence an individual's response to group conformity pressures. Moving further in this unit we have explained the dynamics

of responses to the group pressures in the form of Compliance and Identification. Conformity, Compliance and Identification are relatively transient responses to group pressure but internalization is not. The satisfaction given by internalization is intense, this allows the influence to become independent of the source and an integral part of the internalizer. Further this unit explains in detail Milgram's study on the dynamics of obedience to authority. To instill obedience and conformity in the work situation managers have to use power. This unit has explained the five categories of the sources of power identified by John French and Bertram Raven viz., Reward Power, Coercive Power, Legitimate Power, Referent Power and Expert Power, along with the need for looking at alternative sources of power. Towards the end this unit has touched upon the outcome of the dynamics of power in the organization and coping strategies against the expected results i.e . why and how of empowerment.

COPING WITH STRESS AND BURNOUT Objectives

After going through this unit you should be able to: understand the concept of coping with stress appreciate the ways of managing stress, at individual and organizational levels identify coping strategies for role stresses explain the strategies for coping with Burnout understand skills for coping with stress

Structure
Coping with stress : Concept Managing stress Coping with Burnout Individual Interventions Organization Interventions Summary Self-Assessment Questions References/Further Reading

COPING WITH STRESS: CONCEPT

Individuals and organizations cannot remain in a continuous state of tension. Even if a deliberate and conscious strategy is not adopted to deal with stress, some strategy is adopted; for example, the strategy may be to leave the conflicts and stress to take care of them. This is also a strategy, although the individual or the organization may not be aware of this. This is called avoidance coping strategy.

The word 'coping' has two connotations in literature. The term has been used to denote the way of dealing with stress, or the effort to master conditions of' harm, threat, or challenge when a routine or automatic response is not readily available. (Lazarus, 1974). Two different approaches to the study of coping have been pursued by various investigators. On the one hand, some researchers (e.g., Byrne, 1964; Goldstein, 1973) have emphasized general coping traits, styles or dispositions -while on the other hand, some investigators, (e.g., Cohen & Lazarus, 1973; Katz, Weiner, Gallagher & Hellman, 1970; Wolf & Goodell, 1968) have preferred to study the active ongoing strategies in a particular stress situation. Coping traits refer, to a disposition to respond in a specific way in situations that are stressful. Coping traits are, thus, stable characteristics of the persons that transcend classes of situation. Coping style implies a broader, more encompassing disposition: Trait and style are fundamentally similar ideas. Trait and style refer to a characteristic way of handling situations, they are stable tendencies on the basis of which inferences are drawn about how an individual will cope in some or all types of stressful situations. A person's coping style or disposition is typically assessed by personality tests, not by actual observation of what the person says or does in a particular stress situation. The emphasis on process distinguishes this approach from others which are trait oriented. Psychologists have identified two major ways in which people cope with stress. In the first approach, a person may decide to suffer or deny the experienced stress, this is the passive approach. Or, a person may decide to face the realities of experienced stress and clarify the problem through negotiations with other member. This is the active approach. Coping can have an effect on three kinds of outcome - psychological, social, and physiological. From a psychological perspective, coping can have an effect on the psychological morale (that is, the way one feels about oneself and one's life), emotional reaction, e.g., level of depression or anxiety, or the balance between positive trend and negative toned feeling (Bradburn, 1969), the incidence of psychiatric disorders and even performance. From a social perspective, one can measure its impact on functioning effectiveness, such as employability, community involvement, and sociability (Renne, 1974), the effectiveness of interpersonal relationship, or the degree to which useful social roles are filled. From a physiological perspective, outcome includes short-term consequences, such as the development and progression of a particular disease. Lazarus (1974) has emphasized the key role of cognitive processes in coping activity and the importance of coping in determining the quality an intensity of emotional reactions to stress. We are constantly 'self-regulating' our emotional reactions, e.g., escaping or postponing unpleasant situations, actively changing threatening conditions, deceiving 'ourselves about the implications of certain facts, or simply learning to detach ourselves

from unpleasant situations. He emphasizes that the individual is manipulating the individual's behavior. His definition focuses explicitly on efforts to manage the dynamic constellation of thoughts and acts that constitute the coping process. Although several attempts have been made to classify appraisals and coping responses, on accepted method has yet emerged. Moos and Billings (1982) have organized the dimensions of appraisal and coping included in measurement procedures into three domains: 1. Appraisal-focused coping:- It involves attempts to define the meaning of a situation and includes such' strategies as logical analysis and cognitive redefinition. 2. Problem-focused coping: This seeks to modify or eliminate the source of stress, to deal with the tangible consequences of a problem or actively change the self and develop a more satisfying situation, 3. Emotion-focused coping: This includes responses whose primary function is to manage the emotions aroused by stressors and thereby maintain effective equilibrium. These categories, however, are not mutually exclusive. Their primary focus is on appraising and reappraising a situation, dealing with the reality of the situation, and handling the emotions aroused by the situation. Lazarus (1974) has suggested a classification of coping processes which emphasizes two major categories, namely, direct actions and palliative modes. Direct action includes behaviors or actions which when performed by the organism in the face of a stressful situation is expected to bring about a change stress causing environment. The palliative mode of coping refers to those thoughts or actions whose purpose is to relieve the organism of any emotional impact of stress. There is no consensus as to which coping strategies or modes of coping are most effective. Maddi and Kobasa (1984) talked about two forms of coping: (a) transformational, and (b) regressive. Transformational coping involves altering the events so they are less stressful. To do this, one has' to interact with the events, and by thinking about them optimistically and acting toward them decisively, change them in a less stressful direction. Regressive approach, on the other hand, includes a strategy wherein one thinks about the events pessimistically and acts evasively to avoid contact with them. There are certain resistance resources that increase the likelihood, of meeting stressful events with transformational rather than regressive coping. The most important of these is personality hardiness' (Kobasa, 1979). He stated that personality hardiness combines three tendencies, namely, toward 'commitment' rather than alienation,

toward 'control' rather than powerlessness and toward 'challenge' rather than threat. When stressful events occur, hardy people do experience them as stressful-but also as somewhat interesting and important (commitment), at least somewhat influence able (control), and of potential value for personal development (challenge). There is evidence by the study of executives undertaken by Maddi and Kobasa (1984) that constitutional strength, social support, exercise, and personality hardiness are useful in protecting health. Also that more of these resources one has, the greater is the buffering effect against stress.

MANAGING STRESS
Each individual needs a moderate amount of stress to be alert and capable of functioning. Given that presence of more or less stress is inevitable, many researchers sought to find what could be done to counteract stress so as to prevent its negative consequences. Normally, coping is defined as an adaptive respone to stress, that is, a response intended to eliminate, ameliorate or change the stress producing factors, or intended to modify the individual's reaction to stressful situation in a beneficial way. There are basically two ways of managing stress: 1. What an organization can do? 2. What an individual can do?

What an organization can Do?

What can an organization do to alleviate stress? Pestonjee (1997) has suggested a number of proactive interventions which an organization can adopt. Some of these interventions are listed below: Undertaking Stress Audit: Organizations have for almost a century now paid due attention to maintenance, creation and updating of technology. We are now only gradually emerging form the stage where machines are better cared for than men. A stage has now been reached when the significance of "human resource" has been recognized for productive and healthy functioning of the organization. Stress audit refers to the attempt organizations make to study, explore and control the various types of stresses which the individual executives experience .by virtue of their organizational membership (Pestonjee, 1992). A stress audit should include collection of data pertaining to organizational climate, role stress, job anxieties etc. Stress audit is a fourstage OD intervention designed to minimize and mitigate stresses in the organization. At the first stage, data are generated on 'Stress Tolerance Limit (STL)' factors, as also organizational role stress factors. These may be observational or through psychometric instruments. the second stage includes a study of interrelationships (through correlations, regressions etc.) between the factors.. At stage three, more data, specially

qualitative data are obtained by interviews and other methods to get a first-hand feel of stresses and stress effects in the organization. The final outcome, stage four, is to suggest to the organization what type of remedial measures will help them overcome the stress effects. Use Scientific Inputs: Dissemination of information on how to face the stressors within the organization and outside is useful One may derive immense benefits from knowledge of fundamentals of stress response, dietetics, exercises and meditation. Check with company doctors: Doctors act as a valuable resource to their organization members for coping with identified stresses. They also have valuable information about interpersonal and organizational conflicts. It is a pity that most of the top management members think of the doctor only as a clinician. Spread the message: The importance of regular habits of work, leisure, proper diet, exercise and mental peace should be emphasized at the organizational level. Murphy (1988) has suggested three different forms of stress management techniques which are as follows:1) Employee Assistance Programme: This programme refers to the provision of employee counseling services by an organization. This method is increasingly common: McLeod (1985) estimated that in USA there are at least 800 companies offering this form of stress management technique 2) Stress Management Training Programme: This programme refers to training courses designed o provide employees with improved coping skills, including training in techniques such as meditation, biofeedback, muscle relaxation and stress inoculation. (Newton, 1992). 3) Stress Reduction/Intervention Programme: This programme is denoted by interventions designed to change the level or form of job stressors' experienced by, employees, usually through job design or work reform. Agrawal (1984) attempted to highlight the applicability of the job characteristics approach in the management of stress. Like other, he noted that stresses can cause serious health related problems both for the employees and the organization. However, he agreed with other researchers that organizational stresses can best be managed by creating a fit between a person and his/her work environment. This congruence can be attained by the job characteristics approach to task design because the job design approach attempts at linking the individual to the job characteristics, with expected outcome of high internal motivation, high quality performance, high satisfaction and low absenteeism and turnover. Callan (1993) has suggested a range of organizational strategies that may be effective in reducing employee stress and related problems created by organizational change. Organizations must empower employees to adopt the

role of change agent and encourage them to take action to solve the problems that stress them. He further suggested that to help employees cope with change, organizations can pursue strategies related to communication, leadership, job-related tasks and stress management programmes.

What an Individual Can Do?

When individuals experience stress, they adopt ways of dealing with it as they cannot remain in a continual state of tension. Pareek (1993) has distinguished between effective and ineffective coping strategies. Generally, effective coping strategies are 'approach' strategies, which confront the problem of stress as a challenge, and increase the capability of dealing with it. Ineffective strategies are 'escape' or 'avoidance' strategies, which reduce the feeling of stress, for example, by denying the reality of stress, or through the use of alcohol, drugs or other escapist behavior. Research has shown that social and emotional support available to the person helps him or her to effectively cope with stress. Persons maintaining close interpersonal relationships with friends and families are able to use more approach strategies. Social support includes both material support (providing resources) and emotional support (listening to the person and encouraging him/her). However, studies have also shown that unsolicited support may have negative consequences. Approach or effective- strategies of coping include efforts to increase physical and mental preparedness for coping (through physical exercises, yoga and meditation, diet management), creative diversion for emotional enrichment (music, art, theatre, etc.), strategies of dealing with the basic problems causing stress , and collaborative work to solve such problems. Studies of various coping strategies or styles used in role stress reveal-that-approach styles have a strong relationship with internality, optimism, role efficacy, job satisfaction, and effective role behavior in organizations. Two contrasting approaches (avoidance or dysfunctional and approach or functional) for some role stresses are illustrated below. Let us take self, role distance. Many individuals who find a conflict between their self-concept and the role they occupy in an organization may play that role in a routine way to earn their living . They take no interest in their role, and this is indicative of self-role distance, i.e., they have rejected the role. On the other hand, some other individuals may seriously occupy their roles and, in due course of time, completely forget their self-concept and play that role effectively but reject their self. Both these are 'avoidance' approaches and are dysfunctional. If an individual rejects the role, he/she is likely to be ineffective in the organization. However, if he/she rejects the self, he/she is likely o lose his/her effectiveness as an individual which n turn will adversely affect his/her mental health.

An approach or functional strategy of dealing with this stress is to attempt role integration. The individual may analyse the various aspects of the role which are causing self-role distance and may begin to acquire skills if this may help him/her to bridge this gap, or carry his/her own self into the role by defining some aspects of the role according t his /her own strengths. In other words, an attempt both to grow into the role and make the role grow to use the special capabilities of the person would result in role integration, where the individual gets the satisfaction of occupying a role which is nearer to his/her self-concept. Such an integration is not easy to achieve, but with systematic effort, it is also not impossible to attain. Similar is the case with role expectation conflict. when the various expectation from the role one occupies conflict with one another, role stress may develop. On way to deal with this stress is to eliminate those expectations from the role which are likely to conflict with other expectations. This is the process of role shrinkage, i.e., the act of pruning the role in such a way that some expectation can be given up. Role shrinkage may help to avoid the problem, but is a dysfunctional approach since the advantage of a larger role is lost, Instead of role shrinkage, if role linkages are established with other roles, and the problem is solved by devising some new ways achieving the conflicting expectations, the individual can experience both the process of growth as well as satisfaction. For example, if a professor who experiences conflict between the three expectations from his/her role - those of teaching students, doing research and consulting with organization - finds that the stress is essentially one of personal inadequacy, not having enough skills, he/she may take resource to role shrinkage. However,- one way to deal with this problem is to develop role linkages with other colleagues who are good at research and work out an arrangement whereby research is not neglected. A better way of resolving the problem could be to find ways of doing things in a more non-traditional and productive manner. Role stagnation is a common stress within organizations. Individuals who acquire new roles as a result of promotion or taking over of more challenging roles may feel apprehensive because the role is new and requires skill which the role occupant may not have. In many cases, this is the tragedy of the organizations - even after advancement people at the top continue to play the role of lower level managers. A foreman, for example, in due course of time may become a General Manager, but he/she may still continue to play the role of a foreman. This as a consequence' frustrates the few foreman and others who expect the GM to devote his/her time to the more productive aspects. In one organization, after several self-search sessions, it became clear to many senior management level personnel that this tendency towards close supervision was really a tendency to continue playing their old roles. This is especially so if the individual role requires many new skills which have to be developed. For example, planning roles and the role of scanning the environment require altogether new skills. In the absence of such skills, the usual tendency is to fall back on the old and tried out roles. This is called role fixation, it is an avoidance strategy. It is necessary for

an individual to grow out of his role as a boy into that of an adolescent, and out of adolescence into adulthood. Similarly, it is important for people to grow out of their old roles into new ones and face up the new challenges. An approach or a functional strategy to resolve this conflict is that of role transition. Role transition is the process whereby a previous role, howsoever successful and satisfying it may have been, is given up to take a new and more developed role. Role transition is helped by various processes, including anticipatory socialization, role clarity, substitute gratification, and the transition procedure, In order to make role transition more effective, it is necessary to have anticipatory socialization that is preparatory to the taking up of the new role. This would also include delegation of responsibility and functions to people in subordinate roles, so that person can be free to experiment, and get help in such experimentation from others. Such a process of role transition may be very useful. In inter-role distance, an individual may experience stress due to conflict between the roles he/she occupy, and which conflict in expectations. The usual approach to deal with this problem is to either partition the roles clearly, so that person is a husband or a father when he is at home, and an executive when he is in his office. The other alternative is role elimination which is accepting one role at the cost of the other. In 'such a case, the individual takes resource to rationalization. For example, an executive who neglects his family at home and in this process eliminates his role as a father and a husband. He rationalizes this process by thinking that he makes a unique contribution to the company and can, therefore, afford to neglect his family, or that he earns enough for his family, which in turn, should pay the price of losing him as a husband and a father. Such rationalizations are a part of the process of role elimination. These are avoidance strategies. A more functional approach to the problem is role negotiation which is the process of establishing the mutuality of roles and getting necessary help to play the roles more effectively. For example, an executive who is unable to find time for his family may sit down and negotiate with his wife and children on how best he can spend time with them within the given constraints. One executive in a large nationalized bank in India solved the problem by working out an arrangement with his family whereby he would give his Sundays to them and would not normally accept invitations to dine out unless both he and his wife were invited. This proved to be highly satisfying because neither of the roles had to be sacrificed or eliminated. For role ambiguity, the usual approach is to make the roles clear by putting the various aspects on paper. This is called role prescription in which various expectations are defined clearly. As an alternative, the individual may remove ambiguity by fitting into the role as described in some of the expectations. This process is called role taking. Both are avoidance strategies. An approach strategy may be to seek clarification from various sources and to define the role in the light of such clarifications. A more creative option is

to define the role according to ones own strengths and take steps in making the role more challenging . This is the process of role making. To deal with the stress of role overload, that is, a feeling of too many expectations from several sources, the role occupant usually prepares a list of all functions giving top priority to those which are important. This kind of prioritization may help put things in the order of importance. However, a problem that might arise is that the functions with which a person is less familiar and comfortable may tend to be pushed lower down the priority list, and remain neglected. Those functions which a person is able to perform without any effort would get top priority. From this point of view, the approach is dysfunctional. This is an avoidance strategy. A more functional approach may be to redefine the role and see which of its aspects may be delegated to others. This in turn may help the other individuals grow. This approach is called role slimming. The role does not lose its vitality in the process of delegating some functions; in fact the vitality increases with decrease in obesity. In role isolation (when there is tension and distance between two roles in an organization), the usual tendency is for each role occupant to play the role more efficiently and avoid interactions. In other words, the role occupant condines himself to his own role. This may be called role boundness. He voluntarily agrees to be bound by the role. This strategy aims at avoiding possible conflict. We find that individual executives and managers who are highly efficient in their own roles but whose linkages with other roles are very weak, do not take on corporate responsibility. The individual withdraws into a king of isolated efficiency. He derives satisfaction out of playing the individual role effectively and efficiently, but does not contribute as much as he could have towards the overall responsibility to the organization. This is likely to be dysfunctional as it does not help the individual play his role in the larger interests of the organization. A better method (and an approach strategy) is role negotiation. In role erosion, an individual feels that some important functions which he/she would prefer to perform are being taken care of by some other roles. the usual reaction in such' a situation is to fight for the rights of the role and to insist on the clarification of roles. Though a solution is sought in making structural clarifications, this is not likely to be functional and helpful since the basic conflict is avoided and it continues. An approach strategy may be that of role enrichment. Like job enrichment, role enrichment can be achieved by analyzing the role systematically and helping the individuals see the various strengths and challenges in the role which might not have been apparent earlier.

In summary, the effective management of stress involves directing stress for productive purposes, preparing role occupants to understand the nature of stress, helping them to understand their strengths and usual styles. and equipping them to develop approach strategies for coping with stress. In a study, Marshall and Cooper (1979) asked managers How they coped with work pressure. The most common technique reported was to work longer hours. Others methods wee: delegation (6 per cent), negotiating and compromising with those setting work, to produce only that which is really needed (8.5 per cent), redistributing workload within department (6 per cent), planning ahead of annual demand peaks (3 per cent),: and balancing the department's internally generated load (3per cent). Lazarus and his associated (1966) have suggested intellectualization , rationalization , isolation and denial as effective cognitive - coping strategies. Though 'denial' and isolation' may not be considered very healthy coping strategies wherein individual denies .the stressfulness of the situation and adopts a detached attitude towards the situation of stress and threat. this cognitive strategy may be quite appropriate when the situation of stress is totally beyond the control and coping capacity of the focal person. The individuals can adopt following cognitive restructuring and cognitive - coping strategies to avoid or moderate the experience of stress. Many of these coping strategies are specialty of our Indian culture. Consider difficult, Adverse; or demanding job situations as inevitable parts of job life. Perceive stressful job situation as a temporary phase of the job. Try to rationalise the situation of stress and its consequences. Take the excessive demands as a challenge:

Assess the severity of your job stress with reference to others who are facing similar or more severe stresses in their jobs. Think that time itself takes care of such situations, Accept the situation of stress thinking that there is nothing you can do to change them. Simultaneously think about the positive outcomes of successful dealing with the situation of stress. Believe that every problem ultimately has some remedy. Think that no one is totally free from stresses, though of different nature and severity. Accept the situations of stress as realities of life. p Remind yourself that work is not everything. Believe in Geeta's philosophy that 'you right is to' do your job only, not expect the fruits thereof,

Besides the cognitive-coping strategies, the individuals can develop certain temperamental qualities and adopt specific behavior patterns or habits which could help in preventing, mitigating, or effectively coping with the situations of job stress. Though practice of some of these behavioral patterns is difficult, the individuals can develop them through self-imposed behavior modification method. Increase selfesteem and the level of tolerance and patience. Do not be rigid in your way of functioning, attitudes and decisions. Do things at work in a planned and systematic manner. Try to separate and maintain coordination between your job and other roles. Avoid doing many things simultaneously. Set your priorities for activities. Do work efficiently but avoid competitions. Discuss the problems with supervisors or/and other competent colleagues or superiors. Avoid time pressure and role overloading. Be regular and make proper distribution of the time for your job activities. Do not try to reach the perfection level in all-routine job activities. Work sincerely, but do not be over enthusiastic all the time in discharging your duties. Frankly tell your limitations and inabilities. Try to nip the problems in the bud, Be a realist. Aspire within the framework of your capabilities and resources. Try to overlook rather than to react to the irritating situations or behaviour of people at work. Before doing something, consider all its possible consequences. If there is no way out, do your best to get out of the situation gracefully.

Besides the above cognitive coping and behavioral interventions, the individuals can use some off-the job techniques to get relief from his/her job stresses such as relaxation, yoga, meditation, bio-feedback training,' seeking company of good friends, attending sports, cultural, religious and entertaining events etc. Thus, on the whole, it can be said that a stress-free life is not possible in today's environment. All that we can manage is to reduce it to a reasonable level, even to the level where it can play a positive role rather than adversely affecting the health and well-being of the individuals in the organization: Further, it is difficult to suggest comprehensive approach in the management of stress as each individual and work environment will call for different solutions. Some of the primary factors which mediate the experience of stress are very difficult to change. These include an individual's personality, inherited characteristics and past history, the quality of interpersonal support inherent in his or her environment and the nature of the organization in which he or she works. Each of these depending on its makeup can either increase or diminish the impact of stress on the individual.

COPING WITH BURNOUT

The phenomenon of burnout is the harmful effect of stress resulting in a loss of effectiveness. Burnout can be defined as the end result of stress experienced, but not properly coped with, resulting in exhaustion, irritation, ineffectiveness, inaction, discounting of self and others, and problems of health (hypertension, ulcers and heart problems/ailments). The opposite phenomenon of glow up occurs when stress is properly channelized, resulting in a feeling of challenge, job satisfaction, creativity, effectiveness, and a better adjustment to work and life. Several factors contribute to burnout phenomenon (Pareek, 1982). These are: stress being very low or very high, distress, a stress-prone personality, an alienating role or job, hostile relationships, stress-prone lifestyle, avoidance oriented role style, use of dysfunctional coping modes of styles, and hostile organizational climate. The opposite of these contribute to the phenomenon of glow up.

How do we prevent burnout? How do we convert the energy leading to burnout into one resulting in a glow up? Factors contributing to burnout and glow up and the conversion strategies are shown in Figure II. It shows that development of inner directedness (self - obligating orientation) achieves the optimum level of stress-one factor contributing to a glow up. Similarly, for each contributing factor, a conversion strategy has been suggested. Most of these are self-explanatory. To change the lifestyle, the use of Transactional Analysis has been suggested, i.e., understanding the life script, and then terminating it (decrypting) through new decisions. Some special interventions may be needed for the effective use of conversion strategies. Pareek (1997) has suggested that, coping strategy plays a key role in the process of glow up or burnout. This is shown in Figure III. He is of the view that effective coping 'strategies are approach strategies, which confront the problem of stress as a challenge and increase the capability of dealing with it. On the other hand, ineffective coping strategies are escape' or 'avoidance' strategies, which reduce the feeling of stress, for example, by denying the reality of stress, or through the use of alcohol, drugs, or other aids to escapism.

A wide variety of specific techniques and strategies have been proposed to deal with burnout and it to difficult to relate then within a coherent framework. However, almost all can be grouped by primary goal and site of intervention. The major goals are: 1. Identification: techniques for the analysis of the incidence, prevalence, and organizations (Shinn, 1980; Maslach, 1978); 2. Prevention: attempts to prevent the burnout process (BOP) before it begins (Wilder and Plutchik, 1981); 3. Mediation: procedures for slowing, halting, or reversing the BOP (Tubesing and Tubesing, 1981; Shapiro, 1981); and 4. Remediation: techniques for individuals who are already burned out or are rapidly approaching the end stages of this process (Freudenberger, 1980). It is to be noted here that many techniques can be used to facilitate the attainment of more than one goal. Interventions can also be targeted at specific sites or levels. The four most important sites are: 1. Individual: interventions designed to strengthen an individual's ability to deal with job-related stress (Wilder & Plutchik, 1981); 2. Interpersonal: attempts to strengthen interpersonal relations or work group dynamics either to decrease stress (Golembiewski, 1981); 3. iii) Workplace: modifications in the immediate work .environment intended to reduce stress or ameliorate it in some way (Pines, 1980); and 4. iv) Organizational: changes in policies, procedures or structure intended to deal with organizational factors related to burnout (Golembiewski, 1981).

Again, it is clear that these levels are not completely distinct, since some interventions have individual effects and organizational changes will often impact directly on the workplace. These two sets of categories are shown in Figure. To date, most work has been done on mediation efforts designed to strengthen individuals, and the other areas have received less attention. Paine (1982) has suggested that some consideration should be given to all sixteen areas in Figure IV in order to develop comprehensive programmes.

INDIVIDUAL INTERVENTIONS
Any consideration of attempts to deal with the problem of burnout must start with a consideration of the individual. In many job situations, particularly in human services, high levels of stress are integral and largely unavoidable components of the work. For example, air traffic control centers, burn units in hospitals, and social service agencies serving sexually abused children: Similarly, the ability to cope with complexity, ambiguity, conflict, and competing demands is assumed to exist when individuals assume higher-level administrative positions. However, this is not to say that individuals have the only responsibility to prevent, mediate the Burnout Stress Syndrome (BOSS). Shinn (1980) has suggested that individual organisations have begun to recognise their responsibility to provide a safe and healthy workplace.

Edelwich and Brodsky (1982) have pointed out that there is a real need for introductory workshops that clearly communicate. Available information on the problem of burnout. These, in turn, would be supplemented by more specialized training efforts on specific topics such as time management or relaxation techniques. The single largest area of intervention involves techniques intended to help individuals manage personal stress. Tubesing and Tubesing (1981) are of the view that everything from aerobic dancing to Zen has a potentially useful role in stress management. They content that there is no "magic bullet" that can be aimed at the problem. Instead they recommend individualized prescription. Based on an understanding of an individual's needs and. strengths. Tubesing and Tubesing(1981) have presented a stress skills model linking four overall strategies (personal management, relationships, outlook, and stamina) to twenty relatively specific skills that can be learned. Skills from any or all of these groups may be potential components of an individualised plan for preventing burnout and promoting vitality. These stress skills are briefly described below: Personal Management Skills: Personal management or self-regulation skills help people reorganise themselves in order to take better control of their time and energy expenditure patterns. They maximise efficiency and reduce wheel spinning. Relationship Skills: Relationship or scene-changing skills help individuals control the environment by changing the way they interact with the people and spaces that surround them. Relationships are a primary source of renewal and replenishment. Outlook Skills: Outlook or change-your-mind skills facilitate healthy changes in attitude by allowing one to view situations from a different perspective. Stamina Skills: Stamina skills represent the more traditional approach to stress management, focusing on strengthening the individual physically to stress management, focusing on strengthening the individual physically to stand up to stress and strain.

Burnout also raises a variety of fundamental ethical issues. These are particularly troublesome when discussing the legitimate role of an organization in dealing with burned-out- employees. Freudenberger (1980) has dealt with the difficult question of what do with the burned-out professional. He is of the view that many of these individuals can be salvaged and can continue to contribute productively within organizations. Burnout as a process cannot be separated from the environment in which

it occurs. For burnout to be diminished in our environment, Freudenberger (1982) has suggested the following steps: 1. We must reflect on investing more capital in the training of employees and teaching measures to prevent and lessen burnout among all kinds, of helping professionals. 2. We must seriously begin to alert organizations to the human and psychic needs of their professional workforce, and that, by tending to human needs, their profits will not decrease 3. We must increase employee communication and participation in the decision process. 4. We must consider more team approaches and less of the "every person for themselves" attitude in industry. 5. We must recognize that the Calvinist ethic of working hard is still determining our work lives. 6. We must realize that no amount of compassion, caring, helping, understanding, sensitivity, and therapy can act as an adequate substitute for the serious reconsideration that our social our work environments are promoting burnout. 7. We need to determine, through research, what factors that may promote burnout are inherent in an organizational climate. We also need to evolve legitimate prevention models.

ORGANISATION INTERVENTIONS
Individual change unaccompanied by organisational change is often ineffective over the long - term and may even be counterproductive. Edelwich and Brodsky (1982) have pointed out that training may generate expectations about the willingness of an organisation to change, if these expectations are not met, the resultant frustration may accelerate the burnout process. Wilder and Plutchik (1982) have suggested a preventive strategy for burnout through NAC (Needs Assessment and Coping Assessment) training method. The following steps are suggested: 1. Sensitise the individuals to their own needs (eight needs related to personality characteristics, i.e., recognition, stimulation, family and social life. achievement, competence, autonomy, advancement, and collegiality; and eight needs closely related to job characteristics, i.e., ambience and working conditions, variety and change, security, workload, emotional demands, participation in decisions, time pressures and deadlines, and interpersonal relations.)

2. Help the individuals to assess the need-fulfilling characteristics of a potential job. 3. Increase the probability of an appropriate match between an individual and a Jobs 4. Focus individuals' attention on the areas they should work on to provide maximum satisfaction on the job. Plutchik (1982) has proposed eight basic coping styles to reduce stress; suppression (avoid the stressor), help seeking, replacement (engage in direct stress-reducing activities), blame (other or the system), substitution (engage in indirect stressreducing activities), mapping (collect more information), reversal (act opposite to the way one feels), and minimisation (minimise the importance of the stressful situation). None of these coping styles is inherently either good or bad. How well the styles work depends on the situation, how they are used, and the degree to which they are used. Golembiewski (1981) has suggested that organisational development (OD) is helpful in reducing and managing stress. According to him, OD ameliorates and prevents burnout. Most of OD philosophy and methods ameliorate the conditions that can lead to burnout OD can be of specific help in dealing with burnout as a phased phenomenon (eight phases of stags have been proposed). The phase model of burnout can help in developing ameliorative designs for specific individuals, it can make OD interventions more sensitive to client characteristics: The model can also help in timely identification of cases of early burnout. The phase model of burnout also challenges some established "good practice" to help them to be more situation or person relevant.

SUMMARY
Though it is said that a minimum level of stress is necessary to keep organization's productivity but it is also equally important to cope 'with stress at the same time. One cannot remain in the state of tension for a long time. Basically in this unit coping with stress And Burnout have been discussed. This unit starts with the concept of coping and goes on to managing stress. Coping can be broadly divided into two parts; one the organizational efforts and the other individual efforts. This unit in the end thoroughly explains what both can do to cope with the stress in the individual and at the organizational levels. Apart from other measures the unit also provides for the stress skills which should be learned by all to reduce the stress levels.

BASES OF POWER Objectives

After going through the Unit you should be able to understand the concept of power appreciate the difference between functional and dysfunctional power examine your own bases or power

Structure
Self Test What is Power? Bases of Power Coercive Bases of Power Persuasive Bases of Power Power Bases and Managerial Effectiveness Further Readings

SELF TEST
Before going through the Unit, respond to the following instrument. Self Test Below are given some items which may contribute to your effectiveness in your present role. Rate each one for its importance to you.

WHAT IS POWER
Power has been defined much way. Kotter and Scheesinger (1979) seem to capture the spirit of most definitions when they define power as a measure of a persons potential to get others to do what he or she wants them to do as well as to avoid being forced to do what he or she does not want to do". Power as potential to influence individuals and groups, as well as organizational outcome may be an adequate concept to work with. Influence can be both on the covert (attitudes, values, thinking), or on the overt part (behavior and action) of persons. One concern in understanding power relates to the sources of power or from where one derives power. These are called bases of power, and have engaged the attention of several researchers and organization interventions.

BASES OF POWER
Ever since Machiavelli (1950) suggested a couple of centuries ago fear and love as bases of power, some suggestions have been made to dichotomize power bases. Flanders (1970) in his seminar work on classroom strategies of influence by teachers differentiated "direct" influence from "indirect" influence, because these "coerced" the students into accepting what the teacher wanted them to do or think. Influencing behavior that gave freedom to the student to think and experiment (encouragement, compliments, open questions with alternative answers, sensing and voicing individual and group feelings\etc.) were put in the category of "indirect" influence. Flanders thus seemed to use a similar classification: coercion (fear) or persuasion (love).Hersey and Blanchard (1982), who .in their work on situational leadership proposed seven bases of power (coercive, legitimate, expert, reward, referent, information, connection), accepted the dichotomy of "position power" and "personal power", although they pointed out the limitation of dividing "pie. always into two pieces" (p. 178). Berlew. (1986) suggested two influence strategies, "push" and "pull", the first being located in the system, the second being the part o the spirit of the individual influencing others. This suggestion is similar to position and personal power. Pettigrew (1986) has suggested the dichotomy or overt and covert, the first being concerned with "preferred outcome in conflict", and the second (which is unobtrusive)" ensuing no conflict through use of symbols and myths to manage meaning' (p. 134). All the dichotomies suggested have a common thread, whether influence is used to force the other individual into accepting what the influencor wants him/her to think or do (fear power, direct influence, position power, push energy, overt influenced or to help the individual choose to think or do things (love power, indirect influence, personal

power, pull' energy, covert influence). The first has the element of coercion, and the second that of persuasion. It seems to be useful to classify the bases of power into coercive and persuasive bases.

COERCIVE BASES OR POWER

From the literature it is clear that position power and punishment are coercive bases. Power drawn from the organizational position (legitimate power in the role, or power to allocate resources) coerces people to accept influences. Punishment deserves to be listed separately as coercive power. As discussed above, power derived out of close affectionate bonds (relationship) often acts like coercions, because the person accepting influence does so more out of emotional bond, rather than by making a conscious choice. It has been put in the category of coercive power. The main rationale has been that when people accept an act of influence because of emotion (fear, excessive love) they are being coerced, being manipulated. For then same reason charisma is included in coercive power, because a charismatic leader arouses strong emotions, and gets things done. The leader does not treat his/her followers as mature people with competence to make their own choices. Referent power is different as we shall see in the next section. Another base included in coercive power is the power derived from a person with larger power bases. For example, the private secretary of the chief executive may use his association with the CEO as a source or influence. This is reflected power from anther source and a king of manipulation, and so is included in the group of coercive power. Another type of manipulation is the use of negative power, by withholding or depriving a person of information, or delaying action, some clerks exercise power by delaying issue of the decisions made. Thus six bases or power are included in coercive power are included in coercive power group. Organizational position, (legitimate power), punishment (coercive power) charisma (charismatic power), personal relationship (emotional power), closeness to. a source of power (reflected power), and withholding information/resources (manipulative power).

PERSUASIVE BASES OF POWER

Personal power has been accepted as opposite of coercion, i.e. can be put in the category of persuasive power, there are three main sources of personal power: expertise (special knowledge), competence (general effectiveness to produce results),

and modeling (example set by behavior). We accept the suggestion or a mechanic, because he is an expert. A competent manager influences because he can get results. A person who "lives" certain values (not smoking, encouraging others to speak, listening, giving credit for new ideas etc.) influences other into behaving the same way, or at least attempting such behaviors, because they admire his behavior. He does not make any covert appeal. He models a behavior, which is more .eloquent than the words used by somebody else. This is often called referent power. These three bases have been included in the category of persuasive power. Reward has also been included here, because reward encourages people to experiment, give them more autonomy, unless, of course, it is manipulated, as in the case of operant shaping. Another base included is the concern for other, caring for them, and helping them to develop. Again this helps in widening the autonomy of the individuals. Raven suggested information as a base of power (French and Raven, 1959) but was subsequently dropped because his co-author French did not agree (Raven, 1992), and so was listed only as a form of influence in 1959, but was subsequently included as a base or power. Many people are influence by the facts given and by the logic behind information. This can be called logical power, as the basis is rational aspect information. This is also included as a persuasive base. We thus have six bases of power in the category of persuasive power: reward (reinforcing power), expert power, competence power, referent power (being a role model), and extension power (empathy, caring and helping others), and logical power (based on information and the rationale of the information). The bases and types of power are show in Exhibit 1.

Now examine your responses to the instrument and score these to find out your comparative scores of coercive and persuasive bases. Items 1, 4 and 6 are coercive power items, and 2, 3 and 5 are persuasive power items. Think how you can strengthen your persuasive bases or power.

POWER BASES AND MANAGERIAL EFFECTIVENESS

Keshote's results (1.991) from one multi-national, one public sector, and one private corporation showed that production managers had significantly higher value as well as need for coercive power compared with "service" managers. "Service" managers, on the other hand had higher need for persuasive power (NPP) than production managers who had higher need for coercive power (NPP) than marketing managers. These differences were statistically significant at 0.05 level. Regarding organizational levels, value and need for both types of power were found highest amongst the junior, followed by middle, and then the senior levels. Keshote (1991) found that internals had higher value for persuasive power, the externals higher value as well as need for coercive power, and external (chance) lover value for persuasive power. He also reported significant positive correlation between value for persuasive power (VPP) and negative correlation of need for persuasive power (NPP) with enlarging life style. No significant correlation was found with coercive power. Keshote found negative correlation between perceived deficiency of coercive power and interpersonal trust. The various studies on the relationship of power bases and satisfaction have showed a positive relationship with persuasive bases, and negative with coercive bases. Coercive base was strongly and negatively associated with satisfaction. amongst all the three groups of students (Jamieson and Thomas 1974), as well as a variety of five organizations (manufacturing firms, sales organizations, life insurance companies, utility firms and liberal arts colleges) (Bachman, Bowers and Marcus, 1968), and in several offices of a utility company (Burke and Wilcox 1971). Expert and referent power have been reported to be associated with employee satisfaction (Bachman, Bowers and Marcus 1968; Burke and Wilcox 1971). The relationship of bases of power with productivity shows the importance of the persuasive bases. Referent and expert power were positively related with four measures of performance (Student 1968; Bachman, Bowers and Marcus 1968).

SUMMARY QUESTIONS
The basic objective of this unit is to make you understand the concept of power. One of the primary concerns in understanding power is the source of power as from where one drives the power, which is known as bases of power. This unit gives you the views of various researchers as their topic who have divided these bases into the following

coercive bases of power and persuasive bases of power, Exhibit 1 describes for you the types and base of both the bases of power. Logically relating the discussion, the unit goes ahead. explaining the relationship between the power bases and the managerial effectiveness.