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THE

INDICATOR

HANDBOOK.

BY

THE

SAME

AUTHOR.

THE
A
PRACTICAL

SLIDE
MANUAL

RULE:
FOR

ENGINEERS.

Sixteenth

Edition. slide
which rule,
Mr

"Of
the

all best.
...

books
It
"
"

on

the
a

Pickworth's

is
user

is

book

every

slide-rule

should

possess.

The

Engineer.

LOGARITHMS
Seventh
"

FOR

BEGINNERS.

Edition.
much-needed

An

extremely

useful

and

little work theory of

a

a complete giving logarithms, with

explanation
numerous

of examples

the

and

use

of
"

practical

kind.

"Mining

Journal.

POWER FOR
We find

COMPUTER
GAS,
AND
and

STEAM,

OIL

ENGINES.
practical
engineers
tests, etc.
. .

"Accurate,
can

expeditious,

confidently
a

it

great

recommend in boon undertaking

thoroughly it, and

The

will
"-

Electrician.

C.

N.

PICKWORTH,

WITHINGTGN,

MANCHESTER.

THE

INDICATOR
A PRACTICAL

HANDBOOK:
FOR ENGINEERS.

MANUAL

BY

X
CHARLES
WHITWORTH
EDITOR

PICKWORTH, Nf*///
SCHOLAR;
MECHANICAL
"LOGARITHMS

OF

"THE

WORLD";
FOR
BEGINNERS."

AUTHOR

OF

"THE

SLIDE

RULE,"

ETC.

COMPLETE

EDITION

MANCHESTER:
EMMOTT 65

" KING

Co..

LIMITED

STREET.

LONDON:
EMMOTT 20 BEDFORD
A- Co.,

LIMITED.

PITMAN
1 AMEN

SONS,

LIMITED.

STREET,

W.C.

CORNER,

E.C.

4.

635058

ALL

RIGHTS

RESERVED.

PREFACE.

T)UBLISHED
"The
"

originally in two

parts,

dealing
and

respectively Application" this work

has

with

Indicator:
:

Its construction

and
met

The
a

Indicator

Its Analysis
measure

and
of

Calculation,"
success.

with

considerable
parts being

Both
re-issuing
a

out

of print, I have
one

taken

the opportunity

of

the complete
of

treatise in favour

volume,
to

and trust it will

work

enjoy

continuance

the

extended

the

in its original

form.

CHARLES

N.

PICKWOBTH.

WITHINGTON, March

MANCHESTER.
1920.

THE

INDICATOR

HANDBOOK.

PART

I.

The Indicator : Its Construction and Application.

CHAPTER
PRELIMINARY

CONSIDERATIONS.

in which the graphic record of the manner in an varies engine cylinder pressure of steam is, in The instrument throughout the stroke of the piston. fact, simply a "pressure recorder," and whether applied to

THE

Indicator
a

is

an

instrument

primarily

designed

to

give

gas, oil or hot-air engine, or to an air or water pump, its sole function is to afford an indication in which variations of pressure occur in the of the manner it is attached. Considered more especially vessel to which in connection be it seen that in with the steam engine, will order to record the pressure variation during the stroke,
the

cylinder of

steam,

means

must

be

every

instant

provided throughout

clearly the
The

exact

the pressure at the stroke, and (2) to indicate position occupied by the piston at each
measure

(1) to

instant of pressure

measurement.

consists part of the apparatus pressure-measuring a to the essentially of small cylinder connected engine in light is freely. a to move cylinder, which piston arranged
9

10

THE

INDICATOR

HANDBOOK.

the upper cover piston rod passing through of the cylinder, and suitable mechanism, any movement of the piston is transmitted to a pencil or marking point, the being arrangement generally such that the movement of the pencil is a magnified copy of that of the piston. In
means

By

of

the
so

upper

part of the
as

cylinder is

resist any direction from its neutral position. either Upon the lower part of the cylinder the communication with engine existing in the latter acts upon

arranged

to

spiral spring, which movement of the piston

is
in

being

placed

in

upper subjected atmospheric pressure only. It is clear that a the pressure which preponderates will cause ing correspondmovement of the piston to take place, the latter rising, if the steam pressure is the greater, until the increasing balances resistance of the spring due to its compression
to

indicator

piston, while

the

cylinder, the pressure the under side of the side of this piston is

On the greater pressure of the steam. the other hand, the piston will fall if the atmospheric pressure is in excess, until the increased tension of the spring in elongating again As the compression or extension produces equilibrium.

spiral spring is proportional to the pressure causing the in length, it follows that knowing the pressure change the required to compress or extend the spring so as to cause inch vertically the pressure one through pencil to move the piston at any instant will be indicated by the upon height of the the corresponding pencil above neutral it both the position which occupies when sides of piston
of
a
"

"

exposed to atmospheric pressure only. far, only the pressure-measuring Thus portion of the instrument has been considered ; it remains to indicate
are

to engine piston corresponding It the successive positions of the pencil are recorded. will be evident, in the first place, that if the pencil be in contact with a suitably-mounted arranged to move sheet a of paper, the varying positions of the pencil will cause height of which vertical line to be traced, the maximum

how

the

positions

of

the

will represent the maximum pressure which has occurred in the cylinder during the stroke. But no indication of in which the manner the pressure fluctuates throughout the stroke
is thus

afforded.

If, however,

the

mounted

PRELIMINAR

CONSIDERA

TIO\*

"

11

in a direction at right angles to sheet of paper is moved the pencil moves that in which and in such a manner is a reduced copy of that of the engine that the motion longer trace a the pencil will no and retrace piston, vertical line, but will describe a curved outline representing
" "

the resultant motion due to the simultaneous movements of hand, On the pencil and paper. the other when each side is to indicator of the piston subjected atmospheric pressure stationary in its neutral only, the pencil will remain
of the paper only, will cause position, while the movement horizontal line to be traced, which, from the conditions a it is drawn, is termed the atmotpheric line. under which
that each point in the curved this it will appear figure, or indicator diagram, as it is called, represents by its vertical height above the atmospheric line the pressure acting upon the engine piston at that particular point in

From

its stroke.

In nearly all modern instruments the paper upon which the diagram is traced is mounted upon a cylindrical drum or barrel, capable of turning upon a fixed stud as an axis. Motion is given to this drum by a cord passing around a groove at its base and connected to the engine in such a
manner as

to give to the paper

to that of the engine

piston, but

Since

the cord gives motion

only, a spring placed within during the return stroke, and this maintains the movement the driving cord to keep the drum sufficient tension on constantly under its control. Assuming

exactly similar much reduced scale. in one direction to the drum is employed to effect the drum
on

movement
a

the indicator to be attached to one end of the is an cylinder of engine which working uniformly, and that is the correct movement given to the paper-carrying drum, the figure traced by the pencil supplies a record of the acting upon one side of the piston during a complete double stroke of the engine. Thus in the hypothetical case in Fig. 1, the vertical line assumed or ordinate 1 2 at the commencement of the stroke indicates a practically instantaneous attainment of the
of the
steam

behaviour

while

initialpressure, the amount of which is represented by the line A L. Then the vertical height above the atmospheric horizontal motion line 2 be to 3 the of paper caused the

12

THE

INDICATOR

HANDBOOK.

traced, indicating that the pressure remained uniform until At 3 the steam the latter point was supply was reached. fall of pressure, combined cut off, and the consequent with the the continued movement the curved of paper, produced line 3 4. Release occurred at 4, the vertical line 4 5 fall of pressure and marking representing an instantaneous The motion of the the termination of the forward stroke. drawn, reprebeing reversed, the line 5 1 was senting paper now line A L, the by its height above the atmospheric
in this constant of pressure (supposed case)which the movement of the engine piston during its opposed At 1 the cycle of operations is again com return stroke.
amount

menced

by the fresh admission

of steam

to the cylinder.

FIO. i.

It will be shown, subsequently, that from the area of the indicator diagram, the power developed by the engine may be ascertained, this application of the instrument constituting Another its one uses. and perhaps of principal
more

important

function

distribution

of steam in which the admission, cut-off, expansion, release, manner and compression of the steam takes place, thereby acting as invaluable guide to the correct an of the valve

of the indicator is to show the in the cylinder, by indicating the

adjustment

the ports also shows whether and passages for the admission and exhaust of the steam Cylinder are suitably arranged. of sufficient size and condensation and re-evaporation, leakage of steam past the feed water or (in with valves, and piston

gear.

The

indicator diagram

conjunction

measurements)
the engine
in

the
a

weight of the steam given time, are among

passing through other important

PRELIMINARY

CONSIDERA

TlOXi,.

13

by the intelligent of information which may be deduced study of the indicator diagram. Nor are the useful applications of the indicator restricted Applied to the steam to the engine cylinder. chest, or to is frequently the steam pipes, the instrument and exhaust
items

found of great value in determining the resistance offered Its by the pipes and ports to the passage of the steam. engines should be application to the receivers of compound ; while in condensing engines, the application of mentioned to the indicator to the condenser allows a direct comparison

by between be made the amount of back pressure shown Again, by the diagram and the pressure in the condenser. attaching the indicator to the air pump, the power required to operate this apparatus ; while much may be determined
be may useful information instrument to air compressors, plant, etc. In connection

by the obtained applying blowing engines, refrigerating

plant, the indicator furnishes with pumping in regard to the resistance offered by pump information tion valves, the utility of air vessels in reducing pressure fluctuain pipe lines, etc. Applied to machinery operated by
power, many useful data are obtained In fact to the power as required for various operations. there is scarcely any limitation to its useful application wherever fluid pressure variations are to be measured and
or

hydraulic

pneumatic

recorded.

CHAPTER

II.
TEE

THE

CONSTRUCTION
ENGINE

OF

INDICATOR"
TORS.

STEAM

INDICA

IN
are

of of the most important adjuncts James by indicator invented was the the steam engine, Few particulars of the earliest form of apparatus Watt. to the fact available, doubtless owing in a great measure
common

with many

Watt kept his valuable invention a secret for many for believing that in its There is, however, reason years.
that

consisted merely of a cylinder original form the instrument fitted about 6in. in length and lin. in diameter, which was with a piston. A rod attached to the latter, and passing
through the upper end of the cylinder, was provided with a pointer ; while between the upper face of the piston and was the cylinder cover placed a long spiral spring, the ends respectively. attached to the piston and cover of which were open to the atmosphere, upper side of the piston was with the while the lower part of the cylinder communicated With the low speeds usual at this period, engine cylinder. idea of the action of the steam some could be obtained by the movement of the pointer ; but this closely watching The crude device apparatus,
"

was

and

useless as it was not

"

and recording power-measuring until Watt added the sliding

the motion of the paper-carrying board -representative of that the principle of the present form of indicator piston This sliding board was was arranged to move established. in a direction at right angles to that of the piston, and was actuated by a cord attached to a suitable point in some being reciprocating part of the engine, the return movement effected by a weight attached to another cord acting in the opposite direction to the driving cord. Watt's indicator Instruments. Early very rendered
"

14

CONSTRUCTION

OF

THE

INDICATOR.

15

engineering, when great service in the early days of steam But low speeds and low steam employed. pressures were with increase of engine speed the necessity for modifying It was found that became the apparatus soon apparent. the reciprocating board which carried the paper, and the it, rendered the used to actuate cords and counterweights

instrument

totally unsuitable

for indicating any

but

very

engines. slow-moving With a view to remove

the indicator bearing his

this defect, McXaught

name,

introduced
instrument

and the improved

for many

enjoyedconsiderable
a

favour

years.

In this indicator

its axis,

vertical cylinder, capable of rotating about was previously substituted for the sliding board employed, and the paper, wrapped around this cylinder, was driving cord of a clip. The secured thereto by means

hollow

passed round a groove at the foot of the paper barrel, and was of secured to the latter. A guide pulley, by means be led into in driving the groove the which the cord could barrel, was also added by McNaught. It will be readily understood that upon the cord being will rotate, and a diagram pulled, the paper-carrying drum are will be traced, as previously described, provided means
to employed This drum.

of the was conveniently effected by means of a flat coiled spring contained within the base of the drum, which, by keeping the cord constantly in tension, formed a very for the balance by efficient substitute weight employed Watt. The extent of the motion limited was of the drum by means of stops to about three-fourths or seven-eighths of
ensure

the prompt

return

movement

complete revolution. The arrangement of steam cylinder, spring, etc., was by Watt, as that adopted substantially the same except by a that the pencil was short arm secured to the carried lower the piston rod near end of the sprint;, and

projecting

through a slot in the upper part of the cylinder. Slightly modified forms of the McXaught instrument were subsequently made by Maudslay and others in this country, by Stillman in America, but the only one which came -and by Messrs. was the indicator made at all into general use Hopkinson, of Huddersfield. In the original form of this instrument, the paper-carrying drum surrounded the lower

1"

THE

INDICATOR

HANDBOOK.

cylinder, the axes of the two coinciding. part of the steam As in the McNaught fixed to the indicator, a short arm was piston rod at the lower end of the spring, and from this long pencil rod, the lower end of which carried the pencil. In a later form of this instrument, the more was arrangement usual drum reverted to, the pencil being mounted carried by a horizontal arm upon the top of the

depended

in order to. piston rod, and capable of swivelling thereon the position of the pencil with regard to the paper. adjust In order to satisfactorily fulfilits purpose, the indicator

sufficiently large to enable the distinctly, and experience to be shown action of the steam led to the recognition of the fact that a diagram soon of
must

produce

diagram

from

2 to 3in. in height

was

a piston and pencil are rigidly connected be, employed, length must spiral spring of considerable to the the admission of high-pressure steam which, upon indicator cylinder, will be thrown into vibration, the extent of the resulting oscillations of the pencil being greatly intensified by the momentum of the reciprocating parts. by this vibratory The effect produced upon the diagram With action depends greatly upon the speed of the engine.
"

results. wherein

It the

follows that

successful necessary to ensure in all direct-acting indicators

"

the oscillations of the pencil may engines almost entirely cease before the paper has moved perceptibly ; but with higher speeds the oscillations distort the diagram

slow-running

very considerably, the pencil tracing a series of undulating curves, which, being in no way due to the action of the the the steam within cylinder, seriously detracts from value of the indicator diagram.
other disadvantages attending this arrangement The compression of the spring is frequently of indicator. by a bending action which has the effect of accompanied

There

are

tilting the piston Further, friction.

operates against a of the variations of pressure which

an amount of producing undue the extensive motion of the piston being indication simultaneous obtained

and

are

occurring

within

the

cylinder.
appears to be the earliest attempt to obviate these disadvantages was made by Sir Daniel Uooch about 1840. In the form of instrument he devised specially for which What

CONSTRUCTION

OF

THE

INDICATOR.

17

in a horizontal piston moved cylinder rigidly fixed to a framing, while the springs were in form to a flat carriage spring. curved "trips. similar lever An was used, the end of the longer unequal-armed was arm carrying a pencil, while the end of the short arm of a short link. The connected to the piston rod by means in the form of a long was paper used in this instrument from one roller on to unwound strip, being continuously another, and at a rate proportional to the speed of the The pencil moved through a considerable arc, and engine from the motion of the piper it will be clear that the but that form diagram a traced will not closed curve,
use

on

locomotives,

the

in one will be given line was traced by a continuous of a curved second pencil fixed to the frame, and by means of diagram could be readily usual form scale the more This indicator, which is said to have worked constructed. is worthy of notice as well up to 400 strokes per minute, being the first instrument in which a lever was employed

indications

strokes of successive line. The atmospheric

for the purpose of amplifying the motion of the pencil. It is not a littlesurprising that the Richard's Indicator. lever movement not generally adopted. used by Gooch was
"

the curvilinear movement of the pencil constituted but it is remarkto the arrangement, the principal objection able before that more this defect than twenty years elapsed

No

doubt

The introduction in 1862 of the instrument remedied. designed by Mr. C. B. Richards, of Hartford, Conn., U.S.A., This marks a distinct epoch in the history of the indicator.
was

representing the earliest form of the modern in every respect a very great improvement indicator, was upon any hitherto constructed, and at the present time it is stillextensively used for moderate speeds. Of the accompanying illustrations,Fig. 2 shows the instrument partly in section, while Fig. 3 represents the indicator From as Fig. 2 it will be made by Messrs. Elliott Bros. seen that a short spring D is employed, the upper end of is E, while the lower which attached to the cylinder cover end is secured to the piston B, the latter being arranged to

instrument,

with perfect freedom in the liner or bushing fixed in The upper end of the piston rod the steam cylinder A A. is coupled by a short link to a point G in the upper bar
move

18

THE

INDICATOR

HANDBOOK.

An exactly similar bar M L, parallel motion. link I L, completes the parallel motion, the and a centre being such that the pencil K describes an arrangement straight line, the extent of the movement approximately
H I of the being four times that of the piston, since the length H G is one-fourth of H I. For the usual travel of the pencil, the

Fia. 2.

considerably, and a stroke of the piston is thus diminished be employed, resulting shorter and stifferspring may much The two in a corresponding reduction of elastic vibration. are fixed centres of the parallel motion carried by suitable from, and forming part of, a cylindrical brackets

projecting
which

sleeve

which

fits upon

and

around

the outside of the steam cylinder, The it can freely. turn at the joint

CONSTRUCTION

OF

THE

INDICATOR.

19

top of the piston rod is arranged to swivel, and this allows together with the parallel motion and pencil, to the .sleeve, be rotated upon the cylinder, enabling the pencil to be brought into contact with or withdrawn from the paper as

desired.

FIO. 3.

of the piston in this indicator is 0'7978in., an The area extreme travel of giving of O5sq. in the pencil is 3in. The piston, of a specially hard metal, is an easy fitin the cylinder, in order to ensure a movement free from friction : while, to prevent an accumulation .of 2

The

diameter

20

THE

INDICA

TOR

HANDBOOK.

steam

above the piston, large in the cylinder cap, as shown At the lower part of the provided in order to connect T. The lower extremity

escape holes Fig. 2.

instrument
a

are

provided

in

is coupling U the indicator with the stopcock instrument of the stem of the

is conical in form, and fitsinto a correspondingly coned seat in the stop-cock, and as the thread upon the indicator and that upon the stop-cock are of different pitches, the rotation firmly into its seat, forming of the coupling draws the cone
a

effectual and conveniently-made end of the stop-cock is screwed with thread. diameter The of the paper-carrying giving
a

very

joint. The lower Whitworth a f-in.

drum
0
is 2in.,

length of diagram maximum of 5in. ; a length of 4^in. will, however, generally be found sufficient. In the place of the usual form of pencil, a pointed brass wire

the diagram upon specially prepared P is A Q of metallic paper. split clip provided, by means drum. is to the the paper which paper readily attached The grooved pulley xipon which the cord is coiled, and the guide pulleys, are cleai'lyshown in Fig. 3. The " detent " device shown applied to the paper drum in
is employed for instantly stopping or Fig. 3 offers a convenient means ing without disconnectstarting the motion of the paper drum It consists of a small pawl mounted the driving cord. a short standard, on and so arranged that it may be thrown in or out of gear with the teeth of a ratchet segment on the base of the paper drum, this being conveniently effected by
the short spring partly encircling the cylinder and with a small knob as shown.

to draw

provided

In order to adapt
now

the indicator to the

various

used, springs are made of strengths ranging When it is required to change the 2501b. per square inch. from the end of the spring, the small coupling is unscrewed The spring from the cylinder. piston rod, and the cover from the piston and the cover, the may then be unscrewed
new

pressures from 10 to

spring inserted, and the parts replaced. In the Richards instrument a Indicator. The Thompson action was obtained by diminishing the greatly improved motion of the piston, and consequently reducing the length
"

and vibration of the spring.

But with

stillfurther increase

CONSTRUCTION

OF

THE

INDICATOR,

21

of the parallel motion speeds, the momentum influence disturbing upon the diagram, and a exercised was further reduction of the weight of the mechanism found to be necessary. To meet this requirement, Mr. J. W. Thompson, of Salem, Ohio, U.S.A., introduced in 1875 the improved instrument and of which Figs. 4 and 5 are which bears his name, Steam illustrationsof the form made by the American Gauge Company, the original makers of this instrument.
a

in engine

FIG. 4.

FIG. 5.

It will be observed that the parallelmotion differs essentially from that used in the Richards instrument, the single lever being reverted to and the pencil caused to move in a straight line by a modified arrangement of the Scott-Russell parallelmotion. From the illustrations it will be seen that the fulcrum of being placed at the upper end of a swinging the pencil arm, link, is free to move laterally. A short and light radius bar has one end attached to a point in the pencil arm and the other to a fixed standard, as shown, the length and point of attachment being so arranged that the curved

22

THE

INDICA

TOR

HANDBOOK.

path which the pencil would have described if the fulcrum had been fixed, is counteracted by the effect of the short straight radius rod, and the pencil describes an approximately link connecting the piston rod and pencil arm is fitted at the lower end with a modified form of ball-andjoint, socket provides for the lateral movement which required by the parallel motion, as well as for the rotative is moved to or movement when the pencil arm which occurs
from line.

The

any

the paper lost motion

drum.

provided in the joints resulting from

Means

are

for taking
wear

or

up other

causes.

This construction of parallel motion reduces the weight parts to a very considerable extent, the of the moving downward pull at the pencil due to this weight in the Thompson indicator being less than one-third of that in the Richards
instrument
;

but

the

reduction

of

disturbing

not having to effect is still greater, since the pencil arm, lighter, and this carry other links, may be made very much results in a very material reduction of the weight of those ment the instruat a high velocity, rendering parts which move

available for speeds up to 400 revolutions per minute. The links, pencil bar, etc., have been reduced in weight to the lowest limit consistent with the requirements of everyday has improvement been a use ; while considerable effected by placing the drum spring close to the base of the drum, thereby lessening the weight and reducing the spindle friction. During recent years indicators with external springs have largely into favour, and nearly all the leading makers come As will be shown of this type. supply instruments later,the strength of a spring is influenced by its temperature. conHence, when a spring calibrated in air under normal ditions indicator cylinder, it is necessary to is used in an ture an allowance for the effect of the increase in temperamake
now

more satisfactory method is to calibrate the spring at the makers adopted by many It will be obvious, temperature at which it is to be used. however, that while this temperature may reasonably be 212" Fah. for the ordinary conditions of taken at about

to which

it is

subjected.

The

be considerably higher when the practice, it may or on a is used with superheated instrument steam gas or
steam

CONSTRUCTION

OF

THE

INDICATOR.

23

affecte spring that it is unby variations of temperature, any uncertainty of be more The spring can this kind is avoided altogether. conditions, and more calibrated under normal accurately pressure if readilv tested either by dead weight or steam
oil engine.

But

by

so

locating the

FIG. 6.

necessary
can

but not insignificant, advantages .Minor, found in the greater comfort with which the springs are be handled, and in most instruments, the greater facility
at

any

time.

with which they can These conditions

be changed.
are

approximately

in the instrufulfilled

24

THE

INDICATOR

HANDBOOK.

shown of Thompson

ment

in Fig. 6, which

Company. the spring is exposed and is kept cool by the air circulating around it. In other respects is of standard design. the instrument In the Thompson indicator, as made by Messrs. Schaffer

indicator made As will be seen,

represents a very recent form by the American Steam Gauge

Fio. 7.

Street, Manchester, Ltd., of Whitworth and Budenberg, is modified so the parallel motion and Magdeberg-Buckau, as to avoid the hollow piston rod used in the original form, The indicator a rod being employed. shorter connecting in Fig. 7 is "suitable for pressures up to 2501b. per shown square inch and for speeds up to 400 revolutions per minute, while diagrams 3m. high and 5in. long may be obtained if

CONSTRUCTION

OF

THE

INDICATOR.

25

desired.

revolutions the makers speeds up to 600 high and Ifin. supply a smaller pattern, giving diagrams long. 3|in. "Fig. 8 indicator by the same shows a form of Thompson For

FIO. 8.

" " 1911 as the makers and known 0-5sq. in. area, is of steel,and the for pressures up to 3501b. per sq. is surrounded by steam and can

pattern.
instrument in.

The

The

piston, of is available cylinder liner for

be

readily removed

26

THE

INDICATOR

HANDBOOK.

cleaning.

The

springs

are

double-wound

and made

with

Fio. 10.

ball which rod. The

forms

ball

movement

the piston and piston of the piston is multiplied six times

between joint

CONSTRUCTION

OF

THE

INDICATOR.

27

the diameter
at

"sq.

is ordinarily made drum The l|in. pencil. by 2"in.high, for speeds up to 600 revolutions. By using an alternative cylinder and piston of 7001b. be to in. area, can the instrument used
form of the
same

per sq. in. In another

instrument,

(Fig.9) so that the casing is cut away With the spring is cooled by this arrangement
air, while accumulation is impossible.

the cylinder spring is exposed. the circulating the piston

of pressure above

In the Thompson Fig. 10, the spring the cylinder cover, being compressed.
in
a

indicator with

is attached and the spring is extended instead of The springs are tested and

inside spring, shown in to a bridge connected with

difficulties due to different cool state, and hence lation Accumutemperatures of the springs are entirely avoided. of steam pressure above the piston due to leakage past the piston is prevented by the large openings provided in the cylinder casing above the piston. The indicator is in. area made with a piston of |sq. and is available in four sizes, for 400, 500, 700, and 1000 revolutions per minute

adjusted

respectively. A very convenient instrument is the " Willner outside 11. instrument In in Fig. indicator, the this shown spring the cylinder cover, and spring is screwed on to a boss on is inverted, the pencil arm the Thompsoa pencil movement being forked at the suspended end so as to clear the spring. To remove the spring it is only necessary to unscrew the milled nut at the top of the piston rod, when, by tilting it be unscrewed from the boss to the left, the spring can over If the cover is now on the cylinder cover. unscrewed, the
:'

be withdrawn. The cylinder piston and piston rod can is insulated by a vulcanised fibre disc, and it is found cover during prolonged that the spring remains quite cool even The pencil mechanism is very strong and rigid : but, tests.

design, the weight of the moving parts is exceptionally small for an outside spring indicator. All these instruments are provided with a stop motion for
owing
to the very compact

regulating the pressure Threaded into a

carries the

the pencil upon the paper. from the rotating sleeve which projection is a screw, the point of which pencil motion
of

28

THE

INDICATOR

HANDBOOK.

stop when the the position of pencil approaches a very minute this screw, of the pencil pressure adjustment be readily effected. The screw is provided with an may insulated handle, which is also of service in rotating the
comes

into contact

with a small fixed post or By regulating the paper.

FIG. 11.

still further Mr. Harris reducing the weight of the pencil mechanism, York, introduced in 1879 another form of Tabor, of New indicator, in which the straight-line movement of the pencil parture is obtained in a manner a constitutes which radical de"

to and pencil mechanism instrument. Indicator. The Tabor

from

the paper when

a

using

the

With

view

to

from

the

systems

previously employed.

Fig. 12 is

CONSTRUCTION

OF

THE

INDICATOR

29

sectional illustration of the instrument

on

scale of two-

FlQ. 12.

thirds full size.

fulcrum, and E F

P H

is the pencil lever, J H its swinging the connecting At a rod. suitable point

30

THE

INDICATOR

HANDBOOK.

in the pencil lever a pin is fixed, upon which a small roller R is arranged to turn freely, while in a vertical plate a secured to the cylinder cover curved slot S is formed, in to travel, the curvature of which the roller R is arranged the slot and the position of the roller being arranged so as to cause the pencil P to describe a straight line. The curve that of a circle outer of the slot is approximately having a radius of lin. From the construction it will be seen that the links H J

parallel to each other ; that a -always remain the points J, E and P straight line may be drawn through link, in every position ; and also that if an imaginary the point E with the parallel to F H, be supposed to connect link H J, the arrangement would form an exact pantograph. The upper part of the steel piston rod is hollow, having
and The lower part is solid, external diameter of ^in. reduced in diameter, and provided at the end with a ball, by means forming part of a ball-and-socket joint, of which
an

The socket is an independent connected. piece, which fits into a square hole in the piston, and of a central threaded stem and is secured by means Shallow grooves, cut upon the outside of the C. thumb-nut " water piston, tend to keep it steam-tight by the so-called from is The the steam separate packing." cylinder proper the piston and rod
are

casing, the space between the two preventing excessive heating of the exterior of the instrument. The duplex type of spring used in this indicator (Fig. 13) the two ends to consists of spiral coils of wire, secured at The that so nuts. springs are mounted suitable winged
outer

the points of attachment of the two coils are upon opposite By this means the side strain induced by sides of the nut. the bending of one coil of the spring is exactly counteracted

by that of the other, and the piston is kept in a central position in the cylinder. To enable the pencil to be brought is drum, the cylinder cover into contact with the paper fitted with a swivel plate upon which the pencil mechanism by means being made is mounted, the attachment of the small standard J on the one side, and by the slotted vertical Fig. 14 it will be seen From that the plate on the other. slotted plate referred to is backed by another plate of the to receive the same size, but without a slot. This serves

CONSTRUCTION

OF

THE

INDICATOR.

31

during the the pencil bar is subjected pressure to which taking of the diagram, and also keeps the pencil bar iu place. The pressure of the pencil on the paper is regulated by the screw the lower part of the shown passing through striking against a stop. slot plate, the end of the screw is provided with an insulated handle, sufficiently The screw

long

to
as

be
a

serving

by the fingers, and readily operated handle for turning the pencil mechanism

also
as

required. The paper drum K is made of very thin brass tube, closed at the top in order to afford suitable strength ; the carriage has a long bearing upon upon which the drum is mounted the vertical shaft on The drum rotates. which the drum

32

THE

INDICATOR

HANDBOOK.

spring

type, has one which is of the watch-spring end box in to it is the circular secured which contained, while the other is fixed to the long sleeve of the carriage. The stop B, which limits the travel of the paper drum, is shown to the right of the spring box. In order to adjustthe drum is tension of the N loosened, spring, the thumb-nut when the carriage may be raised clear of the stop, and the

Q,

by winding or unwinding tension as desired. adjusted The form of guide pulley used is simple and ingenious. The pulley G is contained within a vertical disc or sheave, this disc being

held

by

swivel upon a pivot, which by means of a nut as shown. be readily guided in any direction required. The piston of the Tabor indicator is of the usual diameter, 0'7978in., corresponding The to an area of 0-5sq. in.

to circular frame arranged be locked in any position may By this device the cord may

is 5'5in., its diameter 2'063in., stroke of the paper drum range of motion of the and its height 4in. The extreme pencil is 3'25in., and as the pencil mechanism multiplies fivefold, the extreme the piston motion travel of the piston For very high speeds an is 0'65in. instrument is supplied drum 1'Sin. in diameter, 2'8in. high, and with a paper with a stroke of 4in. Fig. 14 shows a Tabor indicator with the spring outside. The thrust of the spring is taken by a yoke attached to fixed in the cylinder cover as columns shown. The method adopted by Mr. E. T. The Darke Indicator.
"

the rectilinear movement of the pencil is shown very clearly in Fig. 15, which gives a general view In by Messrs. Elliott Bros. as of the instrument made this case a single light steel pencil lever is pivoted at one

Darke

for producing

distance For "ome end upon fixed steel centres as shown. from the fulcrum the lever pencil is circular in section, and is fitted with a small steel sleeve, which can slide easily lever, lost The but without sliding sleeve motion. upon the swivels in the fork at the upper end of the piston rod, and
is therefore enabled
to accommodate

itself to the varying

angular positions of the pencil lever. In order to render the lever somewhat elastic the greater it is in thickness, the requisite strength part of reduced Upon by increasing the depth. being provided the outer

CONSTRUCTION

OF

THE

INDICATOR.

33

is constrained end of the lever is a sliding carriage, which in a in a straight line by sliding in a slot formed to move in the form of a vertical guideplate, and carries the pencil As in the Richards instrument, the piston metal pin.

FIG. is.

movement

is multiplied four times by the pencil mechanism. The marking point is kept in contact with the paper by the elasticity of the lever, and both the guideplate and the standard carrying the fulcrum centres are mounted upon
a

socket

piece, which

may

be

rotated

by

means

of the

34

THE

INDICATOR

HANDBOOK.

handle the

Crosby Indicator. This instrument invented was which by Mr. G. W. Brown, Boston, U.S.A., is manuof factured by the Crosby Steam Gage Company that of city, Victoria 147 Street, London. A Queen sectional view and is given in Fig. 16, and an enlarged view of the spring in Fig. 17. Referring to the sectional view, it will be seen
"

and work. The

in order to bring the pencil in contact with This indicator will give a diagram 3in. long paper. in. high; it is specially suitable for high-speed If shown,

that the pencil lever 16 is jointed at 18 to the swinging fulcrum rod 13, a link 14 connecting the piston rod and pencil lever. At a point 20 in this connecting link is coupled a short link 15 turning on a fixed centre at 21. By this linkage
to
cause

the

point

19

receives

the pencil 23 to move In this instrument the point 19 is so placed that the range of the pencil is six times that of the piston. of movement is carried by the sleeve The whole of the pencil mechanism
movement

sufficient lateral in a straight line.

This sleeve can part. be turned the upper on part of the cylinder A by the This latter is threaded through the insulated handle 22. plate, arm, and its point abuts against a stop fixed in the base3, of which

the

arm

X also forms

the pressure of the piu-pose of adjusting previously described. pencil on the paper in the manner 0-7978in., The piston 8, which is of the usual diameter has shallow grooves on its an area of 0'5sq. in. giving
" "

for the

outer

assist in maintaining surface, which steam-tightness, friction. diminishing while The spring used in the Crosby indicator (Fig. 17)is made into a double coil, the upper of a single piece of wire wound

ends of the two coils being screwed into the four wings of By this method the nut as the of construction shown. by screwing strength of the spring may be exactly adjusted The foot of the the wire in or out of the nut as required. to spring consists simply of a small steel ball brazed on
of the straight portion of the wire uniting the This ball replaces the heavy brass two coils of the spring. head to which the lower end of the ordinary spring is soldered, thus effecting a very great reduction of the weight

the centre

of that portion of the spring which

virtually forms

part of

CONSTRUCTION

OF

THE

INDICATOR.

35

the piston, and in which

diminution

of weight

is of the

greatest importance. The spring is connected to the piston through a ball-andsocket joint, which allows the spring freedom of motion, while the connection of the piston and rod is effected in the A boss on following manner : the piston is screwed
"

receive the lower end of the hollow piston rod 10, while diametrically across this boss a slot is cut, extending down to the body cf the piston, and of a width sufficient freely. to allow the straight part of the spring to enter Another boss on the underside of the piston is fittedwith

internally

to

set-screw

9, the upper

face of which

is formed

with

36

THE

INDICATOR

HANDBOOK.

V-shaped

providing the. lower seating for the ball The upper seating is formed in the end of on the spring. the piston rod, which is first screwed into the slotted boss, the set-screw 9. and all slackness taken up by adjusting The upper part of the tubular piston rod receives the rod 11, which is threaded for the greater part of its length. By screwing this rod in or out of the tube 10, the total length of the piston rod, and consequently the position of
recess,

the atmospheric line on the paper, may be altered as found convenient. Another distinguishing feature of the Crosby indicator is In place of the the special form of drum spring employed. volute

spring usually adopted, a short spiral spring 31 is being clearly shown in used, the arrangement Fig. 16. The lower end of the spring is attached to the base of the paper drum, and
upper end to a collar which fits on the This collar squared top of the spindle 28. may be raised above the squared part of the spindle, and the tension of the spring readily to suit the various engine speeds by the
to the right

adjusted
turning
to

to increase

or

to the left

decrease

the

Fro. 17.

the diameter, but for low-speed fik a 2-in. drum if desired.

instrument

In the standard tension. in 24 is l|in. paper drum

work the makers
"

External- Spring Indicator. This Crosby " " New instrument, known indicator, and the Crosby as in Figs. 18 and 19, presents several novel features. shown bracket, has The spring, which is mounted on a strong cross the usual Crosby ball connection with a long hollow rod, the latter being slotted to admit the pencil mechanism, as shown clearly in Fig. 19. The piston, attached to the lower end of this rod, is Isq. in. in area, and takes the form of the central This gives only a line contact with the zone of a sphere. cylinder, and as the rod passes freely through the cylinder iipper guide, the piston is able to accommodate itselfto any slight eccentricity in the movement of the spring. But this action is without effect upon the pencil mechanism, as the latter is independently connected to the piston by the
cover

and

inner rod shown

in Fig. 18.

This rod, which

has

ball-and-

CONSTRUCTION

OF

THE

INDICATOR.

37

a sleeve with the piston, slides through socket connection and thus attached to the base carrying the pencil mechanism, be'ng perfectly axial. ensures the movement transmitted The ease with which the spring can be removed and replaced is a good feature. introducing an indicator similar to the The makers are instrument just described, but with a piston of 0'5sq. in.

Fro. 18.

area.

This

is known

as

the

Crosbv

"New"

Indicator,

No. 2.

Crosby Indicator with Continuous Drum. Fig. 20 shows New a Crosby indicator fitted with a continuous drum for taking a series of diagrams, and of particular service for
"

"

"

indicating winding The engines, rolling mill engines, etc. has an opening in it about outer cut shell of the drum l^in. wide, and centred within this space is a pin upon Within the shell, and which a roll of paper is mounted.

38

to the concentric with it, is a smaller cylinder connected The roll of paper (2in. main drum. wide and 7ft. or 12ft. in length) is placed on the pin within the opening, passed the round the outer shell of the drum, and in through inner The opening to the cylinder to which it is attached.

paper is advanced by pawls and a ratcheted collar on the top of the drum, an adjustmentbeing provided by means it is possible to vary the number of which of diagrams, When foot 100. from 6 on to taken the each of paper,

FIG. 20.

complete roll of paper has been wound on the inner cylinder, be removed the top of the drum through the latter may the knurled knob shown. after disengaging and removing A pencil mounted in a slotted bracket near the opening in
line throughout the the atmospheric the drum continues length of the paper, the position of the line having been first determined by pulling the drum round by hand, and it. A detent is to continue the stationary pencil

adjusted

provided

on

be used as an The Casartelli

the top of the drum, allowing ordinary instrument. Indicator.

"

the

indicator to

This

strongly

made

and

CONSTRUCTION

OF

THE

INDICATOR.

39

Messrs. J. Casartelli "k Son, convenient instrument, made by It has a in Fig. 21. Street, Manchester, is shown Market of hardened steel pencil motion of the Crosby type, made giving a sixfold multiplication of the piston motion. and The steel and ground ; a piston and rod are of hardened

FIG. 21.

ball

at joint

the base

of the

rod prevents

binding

free movement. a piston in the cylinder and ensures cylinder liner is isolated from the body of the instrument, and the latter has an opening formed on one side, as shown in the illustration. This prevents overheating and enables be For lubricated in to the piston use. convenience while

of the The

40

THE

INDICATOR

HANDBOOK.

of the indicator, the underside of the The paper stage and the coupling are sheathed in ebonite. drum has a for means spiral spring, with convenient The instrument the tension on the cord. shown adjusting is for high-speed engines, and springs for pressures up to 2401b. per sq. in. are supplied. The larger indicator, of the same pattern, is suitable for speeds up to 150 revolutions

in handling

the body

per minute and for pressures up to 3001b. per sq. in. The same makers supply a modified form of the Richards indicator, fitted with a steel piston having ball joint a connection with the rod. An opening is formed in the

FIG. 22.

FlQ. 23.

cylinder side, as in the Casartelli instrumen t, and the pencil lighter than in the old form, strength being motion is much the parallel motion of steel, hardened secured by making and tempered. Of these instruments, Indicators. Dobbie-Mclnnes made Street, Bothwell Limited, Mclnnes, by Messrs. Dobbie, Glasgow, several designs are available. The standard enin Fig. 22, and the standard closed-spring type is shown external-spring type in Fig. 23. A sectional view of the latter instrument given in Fig. 24 shows the construction C, arm very clearly. It will be understood that the pencil bracket M, has which is cranked to clear the supporting its two centres and the marking point in one straight line,
"

CONSTRUCTION

OF

THE

INDICATOR.

41

of which latter is to be regarded as the virtual pencil arm levers The two the mechanism. ing multiplygive a combined to the pencil equal to six times that of the movement

FIQ. 24

piston without

The piston V the use of a long pencil arm. is of steel, and is formed of two hollow discs with a space between lubricant, which will contain and also provide a space

42

THE

INDICATOR

HANDBOOK.

Any scoring of the cylinder liner W. steam the annular passing the piston finds its way through direction, through space X, and is discharged in a downward the escape hole X'. To remove the piston, the upper cover N is unscrewed 0. The and also the cylinder cover bracket M, spring U, piston rod S, and piston V swinging can The pressure of the pencil on the then be withdrawn. I, while the bracket M is paper is regulated by the screw L. The turned by means of the vulcanite-covered arm Z are sheathed in vulcanite, adding greatly to parts marked comfort in handling the instrument.
so

for grit,

avoiding

spiral drum spring A has brass ends a1 and a2. The latter is fixed to the drum, while the former engages B on the drum To alter the with a square spindle C. tension of the spring, the milled head is unscrewed from the top of the spindle and the drum The end a1 removed. is then drawn off the square, turned to the right or left, and replaced on the square B. This insti-ument is made largest, in three sizes. The
suitable for speeds up to 250 revolutions, gives a card long and 2^in. high ; while the small size, for speeds 4|in. up to 800 revolutions, gives a card 3in. long and Ifin. high. What is known as the "half size," is supplied for speeds up to 1,500 revolutions per minute, giving a card 2in. long and lin. high.
Indicator.- A special Continuous form diagrams of external-spring indicator for taking continuously from engines having a varying load is shown in Fig. 25. The paper drum contains a cylinder A on which is a roll of paper 9ft. long. One end of this is brought to the outside between the rollers 1 and 2, carried round the drum, re entering between rollers 3 and 4 to the spindle B. On the top of the latter is a pinion gearing with a wheel on the under side of the rack C, and arranged to turn in one direction only. When the cord pulls the drum outwards,

The

The

Dobbie-Mclnnes

"

the two
return

in advance is placed |in. of the in itself. The previous one, each diagram being complete until the roll of paper is automatically process continues
so

shown that the second diagram

pinions turn with it,but remain stationary on the stroke, and hence wind the paper from A to B as The travel of the paper is about "in, by arrows.

CONSTRUCTION

OF

THE

1NDICA

TOR.

43

By raising the rack lever C the exhausted. be used for taking ordinary single diagrams. can Indicator. The "Cipollina" Dobhie-Mclnnes

instrument

"

In this in-

FlO. 25.

etruuient

indicator cylinders are employed, both acting on the same paper drum, the latter being of the The form two indicator continuous already described.

(Fig. 26) two

44

THE

INDICATOR

HANDBOOK.

cylinders

connected with the two ends of the engine The cylinder, and the drum actuated in the usual manner. the spindle E to rise, and by movement of the latter causes F and ratchet wheel G, the cam means of the cam wheel H When is slowly rotated. points on the rim of H projecting of the connecting reach the pawl I, the latter, by means
are

link K, carries the two pencil points L to the paper, and as the paper drum is reciprocating and the pencil arms rising from diagram falling one a at each stroke, pencil gives and

FIG. 26.

the top end of the cylinder and the other a diagram from the bottom and on end, both being taken simultaneously Immediately length of paper. are the diagrams the same taken the pencil points are released, and the same mechanism by length causes now the the diagrams of paper occupied justtaken to be drawn forward into the drum, leaving a
fresh portion of the same paper ready for the next set of This goes on diagrams. until the paper is automatically H, which determines the intervals at The cam exhausted.

CONSTRUCTION

OF

THE

INDICATOR.

45

which

the diagrams

are

taken,

can

be replaced

by others,

Ki--..

"_'

so

be taken, that cards can 25, 50, or 100 revolutions.

automatically,

at

intervals of

46

THE

INDICATOR

HANDBOOK.

A revolution and time recorder is also included in this instrument. The spindle of the wheel G carries a paper drum M over which a strip of paper is led after passing This latter receives a slight movement under the pencil P.
at

large paper cylinder, producing the As the pointer is arranged to serrated record as shown. interval appears on the tenth stroke, an at every miss record which enables the result to be read in multiples of To register the time, an electrical connection with a 10.

each

stroke

of the

the second be in intervals of 30 record, which may shown on the other edge of the paper strip left of M.

clock

is arranged

to

actuate

S, the seconds, being

pencil
as seen

on

the

Simplex This outside-spring indicator Indicator. exhibits a departure from usual practice in the form of the " As shown in Fig. 27, the spring, which is tongs-shaped."
"

The

The method of application is both simple and convenient. be readily inserted and is quite out of the spring can Elliott influence of heat and steam. The makers (Messrs. Bros.) also claim that this form of spring lends itself to accuracy of calibration to any range. By removing the milled nut at the top of the instrument, be entirely the piston, piston rod, and pencil motion can From this view removed, as shown separately in Fig. 28.
it will be

simple pantagraph pencil motion is A minor, but much employed. appreciated, -feature, is the provision of the insulated handle shown, by which the hot. held in comfort instrument be This can while instrument is made in two sizes, of which the larger gives
seen

that

up to Sin. high and 5in. long ; while the small size gives diagrams up to Hin. high and Sin. long.

diagrams

CHAPTER

III.

INDICATORS

FOR

GAS

AND

OIL

EXGIXES,

ETC.

gas and oil used on when means give equally satisfactory engines, do not by any results, the sudden shock which the indicator piston receives is transmitted to the at the instant of explosion, and which levers of the pencil movement, not infrequently resulting in

ALTHOUGH

well adapted

steam of modern instruments, standard

ments all ordinary requireit is found that the practice,

to meet

these being strained and distorted to a very serious extent. for This has led to the introduction of special instruments in which indicating internal-combustion the links motors,

and

levers of the pencil motion are of more struction substantial conand with these satisfactory results are obtained. With an ordinary indicator the high pressures met with gas engine

in

of much necessitate the use work would in are than steam engine practice, usual stronger springs indicators are to usually engine and obviate this gas

furnished

area, with a piston of one-half the standard For very high that is. 0-25sq. in. in place of 0'5sq. in. or even smaller, pressures, pistons of 0'125sq. in. in area, are

for makers to supply customary bores to two indicators, the cylinder having combination In this receive pistons of 0-5 and 0'25sq. in. respectively.
become
is available for steam engine while the instrument into it be a can gas engine readily converted work, The same indicator, by attaching the smaller piston. but it will be understood springs are used in both cases,

available. It has now

way.

that, when the small " gas engine cylinder and piston are used, the strength of the spring is, in effect,doubled, and, by the consequently, if the pressure is read on the diagram

"

scale corresponding to the normal this reading must also be doubled.

47

strength

of the spring,

48

THE

INDICATOR

HANDBOOK,

The
shown
movement

This Casartelli Gas Engine Indicator. in Fig. 29, has a strong pencil motion
"

indicator,

to the pencil

of four

times

that

giving a of the piston.

FIG. 29.

connection, giving a piston is fitted with a ball-joint is fitted with flat free moving piston. The cylinder cover spring cushion plates, to which a steel sleeve is attached, When the piston reaches its passing down inside the cover.

The

I y LIC

A TOES

FOR

GAS

AND

OIL

ENGIXES

49

on a the piston rod shoulder upper limit of movement due to strikes the lower end of the sleeve, so that the shock

FIG. 30.

any

excessive

pressure is transmitted to the cushion

it and

plates,

which

absorb

prevent

injuryto

the

instrument.

50

THE

INDICATOR

HANDBOOK.

piston usiially furnished is O5sq. in. in area, but halfbe supplied and also combination size pistons can sets. Spring Atkinson's Gear. Fig. 30 an Relief shows indicator fitted with Atkinson's Patent Relief Spring designed Attachment, to relieve the instrument of the
"

The

excessive

momentary

shocks

met

with

in

indicating

gas

FIG. 31.

fulcrum connected rod is not swinging in but is a indicator directly to the stirrup held in carried The contact with a bracket by a strong spiral spring. be regulated by the milled nuts tension of the spring can
engines.

The

of addition to relieving the pencil movement lessens the vibratory oscillations, shock, the attachment diagrams are in sometimes considerable. gas engine which

shown.

In

INDICATORS

FOR

GAS

AND

OIL

ENGINES.

51

The

Thompson

Gas

Engine

Indicator.

"

This instrument,

Budenberg, by Messrs. Schafter "fe made in Fig. 31. It is fitted with Atkinson's
and also with described. The
the cushion spring has an area piston

Limited, is shown
spring
as

relief gear

previously plates, but an in., 0'25sq. of

FIG

32.

be fitted to enable can additional piston of 0'5sq. in. area to be used for ordinary steam the instrument engine work. The Tabor Gas Engine Indicator. As shown in Fig. 32, instrument is a combined this steam and gas engine indicator, the small piston (0'25sq. in the in.) operating the tube. upper part of cock The Crosby Gas Engine Indicator. The standard gas
" "

52

THE

INDICATOR

HANDBOOK.

engine Valve
steam

indicator

appearance engine except that the pencil lever is of a stronger section, combining lightness with stiffness, link is a The and stronger connecting provided.

Company

by the Crosby made is similar in external

Steam

Gage

and

to the

indicator

(Fig.16)

piston
The
steam

is 0"25sq. in.

in

area.

Crosby

combined

engine (Fig. has a 33) cylinder of extra length, bored to two diameters,
for
two

gas indicator

and

pistons
area

of

0*5

and

FIG. 33.

respectively. external-spring indicator in Figs. of the type shown 18 and 19 is also supplied for An
gas engine

0-25sq. in.

work ; the piston in but the springs are is 0'5sq. in. in aiva, this case rated so the that the spring gives the scale of proportionally engine practice. scale of the diagram, as in steam For indicatIndicators. Gas Engine ing Dobbie-Mclnnes Dobbie, other explosive engines, Messrs gas and
"

Mclnnes,

Limited, supply

an

external-spring indicator similar

INDICATORS

FOB

GAS

AND

OIL

ENGINES.

53

in Fig. 23, but with a piston 0'3989in. in shown diameter, giving an area of 0'125sq. in. It is suitable for diagrams speeds up to 800 revolutions per minute, and gives is also made instrument The 3 1in. long by Hin. high.
to

that

drum accommodating a continuous roll of magazine is For very high speeds a "half-size" instrument paper. This gives diagrams up to 2in. long and lin. high, made. is suitable for speeds up to 2000 revolutions per and with
a

minute. In the indicator,

engine gas and steam combined be is supplied, which can a cylinder spare In this instrument into the indicator cylinder. screwed the steam and the supplementary cylinder is 0'25sq. in. in area, With in. 0'125sq. the steam cylinder in piston, use the springs are read at their rated strengths, these being
same

makers'

doubled

when the gas engine piston is in Pressure Explosion The Mathot and apparatus, shown in Fig. 34, attached to
_ras

use.

Recorder.
a

"

This

Dobbie-Mclnnes

indicator, gives a graphic record showing the of explosions, the initialpressure of each, the order number wise of their succession, together with the irregularity or otherthe the number of variations, of revolutions and the proportion of "misses," the rate of compression, etc. This engine

record is in point of fact a continuous succession of indicator diagrams, so greatly foreshortened that the distance from is only one of the pencil to the next xipward movement The apparatus is of service in determining the about TVnbest proportion of air and gas or oil, while the effects of varying the compression, speed, point of ignition, dimensions
of inlet and exhaust valves, etc., are also made evident. In Fig. 34 the recording drum in diameter, A, 3|in. carries a band of paper and is rotated by clockwork within

The rotation of the the drum, B being the winding key. drum can be stopped at any time by pressing the knob D. In this recorder the drum a complete revolution in makes two minutes and is restricted to speeds under 300 revolutions

per minute. In the instrument

in Fig. 35 the band of paper, shown 8ft. 6in. long, is contained in a cylinder A, from which it is led over the drum B, and re-wound on the cylinder C. Gear to regulate the rate of feed of wheels at D can be

adjusted

54

THE

INDICATOR

HANDBOOK.

be varied from Sin. to about 50ft. the paper, which can As will be seen, The winding key is at N. per minute. the cylinder of the arm the passes between pencil of the ordinary indicator, recorder and the paper drum enabling continuous and ordinary diagrams to be taken as required.

FIQ. 31.

FIG

35.

SPECIAL

FORMS

OP

INDICATORS

In addition to the standard types of indicators already described, there are a few special instruments which call for

consideration. In the various Flashlight Indicator. The Hopkinson optical indicators, which have been introduced from time to time, a thin diaphragm of steel usually takes the place The of the piston and spring of the standard instrument. caused by the variations of the diaphragm slight movements
"

INDICATORS

FOE

GAS

AND

OIL

ENGINES.

55

to a pivoted mirror upon which of pressure are communicated a beam of light is allowed to fall. The reflected beam thus records the pressure fluctuations, and, as the mirror also in a direction at right angles to the first receives motion

of the engine piston, the and proportional to the movement line of light traces out an indicator diagram.

indicator, shown in Fig. 36, a piston and spring are used, the latter taking the form of a steel strip the top of the cylinder as shown in the passing over illustration, the ends being fixed to the upper frame of the indicator by screws. The piston moves in the bore of the indicator body and is provided at the top with a hook

In the

"

Hopkinson

;I

56

THE

INDICATOR

HANDBOOK.

as to allow the spring, but in such a manner the laterally in order to prevent binding action. piston to move Three pistons are used, the areas being in the ratios of 1, 2, and 4 ; and, as there are t\vo springs, the strengths of which in the ratio of 1 to 5, a wide range of sensitiveness are The smaller pistons fit inside liners inserted is obtained.

embracing

in the main bore. The mirror is clamped to a steel spindle, the ends of which are pivoted in small holes in the light spring supports The movement to of the spring is communicated shown. on the mirror by a flat vertical spring attached to an arm

the

mirror spindle, this spring, while sufficiently rigid to transmit the motion without buckling, being flexibleenough to allow for the slight angular motion of the arm. The upper frame of the indicator is bored to fit over the body of the instrument ; it is held up to the cylinder cover

by the coil spring shown, a ball race being interposed so to turn easily around as to allow the frame the axis of the instrument. A light lever clamped to the frame receives motion from a reducing gear, and in this way the frame is
given a slight angular oscillation around the body of the instrument, this corresponding to the drum movement of the ordinary indicator. The resulting movement of the line of light (wh'ch in

high-speed engines inspected through

a

forms
a

continuous

can figure)

be
with

telescope arrangement
or

provided

for future reference. photographed has the advantage that the As will be seen, the instrument in use it is be calibrated accurately, and when spring can not affected by temperature variations ; further, the effects of the inertia of the piston, pencil movement and paper It is therefore particularly drum are enormously reduced. speed for indicating internal combustion engines, highadapted steam engines, etc. Messrs. Dobbie, Mclnnes, Limited,

graduated

screen,

are

the makers.
"

Other Optical Indicators. Among other optical indicators be made introduction, mention of the may of recent " Clerk Hospitallier-Carpentier Manograph optical and the indicator. In the latter a piston and spring of the ordinary A chain, replacing the piston rod, type are employed.
"

gives

slight rocking

motion

to

the mirror

spindle, the

INDICATORS

FOR

GAS

AXD

OIL

EXGIXES.

57

latter being under spring control to keep the chain taut. The line of light is received on a sheet of sensitised paper held in a frame sliding in a direction at right angles to the and actuated by a reducing gear. piston movement Another Other Types of Engine Indicators. method by the distortion due which inventors have sought to overcome to the momentum parts of piston indicators of the moving is by restricting the vertical movement within small limits, the position of these limits. In and gradually changing this way the indicator card is made up of a series of indicator, The Wayne diagrams of small vertical height. tinued disconintroduced by Messrs. Elliott Bros, (who have now In its of this kind. gave diagrams
"

by Messrs. Schaffer Indicator, made two record the mean pressure gauges and Budenberg, in the cylinder to back forward pressures acting and is attached,- the difference of these which the instrument
Ripper's Mean-pressure
to a small percentage giving a readings (subject correction) to the mean effective pressure as very close approximation from the area of the indicator ordinarily determined diagram. Owing Compression Machines. Indicators for Ammonia brass and to the corrosive of ammonia upon action
"

manufacture),

with used in connection alloys, the instruments invariably made are of ammonia refrigerating machinery iron or steel. For this service, steel indicators of the Gage furnished by the Crosby Steam ordinary type are As leakage past and Valve Company and other makers. dealing with the piston is objectionable gaseous when by a pistonless indicator, such as that made ammonia,
bronze

Droop, of Hanover, possesses and In for instrument a this this corrugated work. advantages 2in. in is hi disc diameter place of the used steel about of the centre of this usual piston, and as the movement link, is plate only slight (about^in.),the connecting to the pencil lever, is this movement which communicates attached to the latter at such a point that a multiplying
Dreyer, Rosenkranz
movement

twenty times is given to the pencil. Indicators for Hydraulic Work. Another form of pistonless indicator introduced several years ago is that known as
of about
"

Kenyon's

Indicator.

Although

only indifferently successful

58

THE

INDICATOR

HANDBOOK.

used for indicating steam engines, it has found a useful in high present-day application connection with such in hydraulic as In this are met pressures with work. instrument, of which several forms are made by Messrs. Schaffer and Budenberg, bent steel tube of elliptical a the pressure-measuring section forms element, the movement free being the transmitted to a of end of this tube type, and a pencil movement of the Richards or Thompson being obtained of the variation of pressure in the record
when
it is attached. to which Pressures as high as apparatus 10 tons per square inch are thus readily dealt with. Indicators for Very High Pressures.- For excessively high
"

pressures, indicators having exceptionally small pistons are In a special instrument by the occasionally used. made Crosby Steam Company Gage for testing the action of
gun carriages, and for hydraulic work, etc., the usual piston has an extension in the form of a plunger 0'18in. in diameter, corresponding to an area of 0-025sq. in., or of the area of the ordinary piston. pneumatic
is of a similarly heavy pencil motion pattern to that used in the same makers' gas engine indicator, and in carries a vertical addition, the bracket of the instrument bears lightly, when the pencil arm post against which needed to prevent the pencil point being thrown away from the paper by very sudden shocks. A bye-pass is formed in the" metal at the side of the small cylinder, by which the pressure, when not too high for the capacity of the spring, can be admitted to the larger piston. When the small piston is to be used, this bye-pass is tightly closed, the pressures being read off on the ordinary scale, and the results multiplied by 20.

The

-^

CHAPTER

IV.

ERRORS

OF

THE

INDICATOR.

HAVING
their operation. Piston Friction.
"

detail the various forms of consider the various modern indicators, we shall now inherent in the instruments errors and incurred in described in
some

is in of error considerable amount cases some traceable to excessive friction of the indicator piston, this being often caused by grit carried into the Frequently cylinder from the pipes and other connections. A this condition
of affairs may

be detected

by

placing

the

FIG. 37.

finger lightly upon the upper end of the piston rod. The in this case is obvious. Occasionally a new remedy instrument will be found to exhibit an of unusual want freedom, in which case, after it has been thoroughly cleaned and lubricated, it may be connected to the engine cylinder for some time, the pencil mechanism and allowed to run having first been disconnected. An abnormal amount of friction frequently itself diagram in by the piston exhibits a in series of step-like serrations the expansion line as in Fig. 37, the horizontal portions of the steps shown
59

60

THE

INDICATOR

HANDBOOK.

indicating a sticking of the piston at each of those positions in its descent. When a strong spring is used, the friction caused by a tightly-fittingclean piston may not reveal itselfin this way. If, however, the resulting diagram is compared with one taken under precisely similar conditions, but with a freelymoving piston, it will be found that the various events in the stroke are shown as occurring unduly late, owing to the response of the piston to the variations of steam A vertical admission line with the freely-moving pressure. piston may appear so distinctly sloping in the other diagram as to suggest insufficiency of lead, while the initial pressure be less back the attained will and pressure greater in the latter case than in the former. With a fairly early cut-off, however, the area not of the two diagrams greatly may differ,as the first-mentioned losses are by the compensated delayed formation of the expansion line ; but the diagram be very misleading taken with the tight-fitting piston may indication of the action of the valve gear. as an To determine the amount of the piston friction, the instrument is firstallowed to make few working a strokes, lever is down hand, by the as so after which pencil pressed
sluggish
to slightly extend

the spring, and then allowed to return to rest, the indicator being rapped with a small wood stick. When on the diagram. at rest, a horizontal line is drawn The pencil lever is next raised slightly, agaia allowed to before. The as and another line drawn interval between these two lines is a measure of the sum of directions, frictional both in the total resistances and, to be in order, almost the the pencil mechanism assuming
come

to

rest,

is attributable to piston so measured whole of the error friction. In some tests of one of the best forms of modern indicators, the mean amount of double friction with various found to be as follows : springs was
"

Scale of spring (lb.)... 36 20 Double friction (lb.)... 0-6201... 0-6342.

40

60

..0-6763. ..1-008

It is scarcely necessary to remark that careful attention to smooth to the lubrication of the piston will conduce Clean running, and prevent any tendency to stick or bind.

cylinder oil, castor

oil,or

va.lvoline will be found

much

ERRORS

OF

THE

INDICATOR.

61

better piston lubricant than the thin oil used for the joints The amount of lubricant required of the pencil movement. in hand, frequent will depend upon the character of the work or petrol attention being necessary when indicating gas, oil,
engines. ^j'i-inys. The
"

met with in this important chief error detail is a want of regularity in compression under uniform increments of pressure, any inaccuracy in this respect being magnified in the diagram four, five, or six times, according it is considered When to the type of pencil movement used.

for example, an error of that in the Crosby instrument, 0-0028in. in the compression of a 601b. spring will produce an error of accurate of lib. in the diagram, the importance be readily admitted. springs will From a of tests of springs which have been made

number

from
extent

time to time
of this
error

it would

different makers. the spring to give a to the spring becoming owing gradually weaker as it is in new The amount springs by of this error compressed. the best makers does not usually exceed 3 per cent, when time in use tested under steam, but after having been some be materially increased, especially if emery the error may from the rust cloth has been generously used to remove coils. It is undoubtedly very desirable to periodically test
the springs, and

appear that the character and by varies considerably in instruments The general tendency, however, is for continual gain in the pressure indicated,

for exact

an accurate steam gauge is standard mercury column. by connecting test may be made available, an approximate a short horizontal length of piping to the boiler or main fitting a regulating valve convenient, steampipe, as most at the supply end of this pipe, while the outlet end is closed

work If

this involves the

use

of

be water of condensation may which Two tee-pieces are inserted in the length allowed to escape. of piping, in one of which the indicator is mounted, while to the other the steam is attached by means gauge of the Steam is first allowed to blow freely through usual syphon.
a

by

small

cock, by

pipe to expel water and instruments. Then by means

the

thoroughly warm up the of the two cocks the pressure is regulated until some definite amount lOlb., for example is indicated by the gauge. The paper drum of the
"

to

"

62

THE

INDICATOR

HANDBOOK.

This process is indicator is then rotated and a line drawn. repeated at various intervals of pressure (whichfor springs up to 401b. may be of 51b. each, and for those above, lOlb.), as the piston descends a similar series of lines being drawn The regulating under successive reductions of pressure. valve is then closed, the small cock opened fully, and the The difference between any pair atmospheric line drawn. lines is, as of corresponding already pointed out, a measure of the friction of the piston, etc., at that point, and lines drawn between each midway a scale which pair will give be the scale as may regarded of the spring tested. It will be seen that this the of calibrating method in any errors in of the piston or It does the pencil movement. not, therefore, give an lutely absotrue spring scale, but

spring the area

covers

rather

true scale of the combination, far is more of which

practical utility. If, however, strumen the spring is used in another inthe scale will of course require to be redetermined. A standard gauge not being vices always available, various defor testing

wall or other convenient a rod A, the point of which support. bears upon the centre of the piston, as shown, while to the be attached, these lower end of the frame weights may being so selected that each represents a definite increase of
a

38. in an D being

springs by weights FIG. 38. One method used employed. in Fig. is by Bollinckx shown is invei'ted, and is held In this case the instrument indicated, exactly vertical position in the manner fixed to a A light frame carries
bracket

indicator have been

ERRORS

OF

THE

INDICATOR.

83

pressure per square inch upon the piston. It will be seen in the pencil movement that in this method of testing, errors will be covered, but any inaccuracy in the piston area The piston diameter (when will not be taken into account.

hot) must

therefore

be ascertained, and

the scale of the

spring corrected accordingly. The apparatus shown is quite suitable for outside-spring it would not indicators. For enclosed-spring instruments be difficultto arrange a method the indicator of jacketing being heated up to the instrument cylinder with steam, the working temperature (taken as 212" R), since the strength of springs at this temperature is from 2| to 3 per
cent,

be briefly examined with may Parallelism to influencing as the (a) of the motion respect of the vertical movement of the accuracy pencil ; (b) Uniformity of ratio of pencil and piston motion ; (c)
"

less than at 60" F. Pencil Movement. This

Amount

and distribution of the weight ; and (d) Friction and effect of wear. Commencing it may with the Richards pencil movement, be said that the greatest deviation of the pencil from the straight line occurs when the centre or pencil link is vertical. When in the lower part of the stroke, the pencil this occurs is drawn slightly too far from the line of motion of the but in the piston rod, the deviation being similar in amount, in the upper part of the opposite direction, when it occurs the path of the pencil to be divided into stroke. Assuming four equal parts, the two centre portions would satisfy every
this, in either of practical exactness ; beyond requirement direction, the error increases slightly until the maximum is the deviation reached, as already indicated, after which becomes less, vanishing at about limits of the extreme result of this, the ratio of the movement of the piston and pencil is not maintained exactly, the scale being slightly more than in the outer open in the centre portions of the pencil travel. The investigation of the effect of the weight of the pencil movement resolves itself into the determination of the resulting pressure upon the upper end of the piston rod. In the Richards instrument, the effect of the two main levers of the parallel motion be found by will multiplying
movement.
a

As

64

THE

INDICATOR

HANDBOOK.

their weight by the distance of their centres of gravity from the fulcrums, and dividing this by the distance between the point at which the piston rod is connected and the nearest effect of the pencil link is, however, much more serious, since this is to be multiplied directly by four, the ratio of the pencil motion to that of the piston in this instrument. In one indicator the weight of the two main levers, referred to the piston rod, was found to be 0'02421b.,

fulcrum.

The

while the weight 0-05481b.

of the centre

link, similarly resolved,

was

order that the arranged, the small

the

In

pencil movement link connecting

be compactly may the piston rod to

is made as parallel motion short as conveniently of the possible. This implies a fair amount of movement link, and the consequent friction and wear at its two ends

require to be well provided for, since any lost motion here would produce a fourfold effect upon the movement of the pencil. The pressure of the pencil on the paper also tends to increase the friction somewhat.
gives a close approximation pencil mechanism to perfect rectilinear motion throughout the greater : while the use part of its movement of a comparatively long link to connect the piston and pencil lever ensures the bearing ratio to motion of the pencil practically a constant that of the piston. It will be observed that although the original 'Thompson has the same as the Richards, movement number of joints have a very small angular movement, three of them and less. friction are the therefore correspondingly and wear Moreover, the

The

Thompson

comparatively is essentially a modification The Tabor pencil movement a of the Thompson arrangement, point in the pencil lever being guided by a curved slot in place of being attached to In this way the effective weight of the a radius rod. is still further reduced, while a more exact mechanism is The the secured. of pencil rectilinear movement
to the slot is such that the ratio of given In this case movement of piston and pencil is constant. is reduced to four, but there is to be the number of joints added the friction of the roller in the slot, which, however,

is very arrangement long rods employed.

"stable," owing

to

the

curvature

ERRORS

OF

THE

INDICATOR.

65

It will be noted that as shown to be very small. it is impossible for the small roller to be simultaneously in contact with both sides of the slot, the pencil lever must have a small amount of lateral play, but in this wellthis is reduced to the smallest possible made instrument It will be noted, moreover, amount. that in this instance the effect upon the position of the pencil is not increased in by the magnifying action of the mechanism. amount The Darke pencil movement (Fig. 15)gives a motion which is theoretically perfect, but are although fewer actual joints than in any other movement, the accuracy may employed be seriously impaired by wear of the sliding socket, or sleeve at the top of the piston rod, of the small carriage carrying the pencil, and of the latter in the vertical slot Any lateral wear guide. of the piston rod in the plane of The the motion will also affect the accuracy. makers have, however, provided by of error against these sources the provision of large bearing workmanship good and surfaces. Obviously everything depends upon the correctness of the position of the vertical guide plate, and this should be tested from time to time, as explained in Chapter IX. During the upward stroke the friction of this pencil is somewhat movement greater in the lower and upper parts in the centre of its travel ; of its range, reaching a minimum in the downward the friction is less marked. movement Careful lubrication of the sliding surfaces will, however,

tests have

reduce this effect very considerably. The Crosby pencil movement involves the u"e of six joints, the radius rod marked 15 in and of the four links employed Fig. 16 moves through a fairly large angle. The mechanism gives very good results as regards both the rectilinear
of the pencil and the constancy of multiplication The multiplying ratio in this instrument is of motion. six, and therefore any lost motion at the joints marked 12, 18, and 19, Fig. 16, would affect the accuracy of the diagram to a greater extent The makers than in other instruments. have duly recognised this, however, and have provided for accurately means the mechanism, while, adjusting further, the workmanship bestowed upon this instrument is of a very high class. The mechanism as a whole is very light, but it will be noted that it is not independent of the
movement

66

THE

INDICATOR

HANDBOOK.

to form piston rod, and if disconnected therefrom, it ceases " a stable linkage." The Dobbie-Mclnnes is in effect a pencil movement Thompson in which the piston rod is connected movement, to the radius rod instead of acting directly upon the pencil in the older instrument. as Both the radius rod and .lever connecting link are somewhat shorter than in the Thompson instrument, but in general the remarks made in connection with the latter apply.

Piston and Pencil Movement. In considering the effect of the inertia of the piston, piston rod, and the it becomes necessary to determine for attached mechanism, mass'3 each separate part its "equivalent at the piston. The weight of the piston and piston rod, together with that

Inertia

of

"

of the collar or fitting at the lower end of the spring, are the only parts which are taken into the computation with link their weights the simply, although may connecting be included so The error. generally also without material
is the end fitting) equivalent mass of the spring (without one-third of its actual weight. Space will not allow of a full investigation of this point, but it may be remarked it that in a Richards instrument found that while the weight of the piston, piston rod, was and connecting rod, together with the equivalent mass of 201b. spring, was 0'10531b., the equivalent mass a of the 0'22531b., latter amount was pencil mechanism of which O'lfiGlb.was due to the pencil link alone. The effect of the inertia of the moving parts in producing oscillation of the pencil has been very fully investigated by Prof. Osborne Reynolds.* found that the resulting He far as the area is concerned, error, so of the diagram depends upon the magnitude of the oscillations in some but to a greater extent upon the smallness of the measure, number tude which appears in each revolution. Their magniis affected by the degree of suddenness of the steam admission, and will therefore be different for different valve The general effect of the impact gears and engine speeds.

of the steam upon the piston approaches that of a suddenly imposed load, and tends to force the piston through twice
*

Proceedings

Inst. Civil Engineers,

vol. 83.

ERRORS

OF

THE

INDICATOR.

67

the distance that it ought to rise. A similar but much less sudden change of action takes place at any marked however, induced The are, oscillations thus pressure. by the friction of gradually destroyed modified and the piston, together with that of the pencil and attached mechanism. It frequently results that undulations of considerable do not affect the area of the diagram to any magnitude very great extent ; but the distortion of the figure thus quite destroys its value as an indication of the produced

The minimum number of oscillations action of the steam. in a complete revolution, consistent with clearness, appears from Prof. Reynolds' experiments to be about thirty, and the number approached fifteen, a fair diagram could when only be obtained by exerting considerable pressure on the pencil. It is needless to remark that such a method of distortion diagram inadmissible is the the reducing quite of if the results are to have any pretension to accuracy. It is obvious that a reduction of the inertia effect is to be obtained by diminishing the weight of the moving parts. This has been the constant endeavour of the makers of indicators, further in direction this and modern progress be limited to to for the the use appears of aluminium
piston,

piston rod, etc. It will be understood that it is a always possible to diminish undulations by employing stronger spring, but this entails a consequent reduction in is often the height of the diagram, which objectionable. It is true that this may in turn be remedied by increasing but for the multiplying leverage of the pencil movement,

the reasons already cited this plan is not to be recommended. On the whole, the most successful method of obtaining a diagram free from undulations at very high speeds is to use form of optical indicator. some Pt-wil Friction. The general effectof the friction resulting from the pressure of the pencil on the paper, and that
"

in sustaining it,is to increase the area of the mechanism of the diagram, since by always acting in opposition to the the steam and expansion lines motion of the pencil it causes to be drawn above, and the back pressure and compression lines below, their true positions. The extent of the error thus incurred depends in some degree upon the condition

68

THE

INDICATOR

HANDBOOK.

of the surface of the paper and the chiefly upon the pressure brought This pressure should never exceed fine working line, since, in some

kind of pencil used, but to bear upon the latter. that necessary to draw a
instruments,
even

this

the produces an error of 0'51b. in each direction. From above considerations it will be apparent that the extent of the error from pencil friction will depend upon the cut-off of a of steam and other conditions. Thus, in the case locomotive notched up to mid-gear, it appears possible for to 5 per cent. ; while on this error to amount slow-moving having late little a engines cut-off and compression, the effect will be very much less marked. Errors in the Drum The chief causes Motion. of errors in the motion of the paper-carrying drum are (a) the inertia of the drum, (b) the imperfect action of the spring, and (c) The the friction of the drum. general effect of these disturbing influences is to vary the tension of the driving cord, causing it to stretch unequally, and hence producing irregular displacement of the diagram in the direction an With a positive drum-driving arrangement of its length. these errors would be eliminated, but the practical difficulty appears of adopting such a method of actuating tne drum to prevent its use under any but exceptional circumstances. Reducing gears, in which only a very small amount of cord is used, will be found described in Chapter VII., and with these the inaccuracies due to the drum action are reduced
"

to

indeed. very small amount It will be seen that the conditions governing the oscillations of the drum are very similar to those influencing the
a

Every drum, motion of the balance-wheel of a watch. together with its attached spring, has its natural period of becomes longer as (1) the moment of oscillation, which length inertia of the drum or the the (2) of spring is increased.
When the

so arranged and spring are drum that the period of oscillationof the coincides with the of the engine crosshead, the tension on period of movement the driving cord, and consequently the amount of stretch, if hand, On these two the uniform. other will remain spondingl periods differ materially, the cord tension will be correinertia low With so that the of affected. speeds length is it is drum seen that the the of readily negligible,

drum

ERRORS

OF

THE

INDICATOR.

69

d //,d being spring at the extremities of the stroke in pounds, and y the stretch of As the the driving cord in inches per pound of tension. speed increases, the inertia of the drum gradually reduces this shortening of the diagram, until at the critical speed

the diagram will be diminished by an amount the difference between the tensions of the drum

With the one effect exactly neutralises the other. still higher speeds the inertia effect preponderates, and the diagram becomes This action is modified by the elongated. that action of the spring, and it may be shown since the
"

effort of the drum spring is usually directly proportional to moves, the drum the angle through which and also since if the the accelerating force vanishes at mid-travel difference of the drum-spring tensions at the ends of the the inertia of the stroke is twice that necessary to overcome drum, the cord will remain uniformly stretched. All modern indicators are provided with means for adjustin the drum-spring tension, and this should be varied
"

Since, however, suit the particular speed in each case. increase of tension results in the ultimate stress on the cord being increased, only sufficient tension should be used ae the cord being kept taut. will ensure The general effect produced by the combined influences
to

of the imperfect spring action and the inertia of the drum is to change the location of portions of the diagram, the direction and amount of such disturbance depending upon consideration outlined in the foregoing; but with a tension the effect upon the mean suitable drum-spring indication of the effective pressuie is very slight. Some tension required may be obtained by comparing the lengths It may be noted, of diagrams taken at low and full speeds. however, that when the driving cord or wire is kept taut by the of an later), the dmmauxiliary spring (described spring tension nwy be correspondingly decreased, leaving the turn of the tensions about equal to the drum-spring tension which would have been required ordinarily. The error is one caused by friction of the drum which
means

often affects low-speed diagrams appreciably. The extent depends the lubrication of the drum of the error upon spindle and the elasticityof the cord, and may therefore be by careful attention to the reduced to a negligible amount

70

THE

INDICATOR

HANDBOOK.

first point, and by the substitution of wire or some positive form of driving gear for the cord ordinarily employed. The amount which the cord will stretch is evidently/ y inches, / being the tension in pounds the required to overcome

frictional resistance of the drum, and y, as before, the yield of the cord in inches per pound of tension. In the forward to move stroke the drum will not commence until the cord has stretched by this amount ; while in the return stroke the tension will be diminished and the length decreased to Thus the drum will be/ y inches behind a similar extent.

position during the complete revolution, and the relative position of the two parts of the diagram will be displaced in consequence, that portion described during the return stroke being 2 / y inches in advance of that described during the forward stroke. It will be readily seen, that the marked as the amount effect of drum frictionbecomes more is greater. Thus, in diagrams of expansion and compression from locomotives, at or near mid-gear, and in gas effective pressure and oil engines, the effect upon the mean be may very appreciable. As the errors motion mainly of the drum affect the accuracy of the diagram by the stretching of the cord, wire may often be substituted for the latter with advantage, or This some positive method adopted. of driving the drum point is further discussed in Chapter VII. In the foregoing it has been Other Sources Error.
its true

of

"

assumed that the indicator is of rigid construction, and that by which "springing" occurs the relative position of no the steam of the instrument cylinder and paper drum is, however, This assumption is affected. not always in to the endeavour reduce weight as far as warranted, as bracket carrying the drum spindle has or possible, the arm been lightened sufficientlyto allow the drum in some cases to spring slightly out of its true position under the sudden more much pull of the cord, this effect being of course the cord is at high speeds, and particularly when marked led directly away from the guide pulley on the instrument and in a vertical direction. It is readily evident that a constructional defect of this kind may seriously impair the truth of the diagram, and it is therefore fortunate that it is
only very rarely met

with.

ERRORS

OF

THE

INDICATOR.

71

The springing of the instrument bodily, owing to imperfect fixing or want of rigidity of the piping carrying the indicator, will affect the length, and consequently the accuracy, of the diagram, as will also the striking of the drum against the stops which limit its motion. Some slight inaccuracy may be incurred owing to the expansion of the piston of the instrument, but for accurate tests the diameter should be carefully measured while hot. This error will be greater in indicating gas engines, owing If diagrams are to the very high temperatures reached. taken in a damp atmosphere and afterwards measured in a dry one, the shrinkage of the paper will reduce the area of developed will appear the diagram, and the apparent power The extent of correspondingly less than the true amount. this error will depend upon the thickness and character of the paper, but under usual conditions it will be negligible.

CHAPTER

V.

THE

ATTACHMENT

OF

THE

INDICATOR.

in of the action of the steam the cylinder can only be obtained when the pressure on the indicator piston varies in exact accord it is on that the engine piston, with acting obvious that a free and direct connection with the engine cylinder is of the

AS

true

delineation

this it follows that to secure the best possible results the indicator should be attached directly to the engine cylinder, without any intervening piping, bends, cocks or valves, all of which tend to impede ment, to and from the cylinder of the instruthe flow of steam to impair the accuracy of the diagram. and hence From

first importance.

For convenience in operating and other considerations, the instrument is preferably placed in a vertical position ; hence it is evident that in horizontal engines the connection will be best effected by attaching the indicator directly to the Most body of the cylinder. upper part of the convex tion engine builders of repute make provision for such a connecby forming two bosses on the cylinder body, usually as from the flanges, and through these, holes are projections drilled directly into the clearance spaces. When not in use or these holes are capped with hexagon square-headed plugs If brass the or engine is to be frequently gun-metal. of fix a pair of indicated, it is preferable to permanently indicator cocks in the cylinder, these being covered with brass caps when the instruments have been removed. If indicator bosses are not provided, it will be necessary to drill into the body of the cylinder, and in deciding upon the position of the holes in this case, regard should be paid to the arrangement of reducing gear which will be adopted.
72

ATTACHMENT

OF

THE

INDICATOR.

73

is for the instrument already stated, the best position but if the on the top of the cylinder in horizontal engines, a guide conditions are such that this will involve the use of direct driving and pulley for the indicator cord, a more better results generally will not infrequently be obtained by In attaching the indicator to the side of the cylinder. horizontal engines having valves of the Corliss type this will invariably be the position selected unless the cylinder bends will be required, drilled. In either case covers are having a radius of and these should be of easy curvature, from 4 to Gin. In no case should right-angled elbows be used. holes fairly in Care must always be taken to locate the the centre of the clearance space at each end of the cylinder, or partially and in such a position that they are not wholly covered by the piston when it reaches the end of the stroke. In drilling the cylinder, situations directly exposed to the be carefully avoided ; nor incoming steam must should the As

holes be drilled

of passages, as the current so steam situated reduces the pressure orifices passing over in the indicator, and therefore vitiates the accuracy of the diagram. When the cylinder has to be drilled, it will generally be
near

the steam

found necessary to use a nipple and socket, or a short piece lagging. of pipe, in order to bring the cock clear of the Whenever possible, it is preferable to drill the holes with the cylinder covers when, if necessary, a channel removed, in order to give a free passage to may be cut in the cover be When care this is not convenient, must the steam. taken to prevent chips of metnl from entering the cylinder. to the cylinder while the holes A slight admission of steam being drilled may are prove of service in this connection in the absence of any better expedient. is usually made In vertical engines connection at the of bends ; but in many cases side of the cylinder by means For is drilled and the instrument attached direct the cover be drilled in the lower end, the side of the cylinder must In inverted-cylinder engines the lower cover any case. ment, accumulates in the instrushould not be drilled, as water
causing trouble in working. The size of holes necessary is governed to some extent by For the direct attachment the size of the engine. of the

74

THE

INDICATOR

HANDBOOK.

indicator to engines of small and moderate dimensions, it will suffice to drill holes "in. in diameter enlarging the this being the tapping size for the outer portion to fin., Whitworth bolt thread usually found upon the cocks |in. In some supplied with instruments make. of English indicators of American however, the cock is manufacture, If piping is used, it screwed with a |in.pipe thread. diameter in small engines ; while should riot be less than |in. in large marine engines it is often l|in. in diameter. It is highly desirable that diagrams should be taken from both ends of the cylinder. For, in the first place, the diagram obtained from one end, however correctly it may during the one exhibit the action of the steam stroke, is useless as a measure of power unless the diagram from the opposite end is precisely similar. This, it need scarcely be Moreover, occurrence. observed, is of exceedingly rare however carefully the valves may be set, the indicator will frequently detect a difference in the steam distribution. Obstructions in the steam or exhaust ports and passages; in the actuating defective action of the valve owing to wear lead and cut-off, and several other ; unequal mechanism differences in the diagrams obtained from influences, cause
the two ends of the cylinder. Not only should diagrams be taken from each end of the cylinder, but, wherever practicable, they should be so is of as taken as nearly simultaneously possible. This especial importance in engines fitted with automatic cut-off
.

where the load varies rapidly. The two most satisfactory means of accomplishing this is to use to the cylinder as instruments, each directly connected previously explained, and operated by independent persons. is inconvenient, instances, however, In many this method Under and a pair of indicators are not always at command. these conditions, the single instrument must either be end to the other, or else placed in the changed from one centre of a length of piping connecting the instrument with convenientl either end of the cylinder at will, this being most in indicator by a three-way the mounting effected to As which plan it is advisable to adopt, much cock. If a close examination in riew. depends upon the object of the action of the valve gear is aimed at, the direct
gear, and in any
cases

ATTACHMENT

OF

THE

INDICATOR.

75

will give the most attachment reliable result. But for power-measurement purposes a marked change in the load is being transposed, may easily occur while the instrument and therefore the pipe connection will b" generally the that lengths of piping, bends, and influence upon the trans or less marked mission of pressure to the indicator piston, and the direct has the advantage, of reducing this method of connection to the least possible amount. But if, as alreadyerror suggested, the plan involves the risk of much greater errors
true

serviceable. It is undoubtedly cocks exert a more

most

owing to changes in the load on the engine, it is evident that piping to a three-way cock offers the best solution of the difficulty. In indicating locomotives this latter arrangement is almost invariably adopted. In arranging systems of pipe connections all unnecessary

bends should be studiously avoided, as also abrupt changes in the direction of steam flow. Bends of easy curvature should be employed, and the pipes arranged to be selfdraining whenever this latter condition possible. When
be fulfilled, drain cocks are frequently required to be fitted to the pipes, especially in large engines. Not infrequently the connections to shut-off cocks are provided near the cylinder, so that the pipes are not always to subjected In large engines, asbestos-packed cocks the steam pressure. are used, these being preferably attached to the cylinder by flanged joints.In smaller engines screwed unions are more
cannot

generally adopted, and not infrequently angle valves are This is not good practice, as the sudden employed. change in direction of the steam, peding together with the generally iminfluence effect of the valve, has often a marked a threeupon the steam passing through it. In any case be used in way cock should always addition, when are the cylinder. This preshut-off cocks provided near caution is neglected in an arrangment of piping very frequently adopted, in which two-angle or other valves are used close to the cylinder, their outlets being connected by a length of piping (Fig. 39), midway in the length of which is a tee carrying the indicator. A little consideration will that it is this impossible for the show with arrangement to exert that instantaneous steam effectupon the indicator

76

THE

INDICATOR

HANDBOOK.

piston which is indispensable if accurate results are to be At the commencement obtained. of the stroke the steam first fill rushing through the open cock must the length of beyond the tee before its influence is fully felt by the piping indicator piston, and, as a result, the steam admission will be shown late. The unduly subsequent action of the steam be less incorrectly, as the or will also represented more changes of pressure which occur will be somewhat modified by the presence of the volume beyond indicator. steam the of This effect will of course be more marked when long lengths of pipe are employed. If the two stop valves or cocks are placed close to the tee,

FIG.

39.

better arrangement is obtained, as practicallyall the much The abrupt change superfluous length of pipe is then cut out. of direction due to the tee remains, however, as a decidedly feature, and the substitution of a three-way objectionable cock for the two valves and tee-piece is certainly to be recommended. The latter arrangement, with a pair of easy bends to the cylinder, is probably as good a system of piping as is intended to be be devised ; but if the arrangement can it is advisable to fit straightway shut-off cocks permanent,
a as

close to the cylinder as possible, not only to relieve the pressure, but also to obviate the unpiping of the steam necessar to the the space which clearance pipe addition item in latter is The general only of small provides.

ATTACHMENT

OF

THE

INDICATOR.

77

moment,

good practice to reduce clearance volume and surface to the least possible amount, is worthy of consideration when the point is one which arranging a permanent system of indicator piping. When the piping is at the side of the cylinder, the same are that the bends conarrangements available, except nected to the cylinder will be in a horizontal, and the threeare way cock in a vertical position. If the cylinder covers drilled,two bends at each end will be needed, coupled by means of a nipple or a short piece of pipe, as may be Piping arranged in this way is less rigid than necessary. direct connection, and if the cylinder is fairly the more long and the pressure high, trouble may be experienced to the springing If possible, the owing of the pipe. piping should be additionally supported by securing it to means, the cylinder by some convenient since, as previously
as

but

it is recognised

any movement of the indicator due to the Rigid si (ringing of the piping introduces inaccuracies. support of the indicator is sometimes secured by mounting it in a special fitting secured to the cylinder or steamchest, An instance of this is given in Fig. 55 as most convenient. (page 93),which shows the method of piping adopted for indicating an locomotive. American As will be seen, the piping, although fairly long, is tolerably direct, while a very fixing is obtained for the indicator by mounting it in secure

pointed

out,

"

fittingbolted to the steamchest cover. of piping for vertical cylinders it is difficult to avoid the use of a tee and a bend if the indicator is to be placed in a vertical position and connected to the pipe at the centre of its length. Shut-off cocks must, of course, be used in this arrangement, these, as and previously the three-way In the case

slated, should be placed close to the tee-piece. Special three-way cocks are occasionally employed, however, and in these the outer is branch, in which the instrument In an arrangement at mounted, forms the required bend. indicator one was time commonly adopted, the mounted in the upper branch of an ordinary three-way cock attached directly to the upper end of the cylinder, a length of piping being used to connect the lower branch of the cock to the lower end of the cylinder. With such a system of piping, inaccuracies would be introduced in the diagram from the

78

THE

INDICATOR

HANDBOOK.

lower end of the cylinder owing to the retarding influence lu cases of the intervening length of piping. where no than this is admissible, care other arrangement should bo

taken to provide a pipe of ample size and to cover it carefully to so as with non-conducting material prevent condensatio far It is as as of the steam possible. scarcely necessary to observe that this latter precaution should in be for locomotive case taken the always of piping cylinders, and any others which are in exposed situations. Iron piping being inexpensive and readily available, is very largely used for indicator connections, but brass or If iron piping is to be preferred. copper tubing is much to remove the loose scale used, care should be taken

frequently found inside such tubing, bends, etc. A slight hammering of the tube will generally be found to detach a quantity of scale, which otherwise might find its way into the indicator cylinder, causing an incalculable amount of instrument. Burrs be from to the injury should removed no the ends of all pipes, and in making the joints red lead putty or similar material should be used, a little wicking or in the pipe threads if required. being wound cotton waste When the pipes have not been used for some time they should be blown out thoroughly before attaching the indicator, so as to dislodge any rust which may have formed in them. Copper and brass piping being free from the foregoing is suitable for this purpose, and if objections, much more the fitting is intended to be permanently attached to the
appearance should cylinder, the consideration of improved Fittings kind be as this not of supplied by overlooked. have a simple form of expansion indicator makers some the three-way joint provided in connection with cock decided if is This a the (Fig. advantage, especially 41). pipe is long. Since, as already mentioned, the indicator piping usually has to also form a support for the instrument, all joints

and the piping rendered perfectly other fittings used should be tested being taken with the to steam-tightness, particular care as three-way cock, if one is used, as any leakage of this fitting, or of the usual indicator cock, is calculated to displace the atmospheric line and otherwise introduce inaccuracies.
must

be securely made rigid. Stop valves and

ATTACHMENT

OF

THE

INDICATOR.

79

In Fig. 40, representing the three-way cock supplied by the Company, Crosby Valve and Engineering the expansion joint above referred to is shown on the right of the sectional It will be seen that the steam way through the plug view. is large and direct. As shown, the left-hand pipe is communicatin with the indicator outlet, while turning the

angle of 90* places the instrument in connection with the other end of the cylinder. When is in the vertical position, communication the handle with the cylinder is entirely cut off; but the small hole in the plug then agrees with the hole at the bottom of the

handle

through

an

shell of

the cock and

admits

atmospheric

pressure to the

Rio. 41.

underside of the indicator piston, while also serving the very useful purpose of draining the instrument of water. With a cock so arranged, the indicator may be directly connected to the fitting without using the usual cock supplied

Fig. 41 is a sectional view of the threewith the instrument. way cock supplied by the makers of the Tabor indicator.

CHAPTER
ERRORS

VI.

OF

INDICATOR

CONNECTIONS.

E precautions which should be observed in connecting the indicator to the engine cylinder having been alluded to in the preceding section, it now remains
to briefly discuss the nature

which and extent of the errors by be faulty introduced may methods of attachment. Errors due to Faulty Connections. introduced The error by the partial or complete closure of the indicator orifices,
"

owing may

to the piston covering

them

at the end of the stroke,

often

reach

most

serious

proportions.

It generally

FIG.

42.

in Fig. 42, the results in the formation of a loop as shown fall of pressure thus indicated being due to the leakage, past the piston of the instrument, of a portion of the small With higher speeds or long volume of confined steam. connecting pipes the loop may appear flattened, as shown by the broken lines ; leakage past the engine piston is, however, not without effect upon the shape of the loop.

Fortunately, this condition of affairs is readily discovered by inspecting the diagram, and with the careful operator
80

ERRORS

OF

INDICATOR

CONNECTIONS.

81

due to this cause there is little liability of errors escaping detection. The partial choking of the cylinder orifices, ing owing to red lead and other foreign substances obstructthe

so not passages, is, however, readily revealed in the diagram, too care therefore cannot much and being in free be taken to ensure the instrument always Indicator cocks percommunication manently with the cylinder.

receive periodic cylinder should kinds examination, of cylinder oil a pitch-like with many substance is deposited in such fittings,which may ultimately diminish the opening to a very considerable extent. Loss of pressure is caused by interposing a right-angled the cylinder and the instrument, by the use elbow between of tee pieces, globe valves, etc., but it is impossible to estimate incurred. In error the extent thus of the exposed loss may situations a similar result owing to condensation in the indicator of the small volume contained of steam in indicating cylinder. This will be particularly the case locomotives high at running speeds, under which cumstan cirit is desirable to protect the cylinder of the instrument, lagging. as well as the piping, by a temporary The method indicator of adopted in the Dobbie-Mclnnes sheathing the cylinder with vulcanite is of decided value in Such precaiitions as these are often held this connection. but it is to be remembered to be unnecessary, that the behaviour of the inconsiderable volume of steam contained in the cylinder of the instrument is assumed to be identical with that of the main body of steam in the engine cylinder,
as

fixed

in the

is the sample assumption only warranted steam when used under precisely similar conditions. Water in the Cylinder, etc. The presence of water in the in the or cylinder, due either to priming condensation instrument and connected piping, is fatal to accuracy in It frequently results in the production of the diagram. curious figures, mainly characterised by undulations in the
an
"

steam

lines. It is scarcely necessary to and expansion remark that it is useless to attempt to take a card until the pipes and instrument are entirely cleared of water. Errors due to Pipe Connections. The effect of long pipe
"

connections

upon

much-discussed

the accuracy of the diagram has l^een a topic during recent years, and many experi

82

THE

INDICATOR

HANDBOOK.

have been made in order to ascertain the nature and extent of the error under various conditions. Tests made many years ago with instruments having heavy reciprocating deficienciesin diagram area the parts gave of the of from fifteento forty per cent., but recent experiments have shown that not only is the error generally of far lessextent, but also that it is not always manifested in the same manner being increased and in cases the diagram area in some others diminished by the interpositionof pipe connections as compared with cards taken with direct connection under otherwise precisely similar conditions. It would appear that an explanation of these diverse results is to be found in the fact that in general those diagrams which give an augmented area are those taken with, early cut-offs, while as the ratio of expansion becomes less, the error diminishes, cases and in some may change into one of an opposite
meats
" "

FIG. 43.

FIG. 44.

by a consideration character. Some support is lent to this view in Figs. 43 diagrams and 4i, shown of the taken under similarconditions,except as regards which were that sluggish action of the steam the cut-off. It is seen by the dotted lines in both with the pipe connection (shown has the effect of adding considerably to the area in cases) the case while in Fig. 44 of Fig. 43 (one-eighth cut-off), the added area at the expansion line is (one-third cut-off) the deficiency shown near almost compensated for by the dotted fact, the steam and exhaust lines. As a matter of 35'3 diagram in Fig. 43 shows an excess of per cent, in the mean with the diagram effective pressure, as compared taken with the direct connection, while in Fig. 44 the is only 3'4 per cent. In these tests the initial excess length of pipe 10ft., pressure was 801b. per square inch, the and the number of revolutions 200 per minute.

ERRORS

OF

INDICATOR

CONNECTIONS.

83

While it is impossible to draw general conclusions from isolated tests, it would appear that the above suggestion instances offers an explanation of the fact that in a few any appreciable difference careful tests have not shown between the results obtained by the two methods of connection is diagram far as the area the so concerned. of This, however, is largely a matter of coincidence, and be as taken the exception which proves the rule ; for may certainly the weight of evidence is confirmatory of the ingenerally accepted view that pipe connections almost variabl impair the accuracy of the diagram to a greater or less extent. tions Prof. W. F. M. Goss, from whose paper in the TransacSociety of Mechanical Engineers the of the American foregoing diagrams are taken, has given the following summary from an the extensive series of of results obtained is be to indicator If an tests : (1.) relied upon to give a
"

record of the varying pressures and volumes within an engine cylinder, its connection therewith must be direct and indicator Any pipe connection between an very short. (2.) and an engine cylinder is likely to affect the action of the indicator ; under ordinary conditions of speed and pressure, a very short length of pipe may produce a measurable effect in the diagram, and a length of 3ft. or more may be sufficient to render the cards valueless except for rough or In general, the effectof the pipe is (3.) work. approximate to retard the pencil action of the indicator attached to it. Other conditions being equal, the effects produced by a (4.) pipe between an indicator and an engine cylinder become more as the speed of the engine is increased. pronounced Modifications in the form of the diagram resulting from (5.) the presence of a pipe are proportionally greater for short cut-off cards than for those of longer cut-off,other things being equal. (6.)Events of the stroke (cut-off, release, beginning by are an indicator of compression) recorded later to a the than attached pipe, actual occurrence of the in the cylinder. (7.) As recorded by an indicator events attached to a pipe, pressures during the greater part of higher, and during compression lower, are expansion are The than the actual pressures existing in the cylinder. (8.) area of diagrams made by an indicator attached to a pipe
true

84

THE

INDICATOR

HANDBOOK.

be greater or less than the area of the true card, depending upon the length of the pipe ; for lengths such as are ordinarily used, the area of the pipe cards will he greater Within limits,the indicated than that of the true cards. (9.) power of the engine is increased by increasing the length Conclusions concerning the of the indicator pipe. (10.) may
curves, or concharacter of the expansion or compression cerning in in the cylinthe quality of the mixture changes der during expansion or compression, are unreliable when based upon cards obtained from indicators attached to the

though the cylinder through the medium of a pipe, even pipe is short. While agreeing in general with the foregoing conclusions, introduced by the use of we are of opinion that the error well-arranged pipes of 3ft. in length will not usually be sufficient to impair the practical accuracy of the diagram.

CHAPTER

VII.

INDICATOR

KEDUCIXG

GEAR.

chapter that in order to obtain a correct record of the action of the the motion actxiates steam, given to the cord which be drum an exact the paper-carrying of the indicator must of the motion of reproduction (althoughon a reduced scale) It is therefore necessary the engine piston or crosshead. by which the length of the means to devise a convenient

IT

has

been

pointed

out

in

previous

stroke of the engine can be reduced to that required for the indicator diagram, this being usually from 2 to Sin. long, be effected in a As this can according to circumstances. variety of ways, it is not surprising to find that a very in use, many large number are of different arrangements of far from however, are accurate. give results which which,
to say that greater errors are much the use of imperfect reducing gear than any other cause, and it is therefore highly desirable that more than is commonly attention should be given to this matter

It is probably introduced by

not

too

assumed to be necessary.* For descriptive purposes,

the various arrangements of be divided very conveniently may reducing gear employed into four classes : (1) Pendulum Levers, (2) Pantagraph Wheels, Motions, (3) Reducing (4) Miscellaneous and Devices. Pendulum Lever Gear. Reducing Of this, the most
"

commonly

forms are adopted type of reducing gear, many The most met with. simple form is that shown in Fig. 45, lever which, as will be seen, consists of a slotted pendulum
The comparative Chapt. i Vin.
*

accuracy

of

indicator

reducing

gears

is

discussed

in

85

THE

INDICATOR

HANDBOOK.

arranged to turn about a fixed pin C at its upper end, while the slot at the lower end engages with a pin A which is fixed in the For temporary crosshead of the engine. use the lever may consist of a strip of straight-grained deal about 1 or 1^ in.in thickness, and tapering in width from about 5in. at the upper end to about Sin. at the lower The upper centre extremity. or pivot on which the lever turns may consist in this case
of a coach-screw, which, with large washers between the head and lever, and screw the lever and also between the support, provides
a

fairly

The slot satisfactory centre. in the end of the lever must be " square " with the face of the lever, parallel throughout
-

^
""

its length, exactly in the line of centres or axis of the lever, and fitted to the pin it engages, so with which

FIG.

45.

FIG.

46.

avoid lost motion or The length of lever "play." should not be less than 1" times the length of stroke, on the fixed centre and it swings should be which located vertically over the centre of the path described by the pin in the crosshead. be This form of lever may durable by rendered more
as

to

attaching to each side of the slotted end thin iron plates The hole in the upper end of in which the slot is made. the lever may also be bushed with a piece of brass tubing. The pin P, to which the looped end of the cord is attached, only the of which may consist of an ordinary wood screw, from the face of the lever. This neck is allowed to project

INDICATOR

REDUCING

GEAR.

87

be set in the centre line of the lever, and of course, C as will give the desired motion at such a distance below to the cord. In order to determine the position of the pin P, it should be noted that the length C P must bear the same proportion to C A as the desired length of diagram bears to the piston From this it follows that the rule to find the stroke. distance of P from C is : Multiply the length of the lever in inches by the desired length of diagram, and divide the Thus, product by the stroke of the engine, also in inches. if a travel of 4in. is required to be given to the drum of the indicator when a 36in. lever is used and the length of stroke
must,
"

is 24in.,

we

have 36x4
=

6in.

24
as

the distance of the centre fixed fulcrum C. For

a

of P

from the centre

of the

temporary arrangement such as that above described, the fixed centre may often be carried by a stout piece of timber depending from and fixed to a beam in the engineroom the necessary rigidity,a brace ; but in order to secure
in Fig. 45. sionally Occawill generally be required, as shown it may be possible to secure the required fixing by the engine bed on the floor wedging a wood post between

and some overhead support; but the precise arrangement adopted will depend upon circumstances, and to a great be left to the ingenuity of the operator to extent it must
make the Lest use of the means available. For permanent use, a more substantial form of forged lever may be employed, the dimensions of which will vary For a stroke of 24in. it may with the size of the engine. consist of a flatiron bar not less than 36in. long, \ or fin.

thick, and tapering in width from 2 to l^in. In this case the fixed centre will be best carried by a light,rigid standard fixed to the guide bars or other convenient part of the engine, as will allow of it being readily and in such a manner removed desired. A turned standard or upright bolted to the when
upper guide, and a lever forged from a roui;d bar and finished bright, forms a very neat arrangement of permanent ing reducgear.

88

THE

INDICATOR

HANDBOOK.

method adopted for fixing the pin A will depend upon the arrangement used for guiding the crosshead, and also the side upon the construction of the latter. In many cases of the crosshead is accessible,and a hole may be drilled in any convenient position to receive a screwed stud of sufficient length to lin. in the through the about slot project lever. Frequently the set-screws for the or nuts provided

The

of adjustment

which case a which holes may be drilled as head is guided in such a manner that the side attachment is inadmissible, the upper surface may sometimes be drilled and tapped for two small set-screws, passing through holes in the end of the stud, which is flattened for the purpose. Fig. 72 (page 105)may also be suggestive in this connection. With this reducing gear ment and in fact with, any arrangein which the cord is attached to a pin set in the axial line of a lever be taken to lead the cord must special care in a direction parallel to the line of stroke of the away Inattention to this point will result in the proengine. duction
"

the crosshead may foot may be forged

be pressed into service, in on the end of the stud, in Where the crossconvenient.

"

Of are utterly worthless. of diagrams which by the aid of guide pulleys, the cord may afterwards course, For these, be led in any direction to the instrument. however, additional fixings will be required which are often difficultto obtain ; besides which, guide pulleys are more or less a source of trouble, especially at high speeds, and their is therefore to be avoided whenever use possible. To this lever have been end, modifications of the simple pendulum
Here a short in Fig. 46. adopted, one of which is shown lever C P, carrying the pin for the cord, is securely fixed to the main lever C A, and in such a position relatively thereto to the centre of C A is vertical (corresponding that when the piston travel) the line C P will be at right angles or " " In this way square with the direction of the cord P K. be led directly to the guide pulleys on the the cord may It diagram. distorting indicator without the will be evident that if two indicators are used, or if one instrument is alternately used at each end of the cylinder, the direction of the cord will vary somewhat, and the position of the a short lever will require to be slightly altered. With fair length of cord, however, no will very serious error

INDICATOR

REDUCING

GEAR.

89

between the two result if the short lever is placed midway In place of positions which would otherwise be necessary. Inver, a a separate piece may be attached to the projecting main lever, in order to carry the pin P, the relative position of the imaginary line P C and the direction of the cord The in the previous arrangement. being the same as lever method shown in Fig. 46 is preferable when the short distance away from the main lever, is to be placed some
as,

for example, in Fig. 54, and in such cases a distance piece or sleeve may often be improvised by the aid of a piece of In this iron gas tubing, screwed for back nuts at each end. way the cord may be led direct to the indicator, as before described, and also in a plane parallel to that in which the a requirement with of the firstimportance crosshead moves
"

nearly all reducing

gears, but which, it will be understood,

PIG. 47.

FIG. 48.

FIG.

49.

FIG. 50.

does not apply afterthe cord has passed a guide pulley on its way to the indicator. lever conAnother modification of the simple pendulum sists in attaching a circular segment to the upper end, as The arc a b is struck from the centre C shown in Fig. 47. is of a radius sufficientto on which the lever swings, and latter lies to the cord, which give the required movement in a groove on the edge of the segment, being secured to " brumbo It will be seen that with the the latter at a. is sometimes termed, the direction pulley," as this segment of the cord may be varied considerably without affecting the the As subsequently, however, will be shown motion. in most cases enhance the addition of the brumbo does not It will be understood that accuracy of the reducing gear.
the segment
may

be fixed at any angle relative to the main

90

TEE

INDICATOR

HANDBOOK.

lever, and that it may either be attached directly to it or to a tubular distance piece or sleeve as previously described. Disguised forms of the arrangement shown in Fig. 45 are not infrequently met with in the shape of telescopic reducing gears such as those shown in Figs. 48 and 49. In the firstof these the cord is attached to the lower end of a The or tube, turning about a fixed centre trunnion C. takes the form of a round rod connected to the pendulum The arrangement shown in Fig. 49 crosshead by the pin A. is precisely similar in character, but more structed readily conin Fig. 50 the In the telescopic gear shown tubular portion is made of sufficientlength to carry the pin P to which the cord is attached. Fortunately this gear is

FIG.

51.

rarely met with, for it gives grossly inaccurate results,and be employed under any circumstances. should therefore never The telescopic gear shown in Fig. 51, applied to a gas engine,* is identical in principle with the simple gear formed by combining Figs. 47 and 48. In this case, however, the is given to the drum by attaching a required movement fine steel wire W to its extremities and passing it round the two light pulleys U and Y, to the former of which it is be moved secured. The latter can outwards slightly,so as to maintain a suitable degree of tension on the wire. The is mounted horizontal shaft, which on a pulley U also The carries the sleeve ", receiving the telescopic rod M. lower end of the latter is jointed to a bar N, which is fixed in, and virtually forms a part of, the piston. In this way
First Report to the Gas Mechanical Engineers.
*

Engine

Research

Committee

of the Institution

of

INDICATOR

REDUCING

GEAR.

pensing slide is positively driven in both directions, thus disthe return with the usual spring for producing Although this forms a very convenient gear, movement. it does not give accurate results, as a reference to diagram B1, Fig. 80, will show. be arranged by A more accurate may reducing motion of Fig. 45, fixing a pin reversing the driving arrangement
the

(Fig,52) in the end of the pendulum

lever A

to engage

FIG.

52.

FIG.

54.

with a vertical slot C in a plate attached to the crosshead. A more durable arrangement is shown in the small view, in which the pin a, bolted to the lever A, has a large head ***" ^e The latter sliding in the "]"'81"* piece e as shown. is fixed to the crosshead by two screws, one of which is d. shown at As a substitute for the slotted iron strips plate, two may

be fixed to the crosshead

(Fig. 53);

but however

it is

92

TEE

INDICATOR

HANDBOOK,

be taken to ensure the slot being must arranged, care exactly at right angles to the line of stroke. A conveniently arranged gear of this type is in shown Fig. 54, applied to an engine with closed-in guides. A long B stud screwed into the crosshead pin carries a plate at D, and in this the vertical slot is formed with which engages lever C. The length the pin fixed in the end of the pendulum be The short lever H is at F. of the latter can adjusted flattened for a portion of its length at K, and on this are engraved several lines at right angles to the axis of the lever, and respectively in line with the corresponding series the of holes for the connection of the cord. In adjusting position of the lever H upon the cross shaft I, the hole is selected which will give the desired amount of motion to the indicator drum and the cord attached. The crosshead is H turned placed in the middle of its stroke, and the arm upon the spindle until the direction of the cord agrees with, is parallel to, the line on K, in which position it is or of the set-screw J. is sometimes found arrangement of which service consists in bolting a flat strip to the crosshead, having a slot formed the at its lower end with which lever engages. The slotted bar is pin in the pendulum conveniently made of such a length as will allow the cord to be led off parallel to the line of stroke and direct to the indicator. Occasionally it may be found necessary to give lever, a "set-off" to both the slotted bar and the pendulum in order to clear the engine framing. It will be obvious in Fig. 45 may be modified in this that the gear shown way, and also that the brumbo pulley may be applied if desired. It is to be noted that by this method not only is the use of guide pulleys obviated, but also only a very short support is required, this adding greatly to the pendulum Gears of this kind are specially rigidity of the arrangement. suitable for engines of the girder-frame type, and also for
means

secured by Another

vertical engines. in A convenient reducing gear is shown and accurate locomotive. Fig. 55 applied to the cylinder of an American is transmitted from the pendulum As will be seen, motion By this lever nearly to the indicator by the sliding rod R. a distinct means only a very short length of cord is required
"

INDICATOR

REDUCING

GEAR.

93

advantage, especially for locomotive indicating. A pin fixed in the sliding rod engages with a slot in the upper end of

FIG. 55.

the reducing lever, while the connection with the crosshead A slightly modified form of pin is made as in Fig. 45.

FIG

56.

is gear is shown in Corliss engine, while an

Fig. 56, applied to a horizontal arrangement essentially similar in

94

THE

INDICATOR

HANDBOOK.

principle is shown in Fig. 57, applied to a vertical engine. In the latter case the connection with the crosshead is by a telescopic arrangement, which increases the made durability of the gear. Such an arrangement would be suitable for such a permanent reducing gear as is required for marine engines. Another arrangement of pendulum lever very largely used is that in which the lower end of the main lever E is coupled to the crosshead by means of a vibrating connecting link F,

FIG. 57,

shown in Fig. 58. This construction avoids the use of of trouble slots in levers, etc., which are frequently a source lever in As the use. reducing gear.--, almost all after some is instance in barrel this not motion given to the indicator is for This an exact reproduction of that of the crosshead. the most part due to the angular vibration of the connecting link. To reduce this to a minimum the link should be arranged to vibrate equally above and below the path of the crosshead pin, or, in other words, the path of the crosshead pin should bisect the versed sine of the arc described by the end of the pendulum lever. In Fig. 59, e and / are the
as

INDICATOR

REDUCING

GEAR.

95

pendulum

positions of the pin in the end of and A the mean the lever. Joining ef gives a A as the versed sine of the zontal arc e A /,and through the middle point b of this the horiThe path of the pin in the crosshead may be drawn. lever must be verticalwhen the crosshead is in
extreme

the centre of its path, and as it is evident that the error due to the swing of the connecting link will be less as the length is increased,it is advisable to use as long a link as preferably not less than one-half the length of convenient stroke if at all possible. Frequently it will be found more
"

convenient to use a bar depending from the crosshead (as to which previously suggested in connection with Fig. 45), is very the link can be attached. The brumbo segment often used with this form of pendulum lever,but, as will be

wherein/

shown later,the reduction is then less accurately effected than with the pin connection. A neat modification of this gear is shown in Fig. 60, is a rod moving in a slide parallelto the line of

stroke of the engine, and carrying a pin g, to which the indicatorcord is attached. The pendulum lever is connected with the slide by means of a short link b d, the length of It follows which is in the same ratio to a e that c d is to c e. b that c, and a always liein the same straight line,and that is b the movement an exact reproduction of that of the of but in the proportion c e : e d crosshead, reduced piston length diagram. : "With this arrangement the stroke of link be e a can connecting placed at any convenient angle lever, as the the restrictionto be observed with pendulum
=

96

THE

INDICATOR

HANDBOOK.

in connection

with

the

gear

shown 61

in Fig. 58

does

not

apply. In the

the lower end of the pendulum, about a pin fixed in the crosshead, while another pin C, fixed in the upper end of the lever, moves in the fixed slot guide, which must be up and down in an exactly vertical position. The path of the pin P is shown in broken lines, and from this it is obvious that the rise and fall of the cord will be considerable, being nearly To reduce equal to the versed sine A' S' of the arc A S' T. this error as far as possible, the cord should be arranged so that it is horizontal when in its vertical the pin is midway travel. A somewhat is shown in Fig. similar arrangement 62, in which the vertical slot-way is replaced by a vibrating gear shown lever turns

in

Fig.

PIG. 61.

FIG.

62.

If possible, the length of the latter should not lever C L. be less than one-half the length of the pendulum lever C A, whilst the fixed centre L should be so placed that C L is as below the horizontal at the extremities of the stroke much For convenience, the lever it at mid-stroke. as it is above C L is sometimes placed on the other side of the vertical, but this should be avoided if possible. It will be noted that the brumbo pulley cannot be used with either of the gears last described. lever reducing Various other arrangements of pendulum gears are to be met with, but a description of these would
or good purpose, as they consist mainly of more less fanciful modifications of the gears already described. Among Pantayraph Reducing Gears. the most accurate forms of the varieties of reducing gear are the modified
serve no
"

INDICATOR

REDUCING

GEAR.

97

pantagraph, which are often used on long-stroke engines, they are more suitable than any form of and for which lever. Pantagraph pendulum reducing gears for temporary use are of well-seasoned wood, but they -do usually made not give satisfactory results unless they are well made and The large be joints should carefully used. and provided for in means wear, taking the with effect of up and when use the lubrication of the several joints should receive 63 Fig. form a of pantagraph careful attention. represents motion-reducing

device, sometimes

styled the "lazy-tongs,"

FIG. es.

the merit of possessing a very wide range of application. It is therefore suitable for a travelling outfit, more especially since it has also the advantage of folding form. It consists of several wood up into a very compact which ness, strips of about 16in. long, lin. wide, and ^ or ^in. in thickthese being jointed The pin A together as shown. from the crosshead, the latter carrying a receives motion turn freely. socket, or a drilled plate, in which the pin can The fulcrum pin B is supported in manner any convenient by any available portion of the engine framing, or by a post
or

has

other

support, which, for convenience,

should

be

placed

98

THE

INDICATOR

HANDBOOK.

about opposite to the mid-position of the crosshead. The be led cord, which must away parallel to the line of stroke, is attached to the pin E ; and, to give various degrees of reduction, the position of the bar carrying this pin can be C and D in the other sets changed by inserting the screws In this way the ratio of B E to B A can of holes provided. be varied as desired, but it is of the to greatest importance that the note position of the pin E in the crossbar must

FIG. 65,

also be varied in order to keep B, E and A in one straight line, this latter being an indispensable condition with all forms of pantagraph The lazy-tongs may reducing gear. in a vertical, a horizontal, or any be arranged so as to move intermediate plane of position. It is decidedly unsuitable for high piston speeds, and although its portability and it must adaptability are valuable features of the arrangement,

be admitted and
one

that it is a somewhat clumsy piece of apparatus, is liable to get out of order. moreover which very

INDICATOR

REDUCING

GEAR.

99

more reducing gear convenient pantagraph much flat fully strips of iron careshown in Fig. 64 is constructed of riveted together so as to allow perfect freedom of It is necessary that d e movement without lost motion. that a, b and c lie in a straight line. The f gt df=eg,
=

The

and

attachment the cord being led from

to the crosshead is at

a a

is the fixed fulcrum,

b and

in

direction parallel to the

FIG. 66.

line of stroke.
ratio of
a c :

The
c.

crosshead movement
shown

is reduced in the

The

pantagraph adjustable

well-seasoned strips of wood, to the crosshead is made at A, the cord being attachment led horizontally from the cord pin E to the guide pulley As before, A, E and B must be in a straight line. shown. A practical example of a more substantial pantagraph to locomotive, as is given in a reducing gear, applied Fig. 66. In this case is transmitted nearly to the motion 7

is made of The together. pin-jointed

in Fig. 65

100

THE

INDICATOR

HANDBOOK.

indicator by

in diameter, round rod of steel fin. the outer end of which is carried by a light bracket fixed to Another in the engine cylinder. arrangement, shown Fig. 67, is formed by interchanging the fulcrum and the point giving motion to the cord in the last example. The Reducing Wheels. reducing venient wheel is a very conmeans

of

"

of gear, giving accurate results when correctly These gears are usually arranged so that they applied. may either be attached directly to the indicator, or fixed

form

independently,
from

in Fig. 68. In either case a shown cord is led, in direction parallel to the line the crosshead a
as

FIG. 67.

larger diameter of the reducing wheel. The cord from the smaller diameter is led directly to the the gear is independently fixed, indicator barrel, and when off in any radial direction, as may be convenient. may run that the reduction of motion It will be seen obtained by this device depends entirely upon the relative diameters of

of stroke, on

to the

Therefore, in order to render parts of the wheel. the apparatus of general application, a number of pulleys or bushings is necessary, and a set of these is usually furnished The cord requirements. all ordinary will meet which by is kept tension a leading to the crosshead at suitable the two

INDICATOR

REDUCING

GEAR.

101

flat spiral or clock spring attached to the body be regulated as desired, it being of the wheel, and this can necessary to increase the tension on the cord with increasing be Occasionally, with low speeds, it may piston speeds.
means

of

dispense with the wheel-spring entirely, relying to indicator drum the the maintain spring of the upon But degree this plan is requisite of tension on the cords. possible
to

recommended. It is obviously desirable, especially engines, that the weight of the reducing

not

to be

with

high-speed wheel should be

FIG. 68.

FIG. 69.

possible, in order to diminish the effect of are now momentum, and to this end wheels of aluminium is made, the weight of which very small. With long-stroke engines the difference in the diameters be such of the two portions of the reducing wheel may direct reduction inconvenient. to render as A double a directly to then be used attached reducing wheel may When the indicator base. mounted separately, such a for long-stroke found gear convenient will be engines in Fig. it forms 69, as a generally, and, modified suitable
as

small

as

gear

for

oscillating

engines,

the

example

showing

102

THE

INDICATOR

HANDBOOK.

The wheel A reduction of motion of from lOOin. to 4in. laterally upon its stud in order to may be allowed to move In another ensure even coiling of the cord. arrangement frequently adopted, studs are fixed at the ends of the guides, carrying pulleys grooved for ^ or fin. cord. The in a plane parallel to the line centres of the pulleys are

FIG. 70.

is stretched tightly over the cord which of stroke, and is joined by means them of a short iron plate, having holes at each end for the attachment of the cord, and a from large hole in the centre which fits on a pin

projecting

boss of the pulley nearest the cylinder so that the indicator cord may coil upon it, and in this way the reciprocation of the crosshead gives the the crosshead. is lengthened

The

INDICATOR

REDUCING

GEAR.

103

The cord to the drum of the indicator. required motion vention without the intermay be led off directly to the instrument be taken to see must of guide pulleys, but care the boss of the reducing that the cord coils evenly upon wheel. The Crosby reducing wheel, shown in Fig. 70, is attached directly to the indicator cock, being fixed in any desired is effected 3. The return movement position by the screw 14, the tension being by a helical spring in the case 27 and turning by releasing the screw the milled adjusted head 16. The cord is coiled on the pulley 20, at each side On removing the latter, it of which are discs 22 and 21. of up of a number will be found that the pulley is made is for a certain stroke marked concentric rings each of which A suitable pulley having and the retaining selected, all outside it are removed disc replaced. A coiling gear is fitted below the large so The cord guide 24 is that the cord wheel. adjustable lead on to the from the crosshead (orguide pulleys) may parts wheel without rubbing in the hole. All the moving light as possible, the stroke pulleys being of as are
with been
a

range

of from

14 to 72in.

to ensure employed while ball bearings are aluminium, On a 2in. drum the diagram will be about easy running. 4in. long, and on a liin. drum, about Sin. long. When is specially useful for fitted with a detent, the arrangement

indicating gas engines. known as the reducing arrangement very compact " in Fig. 71 applied Houghtalir.g reducing gear is shown a indicator. As will be seen, to the Tabor quick-threaded worm carried by a bracket attached to the base of the
A
"

gears with a worm wheel on the lower part of The pulley upon which the driving cord the paper drum. is coiled, runs loose on the worm spindle until a clutch is both worm into gear, when as thrown and pulley move instrument,
one.

return prompt movement of the pulley : the drum spring also assists this action, as the pitch of the worm wheel is such that it will drive the worm in either direction. Cord pulleys of various sizes are supplied to suit lengths of strokes up to 6ft., and

An

spring adjustable

ensures

the

in using the motion, a pulley is selected the circumference of which is from one-fourth to one-fifth the length of stroke.

104

THE

INDICATOR

HANDBOOK.

clutch collar and clutch are then added, the cord wound of times to allow the upon the pulley a sufficient number it, engine to make its stroke without completely unwinding and the loose end of the cord attached to the crosshcad with The clutch is so arranged the engine on the back centre. that it cannot catch on the backward stroke, but will do so within a half revolution of the pulley on the forward stroke.

The

FIG. 71.

In order that the drum when in motion may clear the stop on the retiirn stroke, it should be turned forward ^ or iin., will start off and if the clutch is then thrown in, the drum The forward on the next milled nut at the top of stroke. the drum enables the latter to be turned at starting, and after the diagram has been taken, the clutch may be disengaged The cord from the crosshead must by holding this nut. of be firstled in a direction parallel to the line course stroke,

of

INDICATOR

REDUCING

GEAR.

105

using guide without this may often be accomplished to bracket the or crosshead, standard pulleys, by fixing a directly be led it so that may and attaching the cord to this to the pulley. Various methods of attaching the cord to the crosshead indicated in Fig. 72.* are

but

Kie.

Gat Engine

Reducing

Gear.

"

The

absence

of

crosshead

in the gas and oil engine, as usually constructed, prevents forms of steam the direct application of many engine reducing is fix In it bar to to a cases the some gears. possible

lever being connected to a pin in the piston, the pendulum outer end of this bar as indicated in Fig. 51, which shows

means reducing gear. The same for the cord of may be necessary to provide an attachment Frequently, however, an attachment to a reducing wheel. the crank shaft provides the most satisfactory arrangement. known Such an attachment, as indicating the " Simplex in Fig. 73. It consists of a beam A of gear, is shown
one

form

of gas

engine

"

From

Haeder'g

"

Der

Indicator."

106

THE

INDICATOR

HANDBOOK.

hollowed lug B and an having a adjustable On the other side of the beam is an carriage C. adjustable craukpin D, carrying a hook E to which the cord is connected. The engine is placed on the full outstroke dead on the end of the crankshaft by centre, the beam damped F so that it lies parallel with the centre the pinching screw line of the engine, and the crankpin D to give the adjusted desired length of diagram. The cord must, of course, be led in a direction parallel to the line of piston stroke. A reducing gear with a wide range of adaptability and
aluminium

FIG. 74.

particularly useful for gas engine work is the Graham " Nonstop " gear made by Messrs. Schaffer and Budenberg shaft, and shown in Fig. 74. It is applied to the engine crankdrilled latter being to a the stud and tapped receive for forms bearing A. An a the at extension of this stud E, is hole its B in disc a the end of which sleeve with crank is a E On the outside of the sleeve to receive the pin D. split flanged bush C held together by the screwed ends of The two guide rods F, G, on which slides the crosshead H. be outer ends of the rods are secured in a yoke J which can fixed in position by any
convenient
means,

the

cord from

INDICATOR

REDUCING

GEAR,

107

the crosshead being led away pulleys K and L. The

through

the

guide adjustable

of holes at 90" and 120", to crank disc has a number suit the different crank angles of a multi-cylinder engine, these holes being spaced radially so as to give three lengths ; one connecting rod is and 3"in. of diagrams : Ifin., 2|in.,
"

It will be understood that the provided for each length. slot in the connecting rod enables the ratio of lengths of in the as the same crank to connecting rod to be made A spring-controlled handle M engine to be indicated. hinged in the bush C, has an extension X with two slots, To each capable of engaging with a collar on the etud.

the collar by pressing inward the handle M ; then B and C together are moved with the pin D is effected, causing the until engagement disc B to revolve. The handle is then released, so that the lower slot in X
gear
now

start the gear, N

is disengaged

from

engages
"

with

the

collar, retaining the

to

in its running

Miscellaneous
arrangements, proposed from

position. Devices. In
other
to

addition
reducing

numerous

the foregoing devices have been

time

time,

many

for practical use. It must that several of these special devices afford very neat solutions of the problem under consideration, while they frequently suggest modifications of the more general forms

of which are too complicated be admitted, however,

108

THE

INDICATOR

HANDBOOK.

of reducing gear which may be necessary in order to meet difficult the requirements of particularly cases. A modification of the reducing wheel, which may be termed a reducing segment, is shown in Fig. 75. The cord F may be conveniently disconnected from the claw fixed in the crosshead by raising the handle H when the A spiralspring acting on return stroke is commencing. the pin which supports the segment, effects the return
movement.

Two modern reducing gears are shown in Figs. 76 and 77, the firstbeing an arrangement used on a short-stroke

FIO. 76.

FIO. 77.

horizontal engine, and the second a gear used by Messrs. Davey, Paxman and Co. for high-speed vertical engines. In Fig. 76 an inclined plane a c b is fixed to the crosshead being such that a b is to as shown, the angle of inclination c b as the length of the diagram is to the length of stroke. leverden (turning The end n of an equal-armed bell-crank on a fixedpin while the indicator e)rests upon the incline, cord is attached at d. The arm de should be verticalwhen the crosshead is in the centre of its travel. In Fig. 77 the lever I is neai'ly straight, and is coupled at itsouter end to a sliding rod working in the tube t, the latterbeing slotted to admit the piece c, which forms the end of the sliding cord is attached. A spiral rod,and to which the indicator

INDICATOR

REDUCING

GEAR.

109

spring (notshown) fixed in the upper part of the tube t keeps the claw of the lever I in contact with the inclined A spring catch b enables the gear to be readily plate p. thrown out of action. With engines having the working parts enclosed, it is as scribed to apply any of the gears previously dea rule impossible Special arrangements are therefore necessary, and
these often take the form of an eccentric mounted upon the A convenient gear crankshaft outside the engine casing. Fig. In in 78. is kind this case, the eccentric of this shown

end of a swinging strap is coupled at its upper part to one lever B, the other end 0 of the latter turning upon a fixed

FIG. 78.

The pin carried by a bracket bolted to the engine frame. be the shaft so that the eccentric must mounted upon limits of the cord travel occur as the crank passes the dead The cord is not directly connected to the lever B, centres. but is hooked on to a bent wire attached thereto as shown. When is hook is full c, the at motion given to the indicator drum ; but when the hook is drawn back to d, the cord In other arrangements, the lever B receives no movement. is prolonged, and the cord attached to the free end, thus travel the the reducing eccentric. of When is the crankshaft available for the purpose, motion

110

THE

INDICATOR

HANDBOOK.

is sometimes

given to the indicator cord by a pin fixed into the end of the shaft, this being placed sufficiently to the the out of centre give of travel. required amount With fitted single-crank engines with a centrifugal oiling
a

points of the travel of the cord are reached precisely when the engine is passing the dead centres. On consideration, it will be seen that by reason of the angular vibration of the connecting drum to from deviate the the motion given rod, will that of the piston to an extent which will be greater as the ratio of the lengths of the connecting rod and crank is less. This error may be entirely eliminated by coupling to the pin one end of a link, the other end (to which the cord is being consti'ained to move in the plane of the attached) For correct results, the throw shaft centre as in Fig. 74. be proportional of the pin and the length of the link must to the lengths of the crank and connecting rod. In beam engines, one of the radius rods will frequently
form

tube, the same end may be attained by attaching Special care the latter carrying a small pin. taken to so place the driving pin that the extreme

clip to be must

reducing gear, the cord being attached at such a point as will give the required travel, and being led vertically downwards to a or either to the instrument is needed. A less correct plan is to guide pulley if one the cord to a pin fixed in the beam connect and sufficiently
a

convenient

the gudgeon to give the required amount of movement. Tn this case, when the beam is horizontal, the line joining be at right the centres of the gudgeon and the pin must the cord is led off. angles to the direction in which
near

of the gudgeon may be such that be given to the cord by coiling can the required movement one end of it around the gudgeon ; in this case, the cord may be led off in any convenient direction. In the marine type of vertical engine, the cord may often be very conveniently lever. it is posOccasionally to the sible air-pump attached

Occasionally the diameter

plan in horizontal engines when the is driven from the crosshead by mean of an L-lever. air pump Gear for Valve Chest Diagrams, When Reducing etc. diagrams are taken from the steam pipe or valve chest, the high-pressure cylinder reducing gear should be employed. from For diagrams the receiver either the high or lowto adopt the
same
"

INDICATOR

REDUCING

GEAR.

Ill

be used ; while for diagrams pressure cylinder gear may from the condenser or air pump (when this is driven from the low-pressure crosshead),the same reducing gear should be used as for the low-pressure cylinder. In arranging any form of reducing Wires. Cords and
"

it is very desirable to avoid the use of long reaches Firstly, for the obvious reason that the longer of cord. distortion the cord the greater the stretch and consequent

motion,

secondly, because long cords sag and Strips of vibrate considerably, especially at high speeds. to a to transmit the motion wood may often be employed Steel, copper, or point quite close to the instrument. for cord iron wire is often with substituted annealed being inserted a a where guide piece of cord advantage, has however, has Iron be to and steel wire, passed. pulley " kink," and is generally the disadvantage of being liable to
of the

diagram

; and

to manipulate as convenient cord. The wire used must not only be free from kinks, but it must also be quite than straight, as any bends in it may lead to greater errors Tests have be the case that steel shown with cord. would in diameter) yields about (0'014in. wire No. 28 B.W.G.
not
so

0-0012iu.

'(0'004in. in while No. 36 B.W.G. diameter) yields about 0 OOSin. per foot for each pound of balance of -convenience is in favour of the The tension.
per
foot;
use

of cord, and if the precaution stretch it before using, the error By hanging heavy weight from a

is taken will be
one

end

thoroughly inconsiderable. of a length of

to

cord for a day or so, the remaining elasticity is usually insufficient to allow the cord to stretch more from than 0-007 to OO09in. per foot" according to the diameter
"

The special kiud of closelyof tension. braided cord supplied by the various instrument makers from in diameter, if to varies ^in. about and used without TV be found to any preliminary stretching will yield considerably On more than the above amounts. the other hand, time appears to take a cord which has been used for some

for each pound

"permanent set," this reducing the yield per foot to about 0'006in. per pound of tension. In any case, the application of a littlebeeswax, well rubbed in by means of a notched be found beneficial, it as piece of wood, will renders the or cord less susceptible to the influence of water steam.

112

THE

INDICA

TOR

HANDBOOK.

Composite

material are with a view to securing conjunction, freedom from flexibility. Messrs. stretch combined with Dobbie Mclnnes, Limited, supply a 'good cord of this kind,

cords are used in

also used

in

which

wire

and

fibrous

six strands of No. 36 B.W.G. steel wire double flax a tube through running straight which is woven them. over When the \ise of long stretches of cord or w;re is unavoidab it is preferable to lead it past the indicator, connecting it to a spiral spring or rubber band attached to

composed

of

In this way the the engine framing or other rigid support. is mainto the paper dnim cord transmitting the motion tained in constant tension, while the work of the drum A short spring of the indicator is reduced to the minimum. length of cord attached to the drum is provided with a light wire hook be at very high speeds, may which, even readily slipped into or out of a loop tied in the driving cord. When wire is used instead of cord, a small button is fixed upon the wire, and as the hook attached to the short drum cord is forked, the connection is effected very readily.

CHAPTER

VIII.

ERRORS

OF

INDICATOR

REDUCING

GEAR.

of the fact that made indicator reducing gears in very many general use give results which are far from accurate. It is therefore desirable to briefly consider the nature and errors, these more extent of giving particular attention to lever class so extensively employed, those of the pendulum

MENTION

has

already of the

been

a by making of the of the movements graphic comparison drum of the indicator. engine crosshead and the paper In Fig. 79 the various forms of pendulum gears are shown being lettered from A to G, while Fig. 80 diagrammatically, is a series of diagrams giving a graphic comparison of the

of the crosshead and the reduced scale) tenths of of the indicator, for successive paper In obtaining these diagrams, the the stroke in each case. has taken the effective author in the first four examples length of the pendulum of the stroke rod at the centre 36in., the 24in., while as the stroke of reduction is diagram to give a movement such as approximately
movements

(on a

drum

in any not way proportions are in to to the unreasonable, and give every advantage order is understood to be exactly vertical gears, the pendulum the crosshead is at the centre when of its travel, thus as as reducing the error much possible. The exceedingly due to the vertical movement of the pin to small error which the cord is attached in A, C, and E is disregarded, in all ordinary it is quite inappreciable. as cases The dimensions selected for E, F, and G are those used by a firm of high-class engine builders, and are : Length of lever, 24in. ; stroke, 24in. ; connecting link, Sin. diagram,
" "

4in.

in length.

These

113

114

THE

INDICATOR

HANDBOOK.

4iri.
much

The

shown gear its of popularity

A B at probably and its to simplicity, but from diagrams

A' and

owes

corresponding

comparative

the B', it will be

Fro. 79.

seen

that the results obtained are by no is not so although the error marked
Piston Movement.

means

in

satisfactory, B, where the

FIG. 80.

brumbo pulley is employed It will be noted that the error

of the stroke
are

approached,

the cord connection. rapidly increases as the ends pointing to the desirabilityof

for

EEEOHS

OF

INDICATOR

SEDUCING

GEAR,

115

lever as long as possible whenever having the pendulum In the modification of this this form of gear is employed. are gear, shown in Figs. 48 and 49 (page89),the errors precisely similar in character to those incurred with A,
as but as a rule they are the effective more pronounced, is generally small, owing to the length of the pendulum standard carrying the upper support being kept as short as possible. The gear shown in C and D is not very generally used, but an inspection of diagrams C' and D' shows that it forms Indeed, a much better reducing gear than either A or B. when the cord is attached to a pin as in C, the reduction is is not so great perfect, and even with the brunibo the error in the firstcases as selected. It is evident that this type of gear can be substituted with advantage wherever A or B

may be and if C is used the pendulum considerably shorter than usual without introducing any whatever. practical error The link-connected gear shown in E, F, and G is almost invariably used with the brumbo cord connection, but the comparison afforded by diagrams E' and F' shows this to be " " a mistake, the pin cord connection E involving an error less in amount and more uniformly distributed than when is used. the brumbo desirability of arranging The so the that matters below link vibrates equally above the connecting and horizontal, has been already emphasised, but frequently the construction is such that when the crosshead is in the is vertical and the centre of its path the pendulum link horizontal, G. The as connecting effect of shown at is brumbo this, using the cord connection, exhibited in diagram G', while the distortion produced in an ordinary in Fig. 81. As diagram by the last arrangement is shown will be seen, the displacement of the admission end of the diagram is such as to introduce a considerable amount of in the calculation of the mean error as effective pressure, is figure increased, the area the of materially and at the
is already in
use,

same

the general character of the diagram is shown to differ largely from that which should be obtained. Of the other pendulum gears previously described and not dealt with in the foregoing remarks, Fig. 50 (page 89)
time

116

THE

INDICATOR

HANDBOOK.

This will be evident when it is is exceptionally inaccurate. the virtual considered that as mid-stroke is approached length of A P increases, while that of P C decreases, due to the extensive verto which has to be added the error tical in Figs. The gears shown movement of the cord pin. 55, 57, and 60 give perfectly accurate reductions of motion. With in Fig. 61, the vertical movement the gear shown
which will become given to the cord pin introduces an error less as the length of the lever is increased ; but with a lever it of reasonable length, and a fair length of cord between introduced is not great. and the guide pulley, the error end of the lever is hung from a fairly long in Fig. 62, the angular movement of the due to the rise and fall of latter partly neutralises the error the upper rocking lever, as When

FIG. si.

the rocking lever is placed on the by will be measured opposite side of the centre, the error instead of the difference, of these angular movethe sum, ments, in which case, especially if a short cord is used, the the cord pin. If,however, reduction will be very inaccurately effected. With pantagraph properly applied, no reducing motions In practice, however, errors are theoretically possible. of the lazy-tong arrangement and especially in the case 63, page 97), wear (Fig. of the joint pins in the wood strips introduce serious lost motion or "play," which may causes Care must be taken to correctly locate the cord pin errors. (see page 87), and to lead the cord away in a direction parallel to the line of stroke both vertically and horizontally. Neglect of this latter precaution is a frequent source of

EXKOHS

OF

INDICATOR

REDUCING

GEAR.

117

error.

Stretching

of

the

latter to coil unevenly on to distort the diagram, objections. in later forms defect has been removed of reducing

cord and the tendency of the " the pulleys, and by " mounting The latter are also
wheels
even

and regular adding a cord guide which ensures it is to first-named coiling ; while, as regards the objection, be noted that as the movement of the main coixl is greater, the stress on it will be proportionately less than on cords which drive the drum directly. in Fig. 76 is convenient, as it can The gear shown be out of action, but the reduction will very readily thrown not be correctly effected if motion is given to the lever by it may The an be noted, error, angle piece as shown. could be reduced by lowering the fulcrum e so that e n is
at mid-stroke. parallel with the inclined surface c a when As shown, however, the acting surface c a requires to be to slightly curved in order to give equal angular movements

by

for equal horizontal movements e d the arm of the crosshead. In place of curving the guide piece, the toe of the lever may be made of such a shape as will give the desired 77). motion (Fig. The precautions necessary to be observed in eccentric gears, direct driving from the crankshaft, etc., have been noted in describing these. From the foregoing considerations, it will be apparent that slotted pendulum less or gears generally give more inaccurate reductions of motion, while they are unsatisfactory from a mechanical The distortion point of view. diagram, the of especially with gas and oil engines, or with steam engines when the cut-off occurs early in the stroke, is frequently considerable, except in the case of the gear in Fig. 52 Levers driving shown (page 91). cord-motion bars by means sliding of slots and pins are to be avoided, as any lost motion in such gears tells directly upon the motion as of the paper drum, will also any vibration of the from or are they standards other supports which suspended. Pantagraph are gears reducing and wheels generally as be can they convenient, readily adapted to suit varied Finally, for form of reducing a permanent requirements. be made from gear, a selection may the arrangements in Figs. 54, 57, 60, and 78. shown

CHAPTER

IX.

THE

USE

AND

CARE

OF

THE

INDICATOR.

for the attachment of the necessary arrangements instrument and for giving motion to the paper drum having been completed, the manipulation of the indicator has now to be considered. It is important to keep well in view the General Hints. fact that the accuracy of the diagram is largely influenced by

THE
care

"

upon the instrument, and especially is it necessary to see that the cylinder and piston are quite clean and well lubricated. Attention should also be given to the
the

bestowed

the pencil motion, to ensure that while no is perfectly the movement play exists in the mechanism, free throughout the whole travel. Assuming the stopaock to be screwed into the cylinder or piping, as the case may be, steam should be allowed to flow various
to clear them thoroughly so as through the connections in position.* This before placing the instrument will have remove any dirt, grease, scale or sand which may collected, and which would otherwise find its way into the The of dirt in the presence cylinder of the indicator.

in joints

the piston to move spasmodically, and will by in diagram the giving a serrated or stepmanifest itself line, the effect beinglike appearance to the expansion cylinder
causes

similar to that produced by piston friction,already referred to (page what 59). Water in the instrument will have a somediagram. influence the upon similar
is running, any want of smoothness the instrument of motion can be detected by placing the finger lightly upon

When

In condensing of the engine.

engines

this must

obviously be done

during

the steam

stroke-

118

USE

AND

CARE

OF

THE

INDICATOR.

119

ever, As this may, howthe pencil lever near the back fulcrum. be due to friction of the joints of the pencil motion, the instrument this point should be decided by removing from the engine, taking it apart, and placing the piston and rod in the upper part of the cylinder, while the thumb covers the opening at the base of the cylinder through Then the indicator. the steam enters which with the latter held quite vertically, the piston should fall very slowly

bottom of the cylinder as the air escapes past the piston. Unless it will do this, both cylinder and piston for this purpose a should be thoroughly cleaned, and tissue paper, will be found piece of fine sponge, or even as the fibres of the latter waste, preferable to cotton Should trouble. the surfaces of the piston often cause have become and cylinder scored, they should be freely lubricated and a spring sufficiently weak to allow the piston its full travel should be inserted. Then with the pencil
to the movement

disconnected, the instrument

should

be allowed

for a short time. This will generally under steam the desired freedom remedy any slight scoring and secure But no of movement. putty powder or other grinding Occasionally, by slightly unmaterial should be used. screwing the cap and slowly tightening it again, the piston freely. will be found to work more Having of the piston, ensured the satisfactory working
to
run

be examined. If held should next vertically,the pencil lever, when raised and released, should drop with perfect freedom to its lowest position. If there is any tendency to catch in any part of its path, the several to joints should be examined and the levers looked over the pencil
movement
" distorted in any way. are or that none sprung The instrument may then be put together, but without the spring, the lever raised, and the opening at the base of the cylinder closed by the thumb as before. With the instrument held vertically, the whole of the moving parts should descend slowly, but more in the previous case. rapidly thi^n On the removal of the thumb while the piston is descending,
"

ensure

the whole should fall instantly to the lowest point in the travel. In order to test for play or lost motion, a fairly strong spring should be placed in the instrument, when

120

THE

INDICATOR

HANDBOOK.

be detected by carefully can any unrestrained movement feeling at the outer end of the pencil lever. To locate this error, the the several joints of the pencil movement, connections of the piston, piston rod, and spring, as well as the fit of the swivelling collar carrying the pencil movement,

should be each severally examined. If the instrument has not been used for some time, the joints of the pencil movement owing to the may work stiffly gumming of the oil with which they have been lubricated. in petroleum or naphtha will Soaking the pencil movement generally be found the most expeditious method of restoring the desired freedom of motion, and only with old instruments, drastic have been used carelessly, will more or those which Generally, however, the small joint be needed. measures with, and any serious defect pins should not be tampered
should either in this or in any other part of the instrument A slight amount be left for the makers to remedy. of side is freedom, in to ensure these joints generally allowed play

and if they are bottle of which

oiled occasionally with watch oil a small they the instrument usually accompanies will not ordinarily give any trouble. Occasionally the pencil, when vertically upward moved by lifting the piston, may be found to bear unevenly upon the paper, making a thicker line at the upper than at the Assuming the pencil lower part of its travels, or vice versa. be due to the to be correct, this will probably movement
"
"

the indicator spindle being out of parallel with cylinder. To test this, the spring should be removed, and to just so as the pencil, finely pointed, should be adjusted Then by between it and the paper. allow light to be seen its whole range of raising the piston slowly throughout be seen the it can the space between movement, whether or, if not, in what way pencil and paper remains the same, it varies. It is next advisable to extent and to what the barrel is distorted or improperly ascertain whether For this purpose, the pencil should be kept at centred.

drum

height, and the barrel slowly rotated by pulling the the pencil and paper is cord, while the space between By repeating this test with the pencil carefully observed. at various heights, any distortion of the pencil barrel can
one

be detected.

USE

AND

CARE

OF

THE

IXDICA

TOR.

121

sists Another test which it is sometimes advisable to make conthe piston upin drawing a fine vertical line by moving ward, held is drum stationary at about midwhile the paper fall to to its lowest position, travel. Then allowing the piston by turning the drum horizontal line is drawn a while the being taken to guard against any pencil is at rest, care to vertical play occurring owing slight lifting of the drum the paper from the drum, the upon the spindle. Removing two lines so drawn are then to be tested for perpendicularity.
a of doing this, which convenient method shows b equal distances b a and b c, and consists in setting-off from then from a, with any convenient radius, cutting b d in d, and Unless these from c, with the same radius, cutting b d again. two cutting arcs intersect each other and the line b d in the

Fig. 82

d
\

"

b
FIG. 8-2.

is incorrect or the point, either the pencil movement be extended by This test may drum spindle is bent. drawing a series of horizontal lines as above, and testing described. them in the manner be turns The the drum must which spindle upon in this lubricated from time to time, special attention It should be respect being needed for high-speed work.
same

is that this part of the instrument remembered subjected degree out of to considerable wear, and being in some The pin of the guide sight, it is liable to be neglected. pulley also requires occasional attention. diversity of Lubrication of the Piston. Considerable opinion exists in regard to the lubrication of the indicator of the lubricant which should piston, and the character Some be employed. that sufficient operators maintain
"

122

THE

INDICA

TOR

HANDBOOK.

lubrication is supplied by the steam, but the will majority be found to agree with the author that a good cylinder oil applied to the surfaces in contact gives the most satisfactory results. A light, thin-bodied oil is sometimes advised, but frequent applications will be required, and in general more it is not so suitable for the purpose as porpoise, castor, or

similar variety of good oil. As to the frequency of in hand. the work will depend upon application, much For low-speed engines with steam of moderate pressure, be is ten or twelve diagrams taken before it may necessary But for higher speeds and to again lubricate the piston. pressures, oil should be applied twice as often, while in the frequent attention case of gas and oil engines, still more will be required in consequence of the very high temperatures dealt with. Strength of Spring. The strength of spring which it is be desirable to employ will, under ordinary circumstances, determined by the initialpressure to which it is likely to be At low speeds, the and the speed of the engine. subjected, only factor to be considered is the greatest pressure to be
some
"

provided for, and in this case, reference to the table given on page 123 will enable a suitable spring to be selected. In "scale," this table, the first column gives the "number," " " or number of the spring, which will be strength of pressure per square understood to designate the amount inch necessary to the spring sufficiently to compress inch. Thus, a spring numbered 40 move the pencil one the will require a pressure of 401b. per square inch to cause inch, or, conversely, ^th of an inch in one pencil to move of the diagram will represent a vertical measurement
pressure of lib. per square inch. The pressures given in the several columns of the table to which the springs should be are the maximum subjected, but for ordinary working conditions many makers advise figures It 20 to on 10 the an given. per cent, allowance of instances, springs above a be noted that, in some to indicate pressures below not made certain strength are This is a matter the atmosphere. which should not be overlooked, as, with these springs, if the pressure should fall materially below this limit, it will not be correctly " bottoming " in the cylinder indicated, owing to the piston

should

USE

AND

CARE

OF

THE

INDICATOR,

128

TABLE

I." STANDARD

INDICATOR

SPRINGS.

Other springs supplied, with their maximum follows :" Small as pressures, are Thomson. Darke, 88 (1401b.); 96 (150lb); 115 (1861b.); 132(2001b.); 160 (2401b.). 250 (4351b.) 128 (2091b.).Crosby, 4 (711).); 140 ; 300 (5251b.). Small Mclnnes-Dobbie, (2101b.) ; 250 (3751b.).Simplex. 15 (3Ulb.) ; 25 (601b.) ; 55 (I651b.) ; 90 (2701b.). In most cases inch to the the lange 151b. per square of the spring is from The tabulated pressure. are the springs for the Richards, principal exceptions Casartelli. Large Mclnnes. Small Mclnnes, In the first, Indicators. and Simplex second, and third springs from 32, in the fourth from 40, and in the fifth from 35 and upwards, are scaled for pressure only.

124

THE

INDICATOR

HANDBOOK.

line the back -pressure would appear perfectly straight, utterly destroying the value of the power developed, or as of the diagram as a measure indicating the action of the steam the pressure falls when however, below that of the atmosphere. Should it occur, the required that no one spring is available which will cover of the instrument.
a

In such

case,

as such a diagram range above and below the atmosphere, described may firstbe taken, after which, by substituting a be obtained, which will weaker spring, another figure may " " By the vacuum side of the diagram. correctly show

reducing the ordinates of the latter diagram to the same be combined ; but if only scale as the first,the two may of the horse-power, the areas above required as a measure it in first below diagram, line in the the atmospheric and the second, may be separately computed and added together. be taken to is pursued, however, care If this method must
protect the this purpose
over

weak
a

over-compression, and for spring from suitable length of brass tube may be slipped

the piston rod. In general, it is advisable to use the lightest spring will which may be employed with safety, since the diagram then be as high as possible. Exceptions to this rule occur when

the compression indicating engines in which may happens initial as with sometimes pressure, exceed the in fitted with automatic cut-off gear, and engines locomotives well " notched up," when, unless the indicator is provided with a safety stop, limiting the compression of the spring, the latter may be injuriously affected. On the a spring is employed, the steam other hand, if too weak a line of the diagram will be entirely misleading, as horizontal line will be drawn, while the spring is forced

against the stop, and thus neither the action of the steam nor the maximum pressure will be correctly recorded. high speeds, stronger springs should be used in With in the diagram order to counteract the disturbance produced by the inertia of the pencil mechanism, piston, etc., since the energy of these parts when in rapid motion corresponds it Hence in effect to an increase in the initial pressure.
is desirable for speeds of from 150 to 300 revolutions per from 200 to 400 instrument, or minute with the Richards

with

the

more

modern

indicators, to multiply

the values

USE

AND

CAKE

OF

THE

INDICATOR.

125

given in the table by 0'8, and for speeds of from 400 to 600 revolutions by 0 6, in order to obtain the maximum it is desirable the springs should be pressures to which Much, however, must be left to the judgment subjected. of the operator, and it is therefore not surprising to find
Sin. in height, others cases, the sufficient. For average consider l^in. amply for low speeds, 2in. for author favours a height of 2"in.

that

while

many

prefer

diagram

For gas and for high speeds. moderate speeds, and l^in. be taken to select a sufficientlystrong oil engines, care must spring, and in general a diagram-height of 2in. will be found It may be noted that while the table on page 123 ample. springs, the various gives the several lists of standard to furnish springs for indicating other undertake makers and higher pressures than those specified ; while nearly all makers supply metric springs, the scale of which is expressed by the number the pencil which of millimetres through for each kilogramme moves per square centimetre of pressure. be The the scale of ordinary standard springs may by dividing the constant expressed in metric measurement 361 '2 by the number of Table I. given in the first column 361 "~* Thus, a standard 45 spring would be on the 4o -=8'02
metric scale. The corresponding maximum pressures can be ascertained by multiplying pressures per square inch by grammes 14'223, thus obtaining the equivalent pressures in kilo-

per square centimetre. be distinctly specified order ng springs it should whether they are for outside- or inside-spring indicators. In changing springs, care should be taken to see that
In the fittings at the heads

fairly screwed home, and that dirt or grit displaces them from their true axial position. no Oil Engine When Indicators. "/"/v'"7" for Gas and springs are standard used in gas engine indicators the
are
"

in accordance will be modified with the reduced area of the piston, the scale being doubled if used A 2001b. spring used with a piston of half-size, and so on. with a half-size piston, and becoming virtually a 4001b. be found for spring, will sufficientlystrong general purposes, diagram as high it would cover a with a l"in. maximum 6001b. inch. pressure of per square

spring

rating

.'

126

THE

INDICATOR

HANDBOOK.

strength spring of medium (about501b. ordinary is useful for ascertaining the compression pressures rating) during power strokes and to enable the point of fixing to be determined ; while to observe more exactly the suction and exhaust strokes weak-spring diagrams are necessary. For these a spring of about 4 or 51b. (ordinary will rating) be found suitable, but the spring must be protected from as over-compression, previously described (page 124). Messrs. Dobbie Mclnnes provide a special form of weak in spring which the heads are prolonged within the coil of wire so that compression is resisted while a sensitive exhaust or induction diagram is obtained. If desired, they can be made to indicate 51b. or so on the pressure side. Indicator Scales. For the purpose of measuring the pressures recorded in the diagram, scales are supplied by the instrument makers for the various standard springs. Occasionally these are of steel,with a number of graduations generally they are of boxwood, marked on each, but more have only one graduation on each edge, they and as these less liable to be wrongly applied. The steel scales are are doubtless the more free from liability accurate, as they are to warp, and are less affected by differencesof temperature. Scales of card, paper, vulcanite, celluloid,etc., are not to be recommended. For very accurate of the work, many
.
"

makers will supply special scales made to correspond exactly to the tested deflectionsof the particular spring used. Position of the Indicator. Whenever possible,the arm or bracket carrying the paper drum should be arranged to point as nearly as possible in the direction of the motion pin of the reducing gear. A departure from this general forms rule may sometimes be necessary in indicating some the drum must be of gas and oil engines, as in this case from kept as far away the chimney of the ignition tube as In it may be noted that it is this connection possible. desirable to place the instrument so that the handle of the cock can be operated with one hand, while the other can the coupling used rest upon the gas valve spindle. With be on the Richards indicator care taken to see that must it is lock fairly,and that the threads screwed well home so as to ensure rigidity. In general, it will be found advisable to remove the pencil movement of the instrument (covering
"

USE

AND

CARE

OF

THE

INDICATOR.

127

the cylinder with a cork or piece of waste)while it is being With fixed and the drum the expert motion adjusted. operator, however, this precaution will be unnecessary. Cord Adjustment. The length of the driving cord must
"

to move the drum midway stops which limit its motion, but without iu contact with either at the ends of the stroke. coming by With be readily found care the required length may bringing the cord from the paper drum, passing it round the motion pin of the reducing gear while the engine is running,

be adjustedso between the two

as

to

cause

it slowly round the pin until the back in that direction. to limit the motion stop just ceases Noting the point of contact of the cord and pin, the cord is into drawn round the latter until the forward stop comes between Midway the two positions given on the cord play. is evidently the point of attachment sought, and a loop

and drawing

should therefore be tied in the cord so that this point is in The loop must contact with the pin of the reducing gear. in all cases be sufficiently large to allow the pin to turn in it quite freely. It is scarcely necessary to caution the operator against hooking the cord on to the pin until it has been held in the position it would then occupy and the length found to be correct. In all cases it is best to err on be rectified by tyin:_r the safe side, as too long a cord can knots in it, or by slightly the position of the adjusting indicator until the drum to strike the back stop. ceases But with too short a cord the instrument may easily be severely strained or the reducing gear distorted. New indicators have usually a short piece of cord attached to the paper drum As and furnished with a light wire hook. previously mentioned, this is intended to engage with a loop formed in the main driving cord, and if used it should be kept
as close to the instrument possible, not only for convenience in handling, but in order to prevent vibration of the cord, which is particularly liable to occur at high speeds. The same point is to be observed with the various forms some are of cord adjusters, of which sufficiently heavy to cause the centre sagging of a fairly long cord if used near its length. These devices are made in a variety of forms, of
as

probably the oldest of which consists of a short piece of in length, "in. in sheet brass (oraluminium) about l^in.

128

THE

INDICATOR

HANDBOOK.

width, and provided with four holes about ^in. apart, as in Fig. 83. The cord A from the reducing gear is shown laced through the firsttwo holes, and, allowing sufficientto form a loop, it is then passed up through the fourthhole nnd through the third, the end B being passed under the loop so formed. If desired, this loose end may then be led away and tied to the indicator, leaving sufficient length to limit of motion ; prevent it pulling tight when at the extreme is removed this prevents the cord falling when the hook from the loop. As previously stated, with high speeds it is preferable to attach one end of an elastic band to B, securing the other end of it to the instrument or some convenient

FIG. 84.

FIG. 85.

it in order to prevent the cord sagging when support near disengaged. In place of the brass slip, a piece of leather about If in. long, Jin. thick, is sometimes and used, but in either y\inbe readily by case the length of the cord can adjusted sliding the buckle along the cord, the pull of the drum spring causing it to remain in position. The modified forms in Figs. 84, 85, and 86 do not of cord adjusters shown That in Fig. 87 is require further explanation. shown by Messrs. Dobbie Mclnnes, Limited, and forms a made
for the purpose. The two jaws convenient arrangement M, M are caused to grip the cord by the action of the wire By pressing the ends apart. spring P forcing their rear

latter, the length

as

of the cord loop may

be readily

adjusted

desired.

VSE

AND

CARE

OF

THE

INDICATOR.

129

littlepractice will be required before the beginner will be able to quickly engage and disengage the hook from When the the loop in the cord, especially at high speeds. elastic band is used, however, the operation is quite readily effected by catching the hook and holding it stationary so
Some
as

to

cause

when

the

to remain the drum against the forward stop, loop will readily detach itself. Many modern
are

provided with ratchet teeth at the base of detent may be made to a the paper drum, with which (see page 20). engage when it is desired to stop the drum for in This is a very convenient tions situaarrangement, many it is difficultto obtain ready access to the cord to unhook it. The cord, after passing round the groove at the base of the paper drum, is passed through a small hole therein, and a knot tied on the inside. Usually the width of the cord groove is sufficientto take in two or more coils of the cord, but in practice it will be found inadvisable to use more to give about one than enough and a half turns round is gained by using a greater length Nothing the drum. than this, while, on the other hand, there is a risk of the
instruments

last wrap of cord riding on the others at some stroke, thus rendering the diagram utterly holes indicators some a are series of modern

part of the useless. In provided in

'

enabling the cord to be so attached as to avoid overlapping. Drum Spring Tension. As previously pointed out, it will generally be necessary to increase the tension of the drum
"

the drum,

the speed is increased, in order to neutralise the effect of the inertia of the drum, which would otherwise overrun to the spring, causing the length of the diagram But in all cases exceed that due to the reducing motion. the tension used should only be sufficient to keep the drum well under the control of the driving cord. With the same in view, the travel of the paper drum i.e., the length object is usually reduced as the speed increases, of the diagram

spring

as

"

"

the tension is increased, and the length In of stroke diminished, depending circumstances. upon instances it will be found preferable to increase the some

the eztent

to which

drum

spring tension fairly long diagram.

at

speeds, in order to obtain a Generally, however, it is advisable to

high

130

THE

INDICATOR

HANDBOOK.

keep

the tension as low as convenient, and to diminish the length of the card, more especially as the height of the diagram is reduced at the higher speed owing to the use of In this way a fairly proportioned diagram a stronger spring.

At low speeds, well-defined diagrams 4|in.long can be obtained by most of the standard instruments, the principal exception being the Crosby indicator. The latter instrument is, however, also supplied in place of the l^in. drum fitted with a 2in. drum used in the standard indicator, and with this, full-length diagrams As the speeds increase, the length may be readily obtained. in the following of the diagrams should be reduced somewhat

will be obtained. Length Diagram.

of

"

ratio

:
"

Speeds up to 100 revs, per minute 4|in. from 100 to 200 revs, per minute... 4 300 200 "3* 400 300 .3 500 400 "2| 2 600 500 800 600 800
Many

1000

"H "H

prefer to use shorter diagrams for the lower speeds, restricting the length to 3 or 3|in. It will be found that a length equal to about twice the height will give a wellproportioned diagram. Opinion appears to be fairly evenly Paper and Pencil.
"

divided

metallic is which paper smooth paper and the ordinary tough With the former, the frequently used for the purpose. to brought pencil should consist of a piece of brass wire a fine point, yet not sufficientlysharp to cut into the paper. legible mark, but it Gun-metal will, however, leave a more is not so readily procurable as brass wire, and the latter is The friction of a properly sharpened almost invariably used. on chemically prepared paper is not metal marking-point likely to be less than with a hard lead pencil on ordinary greater pressure is needed to make paper, since a somewhat But the point will not require one-tenth the a legible line. attention that a lead will need in order to obtain a series of
as

to the relative merits

of the special

"

"

USE

AND

CAEE

OF

THE

INDICATOR.

131

do not so drawn so distinct cards. Further, diagrams " " do those as to touching-up readily lend themselves drawn with a lead pencil. On the other hand, diagrams drawn on metallic paper become indistinct after a time, and if the records are to be preserved, it is necessary to trace over the outline in ink or pencil, a tedious process when a over, of diagrams have to be dealt with, and one, morenumber When a by which errors may be easily introduced. be pencil of hard black lead is used, any smooth paper may Frequent employed, and this is often a great convenience. sharpening of the lead will be necessary, however, as the fine point is rapidly worn away, and a broad and uncertain A small file will be found of service in line produced. bringing the lead to the fine round point which is necessary to secure the best results, but no greater length of lead it firmly in the should be used than is necessary to secure holder. In particular,the length of lead between the pencil lever and the paper should be kept as short as possible. With large diagrams, and in cases where it is desirable to
follow

several times, the metallic paper and give better results than marking point will undoubtedly lead ; but for single cards from high-speed engines there is In any case, the matter littleto choose between the two. is largely one of convenience and individual preference. Pads of printed blank cards with spaces provided at the top for the data necessary to be recorded not infrequently accompany new instruments, and in order to a void encroaching on the working area of the card, these blanks are invariably the barrel. made of a greater width than necessary to cover This surplus paper does not by any means assist the beginner in mounting is it vantage the paper, while also a disadin other respects. A much is better arrangement to provide spaces for data at the ends of the card or on Generally it is a mistake to use paper of such the back. a beyond the top of the width as will leave it projecting drum. If ordinary paper is used, a smooth, tough, and fairly stout variety should be selected if possible, so that while it it with but will bear handling, the pencil will pass over little friction. The paper should be cleanly cut into strips less than the available height of the of a width about ^in.
the outline 9

132

THE

INDICA

TOR

HANDBOOK.

drum,

and about I'm. longer than will suffice to completely encircle the latter. Some little practice is required in oi'der to acquire dexterity in mounting to the paper on the drum so as " avoid soiling or creasing the card." In most of the more the two clips by which the ends of the recent instruments,
in length, and card are secured are made slightly unequal this very materially assists the operator in "papering the drum." Probably the most usual method of procedure is to place the lower right-hand corner of the blank card under the top of the longer clip, after which the paper is passed

round the drum, and the other end caught by the short clip length of paper should be The excess in Fig. 88. as shown beyond each clip equally, and by taking arranged to project between the thumb the lower corners and forefinger of the right hand and aiding the operation by the left hand in the indicated, the paper may be drawn down neatly and manner the barrel (Fig. tightly over 89). Generally, however, it will be necessary to tighten the upper part by pinching the the top of the clips. The ends of the paper paper in near left may either be torn off or folded back so as to projecting from lie close to the clips. If the paper barrel is removed is not generally the small the instrument (which

necessary),

USE

AM"

":AUE

OF

THE

INDICATOR.

133

be used to support it in the finger of the left hand may is If only one hand better expedient. of any absence should be available, the ends of the paper intended to project Then the paper, formed into a tube, bent back beforehand. is held bodily within the hand, the thumb and third finger The tube thus formed ends. gripping the outwardly-bent is then slipped over the top of the barrel, the projecting the two clips. As the paper is slid ends coming between down the barrel, the ends are gradually drawn farther out by straightening the finger and thumb, so the that when fit tightly around the operation is completed the paper will barrel. If thin paper is used, it will be necessary to bend
the

ends

back

close

to

the clips, to

prevent

the

paper

FIG. 89.

FIG.

loose. Obviously this latter method slipping and becoming is more practicable with small than with large barrels. Many prefer to place the paper under both clips, as in This implies a this way all projecting ends are avoided. double thickness of paper between the clips and the barrel,
with paper of which one thickness would not give a very hold, it is the better plan to adopt. secure If thick paper is used in this way, a piece of paper packing should be placed between the lower end of the clip and the barrel, in

and

With the space between the two. this method of papering the drum, the latter should be removed from the instrument and one end of the paper placed under both clips for about half-an-inch down. The paper is then drawn the overlapping round the drum, and end also

order

to

increase

134

THE

INDICATOR

HANDBOOK.

inserted under the clips. Then tightly encircling the lower part of the paper with the thumb and forefinger of the left hand, and holding the drum with the right, the paper is to be slipped down the barrel while the latter is slightly rotated. In another variation of this method, shown in Fig. 90, the proupper layer of paper is passed under one clip only, the jectin drawing a means the of end affording paper smooth and tight. Manipulation

of the Instrument.

"

The instrument

being in

to so as position, and the pencil pressure nicely adjusted make a fine yet perfectly legible line, the driving cord should be connected and the indicator cock opened for a few strokes in order to heat up the indicator and to expel any water tions. which may have collected in the instrument and its connecThen turning the cock so that the small hole in its

shell allows air to reach the under side of the piston, the line is drawn. Immediately after the cock atmospheric and the pencil held lightly but should be opened to steam firmly against the paper during one or more revolutions of is into its previous The the engine. then turned cock position, and the pencil again applied in order to verify the line. Should any discrepancy appear, it will atmospheric be necessary before proceeding further to disconnect the Some the cause. ascertain operators and disconnecting by draw line to the the atmospheric prefer by hand, as driving cord and the rotating the drum in this way is longer than line drawn the diagram, The fact should be borne in and this avoids confusion. mind, however, that it is particularly necessary that the atmospheric line be drawn immediately after the diagram is has had time to cool in taken, and before the instrument Therefore, unless the driving cord can be the least degree. the atmospheric readily disconnected, it is preferable to draw
instrument

the action of the show valves, one complete revolution will usually suffice ; but if is to be made, the pencil should be a power computation in contact with the paper during some allowed to remain twelve or fifteen revolutions of the engine, and the mean pressure measured from the average diagram of the series which will be traced, if the load varies or if the engine runa

line in the ordinary way. If the diagram is required to

USE

AND

CARE

OF

THE

INDICATOR.

135

wheel, irregularly owing to imperfect governing, too light a flyThe pencil is then withdrawn, the driving cord etc. disconnected (orthe detent used if one is and the

provided),

card carefully removed It has been previously pointed out that for exact results two indicators should be used, and diagrams taken simultaneously In from both ends of the cylinder. testing however, the triple-expansion engines, compound and simultaneous indicating of both ends of all the cylinders is desirable in order to obtain an accurate even more record of It be in the action of the steam will readily each cylinder.

from

the drum.

FIG. 91.

necessitates the employment of a but for of assistants, also some number arrangement instant the diagrams are to at which signalling the precise be taken. But even with the most careful operators in this way, and the liable to occur errors are need of some more became certain and less complicated arrangement
seen

that this not

only

evident became

as
more

the accurate

the Crosby Sargent's electrical attachment, the simulwhich ensures taneous indicators instant operation of any number of at any desired. The indicator by the controlling manipulated

testing of multi-cylinder engines This has been met by general. requirement Steam Gage Company by the introduction of

136

THE

INDICATOR

HANDBOOK.

of circuit-closing operator is fitted with a simple form device, so arranged that when to the pencil is pressed home take a diagram, an electrical circuit is completed, and the other instruments connected are simultaneously operated. This is effected by attaching an electro-magnet to the

bracket of the indicator (Fig.91),the armature of which is coupled to the fulcrum by a small latch or hook, arm it is desired to be readily disconnected when which may the pencil arm completely away from the drum withdraw

The movement of the armature when changing paper, etc. is resisted by a spiral spring (the the magnet towards so that normally tension of which may be readily adjusted), little distance from the paper. the pencil remains at some
by the operation of the armature the controlling instrument, and the connected instantly moved and the diagram taken. are pencil movement Any number of instruments may be simultaneously actuated furnish somewhat in this way. Other instrument makers But immediately the circuit is completed pneumatic while others advocate attachments, The devices for the purpose. action of the operating to be less decisive and latter, however, would appear reliable than with electrically operated arrangements. In taking diagrams from gas engines care should be taken to avoid opening the cock at the instant an explosion occurs, similar
as

shock to which the instrument is thus subjected cause of the pencil movement. serious derangement may If the instrument is attached to the combustion chamber be placed on the gas in such a position that one hand can

the sudden

be prevented, valve spindle, any accident of this kind may for in this way the operator can the gas ascertain when pressing the pencil home, valve opens, and by immediately If the engine the following explosion can be safely taken. is working strokes will working at full power, subsequent first taken. but little from differing diagrams that retrace is running below full On the other hand, if the engine power, the strength of the explosive charge will vary from
to time, and a series of diagrams will be produced. For power tests, the pencil should be kept in contact with

time

for several strokes, and the mean effective paper diagram. from deduced the average pressure The notes and particulars which Data to be .Recorded. the
"

USE

AND

CARE

OF

THE

INDICATOR.

137

to record upon it is necessary the diagram will depend of the test being made, but in general it upon the nature will be found desirable to fillin the following details :
"

and and time at which the card was taken ; the name numof mill, etc. ; the ber of engine, name address of owners of a series ; type of engine ; which of the card, if one engine (R.H.or L.H.) ; which cylinder ; which end ; boiler meter pressure ; revolutions per minute ; length of stroke ; diameter and how ; diaof cylinder ; whether
in per gauge inches ; whether jet or surface-condensing ; temperature of water ; of hot well ; type of valve gear ; character injection of the load, and any other notes and remarks and amount For desirable to more elaborate which may appear record. of piston rod ; scale of spring
:

Date

steam-jacketed,
vacuum

will be required as to the atmospheric pressure ; pressure in the receiver ; diameter and stroke of the air pump ; whether double or single-acting ; percentage
tests,

particulars

ex; clearance volume pressed cut-off occurs displacement as a percentage the ; quality of piston length diameter of the steam ; of steam and pipe ; whether ticulars Parprotected ; diameter and length of exhaust pipe, etc.

of

stroke at

which

fitted of the boilers will also be necessary ; whether temperature of the chimney with fuel economiser; gases; feed water of the weight and temperature used per hour ; of coal per hour, etc.

indicating marine engines, the tabulated data should of the following additional particulars also include as many as the character of the test may suggest as necessary : Name of vessel : on what voyage ; draught forward and aft ; direction and force of the wind ; kind and direction of the sea ; speed in knots : diameter and pitch of propeller and of blades ; or dimensions of paddle-wheels ; position number of link ; condenser surface in square feet, etc. In indicating locomotives, the circumference of the driving
"

In

the distance travelled wheel (found by carefully measuring during one complete ; the position of the link ; revolution) ; weight of train ; gradient in feet per mile ; radii of curves condition of the metals ; and the size of the blast-pipe orifice, cover the principal additional items requiring tabulation. In indicating gas engines, note should be taken of the number
of explosions per minute
; gas consumption

in cubic

138

THE

INDICATOR

HANDBOOK.

feet per explosion ; ignition gas consumed in inches of water ; quantity of at meter

; pressure

of gas

jacketwater used discharge initial the temperatures of and per explosion, and the jacket water. In indicating air compressors, the additional data to be
pressure ; pressure at the noted include the barometric intercooler ; pressure at receiver ; quantity of circulating the temperatures the of water ; and atmosphere, of the air inlet and inlets and outlets, and of the circulating water

outlet.

all the diagrams have been taken, the driving cord should be disconnected, the piston, allowed spring, etc., removed from the cylinder, and steam The spring to blow through the latter for a few seconds.

Concluding

Notes.

"

When

should be removed from the piston and thoroughly cleaned The piston, pencil and oiled in order to prevent rusting. movement, etc., should also be carefully attended to, and after being thoroughly dried by a soft cloth or tissue paper, be slightly oiled. The body of the instrument they may having been removed from the engine cylinder, cleaned and oiled, the indicator should be put together and placed in The springs box ready for future use. the instrument should be screwed on to the studs usually provided in the box, and the latter locked and placed safely away in a dry place. Spare springs may be wrapped in oiled tissue paper. indicator is the outcome The modern of many years' constant endeavour to improve the design and construction
of the instrument, and with the present forms but little opportunity for further advances.
must
not

there appears But the fact

be overlooked that the later types of indicators ment and general treatneed greater care in their manipulation than was necessary with the older and less sensitive Intelligently used and well cared for,-the instruments. instruments will give very satisfactory results in modern

working, while, on the other hand, careless treatment more than nullify all the advantages neglect will much to excellence of design and workmanship.

and due

APPENDIX.

RECORDING

INDICA
"

TO RS.

virtually retraces by the indicator pencil in combination with the movement This consideration has led to the of the paper drum. introduction of a type of indicator in which integrating
is provided, this being so arranged as to record the sum of of any of the areas, number automatically Various designs have been introduced indicator diagrams.

IN

measuring

planimeter, latter instrument

the area of it is obvious

an

indicator diagram

by

the

that the

tracing point of the the figure described

mechanism

from

time

to time, but

hitherto

they have not

found

favour,

of the somewhat complicated and delicate The Bottcher in their construction. employed mechanism instrument of this kind, but recording indicator is a recent Referring to than usual. of a more robust construction Fig. 92, it will be seen that the indicator is of the externalThe top of the piston rod is fitted with a crossspring type. head/, from which two links y g connect to the upper arms

probably

by

reason

of a pair of bell-crank levers h, fulcrumed The lower arms of the bell-crank levers are

on

the bracket

c.

connected

to the

frame the
the

of the planimeter,

measuring

wheel

which k. The

drum s, supplementary A spring q is provided to maintain drum conas tact shown. between the measuring the top of the wheel and drum, and the wheel is connected to a train of gears in the
meter
case.

case o carries the meter and latter runs on the top, r, of is geared to the paper which

It will be seen that the movement of the piston rod causes the the measuring wheel to be moved radially across the combined top of the drum, effect of this movement s and the rotation of the measuring wheel by the drum The number being transmitted to the dials of the meter.
139

140

THE

INDICATOR

HANDBOOK.

thus recorded, when for the multiplied by the constant instrument, gives the total area of the series of diagrams. In this way a continuous record of the indicated horse-power
can

be obtained, while the usual diagrams desired without interfering in any when recording side of the instrument.

can

be

taken

way

with

the

FIG. 92.

In another form of this indicator the measuring wheel has This instrument on runs the top of the paper drum. the advantage of simplicity of construction, but the paper cannot be changed without stopping the recording apparatus, during the test. and hence only a single diagram can be taken

INDEX
Adjustment,cord
Atkinson's Attachment

TO

PART

I.
PACK

spring reliefgear of the indicator, the

."

127 50

72
48 38 43

Casartelligas engine indicator, the

indicator, the Cipollina, Mclnnes-Dobbie indicator, the Cocks, three-way Concluding notes Construction of the indicator steam engine indicators Cord
"

79
138 14
1-7 Ill 36 51 34

Cords and wires Crosby external spring indicator, the gas engine indicator, the indicator, the
with continuous drum Cylinder, drilling,for indicator in water
,

adjustment

37
73 81
32 136 130
42 52
40

Darke indicator, the Data to be recorded Diagrams, length of Dobbie-Mclnnes continuous indicator, the gas engine indicator, the indicator, the Drum spring tension

129
14

Early instruments Electrical attachment, Sargent's Errors due to faulty connections

pipes and connections in the drum motion of indicator connections reducing gear the indicator Explosion and pressure recorder, the Mathot

135

80 81 68 80 113 59 53

Faulty connections,

errors

"iue to

80
105

Gas engine reducing gear General hints Hopkinson flashlight indicator, the Houghtaling reducing gear

Ug
54
..

103

Indicator reducing gear

scales Indicators for ammonia compression gas and oil engines, etc hydraulic work very high pressures Inertia of piston and pencil movement
..

t"

85 126

machines

57 47 57
58 66

141

142

INDEX.
PAGE

Length of diagram Lubrication of the piston

Manipulation of the instrument Mathot explosion and pressure recorder, the Miscellaneous reducing gears

130 121 134 53

107
56
96 130

Optical indicators Pantagraph reducing gears Paper and pencil Pencil friction
movement

67
63 85 81

lever reducing gears Pendulum Pipe connections, errors due to Piston friction Position of the indicator Preliminary considerations

67 126 9
139 110

Recording indicators Reducing gear for valve-chest diagrams, etc indicator, errors of ,
wheels Richards indicator, the Sargent's electrical attachment Scales, indicator Simplex indicator, the Special forms of indicators Spring reliefgear, Atkinson's Springs
,

113
100

17
135 126
46

54 50 61, 123 61 125 125 62 123 122

51

errors of for gas and oil engine indicators

""

metric

-.

Standard indicator springs Strength of spring Tabor gas engine indicator, the indicator, the Thompson gas engine indicator, the indicator, the "1900"pattern Three-way cocks
,
"

.testing

28 51 20

25 79
118
110

Use and

care

of the indicator, the

Valve-chest diagrams, reducing gear for

Water in the cylinder Wheels, reducing Willner indicator, the Wires, cords and

81 100
'.

'27
Ill

THE

INDICATOR

HANDBOOK.

PART

II.

The

Indicator Diagram

Its Analysis and

Calculation.

CHAPTER
PRELIMINARY

I.
AND DEFINITIONS.

CONSIDERATIONS

of the preceding volume of this description was a Driven of the work rudimentary in which manner movements the combined of the of the indicator result in the formation pencil and drum Some of the indicator diagram. slight recapitulation of be the points therein advanced will necessary in the present and succeeding sections, in which it is proposed to examine

IX

the

initial chapter

in practical working the several influences which degree. less marked or the ideal diagram in a more The most elementary form of indicator diagram
"

modify
consists

is the zero in which Z Z of a rectangle Z B C Z' (Fig.i), line or vacuum line i.e. the line of no pressure, and A L the atmospheric line, Z A representing the atmospheric pressure Z, Commencing on the scale of the diagram. the at line B Z instantaneous indicates the vertical attainment of in a the cylinder, the (absolute) amount of which pressure
"

is measured
now

by
to

the height

moving

the

above Z Z'. The piston it right, and the pressure behind

9

of B

10

THE

INDICATOR

HANDBOOK.

of C, the end of the taneous stroke, is reached, the vertical line C Z' marks the instanfall of pressure to zero. The direction of the piston is then reversed and the line Z' Z described indicating a total absence of pressure in the cylinder during the return This completes the diagram stroke. and gives the area Z B C Z' as a measure of the work done by the steam

being uniformly maintained, results line horizontal B C, while when the

in

the formation

during
In

the stroke.
to effect the instantaneous

reduction of pressure indicated by the line C Z', it may for the present purpose be supposed that means are provided by which the steam in the cylinder at the end of the be instantly stroke may

order

FIG.

i.

FIG.

2.

Such condensed. to in slow-moving

conditions as these may be approximated condensing engines ; but in non-condensing is into discharged the atmosengines, where the steam phere, diagram is the modified considerably. In this case, steam of an absolute initial pressure Z B is

admitted to the cylinder, and the line B C traced as before. At C the cylinder is placed in communication with the atmosphere, and the pressure falls until it is equal to that During that is, to Z' L. the return outside the cylinder is stroke, therefore, the motion of the piston opposed by a uniform pressure Z' L equal to that of the atmosphere, and At the diagram, is produced. the line L A, completing A the pressure is increased from Z A to Z B, and the it will be seen In this case cycle of operations repeated. that the area A L Z' Z represents work done by the steam in moving the piston against the atmosphei'ic pressure. Accordingly this must be deducted from the area Z B C Z'
"

PRELIMINARY

CONSIDERATIONS

AND

DEFINITIONS.

11

A B C L representing the amount work performed during the stroke. of effective The distinguishing property of gases is their Kifin$ion. capability of infinite expansion, the increase of volume being accompanied by a corresponding decrease of pressure.
in order to obtain the
"

area

If, therefore, gas (or 2) be steam) of a pressure Z B (Fig. allowed to enter the cylinder during a portion of the stroke Z K only, it follows that during the remainder of the
to of the gas stroke, E Z', the volume will continue increase, while the pressure will gradually fall. This action is represented by the shape of the diagram, in which Z B the instantaneous admission at the commencement marks

of the stroke, and B C indicates the portion of the stroke during which the pressure is uniformly At C, maintained.

the admission ceases, and during the remainder of by the the stroke the pressure gradually falls, as shown At the latter point the working fluid is curved line C D. discharged, and the pressure falls to that of the back pressure Z' L, the line L A being then traced as in the however,

The relation between the pressure by Boyle's law : gas is enunciated and volume of a perfect The pressure of a gas varies inversely as the space it Or, if p occupies, the temperature being constant. pressure, it From v a follows v this constant. volume, then p and
"

previous case. Isothermal Expansion.

"

that the pressure pl of be determined vv can

to a gas, after expanding by dividing the product

v,

volume of the

original pressure p and volume

p
A graphic
=

by
v
.

vl

or,

p '"
vi

representation of this law is given in Fig. 3, in which a quantity of gas of a pressure Z B and volume Z E is Pressures temperature. at constant allowed to expand Z B and volumes being measured on Z Z', it follows on be increased to Z E., 2 Z E, the that if the volume Z K. By drawing pressure will be diminished to " Z B
= =

line K c., to meet the pressure line"E2c0, the volume point c.2 is obtained in the expansion curve representing the position of the pencil of the indicator under the here Similarly, a threefold expanconditions assumed.
the
"

12

THE

INDICATOR

HANDBOOK.

volume Z E3 reduces the pressure to \ Z B, represented by Z N or E3 c3, and giving c3 as another point in the expansion curve. Proceeding in this way, the pressures or at successive volumes piston positions E4, E5, etc., may be found, and through the series of points so obtained the may be drawn as shown. complete curve From that every point what has been said, it will be seen in the curve C c5 is so located that the product of the lengths of the perpendiculars from the points to the lines Z Z' is constant. The curve Z B and C c5 is therefore a
sion to the

Z B and Z Z' are hyperbola, of which its rectangular E C c5 E6, representing Hence, the area "asymptotes." be determined done during expansion, may by the work between hyperbolic means of the established connection superfices and their base lines. The law
of

is accurately above enunciated expansion applicable only to a perfect gas expa'nding at constant " isothermal a temperature stipulation indicated by the term
"

law

are,

which is applied to expansion Absolutely perfect gases which however, unknown, although

these conditions. follow this rigidly of the somany

under

PRELIMINARY

CONSIDERATIONS

AND

DEFINITIONS.

13

called permanent perfect, since they ideal conception.

be considered practically may very closely indeed to the approximate On the other hand, gases which even remotely approach their liquefying point fail to obey the hyperbolic law of expansion, the deviation from the theoretical is increasing as the point of condensation curve is In the case therefore, which of steam, approached. sion eminently a condensible gas, the hyperbolic law of expanin be inadmissible, to totally point of and would appear fact steam to tests under the same conditions as a subjected gas is found to differ very materially in its permanent deviating behaviour during expansion, the isothermal curve however, In many cases, considerably from the hyperbola. the conditions under which steam is used conspire to produce to curve an the which closely approximates expansion has the Further, the hyperbolic expansion curve hyperbola. of being readily constructed, and hence it is advantage much used both for the purpose of theoretical reasoning sion and as a standard with which to compare the actual expandiagrams. A indicator curves constructof ing of method is shown in Fig. 3. the curve Disregarding clearance, the rectangle Z B C E represents the product of the initialvolume (Z E) and initialpressure (Z B), C being the point at which the steam is cut off. The line B C is prolonged to D, and in C D a number steam of from convenient points are selected, each of which lines are From drawn to Z. the points in which these lines cross the cut-off ordinate C E, horizontals are drawn intersecting let fallfrom the points 2, a series of vertical lines which are Through 3, 4, etc. these points of intersection cy c9 etc., is drawn. the expansion curve Expansion Curves for Saturated Steam : The Saturation Curve. When dry, saturated steam expands, doing external work, and sufficientheat is supplied to justprevent lique faction (that is, to keep the steam the pressure saturated*}, at any point in the stroke is that due to the volume Hence the resulting of saturated steam. and temperature is frequently termed the saturation curve. curve Since congases
"

The

term
or

designating reduction

of volume

steam in that condition of temperature will cause

in which portion

the slightest increase to liquefy.

10

14

THE

INDICATOR

HANDBOOK.

densation is only just prevented, the pressure fallsbelow that due to isothermal falling in expansion, the temperature Rankine has correspondence with the decreasing pressure. formula for cases established an approximate of this kind, which is applicable for pressures of from 30 to 1201b. per square inch, and for ratios of expansion of from 4 to 16. In this the relation of the pressure and volume is given by the expression p v\l Dry saturated steam a constant. in a be expected expanding cylinder may
=

well-jacketed

of this class. expansion curve The Adiabatic Expansion Curve. When saturated steam expands, doing external work in a non-conducting cylinder, is due both to the increase the fall of pressure which ensues of volume and the liquefaction of a portion of the steam, to the disappearance of the heat equivalent of the owing Expansion these conditions, external work done. under " which has been designated adiabatic," is to be regarded
an
"

to yield

ideal conception, impossible of being realised, since in practice non-conducting are cylinders non-existent. is to in Occasionally, however, the curve approximated from well-lagged cylinders or high-speed engines. diagrams creases With expansion these conditions the pressure deunder
as an more

Rankine's rapidly than in the previous case. ditions, rule connecting the pressure and volume under these con1801b. from 15 to to per and applicable pressures of a constant. square inch, is given by the expression p vV Curves. Other empirical rules connectOther Expansion ing are somethe pressure and volume of expanding steam times as more the actual conditions nearly representing used foregoing. Thus, for than either of the superheated steam " constant, steam, p vl*, have p vl'3 and for very damp been employed, while occasionally the expansion is assumed It to be represented by such constants as p v^ and p vtt.
=
"

in all these that the indices or exponents expressions may be presented in a slightly different form. Thus p vK may be written p v1 '"625, the exponent here being the result of dividing 17 by 16. For saturated steam, Zeuner uses an expression of this kind (p as being more

will be noted

nearly correct than Rankine's p vtt. In the compression of of its specific heat at constant pressure air the ratio (1*408) in theois used for the exponent to that at constant volume

-yl-0fi46)

PRELIMINARY

CONSIDERATIONS

AND

DEFINITIONS.

14

TABLE

I." TERMINAL

PRESSURE

FACTORS.

16

THE

INDICATOR

HANDBOOK.

is retical investigations, while in practical woi'k n=l'2 the air is cooled by water injection, and often used when is used. 1 '3 when a water jacket n The Curves. Compression Gas-engine Expansion and theoretical expansion curve given by the explosion of a gaseous mixture in the cylinder of a gas engine is an adia=
"

is the the value of n in p vn constant at ratio of the specific heats of the products of combustion The value of n will constant volume. pressure and constant therefore vary with the proportions of air and gas forming the explosive charge, increasing from about l-35 for mixtures of 4 to 1, up to about T39 for mixtures of 15 to 1. Having

batic

curve

in which

in view the fact that in practice the explosion of the charge takes place in a cylinder enveloped in a water jacket, resulting during heat in the abstraction of a large amount of from deviation the adiabatic curve expansion, a material As a might reasonably be looked for in actual diagrams.

the discrepancy in an average of fact, however, diagram is comparatively slight the heat lost through the by a slight prolongation being probably compensated jacket pressure has period after the maximum of the combustion been attained.
matter
"

In gas engine compression rt*.ge from 1*28 to 1'35.

curves

ordinary

values
"

of

Construction
=

of

Theoretical Expansion
curves

Curves
=

The

construction

and p tA" by the aid of the table of con., readily effected terminal pressure factors (page15). In using the table for this purpose, a series of ordinates are drawn as in Fig. 4, the the curve. C, the point first passing through -of origin of The distances E -4, etc., are in this diagram taken -2, -2 fraction of the admisZ E, but any other convenient sion at -|To find E be the pressure at may selected. volume Z to the terminal pressure of an c corresponding expansion Z *9 to the is made l-2, reference table, where Z E =! opposite the expansion ratio 1'2 are found pressure factors for the saturation curve of 0'826 and 0'819 for the adiabatic. Thus, if the initial pressure Z B is lOOlb ,
expansion
p

of the

v"

con.,

is veiy

"

the pressure '2 Cj or Z K will be 82-61b. for the saturation The pressures. curve and 81'91b. for the adiabatic curve.

PRELIMINARY

CONSIDERATIONS

AND

DEFINITIONS.

17

corresponding to expansion ratios of 1*4 (Z M), 1'6 (Z X), etc may be similarly obtained, and then through the points C c5 the required curve may be drawn as shown in the figure, which is plotted for adiabatic expansion. Fig 5 shows a convenient method of obtaining points in an const, where n is represented by p vu expansion curve From the point Z a line Z X is whatever. any number drawn, making any suitable angle Z' Z N with Z Z'. From the same point Z M is drawn at an angle B Z M to B Z, such that (1+ tan. B Z M) = (1+ tan. Z' Z X)". Taking B C and
.

1O -2 -4 -6

-8 20

FIG.

4.

representing the initial volume and pressure of the D E is gas, B D is drawn at 45" to B Z, cutting Z M in D. then drawn parallel to Z Z' and C H produced to meet Z N in A, from which point A F is drawn An at 45" to Z Z'. ordinate E F G drawn through F cuts D E in E, which is a The next point is obtained in point in the required curve. H

as

by drawing K L at 45" to B Z, L P similar manner parallel to Z Z', and G J at 45" to Z Z', thus obtaining J, through which point the ordiuate J P is drawn, giving P, the second point in the curve.
a

T35 and the angle Z Z' N To obtain the angle B Z N, we have

for
n=
"

Fig. 5 is drawn

is 20*.

18

THE

INDICATOR

HANDBOOK.

(1+

tan.

"85 (1+ 20")1 l-3641'35 (l+

= =

tan. B Z
tan.
"

N)

BZN)
=

Working by logarithms,* we have log. 1-364 0-1348 0-18198 0-1348 x 1-35 1-521, whence tan. BZ M 0-521, antilog. 0-18198 or BZM 27-5". For plotting expansion curves the author strongly advocates logarithmic by the use use the of section paper, of from to the which pressures corresponding expansions any initial pressure and for any value of n in p vn=con., may
= = =

5.

be readily determined ; while, conversely, the value of n for any actual diagram may be ascertained with equal facility.
DIAGRAMS Thus
from
a

IN

PRACTICE.
has been regarded solely becomes necessary It now

far the indicator diagram

theoretical point of view.

and extent of the influences which modify the ideal diagram under the actual conditions of practical working.
to ascertain the character
* For a simple explanation of logarithms and their application this character the reader is referred to the author's Logarithms (seeadvertisement pages).

to problems of for Beginners

PRELIMINARY

CONSIDERATIONS

AND

DEFINITIONS.

19

require to be considered in this which and connection are : (1) Those due to the engine mechanism the the mechanical arrangement motor generally ; and (2) of in due to thermal changes the working fluid.* Among those

The

influences

tiie principal items

in the first-named section

are

:
"

ance Resist-

of steampipes, ports and passages, valves, etc., both during admission and exhaust ; cylinder clearance and Under defective the second : valve gear, etc. compression have : Cylinder condensation and re-evaporabeading we tion heat by radiation and otherwise ; and the means ; loss of it is convenient adopted to reduce these losses. But although
"

the mechanical and thermal influences which affect the practical indicator diagram, the that it becomes various effectscited are so closely interwoven preferable to deal with them generally and in the order in
in tracing the course they are met of the steam which through its cycle of operations in the engine cylinder. Fig. 6, in which the theoretical and actual diagrams are tions to indicate the character of the deviacompared, will serve from the theoretical conditions which are met with in practice. In the first place it is necessary to observe that

to differentiatebetween

necessarily be left actual cylinder, a space must between the cylinder cover and the piston when the latter is at the end of its stroke. The volume of this space, it together with that of the passage intervening between and the steam valve, form the clearance volume of the cylinder, which is conveniently expressed as a percentage or fraction of the working length of the cylinder. Thus, if in Fig. 6 the piston displacement B' D' is lOOcub. in., and the total
in
an

clearance volume then B' B

"

end of the cylinder is 5cub. in. or ^th of B' D represents the clearance Y^F, fraction as a of the working stroke, the line B Z volume being the clearance line or line of no volume. is reached, the It is evident that until C, the point of cut-off,
one
=

for

in the clearance space has no influence upon the constituting, in fact, merely actual work done oil the piston however, a prolongation of the steam supply pipe. As soon, as the steam port is closed, the volume of steam expanding
steam
"

The effects upon the diagram by errors produced of the instrument, and those due to its faulty actuation and use, have been fully discussed in the first part of this work.
*

20

THE

INDICATOR

HANDBOOK.

behind the piston is no longer represented by B' C, as viously prebut by larger B C. the Hence, if assumed, volume C D is the resulting the maximum expansion curve, work from in a non-condensing the steam obtainable engine would be represented by the diagram E B' C D L, and under be roughly exceptional conditions such a diagram may A typical indicator diagram, however, to. approximated the theoretical, as are would show such deviations from indicated by the broken lines. Steam being admitted at a

the already containing steam of pressure k a), admission line a b marks the rapid (but not instantaneous) falls attainment of the initial pressure, which, however, more or less short of the boiler pressure E B' by an amount depending upon circumstances to be discussed subsequently. From b to c a more less horizontal steam line is traced, or

(the clearance

less sharply denned than in the theoretical card, the line merging into the expansion line c d. Compared the line c d with the theoretical expansion curve, will often be found lower in the earlier part of the expansion period, while coinciding with or rising above C D during the latter part of the stroke. At d, the point charge release,the disc,

the point

being ofcut-off,

of

the consequent rapid fall in the formation of the release line d e, of pressure resulting pressure Z' e in place of Z' D in and leaving an absolute final The point e marks the commencement the ideal diagram. of the steam
commences,

of the return stroke, and the continuance of the rapid fall of curve pressure is then shown by the reverse ef,in the early The portion / g is often part of the exhaust line e f g.

line, its height approximately parallel to the atmospheric p n above the latter at any point n representing the amount of back pressure which exists in the cylinder over and above

PRELIMINARY

CONSIDERATIONS

AND

DEFINITIONS.

21

that

due

pressure WON /"/"". point, or point of is arrested, that portion which remains in the cylinder steam being compressed into the clearance space by the advancing of the compression piston, and resulting in the formation
i-urve

atmosphere this at point being

to the

total absolute back At the comn. therefore m exhaust closure, g, the discharge of
m

p, the

a.

At

j'ffssiire

the termination of the stroke, the compression by the admission of a fresh supply is augmented
a,

of steam,

recommences. and the sequence of events In condensing engines the cycle of operations is essentially in discharges into a this case similar, but the steam less perfect vacuum is mainor tained. condenser in which a more

In consequence, the release, exhaust, and compression lines are most below found the usually atmospheric in Fig. 7. The back pressure as m n repreline, as shown sents due to air and vapour in the in this case the pressure

FIG.

7.

The extent to which the back cylinder and condenser. is as p n pressure falls below that of the atmosphere frequently referred to as the vacuum. The obviously incorrect term, vacuum is pressure, sometimes used in this The position of the zero line Z Z' is usually connection. decided by drawing it at a distance representing 14-71b. per line A L, this being the square inch below the atmospheric But for average value of the pressure of the atmosphere. all exact calculations and comparisons, the height of the barometer at the time of the test should be observed, and the line drawn below A L at a distance equal to the correzero sponding barometric pressure. lin. 0'491b. (Jf.Ii. of mercury per square inch.) Occasionally in diagrams from condensing engines a reference line is drawn representing by its height above Z Z' the average pressure of the vapour in the condenser, by the vacuum as shown A gauge. comparison of
=

22

THE

INDICATOR

HANDBOOK.

this line of condenser pressure enables an estimate to be formed of the work done in expelling from the steam the cylinder. The exhaust line of the diagram, as e f g (Fig. is often 6), inaccurately referred to as the back pressure line. somewhat It is evident, however, that the latter term applies to
the whole of the diagram described during the return stroke of the piston, and hence it usually comprises a portion of the release line, the whole of the exhaust line, the whole of

the back pressure line with

the compression line, arid when lead is given. Absolute pressures

are

more

or

less of the admission

line

pressures reckoned from a perfect vacuum, while gauge or boiler pressures are pressures above by an accurate the atmosphere, and are such as are shown In an indicator diagram, therefore, absolute steam gauge. pressures will be measured from Z Z', and gauge pressures from the atmospheric line A L.

CHAPTER
THE
DIAGRAM IN

II.
DETAIL.

THE

ADMISSION

LINE.
invariably
from in the

LOSS

cases many pressure realised in the latter falls considerably below that indicated by the boiler pressure gauge. The extent of this loss will depend upon a variety of circumstances. Steampipes of insufficientdiameter or of considerable length,

of pressure almost transference of the steam in engine cylinder, and

occurs

the

boiler to the initial the

especially when they are not well clothed, result not only in a fall of to be delivered the steam pressure, but also cause in a more less damp or condition. Constricted passages, elbows, valves, and abrupt bends also occasion loss of pressure, but in this case is generally slightly dried. the steam The friction of steam passing through long pipes also tends to cause this is more slight superheating, but in most cases than neutralised by the loss due to radiation which occurs even with the most efficientlyprotected pipes. The loss of pressure will be greater with damp steam than with dry, by reason Generally, it of its increased resistance to motion. be said that in the absence of may any special drying the steam or arrangements, reaches the cylinder in a more well-drained, and thoroughlyclothed steampipes, and the provision of an efficient separator, however, improve the will, considerably condition of the working steam. The foregoing causes of loss of pressure are more particularly
state.

less moist

Straight,

associated with the passage of steam from the boiler to The amount the steamchest. of the loss up to this point may be readily ascertained by applying the indicator firstto
23

24

TEE

INDICATOR

HANDBOOK.

the steamchest, and immediately afterwards to the boiler, ment The instruwhen the difference will be at once apparent. in every case be attached to the boiler in should order to obtain a trustworthy comparison, since pressure frequently in their indications. are incorrect gauges Lead. The precise point in the stroke at which the
"

is largely governed by the commences admission of steam In high-speed engines it is found piston speed adopted. to commence necessary to allow the steam entering the before its the piston is in a position to commence cylinder
"
"

of this anticipatory opening outward stroke, the amount generally designated lead or pre-admission varying considerabl in different engines and under different circumstances. In engines in which littlecompression is possible, additional lead will assist in cushioning the reciprocating is to parts of the engine, but more generally the object ensure the prompt entry of the steam during the admission of the passages, ports, and clearperiod by the early filling ance its so commences that space generally, when the piston travel, fall of pressure is in a large measure outward Again, since the admission steam is in contact avoided. with the piston and clearance surfaces for a longer period, the steam condensed in heating these surfaces is immediately replaced by fresh boiler steam, without causing that undue falling of pressure during admission which frequently so occurs when zero or negative lead is adopted. by small Excessive lead, especially when accompanied irregular running cause of compression, will frequently " " in heating an and engine, sometimes resulting pounding in bearings but having large the engines clearance ; of in high-speed as already mentioned, engines, volumes, and, diminishes the admission pressure absence of lead invariably realised upon the piston. When considerable compression is given, less lead will be required, since the clearance space is In with steam of comparatively high pressure. already filled is the point to the prompt all cases admission of steam be sacrificed if be attained, biit even this must, of course, irregular running of the engine. the necessary lead causes Under the best conditions of practice the admission line takes the form of a straight line rising from the termination of the compression curve and perpendicular to the atmo-

TEL

DIAGRAM

IN

DETAIL.

25

Slight deviations in at a, Fig. 8. shown however, well either direction from the perpendicular are, the limits of good practice. Cases of too early within In b the line is practically admission are indicated in b and c. to a straight, but inclines towards the perpendicular The form shown at c, sometimes somewhat marked degree. in met reversely and terminates with, is curved somewhat in Condensation of the steam a lip at its upper extremity. for this heating up the clearance surfaces would account reverse curve, cally while the small lip p indicates that as practifull steam pressure is attained before the end of the forced back into the steamstroke, the steam is momentarily spheric line
as

chest by the advancing piston. in d, e, and / cannot The cases shown

properly be termed

the admission lines. It will be noted that in each case apparent admission line rises materially above the steam line a fact which points to excessive compression, and in The no way indicates excessive lead, but rather the reverse.
"

is approximately indicated in each port opening to steam by the point m, at which the pressure commences to case fall as the compressed steam is forced back into the steamuntil, at n, the end of the stroke, the pressure is When full comreduced to that of the admission steam. pression is attained early in the stroke, the resulting loop partakes of the form shown at c?,this being modified as at e when the full compression is reached at a point nearer

chest,

When the maximum of the stroke. compression is pressure reached precisely at the end of the stroke, a peak in as /takes the place of the loop. Care must be taken to
the end

26

THE

INDICATOR

HANDBOOK.

distinguish between due to the momentum

of

the

peaks formed in this way and those ism of the piston and attached mechanare indicator. Peaks due to the latter cause

angular character, and generally show usually of a more than one oscillation,as in g. more Several cases of late admission or negative lead are shown in Fig. 9. As in the previous examples, much depends upon With slight compresthe amount given. sion of compression

tardy admission, the line resembles and a somewhat that shown at a ; when similar conditions obtain, but in a degree, lines such as b and c result. With more marked fair amount a of compression and the admission delayed fall of the compression as a somewhat, pressure occurs, the point of valve opening at d, in which m shown marks

Fia. 9

The

to the formed is occasionally accentuated in e, indicating a greater amount extent shown of compression The form shown and a further delayed admission. at/ is obtained from engines of the Corliss and other types provided

loop thus

separate admission and exhaust valves, when, valve remaining open after the end of owing the stroke is reached, the admission steam passes directly into the exhaust. The the exhaust valve closing at m, admission line is formed, being considerably inclined owing to the fact that the piston is now quickly. moving somewhat In g similar conditions are indicated, but the exhaust opening is much less. When the exhaust closes at the end of the stroke and negative lead is given, the fall of pressure due to the outward movement of the piston results in the formation before, indicates as m, at h, in which of the loop shown
with
to the exhaust

approximately

the point at which

admission

commences.

THE

DIAGRAM

IN

DETAIL.

27

THE Wiredrawing
During

STEAM

LINE.
"

In passing from the steamchest to the cylinder, the chief loss of pressure incurred is due to the constricted ports, and also, with the more ment ordinary arrangements of valve gear, to the gradual moveFor the the flow of steam. of the valves governing " " " initialexpansion or wiredrawing which thus results, lies in the obvious remedy the provision of large, short, and direct steam ports and passages, together with rapidly In the Corliss type of engine these condimoving valves. tions
"

Steam Supply.

closely fulfilled, and the result is an almost total lines of the form shown in absence of wiredrawing, steam Fig. 10 (which may be considered as the-ideal form) being In ordinary slide-valve engines reguclosely approached. lated
are occurs,

by governor and throttle valve, wiredrawing invariably being in this instance due to the comparatively long

FIG.

12.

of the slideand winding passages, to the slow movement In highspeed valve, and to the action of the throttle valve. engines these effects are intensified, since there is less time allowed for the realisation of the steam pressure during In many however, the increased size of cases, admission. pipes, ports, and valves necessary to entirely obviate wiredrawing be to increase as a occasion such would considerable in condensation, valve friction,leakage, etc., as well as in the amount of power required to operate the valves, so that the Moreover, than neutralised. apparent gain may be more wiredrawing during admission tends to dry the entering but in general the effect is comparatively steam, slight.

speed is an all-important factor in the wiredrawing during admission, and it is evident that with a of steam given port opening and area of piston there is a limiting speed beyond which the steam will be unable to flow intc the cylinder with sufficient celerity to maintain its initial Fig. 11 is an example pressure. of excessive wiredrawing

Piston

28

THE

INDICATOR

HANDBOOK.

in

of steam line admission obtained with a piston speed of 300ft per the effect of increasing minute, while the inner lines show the piston speed to 900ft. per minute, the cut-off being

locomotive,

the outer

figure showing

the form

unaltered. Undoubtedly the most of using steam rational manner due is to employ the governor to with regard to economy automatically vary the amount of steam admitted to the less or cylinder, instead of varying the piessure by more By the former arrangement throttling the steam supply. the initial pressure realised upon the piston approaches boiler 5 to 10 per cent, if a large and the pressure to within direct steam supply pipe is used. In diagrams from automatic line is, or the steam expansion engines should be, approximately parallel to the atmospheric line, the pressure being maintained uniformly almost to the point of cut-off. Not infrequently, however, the line falls somewhat, while during invariably occurs the almost slight wiredrawing closing of the valve, the effect being exhibited in the diagram be, Fig. 10, the point b indicating the by the dotted curve
cut-off, and c the point at which the valve is completely closed. The latter is the point of b c changing into one of opposite contrary flexure, the curve At high speeds, wiredrawing at convexity cd as shown.
commencement

of the

cut-off increases considerably. line as Fig. 12 is usually obtained from A steam an is sufficiently large to act somewhat engine whose steamchest Here the fallof pressure is arrested after as a receiver. tally the valve is well open, and the line may run almost horizonuntil the increasing piston speed makes larger demands This upon the steam supply, and the line falls as shown. in diagrams line is frequently seen drooping of the steam

Double admission, as supply. prolonged steam in Fig. 13, may be due, with Corliss valves, to the shown rebounding of the dashpot, or, in engines with a sensitive shaft governor and light fly-wheel, to the sudden imposition to reopen the valve. of a heavy load causing the governor When the cut-off occurs very early in the stroke the steam
showing
a

line loses its distinctive character, being reduced to a mere peak as in A, Fig. 14, while in diagrams taken rounded from unloaded condensing the diagrams) engines (friction

THE

DIAGRAM

IN

DETAIL.

29

steam

admitted to the clearance space is often sufficient to drive the engine, in which case the admission line entirely disappears (B,Fig. 14). Steamchest Diagrams. Diagrams taken from the steamchest are frequently of value in indicating the source of due insufficient port to area, wiredrawing whether
"

"

obstructed passages, or the action of the throttle valve; insufficientsize of steampipe may also be detected in this In applying the indicator to the steamchest, a posiway. tion be far is as as should selected which possible clear of direct Motion current any of steam. should be given to the indicator barrel by precisely the same means as employed for taking the cylinder diagrams, and it is preferable that both be taken upon the same card, and as nearly simultaneously If before removing the paper from the as possible. be directly applied to the boiler, can barrel the instrument and the barrel rotated by hand so that the pencil draws the

Fia.

is.

FIO.

u.

Fia. 16.

boilerpressure the
occur.

cause

lint, sufficientdata will be available to decide of any loss of pressure which may and extent diagrams Steamchest vary in outline somewhat,

in but in general they are of the double-loop form shown Here BP is the line of boiler the upper part of Fig. 15. pressure drawn as above described, while B a shows, on the boiler scale of the diagram, the loss of pressure between At a the port opens to steam and the and steamchest. by the line a be, the steamchest pressure falls as shown portion b c being often approximately parallel to the steam line C D of the main diagram. When the cut-off point D is

reached, the steamchest pressure rises somewhat rapidly to d, the momentum due to the arrested steam flow causing the to exceed, the boiler pressure to approach, and sometimes During the remainder of the stroke the pressure is pressure. mences. often fairlyuniform, until at/ the return stroke (ghtm) comIt will be seen that p r represents the normal loss 11

30

THE

INDICATOR

HANDBOOK.

the boiler and steamchest; ps this losa of pressure between when the steam port is fully open; while st represents the
further loss due to the resistance of the steam portand passage. Hence a fairly close agreement of b c with C D, but with both in Fig. 16, indicates a throttling of the sloping as shown On the steam supply before it reaches the steamchest.

other hand, in Fig. 17 but littleloss is shown between boiler between steamand steamchest, but a considerable amount chest and cylinder, clearly indicating insufficientportopening. THE EXPANSION
LINE.

tion ordinary circumstances steam in a saturated condiis and containing a percentage of moisture admitted to been just a cylinder which, having previously exposed to the to be at to the condenser (or may be assumed atmosphere),

Under

FIG.

16.

FIG.

17

considerably The immediate

owing to a in order to elevate the temperature of the cylinder walls. While communication with the boiler is maintained, steam will continue to enter the cylinder, replacing that lost by

than the entering fluid. temperature result is a partial condensation of the steam portion of the latter parting with" its latent heat lower

condensation, and at the point of cut-off the cylinder will contain, in addition to the initialvolume of steam, a quantity As the temperature. of water of condensation at the same to expand, the pressure falls,while now commences steam is reduced of the steam simultaneously the temperature
by reason of heat into work. of the conversion somewhat A point is reached, therefore, at which the temperature of the cylinder walls exceeds that of the contained steam, and as in the cylinder will be a consequence a portion of the water Hence, at the end of the expansion period the re-evaporated.

cylinder will contain a larger quantity of steam than at the depending mainly commencement of that period by an amount

THE

DIAGRAM

IN

DETAIL.

31

the mean temperature of the cylinder walls, which in turn is influenced by the degree of expansion employed. The effect of this condensation and re-evaporation upon it to fall the expansion line of the diagram will be to cause during the earlier portion of below the theoretical curve the and to rise above it during the latter part of upon
stroke,

From the period. this it might be inferred that under the conditions which most of the usually obtain, the use is hyperbola as a curve of reference open to very much question, and in point of fact it is impossible to base any
close reasoning upon the coincidence of the expansion line At the same time a comparison with the standard curve. of this kind is often of value in detecting leakage past the useful in valves or piston, while it is in a general way

considering the behaviour of steam in the cylinder. The method the hyperbolic curve of drawing upon the is readily deduced from the directions previously diagram 3), but it is firstnecessary to decide the point of given (Fig. through origin in the actual expansion curve which the is be Thus drawn. in locating the to reference curve in Fig. 18, it hyperbolic curve shown upon the diagram line C t will be understood that any point in the expansion may be selected as the point of origin, always provided that both steam closed. In general, and exhaust valves are is drawn through (1 ) a point representhowever, the curve ing
the position of the

piston

immediately

before

the

a point justafter the steam exhaust valve opens, as t ; (2) between these valve is closed, as p ; or (3)a point midway The first is two it is positions. position selected when

desired to show the amount of work which might have been accounted for by the indicator at performed by the steam The second position is the end of the expansion period. it is desired to show to what taken extent when the due to hyperbolic terminal pressure exceeds that expansion
in the the volume of steam the third point is selected when desired.

from

cylinder at cut-off: while an is average comparison

the point t to be selected, the ordinate B E is drawn the diagram on the left as shown. touching The E Z taken aa a percentage of the piston's clearance volume displacement is set off from E, and the ordinate of zero

Assuming

32

TEE

INDICATOR

HANDBOOK.

t a horizontal line t S is Through and at t a vertical t D is erected. From Z a series of lines are then drawn, as shown, cutting t S in a b c and d, and t D in a' b' c d'. Verticals drawn through the former and horizontals through the latter give a series of points In a C t may be drawn, as shown. through which the curve

volume drawn,

Z V is drawn.

be drawn through curves any other may similar manner in desired point the expansion curve. Another construction, which has the merit of simplicity, is shown in Fig. 19. Here p is the assumed point of origin, and Z Z' and Z B the lines of zero pressure and zero volume respectively. Through p a series of straight lines are drawn, Then from a on in Z B and Z Z' as shown. terminating

FIG.

18.

FIG.

19.

the line a a, in the curve.

length

1 =ap Similarly, from

a

equal to b p, and the curve 1, 2, 3, etc., so obtained. As previously intimated, discretion must basing conclusions upon the coincidence

off,giving a point b' the length b' 2 is laid off drawn the points through be exercised in or otherwise of More especially is

is marked

actual and theoretical expansion curves. from in considering diagrams this the case unjacketed ever, howWhen, high ratios of expansion. cylinders and with the cut-off occurs at or later than half-stroke, and fairly dry steam

expansion curve while a wide divergence, even be viewed with suspicion.

is used, a tolerably close agreement of the be expected; with the theoretical may

with

an

early cut-off,should

THE

DIAGRAM
seen

IN

DETAIL.

33

that under the conditionswhich obtain, cylinder condensation and re-evaporation ordinarily cause the latterpart of the expansion curve to riseabove will that due to the isothermal expansion of the volume of steam in the cylinderat cut-off. Hence, when the expansion curve falls below the theoretical, as in Fig.20, itisstrong presumptive leakage or the through evidence of either past piston, the exhaust valve when separate admission and exhaust valves are used. But unless the amount of leakage is large, it is not possible to readilydetect its existence in this way ; it is for leakage past the steam valve to so also quite possible for leakage the compensate past the pistonas to resultin the in fairlycloseagreement production of an expansion curve with the theoretical. However, this latter coincidenceis
"

Leakage.

We

have

FIG. 20.

exceedinglyunlikelyto occur at both ends of the cylinder, from eitherend suggest leakage,both and ifthe indications at the piston and valves should be testedfor steam-tightness
earliest opportunity. Leakage past the steam valve is difficult to discoverfrom an inspectionof the expansion curve, since the resulting an near the effect elevationof pressure end of the expansion is to by that analogous period produced re-evaporation. With a deviation as decided as that shown in Fig. 21, leakage past the steam valve would be at once inferred, even most favourable to re-evaporation. A under conditions less from the theoreticalwould be departure much marked high 500 or 600ft. permissibleifthe pistonspeed was fairly per minute, as under such conditions less time is available for re-evaporation. Indeed, with allbut small engines, in diagrams taken at thisspeed of piston, with a cut-offat
"
"

"

"

34

THE

INDICATOR

HANDBOOK.

about \ stroke and the cylinder supplied with dry steam, the terminal pressure should not exceed the theoretical terminal by more than 4 or 51b., and this amount should be stillless if the cylinder is efficientlyjacketed. For many purposes the application of the following test will save the further labour incurred in drawing the complete Select a point on the expanhyperbolic expansion curve : sion 22, in Fig. R, curve as of the point well advance
"

as Q, decidedly of release, and another point on the curve R draw a vertical line after the point of cut-off. From meeting a horizontal from Q in the point S. Join S to Z, the point of intersection of the clearance line with that of zero pressure. From R draw a horizontal cutting S Z in n,

FIG. 22.

From the previous perpendicular n P. is it a point in the construction (Fig. 18) will be seen that P drawn through R, and hence, from what has standard curve been said, the extent to which P failsto coincide with Q will and from
n a

draw

indication of the probability or otherwise of the occurrence of leakage, valve leakage and re-evaporation causing left, P to lie to the right, and piston leakage to the of Q. It will have been noted that for the construcClearance. tion
afford
an
"

the amount of the clearance of the theoretical curve This is frequently of the cylinder is required. volume it either unknown, and failing the opportunity for measuring from the actual cylinder or the drawings, it will be necessary
to
assume
a

reasonable

value according to the size and type

of cylinder.

THE

DIAGRAM

IN

DETAIL.

35

ordinary limits of cylinder clearance follow : as various types of engines are The
"

volumes

for

Type

of Engine.

Clearance Per Cent.

2 5 to
4

Corliss valves
Long slide valves Double beat valves Ordinary slide valves

IJto 2|
6
to 7 to 12

Clearance Per Cent. 7 to 12 Locomotives 9 to 20 Small horizontal and vertical 10 to 18 Flat slide valves (marine) 12 to 25 Piston valves
Type of Engine.
.
.

A method is sometimes advocated for finding the position Thus, curve. the expansion of the clearance line from taking the two points R and Q in Fig. 22, and drawing horizontals and verticals from each, the rectangle Q S R m S and m, when produced, cuts The Line joining is obtained. Z Z' in C, and C B" is then assumed to represent the clearance line. It is clear from the basis of such a construction that
KG.
27.

FIG.

23.

FIG.

24.

FIG. 25.

FIG. 26.

be can the method reliable result. When fair approxia mation used with a well-defined compression curve in but be no great general obtained, may sometimes it. be placed upon reliance should It will be noted that with Lines. Distorted Expansion cylinder condensation, re-evaporation, piston leakage, and effect is generally valve leakage, the separate or combined manifested by a gradual change in the direction of the curve. Abrupt breaks in the expansion line are, however, met with, A and these are usually due to defects in the valve gear. in Fig. 23, which is local distortion similar to that shown
it cannot

give

"

sometimes

cylinders provided with separate steam and exhaust valves, is usually due to the steam valve reopening after the nominal cut-off, the valve not being effectually closed, owing to defects in the valve or In engines fitted with seating, until late in the stroke.

found in diagrams

from

36

THE

INDICATOR

HANDBOOK.

back expansion valves, more less abrupt changes in the or but later in the stroke, as in Figs. 24 and expansion curve, 25, are frequently due to the expansion slide reopening the port in the main slide before the latter closes the port in in diagrams the cylinder. Similar effects are produced from engines fitted with the Rider expansion gear, by reason of the expansion slide rotating too far ; also in engines with badly arranged valves of the gridiron type. Occasionally in engines fitted with ordinary slide valves a binding of
the valve or rod at some point in the expansion period may result in a temporary lifting of the valve from its seating, is indicated as in the and the consequent readmission Leakage during and for some time after previous cases. the point of cut-off frequently results in a reversal of curvature during the firstpart of its length of the expansion curve (Fig. 26). In general, small irregularities will be detected
in this portion of the curve unless the piston speed is fairly high. Release delayed beyond the end of the stroke will
cause

the

curve
a

to

double

resulting in

formation

or upon itself, nearly so, similar to that shown in Fig. 27.

back

THE
The form

RELEASE

LINE.

by the release line of the diagram assumed depends very largely upon the point of cut-off,inasmuch as The this determines the terminal pressure. piston speed With is factor. however, a not unimportant employed also,

be continued moving engines, expansion may case the practically to the end of the stroke, in which In most release line may be almost vertical, as in Fig. 28. however, the discharge of the exhaust steam occxipies cases, sufficienttime to render it desirable to open communication with the exhaust port before the end of the stroke is reached. This has the effect of materially lowering the back pressure,
very

slow

since the cylinder is more completely cleared of the exhaust Thus, in Fig. 29 steam before the return stroke commences. be taken to indicate the form of the the broken lines may release end of the diagram when expansion is continued to the end of the stroke, while the full lines show the result of In the latter case the opening to exhaust at the point a. rapid fall of pressure results in the formation of the release

THE

DIAGRAM

IN

DETAIL.

37

the pressure falling during the return stroke to the back pressure line. It will be or point e in the exhaust seen that so far as the area (and hence the of the diagram

line a

c,

is concerned, the gain of work done in the complete stroke) a b d. than offsets the loss of the area the area dee far more Pre-release. The amount release," of "lead to exhaust," or "prein Fig. 29 is represented by the horizontal distance /. It is frequently expressed as a fraction of the working It will from 2 to 25 per cent. stroke, and varies in amount
"

be evident that as the piston speed is higher the exhaust lead should be increased, since the time available for the Similarly, removal of the steam is correspondingly reduced. the difference becomes greater between the virtual final g b, Fig. 29)and the bark pressure, the opening pressure (as This to exhaust should take place earlier in the stroke.
as

FIG. 28.

FIG. 29.

FIG.

so.

FIG. 31.

in the case of condensing point is specially of moment by fall as the of pressure at the end of only prompt engines, be realised. the stroke can the full benefit of the vacuum Failure to effect this fallpromptly isfrequently evidenced by in Fig. 30. A form of release lines of the form shown is in Fig. 31, line frequently the met shown with release exhaust opening occurring at such a point as will allow about one-half the fallof pressure to take place during the forward stroke, and the remainder during the early part of the return stroke. In slidevalve engines, however, this type of release line is usually the outcome of an endeavour to compromise

between

the addition of lap in order to secure adequate compression lap to an the early release. removal of and give When separate admission and exhaust valves are used, the problem of reconciling these conflicting factors is simplified

considerably. Instances of release occurring too early in the stroke are An example is given in Fig. 32, taken comparatively rare.

38

THE

INDICATOR

HANDBOOK

from the high-pressure cylinder of a mill engine fittedwith piston valves. The dotted linessuggest the extent by which have been increased by a more the diagram area might

judicious arrangement.
When the expansion is such that the terminal pressure is to the back pressure, the release line will equal in amount practically disappear, the toe of the diagram being of the form in Fig. 33. If the cut-off takes place still shown crosses the back earlier in the stroke, the expansion curve
in Fig. 34. At the point of exhaust pressure line as shown opening the .pressure in the cylinder is less than that due in to the back pressure, and hence the release line (which in an is drawn this case may be regarded as negative) upward direction, indicating a rise instead of a fall, to the back pressure line. The form assumed by the release line

FIG. 32.

FIG. 33.

FIG. 34.

when the opening to stroke is reached has Just as in the case gives a downwardly

impeded

port area line. In particularly bad cases the obstruction to the steam flow may be sufficient to prolong the release until compression is It 35. Fig. in as commences, shown evident impair is defect the a this that efficiency of which may during the engine to a greater extent than wiredrawing admission. THE
From EXHAUST LINE.

takes place the end of the after already been indicated in Fig. 27. line contracted port area of the steam sloping line, indicating the tardy and entry of the steam, so also will insufficientexhaust a cause sloping of the release gradual downward exhaust

what has been said in the immediately preceding it be back that seen the section, pressure opposing the will motion of the piston during its return strcfke will depend of pre-release ; (6) upon (a)the lead to exhaust or amount

TEE

DIAGRAM

IN

DETAIL.

39

the terminal pressure ; and (c) the area of the exhaust port and connected piping. It will also depend upon (d) the densing piston speed ; (e)the efficiency of the condenser in conthe amount of compression engines ; and (/) In increasing (c), (a), general, and (e) adopted. will diminish

(d),and (/) will pressure, while increasing (b), it. factor, however, last-named The influence the of augment further consideration, as will be shown requires some in the section on the compression line.
the

back

Under the most the diagram from

conditions the exhaust line of a non-condensing engine may appear to line. More almost exactly coincide with the atmospheric usually, however, the interval between the two is distinctly evident, the back pressure line representing in the best cases 2 or 31b. pressure per square inch above that due to some

favourable

FIG.

36.

As previously pointed out, late opening to the atmosphere. exhaust, together with insufficient exhaust port area, may in line during a the whole of pressure result gradual falling of that part of the return stroke performed before compression but in commences a 35) ; (Fig. portion of the general lower line of the diagram will be approximately parallel to the atmospheric line, as in Fig. 36. It has already been explained that for convenience in diagram analysis the line abed described during (Fig. 36), the return

stroke, is regarded as composed of (1)the completion of the release line a b. (2) the exhaust line b c, and (3)the compression line c d, and that in general parlance the line. whole of the line a b c d is designated the back pressure From what has been said previously, it will be seen that as the line abed represents the variation of the pressure in area of the piston, the shaded opposing the motion Fig. 36 represents the back pressure work done over and

40

THE

INDICATOR

HANDBOOK.

Hence, so far above that due to the atmospheric pressure. as the amount of power developed is concerned, it becomes highly desirable to reduce this area far as practicable. as With ample exhaust port area and free connections therefrom, the pressure represented by the height of b c above A L may often be reduced almost to the vanishing point, but the larger
in general be materithe release line a b cannot ally forward the the at cost of reducing except reduced if the even valve gear will enable the necessary pressure, early release to be effected. Similarly, a diminution of the area cd involves the loss of a under the compression curve
area

under

used in fillingthe clearance space, of and consequently diminishes the work done per pound Further, the the steam cushioning effect absence of used. due to compression may have a effect upon the prejudicial of the engine, while incidentally, smaller losses, running
of steam

larger quantity

those resulting from the longer exposure of the cylinder to the atmosphere or the condenser, and the absence of the heating effect diie to compression, are also involved. Thus it will be seen that the various events of the stroke are largely mutually dependent upon one another, while to some such
as

extent

the influences of other factors also require to be taken into consideration. Directing attention mainly to the horizontal portion of the back pressure line, mention should be made of the loss

which results from improperly arranged systems of The resistance to the piping for heating by exhaust steam. flow offered by a needlessly large number of elbows steam
of power

lengths of piping of insufficient and long and winding diameter not infrequently increases the back pressure to an more than nullifies the apparent gain due extent which to exhaust heating ; on the other hand, when vision suitable prodischarge of is made to secure an almost unimpeded the exhaust, its heating effect may often be turned to useful 1 or 21b. additional back account at the expense of some

pressure. In condensing engines the back pressure will obviously depend upon the vapour pressure existing in the condenser in other words, upon the excellence of the vacuum, while the this in turn depends upon the temperature at which The table be advantageously condenser can maintained.
" "

THE

DIAGRAM

IN

DETAIL.

41

below, giving the absolute vapour pressures corresponding to various temperatures, will be of service in this connection. From that a condenser temperathe table it will be seen ture
of 102"

per square 127" F., the pressure increases increase of 25" the vapour Thus with an than doubled.
TABLE II." VAPOUR PRESSURES

F. corresponds to inch, while, when

vapour pressure of lib. the temperature rises to inch. to 21b. per square pressure
is
more

FOR

VARIOUS

TEMPERATURES.

It is clear that the back pressure in a condensing engine be less than the vapour pressure in the condenser, can never the latter constituting what is virtually a greatly attenuated In estimating the amount of back pressure atmosphere. due to the frictioual resistance offered to the exhaust steam
flow, it is convenient to refer the back pressure to a " " line, as S T in Fig. 37, representing by its vacuum

distance
"

below

AL
"

the

mean

inches of vacuum shown to the condenser, and sometimes

vacuum."

pressure by the vacuum

equivalent to the gauge attached of expressed as "pounds

42

THE

INDICATOR

HANDBOOK.

For the purpose of comparing the back pressure actually realised with the lowest attainable, the addition of the " " line will suffice; but it is often necessary to draw vacuum

line Z Z', and or zero also the line of perfect vacuum usually this is located at a distance below A L equivalent to a pressure of 14'71b. per square inch on the scale of the diagram. The actual pressure, however, will vary from
is desired Z Z' must be drawn so that the pressure Z A is metric equivalent to the existing baroThe pressure Z S is then that due to the pressure. vapour in the condenser. Air Leakage. In indicating condensing engines, the back pressure shown in the diagram from the front end of
time
"

in

to time, and if exactness

the cylinder will often be found to be materially higher than in the card taken from the back end. This in that shown general is due to leakage of air which finds its way past

FIG.

37.

FIG.

38.

the gland of the piston rod into the cylinder, and thus impairs the vacuum A rod at that end. -packing which from the the cylinder effectually prevents escape of steam is not necessarily equally efficient in preventing the ingress of air during the return stroke, although this is an assumption Air leakage commonly made. past indicator cocks, drain cocks, and The also occur. snifting valves may importance of preventing any leakage of air into the condenser is too obvious to need insisting upon ; cases, ever, howare met in which even sometimes ordinary precautions is are incapable of effecting the neglected, and the air-pump The design of the removal of the increased volume of air. air-pump has also an important effect upon the maintenance The of the vacuum. clearance should be as small as be taken to care must possible, and in horizontal pumps place the foot valves at the lowest possible part of the water chamber, and the delivery valves in the highest part of
"

THE

DIAGRAM

7.Y

DETAIL.

43

All pockets in which air might collect the pump chamber. should also be scrupulously avoided. T;if"i'-"l E Lines. Generally the actual configuration th-in.*t of exhaust lines met with under normal conditions will ally, Occasionapproximate to the lines shown in Figs. 36 and 37. however, the outline will assume the form indicated at Fig. 38f remaining for some time almost parallel to the before atmospheric line, and afterwards falling somewhat If, as is usually the point of exhaust closure is reached.
"

the

the diagram from the other end shows an ordinary pancy type of exhaust line, it is fair to conclude that the discrein the firstcase is due to the unequal travel of the valve, the opening to exhaust being insufficient at the one
case,

is required at the other. Unequal than eud, and more degrees of cut-off would, however, also appear in this case,

FIG. 39.

FIG.

40.

unless the valve had unequal outside laps. Exhaust lines in Fig. 39, which are not infrequently of the form shown found, may usually be taken as indicating a throttling of intensified as the slide the exhaust, the effect becoming in the direction of valve reaches the limit of its movement Over-travel of the valve would produce this opening. effect,owing to the valve face covering the exhaust port to such an extent as to greatly reduce the effective opening an of the latter. Too narrow exhaust port will be somewhat indicated. The inside lap in similarly addition of order to give compression will also lead to throttling of the exhaust, and this cause would therefore be suspected if the compression period was well defined. It will be noted that in each of these instances the effect is accentuated by the higher speed of the piston near mid-stroke coinciding mately approxilimit of the valve movement, thus with the extreme rendering the throttling more pronounced at the position

44

THE

INDICATOR

HANDBOOK.

In named, and also intensifying it at higher piston speeds. engines fitted with Corliss valves a similar action may occur of the valve being too great. owing to the angular movement A somewhat similar rise in the centre of the exhaust line, extent, is sometimes although generally to a less marked for met with in cases where the same exhaust pipe serves two cylinders working with cranks at right angles. Here the sudden release of steam from the one cylinder taking the other is about at mid-stroke, causes a place when increase of back pressure, which produces the momentary The effect is sometimes in diagrams seen rise referred to. late particularly when cut-off occurs in the stroke, and the release pressure is consequently high. With slide valves having different amounts of inside lap the 40), resulting exhaust lines will differ correspondingly (Fig. being delayed and the comthe release in the one case pression in diagram the opposite very pronounced ; while occurs release early and compression is small, the other This, events of both strokes taking place in correct time. however, is a defect but seldom met with.
more
i

from

locomotives,

THE

COMPRESSION

LINE.

it is practically impossible to reduce the percentage below limits, loss the of cylinder clearance certain of from diminished be cause this economy may very considerably by closing the exhaust valve before the end of the stroke is By this means the volume of steam enclosed in the reached.

Although

cylinder is compressed into the clearance space as the piston completes its stroke, its pressure rising in consequence from that of the back pressure at the point of exhaust closure to some percentage of the initialpressure, the precise amount depending mainly upon the exhaust or back pressure, the percentage of clearance, and the fraction of the stroke The steam performed under compressed compression. in diminishes, increasing offers a pressure as its volume rapidly increasing resistance to the motion of the piston, and in this way assists in bringing the reciprocating masses The value of quietly to rest at the end of the stroke. to as an cushioning smooth running is very effectconducing In slowconsiderable, especially in high-speed engines.

THE

DIAGRAM

IN

DETAIL.

45

moving

amount of compression engines, however, only a moderate is usually allowed. Viewed as a factor in the economical use of steam, the amount of compression which will yield the highest efficiency is not readily determinable. Experiments carried out by

Professor Dwelshauvers-Dery
to show
a so

that compression, emloss in a direct ratio to the degree of compression ployed. With superheated steam, however, the conclusions
were,

appear with saturated steam far from being of value, involves

reached

tained per stroke was main(by suitably varying the steam pressure), constant is without influence upon the the degree of compression These steam conclusions, which per I.H.P. consumed

that if the indicated work

FIG. 41.

FIQ.

42.

exhibit such a wide divergence from the views generally held, require ratification by other and more exhaustive tests before they can be fully accepted ; but there is no doubt that the discrepancy between theory and practice is,in this case, attributable to interchanges of heat between the steam and the cylinder walls. General evidence of this is afforded by the better results obtained with superheated than with
to the saturated steam, indicating a nearer approximation more theoretical, as the steam the connearly approaches dition in Hence, a the absence of special of perfect gas. knowledge upon this point, compression should be regulated mainly with regard to the degree of cushioning required to
secure

smooth running of the engine. Assuming follow the hyperbolic law to compression (page 12),the following simple method is available by which to determine the point of exhaust closure as K (Fig. 41) for any required final compression pressure as Em Draw :
"

12

46

THE

INDICATOR

HANDBOOK.

Z passing through F, the point in which the final pressure ordinate E m intersects the line of back pressure height representing horizontal mm! Draw a b. a at a Z F the required compression and meeting pressure E m,
line from

P drop a perpendicular From meeting produced, in P. line in K, is back then the required point the which pressure however, In practice, it will generally of exhaust closure. be found that the compression pressure fallssomewhat short by that this given method. of With steam fairly dry, and other conditions favourable, the compression curve when well defined will often show a This is ticularl to the hypei'bolic curve. parclose approximation evident in diagrams from locomotives when linked

up, the ordinary valve gear giving increased compression as Fig. 42 shows the cut-off takes place earlier in the stroke. curve taken from a goods the compression of a diagram at a piston engine with cylinders 16 by 22in., running The close agreement speed of about 900ft. per minute.
curve the theoretical compression (shown dotted), which is very evident, is quite typical of diagrams from locomotives. An excessive amount of compression usually results in the formation of a loop as shown at d and e, Fig. 8, or a peak is

with

pressure rising above that in the When the valve opens to steam, the steamchest. escape of pressure falls as shown, owing to the momentary the compressed steam, and the consequent fall of pressure to A total absence of comthat of the incoming pression, supply. is corner, a rarely met perfectly square giving formed
as

/,

Fig.

8,

the

with, sufficient steam

being

usually confined to give the

well-

ascribable to of the cushion steam, or to leakage past the condensation piston or past the valve in engines provided with separate Of course, may co-exist, all these causes exhaust valves. difficultto estimate their relative effects and it is somewhat ever, line. In general, howupon the shape of the compression in a may be taken as such a small drop as that shown due to condensation of volume owing to the diminished larger relatively much steam giving up heat to the now
are e),

as a, Fig. 8. rounded corner, less sudden deviations from More or curve, such as indicated in Fig. 43 (a to

compression

THE

DIAGEAM

IN

DETAIL.

47

This effect, coupled with late admission, clearance surfaces. shown in b, but it should be noted results in the formation that a very similar effect is produced when the piston covers

(See the opening to the indicator at the end of the stroke. deviations Part I. of this work, page 80.) Such pronounced as shown at c, d, and e, Fig. 43, however, are probably due
if a comparison of the expansion curve with the the theoretical confirms this view, piston should be secured in various positions in the cylinder by blocking the
to leakage, and

ing crosshead or crank, when leakage can be detected by removto enter one and allowing steam of the cylinder covers Occasionally the piston the opposite end of the cylinder. in some parts of the stroke, may appear fairly steam-tight

FIG.

43.

badly in others ; but, as a rule, if marked in any one position, it occurs to a greater or less extent in such lines positions. Hence, when adjacent as those at c and e are met pression with, the early part of the comcurve usually falls well below the hyperbolic curve,
while leaking leakage occurs

drawn through the point at which compression commences. The compression curve usually approaches more nearly to the theoretical in high-speed engines than in low, since there is less time available for the transference of heat from the from the latter to the to the cylinder walls, and steam be. Closer or as the case may atmosphere, condenser in jacketed to the theoretical is also found approximation than in cylinders, and in general any influence unjacketed which improves the quality of the steam will have a similar
efect upon

the compression

curve.

"CHAPTER
DIA GRAM

III.
ANALYSIS.

IN

the preceding the various chapter periods of the indicator diagram have been independently considered. It is necessary, however, to keep in view the fact that

under all ordinary conditions of practice the several events occurring during the complete double stroke of the piston dependent upon one another. More or less mutually are more distribution is the steam particularly is this the case when effected by the simple slide valve gear so extensively employed, basis be be to the principle of which may said
common

to

the

of majority

other

valve gears.

Hence

it

at this point to consider the effects will be convenient produced by variously modifying the valve gear, and for this purpose the tabulated statement given on page 49 will be found of service. The four variations of which the effects are separately increase of considered are : (1)Increase of outside lap, (2) inside lap, (3) increase of the angular advance of the

eccentric, and (4)increase of the valve travel. It will be seen that 1 and 2 refer to modifications of the dimensions of the valve, and 3 and 4 to modifications of the dimensions

position of the eccentric. It will be noted that the effect of increasing the angular earlier in the advance is to cause all the events to occur A stroke, but the respective periods are unchanged. by increasing the lead without similar effect is produced altering the outside lap. If the lead is to be increased, while both valve travel and be reduced by to be unaltered, the lap must cut-off are
or

the one-half

desired increase of lead.

48

DIAGRAM

ANALYSIS.

49

As may be readily seen from the above tabular statement, designated the effect of giving inside clearance (sometimes inside lap")to a slide valve is to prolong the "negative (equally period, with a corresponding diminution exhaust

shared)of the expansion and compression periods.

with obvious modifications remarks (which are simple other than those from applicable to diagrams determining in causes be found the of service will engines) to be now of the diagrams of many of the malformations foregoing
The

considered.
DEFECTIVE
Plain
"

VALVE

SETTING.

Two quently Slide Valve Gear. types of defects are frefrom slide valve met with in indicator diagrams are traceable to defective valve setting : engines which (a)Those clue to the incorrect placing of the valve on the spindle, and (b)those due to the incorrect placing of the Diagrams exhibiting a comeccentric upon the crankshaft. bination however, defects more are, typical these of still

50

THE

INDICATOR

HANDBOOK.

or than those displaying only one other of the phases of defective valve setting here considered. A brief consideration will show that the conditions first common

to the will involve an unequal distribution of steam two ends of the cylinder, since at one end of the valve the outside lap will be too great, and at the other too small. Hence in the firstcase steam will be admitted too late and cut off too early, while in the other end of the cylinder steam

named

will be admitted too early and cut off too late. The resulting diagrams will therefore be similar in character to those in Fig. 44, and from which will also be seen the shown effect produced upon the exhaust side. It is evident that of the any increase of outside lap due to the displacement valve
on

its spindle will entail

corresponding

diminution

FIG.

44.

FIG.

45.

in the Hence of the exhaust lap at that end of the valve. late admission and early cut-off, above diagram showing early referred to, the exhaust will be found to commence The little or no late, giving cease compression. and faults of an from diagram the opposite end will show late opening early closing to and opposite character the valve is From this it will be seen that when exhaust. incorrectly fixed on the valve spindle the defects shown from opposite ends of the cylinder will be by the diagrams
"

opposite in character. has now to be considered in which the valve is The case is concerned, correctly set so far as its position on the spindle but where the eccentric is wrongly secured upon the shaft. Reference to the tabular statement given on page 49 will show that if the eccentric is in advance of its true position advance is too great, all the events too of the stroke on both sides of the piston will take place is insufficient, all early. Conversely, if the angular advance
"

i.e.if the angular

"

DIAGRAM

ANALYSIS.

51

both sides of the piston will be delayed. on the events Hence, in the first case the diagrams will partake of the in Fig. 45, while in the second case form shown the form It is in Fig. 46. to those shown more will approximate not exceeded the reasonable limits are clear that when modification of the is not to be regarded
steam
as

distribution shown The disadvantageous.

in Fig. 45
same

cannot

FIQ.

46.

be said, however, in regard to the cards shown in Fig. 46, for here tardy admission and release results in a very Extreme cases area. of material reduction of the diagram in Figs. deficient excessive and angular advance are given is 47 and 48 respectively. In the last-named figure steam

admitted at a, but having to follow a now rapidly moving is full near the end of the not attained until pressure piston the stroke. Cut-off occurs at b, the expansion line extending from b to c, and afterwards doubling back nearly upon
itself until d, the point of The release, is reached. pressure falling to e, the is formed. exhaust line

efy

At g, communication with ceases, the exhaust and FIG. 48. the pressure falls behind the advancing piston until is a the point reached and steam is again admitted. A consideration of Figs. 44 and 46 will enable a general distinction to be drawn between diagrams showing incorrect location of the valve on the rod, and those indicating a In the first of the eccentric on the crankshaft. misplacement case the admission lines are roughly parallel to each other ; in the second case, these lines slope in opposite directions.

52

THE

INDICATOR

HANDBOOK.

It is important to distinguish between the effects due to the displacement of the valve on its spindle on the one hand, and to unequal amounts In the of lap on the other. first case, to Fig. 44 will show, there is a as a reference
virtual decrease of outside lap at admission, but it is accompanied
an

early compression. end of the cylinder, the conditions are entirely reversed, the shorter admission period being followed by an early release, With a valve constructionand little or no compression. ally provided with unequal laps, however, the conditions as to admission and cut-off may closely resemble the foregoing, but the point of exhaust opening and closing will be Cases in which unequal approximately similar at each end. inside lap is provided are more Under rare. these circumstances, diagrams, the while approximately balanced so far the points of admission and cut-off are concerned, will show decided differences in regard to the points of release and compression. In this connection it should be observed that by reason of the angular vibration of the connecting rod, exact equality in the steam distribution will not ordinarily be obtained in both ends of the cylinder of a direct-acting slide-valve
as

end, causing a prolonged by a very late release and from the opposite In the diagram

one

The amount engine. of the inequality will increase as the ratio of the lengths of the connecting rod and crank decreases, the effect being most marked in the cut-off,which

outward stroke, and accelerated in the return or inward This inequality may be stroke. rectified by reducing the lap on the outer or front end of the valve, but it will be noted that this in turn destroys
the equality
return

is delayed

in the forward

or

of lead, the amount

of pre-admission

in the

the with stroke being increased correspondingly But in many cases reduction of the lap. approximate is importance than more of equality of cut-off equality lead, in invertedor the usual type of marine of while cylinder engine the lap is often made still more unequal, so
of effort exerted on the underside of the piston assists to balance the effect of the weight of the Frequently, in large reciprocating parts of the engine. symmetrical, is marine engines, the valve, which is made
excess

that

the

moved

slightly upwards

along its rod.

This

not

only gives

DIAGRAM

ANALYSIS.

53

the required difference in the leads, but also increases the inside lap at the bottom end of the valve, thus increasing the compression period, and giving greater cushioning effect to the descending weights. It is also worthy of note that in this type of engine the effects of wear of the eccentrics, links, and bearings, all tend to cause in a downward direction, and thus the valve to move to diminish the lead at the lower end and to increase it at the

upper end of the cylinder. In horizontal engines the effect direction, but in a less marked of wear will be in the same degree. In a badly-worn link motion, however, " play," or
lost motion," will delay the opening thus virtually reducing the lead. The exhaust side of the valve can
"

to steam

at

each end,

by adding

lap

or

giving

be similarly modified inside clearance, and in this way

FIG.

49.

FIG.

so.

either equal compression periods be if desired. release may secured

or

symmetrical

points of

The defects ordinarily met with and other engines in which the distribution is effected by link motion, are in most steam cases somewhat analogous to those already discussed. The its spindle is, of the valve on effect of any displacement however, more the cut-off occurs marked, especially when in point is shown A case by the early in the stroke. diagrams Figs. 49 and 50, which were motive taken from a locoLink Motion Valve Gears. in diagrams from locomotive
"

18 by 24in. cylinders, running at 200 revolutions is As be seen, a there per minute. will considerable difference in the areas diagrams two of the shown in Fig. 49, which, however, is entirely absent in the cards taken after
with the adjusting

The

50). position of the valve on the spindle (Fig. flexible character of the link motion, and somewhat
in its construction, tend to ; further, the slight though

involved the number of joints the accumulation of lost motion

54

THE

INDICATOR

HANDBOOK.

definite alterations in the relative positions of the centres of the gear and of the cylinder and driving axle (moremarked the cylinders are inclined) when under variations of load and steam pressure, also introduce irregularitiesin the steam distribution, although in general they are of comparatively A much more small moment. effect results from marked

FIG. 51.

FIG. 52.

the deficient lubrication of the slidevalve, causing springing these have a " set-off,"as in of the rods (especially when American many and often seriously affecting the engines), diagram. Figs. 51 and 52 afford a good illustration of the

being a card taken when the valve was effectually lubricated, while Fig. 52 shows the marked alteration produced by an insufficient supply of lubricant. It may be added that these diagrams show that the average mean effective pressure is reduced from 701b. per square inch in Fig. 51 to 51'81b. per square inch in Fig. 52. is often At high speeds the diagram modified very
case

in point, Fig. 51

eonsiderably,

the

position of the

point

of cut-off being

FIG.

53.

FIG. 54.

changed, and the other events of the stroke apparently This is seen degree. or less marked very altered in a more having locomotive 54, from 53 Figs. in a taken and clearly 24in., by 17 and running at speeds of 15 and 45 cylinders unchanged. miles per hour, all other conditions remaining

DIAGRAM

ANALYSIS.

55

cut-off, which defined in Fig. 53. much

The

is nominally at \ stroke, is fairly well In Fig. 54* however, the cut-off occurs

earlier, the event apparently taking place at about other modifications noticeable ^th of the stroke. Among increase in the wiredrawing in the diagrams is the marked increase as the speed increases, and also the accompanying The combined effect upon the in the degree of compression. area effective of the diagram is such that the average mean in Fig. 53 inch from 44'81b. per square pressure is reduced to 23'51b. per square inch in Fig. 54. when, as marked characteristics become stillmore by is more usual in practice, higher speeds are accompanied bution distriearlier cut-offs. The effect produced upon the steam " " is represented by a shortening of by linking-up increase in the angle of the valve travel and a simultaneous These

Flfl. 55.

FI9.

66.

FIO.

57.

Hence advance of the eccentric. tS the cylinder egress of the steam restricted openings for admission

both
are

the impeded

and

ingress and owing to the exhaust, while the

periods are greatly prolonged. expansion and compression The combined effect upon the diagram of increase in speed in Figs. 55 to 57, taken and earlier cut-off is well shown from an express locomotive. One effect of giving valves inside clearance is often
curves taken at of diagrams noticeable in the compression low speeds and with the gear in the full forward or backward in the This is indicated in Fig. 58, the change notch. direction of the compression curve shown at B being due from the opposite end of the cylinder " blowing to the steam during the brief interval in which the two ends of over" in communication. The effect, however, the cylinder are

is only observable

in diagrams

taken
seen

at

comparatively
in low-speed

low

speeds. Another

"blowing-over"

effect

cards

56

THE

INDICATOR

HANDBOOK.

from locomotives is the hump or rise in the back-pressure lines, an example of which is afforded by Fig. 59, taken from an engine with cylinders 18 by 24in. (G.E.R.) running at four miles per hour. In this case the temporary rise in back the opposite cylinder increasing the pressure in the exhaust pipe. momentarily less marked This distortion becomes as the terminal pressure is reduced either by linking up or by the throttling due to increased speed, and hence is only noticeable at low speeds pressure is due
to the release from

and late cut-offs. If the speed remains uniform and the earlier release from the cut-off is shortened, the consequent the hump opposite cylinder causes gradually to approach the exhaust end of the diagram. The resistance offered to the exhaust by the blast pipe influences affecting the the important nozzle is also among

FlG.

58.

FIO.

59.

in the locomotive, but its effect use of steam economical is not greatly dissimila'r from the diagram that upon already discussed in Chapter II.

fitted with a separate expansion or cut-off valve working on the back of a main distributing valve, as in the Meyer gear, not infrequently furnished cards showing a distorted expansion line at the toe of the diagram, in Fig. 60. This effect is proas duced by the expansion valve overrunning the opening in the main valve before the latter closes communication
"

Expansion

Valve Gear.

Engines

with the steam port, thus allowing a readmission of steam to the cylinder as indicated. Insufficient outside lap on in a late opening to exhaust, and the main valve (resulting little or no is one cause of this defective
action ; but even with a sufficiency of lap it may also being too by reason This occur narrow. the of cut-offplates fault is also likely to be met with in diagrams from engines

compression)

DIAGRAM

ANALYSIS.

57

the stroke of alteration of the throw Hartnell type of valve A somewhat similar

in which

the expansion valve is varied by an of the expansion eccentric, as in the

gear. is distortion of the expansion curve obtained when the main valve is displaced from its correct the position on the spindle, causing the valve to overrun 24). This case, however, may valve face at one end (Fig. be distinguished by the great dissimilarity of the cards from opposite ends of the cylinder. from engines fitted with Diagrams Corliss Valve Gear. Corliss and similar types of detachable gear should, and frequently do, show a closer approach to what may be called
"

distribution than any other system of valve the ideal steam With the gear correctly gear. adjusted and premising dry steam and adequate steam and exhaust port areas,"
"

FIG.

eo.

FIO.

01.

in Fig. 61, which as that shown such a diagram may be considered practically perfect, may often be obtained favourable conditions, a result due not only to under for operating the valves, the particular method employed but also to the facilityfor the independent of the

adjustment

functions which this gear offers. Under a these conditions it becomes possible to secure prompt horizontal initial a attainment of pressure, well-sustained line which is terminated by a sharp cut-off giving an steam expansion curve entirely free from wiredrawing, the prompt
steam

and exhaust

the end of the stroke, with a rapid opening to exhaust near fall to the back pressure, and finally a suitable amount of compression to ensure smooth running. With these facilities for separately the various

adjusting
are

events

of

the stroke, a Nevertheless

faulty steam
such
cases

distribution is inexcusab
not

infrequently

58

TEE

INDICATOR

HANDBOOK.

with, and as an illustration of faulty valve setting and its rectification in a Corliss engine, the diagrams shown in Figs. 62 to 66 are submitted. Examining the cards from the it will be seen that in the leftengine as found (Fig. 62), hand diagram the valve does not open to steam until the is dead As is crank this the outward centre. well past the
met

FIG.

62.

FIG.

63.

stroke, the rapidly increasing piston velocity in conjunction with the late admission results in the formation of the line highest curved steam shown, the pressure attained being only 621b. per square inch as compared with a boiler 901b. pressure of per square inch. The terminal pressure is high, and the release does not occur until the piston is on its return stroke. A somewhat similar condition of affairsis found in the right-hand diagram, but the admission is not quite so late, and this, together with the slower movement of the piston during the first part of the return stroke, enables a pressure of 751b. per square inch to be obtained distinctive character. The witli an outline of a more release, however, is late, and the back pressure line does

FIG.

64.

FIG. 65.

A its lowest limit until the end of the stroke. reach the greater part of the load had been when card taken thrown off (Fig. 63) shows essentially similar features, and suggests that the eccentric had slipped back on the shaft.
not

Fig. 64 shows the effect produced by moving the eccentric forward and indicates that the interpretation of l|in., The result of moving the the original cards was correct.

DIAGRAM.

ANALYSIS.

59

65, and stillfarther forward is shown in Fig. eccentric l|in. ment as satisfactory, no further movethe right-hand card is now The left-hand card still of the eccentric is required.
shows late admission, but by shortening the valve connection was this end, the requisite earlier opening obtained, at Fig. 66 showing the final cards taken under full load.

FIG. as.

FIG.

67.

of separate steam and exhaust valves in employment the Corliss type of engine occasionally results in the production In diagram the of somewhat curious cards. shown in Fig. 67, the failure to attain the full initial pressure during the early part of the stroke was due to the exhaust port being uncovered by its valve during the firstfew inches the connection is broken of the piston's travel. When between one of the exhaust valves and the wristplate, or its equivalent, the steam side of the card may be quite satisfactory, is unable as indicated in Fig. 68 ; but as the steam

The

FIG. es.

FIG. 69.

to leave this

end of the cylinder, compression takes place during the whole of the return stroke. If the valves and piston are tight, the difference between the two curves will be be final not great, and the compression pressure may More equal to or somewhat exceed the initial pressure. usually, however, the loss by leakage and condensation is

60

THE

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sufficient to restrict the rise of pressure to within the limits indicated by the full lines. A sluggish dashpot action will often cause decided a amount at the point of cut-off, this 1 eing of wiredrawing indicated by the rounded junction of the steam and expansion lines. On the other hand, a too energetic dashpot effect sufficient rebounding for a brief interval, resulting in the formation of a steam line such as is shown in Fig. 69. Concluding Notes on Valve Setting. Inmimerable examples of faulty valve setting and its rectification might be given, but no useful purpose would be served thereby, as the
"

action

will sometimes to reopen the valve

cause

illustrationsalready submitted will fully serve to indicate in a general way the method of procedure adopted in setting valves by the aid of the indicator. There are, however, a few points in this connection to which it is desirable to direct attention. In portant the valve gear of slide valve engines it is imadjusting to distinguish between the effects upon the steam distribution of (1)changes in the angular advance of the eccentric, and (2) changes in the length of the valve spindle These effects have already been considered, or its equivalent. but they may be recapitulated here with advantage. The is to cause effect of alteration (1) all .the several points in both cards to move round the diagram, so to speak, and in the opposite direction to that in which the eccentric is moved. The effect of alteration (2)is equivalent to increasing (or the outside lap, while correspondingly decreasing decreasing) The resultant the inside lap of the valve. (orincreasing)
the valve is therefore to cause cut-off and later, to occur release and compression and admission to occur earlier,in the stroke, as far as the forward stroke is concerned, and to cause cut-off and release to take place earlier, and compression and admission later, in the return effect of advancing stroke. It is to be noted that owing to the varying velocity of the greater piston, either of the above alterations has a much influence upon points near the centre of the length of the diagram than upon events which occur near the ends of the is This be a stroke. very conveniently point which can

examined

by the aid of

simple

valve diagram,

the

use

of

DIAGRAM

ANALYSIS.

61

which

is also advocated for the purpose of ascertaining the resultant effect of alterations in the valve dimensions or

arrangement.

that an alteration in the angular of the advance of the eccentric involves a further adjustment position of the valve on its spindle. This is particularly the in alterations in the amount case of lead. Thus, ifof a pair of cards the lead at the crank end is excessive, while that at the opposite or head end is satisfactory, the effectof shortening

It frequently happens

the rod somewhat will be to make both leads too great, be moved back so as and to correct this the eccentric must to restore the originally correct lead to the head-end card. Assuming, for example, that the lead at the crank end is ^in., and that at the head end Y^in., and that it is required

-z1

FIG. 70.

FIG. n.

the former to |in., without altering the latter, this would be effected by shortening the rod and TVm-, moving the eccentric back on the shaft sufficient to move the valve yVnIt will be seen that the only conditions to be met by one when both leads require equal change alteration are (1)
to reduce

the eccentric alone) the ; and (2)when sum of existing leads of the altered leads is to equal the sum by moving the valve on its spindle (effected alone). After the position of the valve on its spindle, adjusting home care the nuts which should be taken to firmly screw secure the valve in position. Carelessness in this respect may provide sufficient play or lost motion to greatly distort the card, as in the case shown in Fig. 70, which was taken am a marine engine while the nuts on the valve spindle 13

by moving (effected

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THE

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slack. After tightening these, the diagram assumed the normal form as shown in Fig. 71. Crossed or Eccentric Diagrams. Inconsequence of the comparative near the the movement slow of piston ends of the stroke, events there occurring are not shown, by the ordinary diagram, with sufficientdistinctness to enable a close examination to be made of the compression and lead lines. In such a direct information can case be derived from what more are called crossed or eccentric cards, which are obtained by attaching the indicator cord to the eccentric rod, or, in the case of marine and similar engines, with cranks at right to As the the angles, reducing lever of the next engine. the ends of its stroke, the eccentric will be near piston nears the middle of its stroke and moving almost at its highest
were
"

FIG.

72.

line, the lead Hence the end of the compression speed. line, and the commencement or admission of the steam Iine3 the centre of the crossed diagram, while will appear near the extensive movement of the indicator drum at this point results in a lateral spreading of the lines, so to speak, which more evident than with renders their actual formation much the ordinary card. In Fig. 72 the full line is the direct diagram obtained from the low-pressure cylinder of a marine the crossed diagram engine, while the dotted lines show produced by attaching the cord to the lever of the high90" ahead of the pressure cylinder, the crank of which was The compression line a b, when developed in low-pressure. distinctive outline the crossed diagram, has now the more shown by a b',while the vertical admission line b c becomes b' c, is obtained when A somewhat curious crossed diagram later than at half-stroke, both the steam the cut-off occurs and exhaust lines doubling back upon themselves, as shown

DIAGRAM

ANALYSIS.

63

in Figs. 73 and

74, in which

similar

lines

are

similarly

lettered.
DIAGRAMS INDICATING

DEFECTS

IN

ENGINE

DESIGN,

LEAKAGE,

ETC.

In view of the detailed consideration which has been given in Chapter II. to the defects caused by faulty engine design to give more and construction, it will here be unnecessary than a few general examples of actual diagrams bearing upon The closeness with which the admission pressure approximates to the boiler pressure is an important In many factor in the economical cases, use of steam.
the points at issue.

indeed, the alterations and

which adjustments

it is possible

FIG.

73.

FIG. 74.

ficant the subsequent events of the stroke are insigniin comparison be with the improvement which can tained realised by securing a higher initialpressure and a well-susHence line. be more steam attention should given to the provision of well-clothed steampipes of sufficient size, bends as possible, and thoroughly drained of as free from The engine entrained water and that due to condensation. stop and throttle valves are frequently so designed as to offer an unnecessarily large resistance to the flow of steam,
to effect in

while slide valves are often so arranged that the free ingress to the cylinder is needlessly impeded, this of the steam being more forms of piston particularly evident in some But even valves. when the valves are set correctly and the are ports are of ample area, cases met sometimes with in which the highest pressure attained during admission unaccounta

falls short of the boiler pressure, and

to

very

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THE

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marked extent. Thus, in the diagram shown in Fig. 75, taken from the high-pressure cylinders of a new marine engine, it is seen that while one card indicates a satisfactory steam distribution, that from the opposite end of the cylinder during of wiredrawing considerable amount line to fall much below that admission, causing the steam An attained in the other diagram. explanation of this distribution was not forthcoming unequal steam until the
exhibits
a

it overhauled, when on lifting the cylinder cover found that the part of the latter which was let into the was cylinder barrel partially covered the steam orifice, thus impeding the steam flow to that end of the cylinder. Upon both the obstruction, similar cards from chipping away engine
was

ends

were

obtained.

FIG.

75.

FIO.

76.

difficulty of maintaining the admission pressure increasingly marked as the speed of revolution of the engine is higher, and hence diagrams 'from high-speed automatic cut-off engines generally show a sloping steam line. The diagram in Fig. 76, which as shown will serve an example, was taken from a small engine of the type named The pressure when running at 260 revolutions per minute. at the point A, where cut-off commences, shows a fall of about 1 61b. from that initially attained ; subsequently the pressure falls still more rapidly, until the valve closes at B, this being due to the rapidly diminishing port opening It will in with the increasing piston velocity.

The becomes

conjunction

be noted that the release occurs too early in the stroke, but even with the very low terminal pressure resulting it is still necessary to employ a full degree of compression in order to fillthe clearance space with steam at a sufficiently high From this it will be running. smooth pressure to secure seen that any attempt to improve the steam line by adopting

DIAGRAM

ANALYSIS.

65

larger port openings will have the effect of increasing the clearance volume, and hence will necessitate the stillearlier commencement of the compression period, thus in all probability during more than neutralising the advantage gained admission.

during of wiredrawing examples mission adin diagrams from locomotives are the at shown Fig. 57, page 55). short cut-offs and high speed (see Leakage past the piston during admission probably occurs Similar
far larger extent than is usually suspected ; but in it is practically impossible to detect it by the cases most indicator, since the escaping steam finds a free outlet through
to
a

other side of the piston, and observable effect upon the back pressure When line of that diagram. sufficient compression is the used in a single-valve engine to raise the pressure near end of the stroke well above that on the opposite side of indicated by a more or the piston, leakage is sometimes drop in the compression less marked curve (seeFig. 43).
the exhaust opening hence has little or no
on

the

be reasonably inferred that leakage during the ensuing admission period, will similarly occur much greater loss, since the forward and result in a higher and the back pressure lower pressure will be much
cases

In such

it may

the previous compression period. A rounding of the admission curves of the diagram, in conjunction with in be a distorted curve, taken as may general compression
than

during

confirmatory evidence of piston leakage, always provided, of course, that the rounding referred to is not due to late However, the only trustworthy of admission. method detecting leakage is by removing ing blockthe cylinder cover, the piston at various points in the stroke, and testing with full pressure steam. The effect of piston and valve leakage upon the expansion has already been dealt with in a previous chapter curve (page33), but it is desirable here to point out the effects separately produced in the diagram by the various forms of leakage. These may be described as (1) leakage past the
will tend to raise the expansion, release,exhaust, and compression lines ; (2)leakage past the piston, tending to cause the expansion and release lines to fallunduly, and
valve, which

and compression lines to rise above their normal leakage of air past the piston-rod gland positions ; and (3) the exhaust

THE

INDICATOR

HANDBOOK.

in condensing engines, which will affect one tend to raise the exhaust and compression the impaired vacuum resulting.

card only, and lines owing to

by the the effects which would be produced separate influences named ; but at best they can only be as varied combinations of regarded as suggestive, inasmuch indeed the several forms of leakage may easily occur, and
are are

These

not

infrequently

In engines
assume

very

met with. four-valve the type, leakage may sometimes of In Corliss engines the serious proportions.
as
a

valve seat may be so worn the valve travel, and hence

ridge at the end of of the gear may readjustment

a

to leave

FIG.

77.

cause

it moves on as the valve to lift, and leakage to occur, to the hitherto unworn part of its seat. An example of leakage of both steam and exhaust valves in Fig. 77, from a" Corliss is given by the cards, shown at engine 22in. in diameter with a 5ft. stroke and running is The as 60 revolutions per minute. not point of cut-off this in sharply denned as is usual in engines of this type itselfsuggesting leakage ; but by drawing hyperbolic reference
"

the points p and p', where the valve from the is completely closed, a considerable departure In becomes curves at once evident. standard expansion curve the actual expansion the left-hand diagram rises due be This may wholly materially above the theoretical. or in part to leakage of the steam valve during expansion,
curves

through

DIAGRAM

ANALYSIS.

67

or

to re-evaporation

The

latter

cause

of steam condensed during admission. is, however, insufficient to account for the

excess of pressure at the point of release, since at marked a the re-evaporation piston speed of 600ft. per minute ordinarily obtained in engines of this class, size, and cut-off,

it 41b. above the theoretical. Hence may be safely assumed that a marked leakage of the steam valve is taking place at this end of the cylinder. In the right-hand card the conditions are reversed, the weight of in the cylinder at release being much less than that steam is not
more

than

or

due to the standard expansion curve. It is obvious that in this case no question of re-evaporation can enter, but it is equally evident that the real discrepancy is greater than in the diagram by the amount that shown which is to be The allowed for the influence of the re-evaporated steam. conditions here shown undoubtedly suggest leakage of the of the loss of exhaust valve as the most probable cause A similar effect would be produced by pressure shown. leakage past the piston ; but this would affect both expansion curves, and hence if it took place in the case under notice it would indicate that the leakage in the left-hand diagram
is much

greater than the amount shown. in faults Among these other shown ing cards is the late openin diagram, left-hand the the of exhaust valve with a consequent material increase in the back pressure as compared from the opposite end. with the card effect of late opening to exhaust is its influence in raising the back pressure line during the early part of the return stroke. It is true that with ample and large exhaust pipes the back pressure soon port area it will be found cases attains its lowest limit, but in most
most

The

important

the end of additional work done near slight amount of the forward stroke (work which is largely absorbed in is much for by the more than compensated engine friction) loss during the return stroke. A further consideration which is not without weight in that
a

engines is the higher compression pressure late a as the which obviously release entails, pressure for is difference between the available cushioning purposes that due to the compression on the one side of the piston due to the forward pressure on the other. and that

high-speed

68

THE

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The utilisation of exhaust steam for heating purposes inevitably detracts from the efficiencyof the engine by the increase in the back pressure due to the resistance of the heating system. With large and well-arranged ever, pipes, howback the pressure in ordinary cases need not exceed 4 or 51b. per square inch. When the loss occasioned much the economy exceeds this amount, of the method as against be open to question, and should using boiler steam may certainly be investigated. Occasionally diagrams from condensing engines show a back line, in Fig. 78, This as constantly rising pressure be due to the supply of injection may water being insufficient to prevent the accumulation of pressure in the condenser. More often, however, it suggests a defective valve in the airbucket. When the latter defect is such as to lead to pump intermittent action, the back pressure line an may assume a more or less undulatory character. In horizontal double-acting air-pumps, leakage of the airis as pump gland is often the cause of a deficient vacuum, leakage also past the bucket owing to defective packing. Air may find its way direct into the condenser by entering through the glands of the piston rod or valve rod, or through drain cocks and other cylinder fittings. In marine found in are engines further causes of reduced vacuum leakage past the low-pressure cylinder relief valves and badly-packed expansion joints, from leakage the the and

glands and drains from the auxiliary engines and the connected the piping communicating with main condenser.
DIAGRAMS
FROM

UNDERLOADED FRICTION

AND

OVERLOADED ETC.

ENGINES,

DIAGRAMS,

It is a well-recognised fact that for every engine running at a fixed speed there is a definiteload under which economy in the use A moderate of steam attains the maximum. departure from the " economical load " in either directiondoes than a moderate increase in the not, as a rule, lead to more deviation from the best steam consumption, but a marked

conditions of working invariably involves a economy, this being more particularly the is engine underloaded.

serious loss of case the when

DIAGRAM

ANALYSIS.

69

In a general way it may be said Underloaded Engines. is used most the mean that steam economically when terminal effectivepressure is greatest for a given (absolute) pressure,the latterbeing determined by dividing the absolute From initial pressure by the ratio of expansion employed. be this it follows that theoreticallythe cut-off should such back to as willgive a terminal pressure equal the pressure. In practice,however, it is found perferable to arrange for a nominal terminal pressure of about 2 to 61b. per square inch above the atmosphere, or about 17 to 221b. absolute in the case of non-condensing engines, and from 6 to 1 21b.absolute These figures can only in the case of condensing engines. be considered as roughly indicating the advisable limits
"

between

which

the

nominal

terminal

pressure should

t" T

"i'
FIG. 78.
as much will depend upon the type of engine, ordinarily lie, piston speed, duty, and other considerations. In Fig. 79, which is a typical diagram from an underloaded engine, the nominal terminal pressure T is considerably less than the atmospheric pressure Z A. Under these circumstances the opening of the exhaust valve at b is followed by an inrush of air into the cylinder, the pressure ultimately rising to c in the return stroke, from whence the diagram is completed, as shown. As the area included in the shaded loop represents work done by the engine upon the atmosphere, the amount of work so absorbed is to be deducted from that represented by the area of the upper part of the diagram, the resultingdifference showing the low mean drive to the load under the effective pressure required conditionshere prevailing. But beyond the lossof efficiency due to the useless work done, there is to be considered the loss due to cylinder condensation, which, when the cut-off

70

THE

INDICATOR

HANDBOOK.

a early in the stroke, becomes very serious item. Irregular running due to the wide variation of pressure on the piston is another, although a comparatively advanta minor, disthat structural attending light loads. Assuming inadmissible, are two the alterations of cylinder methods dealing lightly-loaded of with engines suggest themselves.

occurs

so

initial pressure by lowering the boiler pressure, or, preferably, either by throttling or by using a pressure-reducing valve ; and (2) reducing the speed hence increasing the the mean engine, and of effective
are

These

(1)reducing

the

Much pressure. of the load. will depend upon the nature If the latter is fairly constant, reduction of speed is to be advised if at all practicable, or failing that, a combination If, however, the load fluctuates considerof both methods. ably, with engines in electric generating stations, the is initial the only plan admissible. pressure reduction of the This fact has been recognised by some of the builders of Corliss engines for electric generating plant, who arrange
as

the governor in order to

operate a obviate the In underloaded engines. invariably occurs at high

above

to

throttle valve, at light loads only, losses otherwise incurred with locomotives, early cut-off almost the loss speed, but in this case

referred to is very conveniently avoided by the heavy distribution by the compression which is a feature of steam link motion. Excessive compression in ordinary stationaryengine practice would, however, lead to heated journals and hence be is to included not among unsteady running, and
the evil effects of light loads. in non-condensing engines a reduction in boiler pressure is not calculated to promote unless the terminal pressure is lower than that economy, Further, alterations in engine due to the atmosphere. speed should be considered in regard to the ability of the
the expedients for combating It should be noted that

fly-wheel to effect the necessary closeness of speed regulation at the reduced velocity contemplated. is distinctly The loss of economy Overloaded Engines. less with overloaded than with underloaded engines, as in does the former case the influence of cylinder condensation factor, the loss being almost not appear as a prejudicial entirely due to the inability to realise the full benefit of to the lateness of the cut-off. expansive owing working
"

DIAGRAM

ANALYSIS.

71

in point is afforded by Fig. 80, which is a diagram from a Corliss engine with a cylinder 18in. in diameter and As will 42in. stroke, running at 75 revolutions per minute. late in the stroke, and hence the be seen, the cut-off occurs higher than desirable. pressure at the point of release is much in this case creasin The suggestive remedies are (1) inthe speed, (2)using steam of a higher pressure,

case

Fig. 81 shows the diagram and (3) adding a condenser. tions obtained after the speed had been increased to 90 revolube seen, a as very much represents per minute, and, will load to the economical of the engine, closer approximation by the reduction in the water this being further shown from 25-6 to 21'51b. per I.H.P. per hour. A consumption limitation to the increase of speed in Corliss engines lies in

FIG.

so.

the difficulty experienced in operating the trip gear ; but it is frequently possible to effect an increase of 25 per cent, in in the larger sizes small engines, while 10 per cent, increase should be attained without difficulty. A point to be specially of wiredrawing considered is the probable increase in the amount latter for are at the ports, of ample unless these

the loss of pressure at the higher speed may go far to Due regard must otherwise gained. off-set the advantage and the ability also be paid to the effects of increased wear, of the parts to withstand this ; the stresses due to the higher
area,

speed The
of
are

into consideration. pressure depends, possibility of using higher steam to course, the extent the boiler which mainly upon
must

also be taken

pressure

may

be

the outcome

manufacturing the boiler had

Usually, overloaded engines to a of additions which have been made plant from time to time, and hence, unless of strength, it originally a large margin
increased.

72

THE

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to deterioration with years would be improbable, owing of working, that any increase of pressure would be permissible When, however, boilers new installed, are higher steam or a is pressure otherwise available, this of relieving an overloaded engine method will in general be attended with most satisfactory results, always provided the several parts of the engine, and particularly such wearing surfaces as the crank and crosshead pins, shaft necks, etc., are calculated to withstand the increased load. Adding a Condenser. By the addition of a condenser to a non-condensing engine it is generally possible to reduce the back pressure from some 161b. absolute to about 41b.
"

absolute, thus increasing the mean effective pressure by In the case about 121b. per square inch. of an overloaded engine this additional power enables the steam to be cut off much earlier in the stroke, hence giving a closer approach to the economical load of the engine. Against the gain in pressure thus obtained there is to be set the power required to work the air-pump ; while in cases the exhaust where heat to was for feed the or steam water, previously used other purposes, these losses should also be taken into account. The cost of condensing water, if the supply has to be purchased, interest first course, depreciation the on cost, and, of to the the are addition and upkeep of plant, all points to be considered in this connection. When is the main the loss of the heated feed water

adding a condenser, the advisability of using an economiser should be considered, as by this method of from hotter boiler^ feed the the a waste gases much utilising be is can than generally obtained possible with exhaust heaters. For steam small and medium powers, a conr means venient of taking advantage of the gain due to forms of condensation is offered by the improved ejector for larger now condensers available ; while plants some form of independent condenser will usiially be found preferable. A typical example of the gain due to adding a condenser is shown in the superposed diagrams, Fig. 82, taken from an engine with a cylinder 20in. in diameter, 40in. stroke, The mean at 70 revolutions per minute. and running effective pressure is 431b. per square inch in each diagram,

to objection

DIAGRAM

ANALYSIS.

73

but by running condensing, the cut-off is reduced from " to i of the stroke, The of steam. with a marked economy loss by cylinder condensation will be increased both by
reason

of

the

earlier cut-off and

the

greater

range

of

FfrJ. s-2.

temperature this and substantial friction

in the cylinder ; but making due allowance for factors already referred to, a other

prejudicial
"

be effected. saving would undoubtedly Diagrams Diagrams. from taken unloaded come engines, and therefore showing the power required to overthe friction of the engine under these conditions, may of underloading. evidently be regarded as exaggerated cases

loops of negative work appear at one both or the necessarily extremities of the diagram, especially when Fig. 83, which early cut-off is effected by link motion gear. in point, shows diagrams taken from the gives a case high-pressure cylinder of a marine I.H.P. engine of 450 The left-hand card gives a double loop, the upper one due to

Frequently

74

THE

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excessive compression, and the lower to excessive expansion. friction diagrams In many from compound cases engines in an excess one or of negative work show other of the 84 Figs. 85 illustration, the negacylinders. and afford an tive in loops high-pressure diagrams being the work much in excess leaving the areas, an of positive work unduly large in the low-pressure cylinder. In engines fitted with releasing valve gear, friction diagrams similar to Fig. 86 are often obtained, the cut-off of the stroke, virtually taking place at the commencement and practically leaving the work to be done by the expansion Frequently, in friction of the steam in the clearance space. diagrams from high-speed automatic cut-off engines, unduamount

of work

to be done

FIG. 86.

Flfl. 87.

lations in the expansion line (Fig. due to the momentum 87), of the indicator mechanism, render it difficultto calculate the small area of the card with the necessary degree of be placed upon accuracy, and hence but little reliance can

Undoubtedly the obtained from such diagrams. most satisfactory method of ascertaining the work absorbed is cated by engine friction to determine both the brake and indihorse-power, the difference in the two amounts giving be can a more measure the than accurate of work absorbed In large engines of friction diagrams. obtained by means only the latter method is available ; but the fact should be
values kept in view that the percentage of actual work expended friction when the engine is fully loaded is engine upon larger than a comparison of the friction and somewhat full-load diagrams would suggest.

CHAPTER
DIAGRAMS

IV.
ENGINES.

FROM

COMPOUND

sion triple-expancompound, do not differ or quadruple-expansion engines simple engines, essentially from those obtained from has been said regarding the latter is, and hence what modifications, equally applicable to cards with obvious parture deMore less marked from or multi-cylinder engines. from however, are, the ideal simple diagram in from found invariably the separate cards almost engines, but it is to be noted in this connection compound that the comparison should rather be instituted with the combined cards, or otherwise, with the upper line of the highpressure and the lower line of the low-pressure diagrams. In the of instances the piston strokes are of the majority length, and hence for such cylinders as are arranged same in tandem order it is usually possible to drive both indicators from Under the one these circumstances reducing gear. from diagrams the the two cylinders are most conveniently length, but with the pendulum taken of the same types of reducing gear it is obviously possible to arrange the lengths from the high- and low-pressure cylinders of the diagram to be proportionate to the volumes of the respective cylinders. This is of some advantage in the subsequent combining of

INDICATOR

diagrams

from

the cards, but unless the proportionate reduction is accurately the results effeeted (and this is not readily accomplished), are than entirely misleading, and worse useless for the The method is therefore not generally to purpose named.

be recommended. In taking cards from compound locomotives and high-speed single-acting engines, it is customary to employ springs of the
75

76

THE

INDICATOR

HANDBOOK.

same

pair of such diagrams are taken from an receiver, the action of. the steam in its passage through the two cylinders can be well shown by placing the two cards in their correct positions relative to scale. Hence when engine having no
a

88, from high-speed a compound is from drop back a the the pressure engine, good example, line of the upper card to the steam line of the lower being comparatively slight. In engines provided with a receiver, however, generally necessary in multisuch as is more cylinder engines, no such representation of the continuous action of the steam can be obtained without combining the several cards. With the exceptions above diagrams of compound engines

the atmospheric The diagram

line. Fig.

noted, the low-pressure are usually taken with a

FIG. 88.

FIG. 89.

low-scale spring in order to show the action of the steam Similarly, for the cards from triple more conveniently. and quadruple engines, a spring of different scale is used for each

complicates cylinder, and although this method the operation of combining the diagrams, it is otherwise convenient, it gives a series of cards of suitable inasmuch as proportions and of such a size as will allow the area, and hence the mean effective pressure, to be determined with it is Whenever possible, preferable to use a spring accuracy. for the higher pressure cards which is a convenient multiple for By low this means the the that gate aggrepressure. of used is in more the much stroke pressure at any point time and labour may be saved readily obtained, while much the cards, as will presently appear. when combining In engines without a receiver tandem engines or side-bythe steam exhausts side cylinders with cranks at 180" directly from the high-pressure cylinder into the next
"

"

DIAGRAMS

FROM

COMPOUND

ENGINES.

77

larger cylinder. Hence the consequent expansion back line causes the the of pressure small cylinder to fall, as indicated in Fig. 88, until compression mences. comA similar fall necessarily takes place in the steam line of the low-pressure card, the space between these two lines representing fractional and other losses incurred in the On the other hand, cards from transference of the steam. engines provided with a receiver do not exhibit this feature, each of the diagrams conforming more closely to a simplefollowing and
engine card, especially if the receiver is of suitable volume. Usually the back pressure line of the high-pressure card will the cranks are at rise gradually towards mid-stroke, when right angles or otherwise, until the admission to the lowafter which the pressure will pressure cylinder commences, fall. Fig. 89 shows a particularly bad case of insufficient In the low-pressure receiver volume and small port areas. card the steam line will follow the pressure variation in the receiver, but ifthe receiver is not unduly small- tha wiredrawing not oO specially effect,although always existent, should Similar be in seen variations will marked. cards from triple

and quadruple engines, the precise form depending upon the sequence and relative angles of the cranks, capacities of Thus if the cut off in the receivers, cylinder ratios, etc. intermediate (or low-pressure) cylinder is shortened by separate linking up, the initial pressure hi that cylinder will be increased, and as the receiver space (which more
usually comprises the volume of the connecting steampipe, is limited, a more sloping steam generally results, etc.) less being the effect noticeable as the receiver capacity and larger. If the cranks are arranged in are the port areas such sequence that the discharge from the first series coincides
of the next approximately with the opening to steam cylinder in the series, a fairly well-sustained steam line may often be obtained in the card from the latter cylinder, although in any case it will be evident that in all cylinders after the H.P. the conditions are really equivalent to the large expansion of a volume of clearance steam. Unequal Distribution Power in compound and multi-

of

cylinder which it is highly desirable to avoid in smooth order to secure running, can generally be rectified by separately modifying the cut-off in one or more of the 14
engines,

78

THE

INDICATOR

HANDBOOK.

for this individual the means cylinders whenever adjustment is provided. In a two-stage compound engine, cutting off earlier in the H.P. cylinder will diminish the total power developed, slightly decrease the mean effective pressure in (M.E.P.) the H.P. cylinder, while materially reducing the M.E.P. in the L.P. cylinder. Hence, relatively, a much larger proportion of work will be done in the H.P. cylinder On the other hand, cutting off under these conditions.* earlier in the L.P. cylinder alone will reduce the M.E.P. in the H.P. cylinder, while increasing the M.E.P. in the

work cylinder, both effects tending to throw more The total power developed will, to the latter cylinder. on however, be unchanged, as will also the terminal pressure, since the latter depends upon the cut-off in the H.P. cylinder In triple-expansion of the L.P. cylinder. and the volume engines, cutting off earlier in the H.P. cylinder reduces the whole power developed, increases relatively the M.E.P. in in both the the H.P. cylinder, and lowers the M.E.P. intermediate pressure (I.M.P.) and L.P. cylinders. Cutting off earlier in the I.M.P. cylinder lowers the M.E.P. in the in the H.P. cylinder, and increases the M.E.P.

L.P.

does not materially influence the cylinder, but in the L.P. cylinder. Cutting off earlier in the L.P. cylinder usually has little or no effect upon the M.E.P. in the H.P. cylinder, reduces the M.E.P. in the I M.P. cylinder, and increases the M.E.P. Cutting off earlier in both the I.M.P. in the L.P. cylinder. and L.P. cylinders will increase the power developed in the L.P. cylinder and reduce the power of the H.P. without
I.M.P. M.E.P. materially affecting the M.E.P. in the I.M.P. cylinder. Although Diagrams. Combining the successive use of is in two or more generally advantageous steam cylinders
"

the transference of the steam stages involves losses which it is obviously desirable to reduce as far as possible. The of these losses are approximately shown nature and extent from diagrams the by combining the several cylinders in
from
an

economic point of its several through

view,

such
*

manner

that

the

resultant

figure shows

the

con-

the greater part of the From this it follows that in underloaded compounds the load is excessive H.P. in the cylinder, while when work is generally performed the conditions are reversed.

DIAGRAMS

FROM

COMPOUND

ENGINES.

79

through the engine, but so rearrang to as simple equivalent represent in effect an have to be diagram the supposed may pressure which of acted continuously upon the L.P. piston only. to the correct as Opinion is by no means unanimous Much method of locating the diagrams in a combined card.

tinue"l course

of the steam

the combination. most of its usually pursued, probably by reason to a the diagrams simplicity, consists in (1) reducing to a uniform scale of pressure, (2) reducing the diagrams uniform scale of cylinder volumes, and (3) placing the modified cards in their correct positions relative to the atmospheric line, each card being displaced from the zero line of volume by an amount equal to the percentage of clearance in its

will depend The method

upon

the

ultimate

of object

scale of volumes adopted. cylinder, but taken on the common In tandem engines the crank-end card of the H.P. should be combined with the head-end card from the L.P., unless a mean the two ends of each cylinder is first card from cards prepared, a plan frequently followed in combining
from As receiver engines. illustration of the method, an the diagrams Figs. 90 91 from a compound tandem engine are shown combined

and in Fig. 92, the plan of procedure being as follows :-" Divide both of the original cards into a convenient number of equal from Set 10, the off parts, as ruling ordinates as shown. first or end ordinate the clearance volume, and draw the In the example clearance line or ordinate of zero volume. taken, the H.P. clearance is l'03cub. ft., and the L.P. clearance 2'28cub. ft., corresponding to 7 '25 per cent, and The 4'5 per cent, of their respective piston displacements. ments cylinder diameters are 23 and 43in., giving piston displaceof 14'43cub. ft. and 49'8cub. ft. respectively. To combine these cards, draw a line 10 or 12in. long (0 V, Fig. 92),representing the line of zero pressure, and Draw the ordinate of also a convenient scale of volumes. P, 0 as a scale of absolute zero volume which will also serve From 0 set off OE pressures. equal to the L.P. clearance From E lay on the scale of volumes. ft.) volume (2'28cub. off a length E B equal to the L P. piston displacement, Whenever 49-8cub. ft.as shown possible the scale selected for the pressures should be the same as that of the original

80

THE

INDICATOR

HANDBOOK.

DIAGRAMS

FROM

COMPOUND

ENGINES.

81

L.P. card, since pressures on tne latter can then be directly diagram ; otherwise, some convenient transferred to the new 1*5, should be chosen. multiple of the original scale, say The The scale of Fig. 90 is 40, and that of Fig. 91 is 10.* latter is therefore used for the combined card, and a scale Divide E B into the in accordingly. of pressures drawn in this same of equal parts as the L.P. diagram number
"

case

10 ; draw in the ordinates and mark oft'on these the absolute forward and back pressures from the corresponding ordinates of the original L.P. card. In this way a series of which the elongated L.P. points will be obtained through

card can be drawn. For the H. P. card, set off from O P the H. P. clearance ft., and draw OC=r03cub. the ordinate C C'. volume From the latter set off the H.P. piston displacement C' D', on the CD, as or more as (14-24ft.) conveniently line. Divide C'D' into 10 equal parts and atmospheric
As the scale of pressures the corresponding ordinates. of the original H.P. card is 40, the heights representing the absolute pressures therein will require increasing fourfold before they are transferred to their corresponding ordinates in Fig. 92, after which the modified H.P. card can be drawn

draw

in

the scales of the original and combined passes cards are not in a simple ratio, a pair of proportional comfor converting and transfurnish a convenient means ferring it is but the ordinate values, otherwise preferable to
as

shown.

When

the original card by the scale of the off on the combined spring used, afterwards laying them The process of combining the cards is completed by card. drawing in a reference curve of expansion, a saturation hyperbola being generally employed. curve or a rectangular Most freqiiently this reference curve is drawn in one unbroken mark the pressures
on

this plan is only warranted the when is expanding in all the cylinders, same quantity of steam or, in other words, when the same weight of compressed or is retained in each cylinder. This is a cushion steam

length, but

generally met with, as usually less cushion is retained in the L.P. cylinder. Nevertheless, steam provided the limitations of the method are fully recognised, a coincidence not
The

diagrams

in the illustration

are

on

reduced

scale.

82

THE

INDICATOR

HANDBOOK.

the assumed point When of cut-off supplies an amount of useful information. the weight be of steam passing through the engine can is to ascertained, the more correct method of comparison draw in on each of the original cards the saturation curve
or

curve

drawn

either through

the actual

corresponding to the known weight of feed. These curves are diagram by marking then transferred to the combined off on any horizontal, as m S' (Fig.92), a length R' S' bearing the same R' as does R S to m R ratio to m

(Fig. 90).
The
two

combined the relative amounts of steam and water present in each in other words, to determine the dryness fraction. cylinder Thus, if in Fig. 92 a horizontal m S' is drawn passing
"

having been transferred to the saturation curves diagram, it becomes an easy matter to determine

the expansion and compression lines of the then m ri will represent the volume of the cushion steam, ri R' the volume steam of working present, and R' S' the amount Hence, since of of feed existing as water. S', the proportion the whole, m is existing as steam
m

through diagram,

both

R', the ratio

"

7??"

represents the r-^" o

quality of the steam

dryness fraction at the point R selected in the H.P. In cases does stroke. where the actual compression curve hyperbola is to be not extend sufficiently,a rectangular drawn continuing as the curve shown by the broken lines in Fig. 90. If the compression line is small or indefinite, a hyperbola should be drawn through a point justafter the this method exhaust valve is completely closed. Pursuing investigation, it be dryness found fraction at that the of will cut-off in the H.P. diagram, is 0-72, and at release 0*80, liquefied during admisshowing that a portion of the steam sion had re-evaporated during On the expansion. other hand, in the L.P. cylinder the dryness fraction at cut-off is 0'70, and at release it has fallen to 0'67, showing a further
or

slight condensation. The method of combining cards from triple and quadruple being engines precisely similar to the foregoing, further illustrations It may be added that are unnecessary. when, as is frequently the case, any one or more stages of the expansion
are

divided among

two

equal

cylinders, the

DIAGRAMS

FROM

COMPOUND

ENGINES.

83

clearances and working volumes are to be taken for each stage so divided, the corresponding pressure variation the stroke being the mean of those given by the throughout

combined

two

diagrams which deserves of combining in which the variable amount of cushion attention is one is eliminated, thus allowing a comparison with a steam saturation or other standard area bounded by a continuous To transform curve. expansion
the
same

cards. Another method

diagrams

in

Fig.

92,

the

scale of pressures is used (OP, Fig. 93),but the corresponding are set back volumes by the amount to be assumed occupied by the cushion steam. Thus, for the pressure Of (Fig.

93)
Fig. being

corresponding 92, a length

a

to

Oe

in

fg'=fg

(f

point compression curve) from 0 P giving the point g in Similarly, g'h', the new card.

on

the produced is set off

FIG.

93.

pansion gives the point h' in the transformed exdiagrams Proceeding in this way, the new curve. if the amount drawn in Fig. 93, and are as of shown be set off at this may cylinder feed per stroke is known, drawn. Then at any P Q and a saturation or other curve point as ri the length n R' represents the volume of working steam, and R' S' the volume condensed in the form of water. The triangular areas between the two cards and 0 P repreequal
to

g h,

84

TEE

INDICATOR

HANDBOOK.

lost in filling the clearance spaces with boiler work the cards, the losses incurred in steam, the spaces between transferring the steam such as wiredrawing, receiver drop, radiation, etc., and finally the ratio of the area of the two 0 P Q S V is to the whole area cards (theeffectivework
sent
"
"

measure

of work weight

i.e.the proportion of the efficiency of the steam done to that theoretically possible from the same of steam expanding under whatever condition is
"

area)

assumed When

in constructing the curve Q S. the cylinder feed is not known, it is desirable to

COn-

94.

struct

touching the most just saturation curve prominent in other words, through the point in the combined diagram This will then represent a curve of point of least wetness. a means the tracing of uniform wetness, and will afford it as passes through the relative condensation of the steam
a
"

engine. In single-acting stage expansion engines following the Cornish cycle, and in which the steam after acting upon the upper side of the piston is transferred to a receiver beneath the piston, the card from this receiver is to be A combined incorporated in forming a combined diagram.

DIAGRAMS

FROM

COMPOUND

ENGINES.

85

diagram

* is given in Fig. 94, engine compound the centre card being that obtained from the intermediate is The same the cxishion steam receiver. cards, when in broken lines, the expansion curve eliminated, are shown feed being an adiabatic corresponding to the total measured

from

such

admitted to the engine. diagrams it will often occur In combining that portions as, for example, is the case of the cards overlap one another Upon consideration it will be with those shown in Fig. 92. seen that this is due to the foreshortening of the H.P. card, from which it follows that points on the same ordinate, but on the steam line of the L P. card and the back pressure line of the H.P. card respectively, no longer represent the coincident positions of the two pistons. Hence when it is desired to examine more drawing particularly the losses due to wire"

the cylinders, a convenient plan is to construct in which such portions of each card as are a diagram formed while connection with the receiver is open are placed in their correct relative position. For this purpose it is vertical scale of pressures, and a base by any one scale representing the degrees passed through Upon transferring such portions of the several cards crank. as represent the periods during which intercommunication exists between the cylinders, the extent of the losses incurred may be very readily determined. customary
to
use a
"

between

Proceedings

Inst. Civil Engineers,

voL

xciii.

CHAPTER
DIAGRAMS

V.
AND OIL ENGINES.

FROM

GAS

GAS

ENGINE

DIAGRAMS.

gas engine de Rochas," or " is shown in Fig. 95. A L represents the line of Here atmospheric pressure, A P the ordinate of zero volume, B C the stroke, and A B the proportionate clearance volume, the amount of the latter varying considerably, but approximately from 50 per cent, of the piston displacement in the

WHAT
of
a

may

be termed

the theoreticalindicator diagram " Beau working on the four-stroke, " Otto so largely adopted, cycle now

early types, to 20 per cent, or less in modern engines. Taking the four successive strokes in order, B C marks the admission of the explosive mixture at atmospheric pressure. During the return stroke the charge is compressed, the consequent in being by indicated the adiabatic rise pressure CD. At D the charge is ignited, D E marking the curve instantaneous rise of pressure due to the explosion. During working stroke, the gases expand and the adiabatic E F results. At F, opening to exhaust occurs, curve the pressure falling instantly to C, and the products of combustion Hence, C during B. are the return stroke of expelled four during first fourth the the and strokes, the pressure In the does not vary from that due to the atmosphere. second stroke work is done on the charge by the stored energy of the motor, this being represented by the area C D B ; while during the third stroke work is done by the B E F C. by the area expanding gases to an amount shown
the

Hence,
remains

deducting

work

the area done in the complete

the negative from D E F C as a measure

the positive work, there of the net or effective

cycle.
86

DIAGRAMS

FROM

GAS

AND

OIL

ENGINES.

The

Gas

Engine

Diagram

in Practice.

"

It

is tolerably

evident that the conditions required for perfect working are incapable of realisation in practice, more particularly in regard to the expansion taking place without involving an
interchange of heat between

cylinder walls as assumed practice the explosion does not take place instantaneously, is combustion completed until some nor portion of the stroke has been accomplished. From these and other practical modifications it results that the actual gas engine diagram
in Fig. 96, except nearly resembles the form shown that the lower lines are not usually shown so definitely. Commencing that owing to wireat B as before, it is seen drawing falls somewhat during admission, the line BC
more

the charge and the water-cooled Moreover, in in the foregoing.

c FlO. 95.

FI;.

so.

line, showing that a slight vacuum the atmospheric is formed in the cylinder during this stroke. During the compression C D the conditions are such that often close approximations below

be obtained. If the may engine is worked with a fairly hot cylinder, the curve will if the cylinder is effectually rise above the theoretical ; That the explosion of the charge cooled, it will fallbelow. is not effected instantaneously is shown by the manner in which the line D E leans inward, indicating that the piston before the highest pressure was stroke had well begun attained. This, however, will be influenced by the amount Some time is occupied in comof "firing lead" adopted. pleting
to

the adiabatic

curve

the process of combustion resulting in the formation A more or less marked of the rounded corner at E. shown deviation from the adiabatic curve is usually met with in the expansion curves of actual diagrams, the absorption of

88

THE

INDICATOR

HANDBOOK.

heat by the cylinder walls, and the rate at which combustion the principal of the of the charge proceeds being among influences which decide the ultimate somewhat complicated form before The exhaust valve is opened of this curve. the end of the stroke is reached, with the of effecting object before fall as a the return of pressure as possible rapid stroke commences, and when the point H is reached the sphere. pressure is not greatly in excess of that due to the atmoof slight amount the of pressure work products of in but has fallen to that combustion, general the pressure of the atmosphere at the end of the stroke B, when the cycle of operations again commences. Bottom In view of the Loop or Weak Spring Diagrams. in the cylinder wide range of pressure which usually occurs buck
"

From

to

the card shows due to the expulsion

of a gas engine, the scale of the diagram is often so selected that lin. vertical movement of the pencil corresponds to a Still higher pressure variation of 2001b. per square inch.

hence it will be employed, and these conditions the small variations evident that under during the admission of the charge of pressure which occur and the expulsion of the used gases will not be visible,the into one line practically indistinguishable whole merging from that denoting the pressure the atmosphere. of Generally, therefore, the loop formed by the admission and back pressure lines is negligible in comparison with the area 96), of the upper portion of the card D E F H D (Fig. which scales
are

sometimes

generally regarded as the actual indicator Nevertheless, the fact should be kept in view diagram. loop represents negative work, that the area of the bottom as when a measxirable quantity and that when it becomes " fluid resistance " a lower working pressure is used or the latter is
more
"

of this loop is to be of the engine is increased" the area deducted from the upper loop in order to obtain the net indicated work done in the complete cycle. Tn order to obtain information upon the action of the of ports, valves, the sufficiency or otherwise of the areas piping, etc., and in general to ascertain the loss of work due " loop " bottom to fluid friction, it is necessary to take diagrams, a much weaker spring being used than is employed in taking a working card, in order to exhibit the small

DIAGRAMS

FROM

GAS

AND

OIL

ENGINES

89

fairly large scale. Examples a of pressure variations on Crossley from 400H.P. a gas engine are such diagrams Fig. 97 is the diagram obtained given in Figs. 97 and 98. during a firing cycle, while Fig. 98 shows the card which tiring stroke when the engine takes results from a "missed
''

in air only. The necessity for protecting the indicator spring from over-compression when taking these low-pressure cards has already been referred to (PartI.,page 124),and it is here

only necessary to explain that the horizontal lines M X in the cards shown represent the pressure at which the stop into as comes significance whatever play, and have no portions of the indicator cards. The Exhaust and Admission Lines. Referring to Fig. 97, N S shows the exhausting end of the explosion stroke, and
"

Fio. 97.

S A

line described while the spent charge is being expelled from the cylinder. At A a new charge is admitted, A B being the suction stroke, while B C represents a portion In Fig. 98 the air valve onlv curve. of the compression is opened (at what a), and in consequence the resistance is someincreased, as indicated by the lower position taken by A B. The air charge is compressed along B C, and in the

the subsequent
same curve.

stroke expands

along

what

is practically the

rises as the exhausting stroke the pressure indicated by the back pressure line B a, this being largely due to the frictional resistance offered at the high piston speed by long the (900ft. per minute) exhaust pipe used in connection

During

the scavenging arrangement, and later, to the At a the admission valve closing of the exhaust valve. is opened, and the pressure falls rapidly in consequence.
with

90

THE

INDICATOR

HANDBOOK.

of the bottom loop in a gas engine diagram represents negative work, it is obviously desirable that the as pressure during the charging stroke should approximate nearly as possible to that of the atmosphei'e. Factors which be attained are the determine how nearly this end can

As the

area

regularity of the gas pressure, the piston speed, the length is used, and the design of the one of the air pipe when admission valve and port openings. Under normal conditions, " hit-or-miss " governing, the average fall of pressure and with during the suction stroke will usually not be less than lib. nor more than 2"lb. per square inch in engines up to sive Exces12 or 15B.H.P. ; it may reach 31b. in large engines. throttling during admission is shown in Fig. 99, the fall

in pressure at a exceeding 61b. per square inch, while at b, the end of the stroke, there is still a pressure deficiency of 41b. One result of this excessively low admission about

pressure isthe greatly lessened volume of the charge admitted, for in place of a volume A L at the commencement of compression is the volume now that represented by ayailable A B only. In engines governed by throttling the incoming gas and

intensified, especially air, this effect is, of course, much Fig. 100, which is a case in point, when running unloaded. is from a Westinghouse gas engine when running light.
Late opening of the admission valve is shown in Fig. 101, the pressure falling as indicated by the line A B until the the pressure rises rapidly to the valve opens at B, when normal suction line.

DIAGRAMS

FROM

GAS

AND

OIL

ENGINES.

91

Early closing of the admission valve will result in a fallof pressure as indicated at A B, Fig. 102, owing to the charge expanding, this portion of the line being retraced during the early part of the compression stroke. Late closure of the admission valve is indicated in Fig. 103, the charge being forced back until the valve closes at A, and

compression

commences.

FIG. IOL

FIG. 102.

in the Late opening of the exhaust valve is shown much Fig. 30, page 37). same way as in the steam engine (see Early closing of the exhaust is indicated by a somewhat This defect is rapid rise of pressure as at A B, Fig. 104.
often

due to

wear

of the

cams

and rollers

or

other

parts of

the valve gear.

in Fig. 105, Undulations in the exhaust line,such as occur due to pulsations of the exhaust gases during are their expulsion from the cylinder. It will be noticed that the

FIG. 103.

FIG. 104.

pressure line falls well below the atmospheric line at a, but with the increasing speed of the piston it rises again, until the issuing gases are impelled forward with greater more as the celerity and the line falls again, rising once becomes the end of the stroke. piston movement slower near Exhaust Silencers. It is obvious that the use of exhaust
"

back

increase the loss due to back pressilencers will somewhat sure by reason flow to the of the resistance offered of the spent gases ; while in extreme cases the retention in the cylinder of an undue amount of the products of com-

92

THE

INDICATOR

HANDBOOK

bustion

will lead to after-firing in the exhaust pipe, and irregular running cause But with a wellof the engine. arranged silencer the loss due to increased back pressure should be immaterial, always provided that the silencer is regularly cleared of the deposit which will otherwise increase the resistance. accumulate and or Back-firing explosions of a partial charge during the in the lower part of Fig. 106, charging stroke are shown the point a in the suction or charging stroke marking the

point at which this explosion occurs, causing the line to rise The burnt gases are then compressed suddenly as shown. Lb Frequently the exand expand along along 6cL. plosion near occurs the end of the suction stroke, as at a,

Fia.

105.

Fig. 107, where the rise in pressure is shown by a b ; the is to c, and expansion to d, after subsequent compression which there follows a normal cycle as indicated by f g h d. A frequent cause of back-firing is the admission of a charge does not fire promptly, weak in gas, which in consequence but burns, or rather smoulders, during the exhaust stroke. Hence, upon the admission of a further charge of gas during is ignited and the succeeding suction stroke the mixture back-firing results. In some buted engines back-firing may be attrichamber, in which pockets are left which retain a small portion of the burning charge after the bulk has been expelled from the cylinder. Even the small recess formed by the indicator connection suffice to retain a sufficient quantity of slow-burning may back-firing. gas to cause
to the poor design of the combustion

DIAGRAMS

FROM

GAS

AND

OIL

EXGL\ES.

93

In general it may be said that Compression Line. the compression line of a gas or oil engine diagram shows a to that theoretically desirable. This close approximation results from the fact that during the compression stroke the charge of mixed air and gas is removed from all outside in-

The

"

FIO. 107.

fluences, except in so far as the cooling by the jacket be can so considered. Hence practically the only element of uncertaint during this portion of the cycle is the possibility of pre-ignition.

By disconnecting the ignition and allowjng the charge to be compressed and expanded, useful information can often be obtained as to the tightness or otherwise of the piston

103.

FIG. 109.

When these are in a satisfactory condition the and valves. compression card will appear as in Fig. 108, the charge being compressed as shown by A B and expanding again as by the slightly lower curve B C. Valve or piston shown leakage is indicated in Fig. 109, a considerable fall of pressure the end of the stroke when the comtaking place near pression is the pressure greatest and small. piston movement 15

94

THE

INDICATOR

HANDBOOK.

Valve and deposit or

piston leakage

is frequently

caused

by

tarry

and oily residue which clogs the valve stems piston packing rings. It may be noted that the area of the card in Fig. 108 represents work lost due to the cooling of the charge in the ever, the cylinder is not efficientlycooled, howcylinder. When " " in which it is possible to obtain diagrams cut-out is above the compression curve, the the expansion curve from done by heat absorbed resulting area representing work
accidental firing of the charge during the compression stroke may be due to the failure of a charge to explode, thus resulting in the accumulation of an unduly more readily fired,during the rich charge, which is much in next marked compression stroke. This effect is more " hit-or-miss " system than in those engines governed on the frequent cause A more governed by throttling the charge. of deposits in of pre-ignition, however, is the accumulation
"

the cylinder walls. Pre-ignition. The

the cylinder, partly from the lubricant used, and also owing to the accumulation of carbon from incomplete combustion, these deposits retaining sufficient heat to fire the charge A slight of the asbestos used for prematurely.

projection

heated under favourable conditions, become overfire be to the charge, while among sufficient and thus the structural defects which contribute to this end, inefficient is probably the most important. jacketing larity Other causes of pre-ignition are over-compression, irregu-

joint-making may,

in the composition of the mixture charges, an inefficientexpulsion of the burnt

consecutive gases from the

in

cylinder during
A

the

exhaust

stroke,

and

imperfect

combustion.

in the of pre-ignition is shown particularly bad case Pre-ignition occurs at d, causing a upper part of Fig. 106. the motion of the rise of pressure de, opposing sudden piston, and finally the gases expand along fh. It may be noted in passing that of the several loops thus formed, both the areas g efg and L b c L, and also the small loops in the suction stroke below the atmospheric line, represent negative work done during the two cycles, the corresponding positive being gdLh, and the loops in the suction stroke work areas above A L.

DIAGRAMS

FROM

GAS

AND

OIL

ENGINES.

9o

It will be readily understood that pre-ignition as early in the compression stroke as that indicated in Fig. 106 will result in shocks which are highly detrimental to the engine. firing of the charge takes place as late When the premature in Fig. 110, the opposition to the in the stroke as shown more slowly-moving piston, although less marked, will cause the engine to run very irregularly, while it is obvious that the full value of the charge is not by any means realised. in Fig. 10 1 The cause overwas the heating of pre-iguition shown an of the exhaust effect often only noticed valve its is full load and there are to working up when the engine no cut-out strokes to assist in keeping the valve below the igniting temperature.
"

FIG. 110.

FIG.

111.

The Ignition Line.

ignition
or

"

The

contour

of the line marking

the

explosion of the charge depends mainly upon the The piston speed, point in the stroke at which firing occurs. however, has a marked influence upon this portion of the diagram, while the effectiveness with which the air and gas are mixed is also not without influence. Timing valves, which the firing are usually fitted to all but small engines, ensure of the charge at a definite point in the stroke, but by reason
of

that the other factors mentioned, it frequently occurs in lines a while the admission, compression, and exhaust consecutive series of diagrams may coincide exactly, a more in the corresponding divergence is seen less marked or

ignition and expansion lines. Fig. Ill, which is a diagram from an 8" by 16 in. gas engine fitted with a timing valve, and running, unloaded, at 180 revolutions per minute, shows this effect, but a more marked divergence is frequently met

96

THE

INDICATOR

HANDBOOK.

Fig. 112 is a diagram from an with. engine without a be expected, shows a wider timing valve, which, as may diversity in the firing and expansion lines. The inclination of the ignition line to the left,as in Fig.
in Fig. Ill, is generally characterised as early and late firing respectively ; while a vertical firing line is held to indicate that the explosion is effected on the dead centre. Of the three varieties, early firing must always

1 10,

or

to the right,

as

and while firing on the dead centre is to be preferred from a thermodynamic point of undoubtedly view, there is no doubt that a slightly late firing leads to Tests have been made show which smoother running. in limits losses frictional a the that gas clearly within
be disadvantageous,

FIG.

112.

engine diminish as the ignition is later, this result no doubt being due to the lessened direct thrust on "the crankshaft bearings as compared with dead-centre firing. Nevertheless, in ordinary horizontal gas engines the firing is generally so timed as to give a vertical ignition line,and for this purpose
the inlet valve may be set to open when the crank is about Naturally this angle will vary with 15" below the centre. In multiple-cylinder engines this practice the piston speed. would entail a risk of back-firing, and in such engines the inlet valves are usually set to open when the crank is some 15" above the centre. The temperature and of the ignition tube have adjustment an all-important influence upon the rapidity with which the explosion is effected, and hence upon the shape of the firing lead " of the timing valve and the piston speed are obvious factors ; while it will be readily understood that the richness of the charge has also a conignition line. The
"

DIAGRAMS

FROM

GAS

AXD

OIL

ENGINES.

97

siderable effect upon the rapidity with which combustion takes place. The latter point is well shown by Fig. 113, in which the firing is so very late that eventually a charge As a consequence, the next entirely fails to explode. admission gives a total charge of double strength which readily fireson the centre, giving the single vertical firing shown, terminating in a horizontal line which marks the highest limiting position of the indicatorpiston. With very weak charges the distinction between the ignition and expansion lines entirely disappears, as shown by Fig. 114, the charge burning slowly throughout the entire stroke and leading to the back-firing previously referred to. The three ignition lines shown in Fig. 115 are from the

FIG.

FIG. 113.

engine, and show the effect produced by successively reducing the firing lead. It may be noted that with late firingthe ignition line often appears of the concave or hollow form shown in the second example, which is to be distinguis
same

from the rounded form of ignition line,indicating a weak charge. The abrupt break in the third ignition line is attributable to imperfect mixing of the air and gas. The firingof the charge, taking place as it does at a point is small, is but imperfectly shown where the piston movement in the ordinary diagram, and hence it would appear that the crossed diagram, referred to on page 62, merits attention in this connection as offering a convenient for more means closely investigating the explosion of the charge and its An arrangement devised by H. attendant phenomena. * Giildner gives a diagram somewhat of this kind. In this
*

"Zeitechrift des Vereines

deutecher

Ingenieure.

vol. xliv.,pajre 1730.

98

THE

INDICATOR

HANDBOOK.

case

is given to the only one complete oscillatory movement indicator drum instead of two, the indicator being operated from the half-speed shaft, and the reducing so motion

is at arranged as to show firing occurring when the drum Fig. 116 shows the form mid-stroke. of the resulting

FIG.

115.

diagram,

modified form by the apparently vertical ignition which is now assumed in view could be line. It would appear that the object by a equally well attained by driving the indicator drum cord attached to a pin set eccentrically in the end of the
the

dotted

lines indicating

the

crankshaft, so as to give the required travel to the drum, and- so placed in relation to the engine crank is at its that the drum

mid-travel the passes

FIG.
lie.

as

the engine inner dead

centre.

Kbrting
on
a

strip of paper running at about obtaining in this way pressure-time diagrams which are of ignition and of examining considerable value as a means phenomena. combustion The Line. The Expansion character of the expansion line of the gas engine diagram is largely influenced by the form of the ignition line, and hence, indirectly, is chiefly dependent upon the factors considered in the preceding With conditions favourable to rapid combustion, section. and a firing line vertical or nearly so, the point of maximum
"

grams has taken dia2ft. per second,

DIAGRAMS

FEOM

GAS

AND

OIL

ENGINES.

99

pressure frequently coincides with the upper limit of the ignition line, and often in such cases the junction of the More ignition and expansion lines forms a sharp peak. generally, however, the explosion is not completed until the forward to some extent, this resulting in piston has moved in Fig. seen the more usual formation of the rounded corner

viewed with to or defective indicator suspicion pointing the spring reaching the limit of its compression before the is full pressure is attained. in either case The remedy
as

117.

A flatter corner

as

in Fig. 118
a

is to be

either to

obvious. The subsequent theoretical

curve

expansion due to the

curve

true

usually lies above the adiabatic expansion of

FIG. 119.

FIG. 117.

FIG.

118.

FIG.

120.

that heat is added to the gases during the charge, showing for this expansion in a water-cooled cylinder. To account It appears effect various theories have been advanced. be effected that combustion cannot reasonable to assume in which case heat completely before expansion commences, would be evolved during the early part of the expansion period. More elaborate theories have been advanced which

fluid, as " dissociation," physical changes in the working increase of the specific heats of the expanding gases, The " stratification of the charge " a theory due to etc. finds little support ; but at least one Otto, now authority, Professor Witz, maintains that this addition of heat is to be fully accounted for by the action of the cylinder walls. Occasionally undulations appear in the expansion line (other than those due to the indicator) which under
imply
"

100

TEE

INDICATOR

HANDBOOK.

their formation may produce waves The to be due to of great amplitude. effect appears a wave motion in the gases during combustion. In the the expansion of cases period is not majority beyond from prolonged about 80 to 90 per cent, of the This to the toe corner stroke. gives a well-rounded

conditions

favourable

to

slight loss of forward pressure area incurred being practically offset by the lessened back pressure area. Moreover, with early release the sudden expansion of the spent charge takes place mainly in the cylinder. On the other hand, when release does not occur the whole of the until the end of the stroke (Fig. 120),
of

the

diagram

(Fig.119), the

FIG.

121.

FIG. 123.

expansion takes place in the exhaust pipe, causing a its prevention noisy discharge ; where this is objectionable, by means of muffles or silencers involves a further slight increase in the back pressure work of the engine. sudden DIAGRAMS TWO-CYCLE
ENGINES.

FROM

Cards from two-stroke gas engines differfrom those given by the more generally used four-stroke type, particularly in Thus in Fig. 121, regard to the point of exhaust opening. from a 600H.P. two-stroke engine, exhaust a diagram mences comabout four-fifthsof the expansion The pressure falls rapidly, and stroke has been completed. during the last eighth of the stroke the products of combus10 or 121b. in excess 'tionescape at a pressure of some of that As in this case the spent gases are not of the atmosphere.
at the point
a

when

expelled by the piston, the cylinder is cleared by a is now air flush. A fresh charge admitted

scavenging

to

the

DIAGRAMS

FROM

GAS

AND

OIL

EXGIXES.

101

the cylinder, and at the point c compression commences, following firing exactly and expansion subsequent events of in the four-stroke cycle. as It will be evident that with this method of working, the usual suction and back pressure lines forming the bottom loop no longer appear, and to determine the loss from fluid diagrams are friction (which will be greater in this case), by which the charge is slightly required from the pump compressed and forced into the cylinder. In large engines, such as the Korting two-cycle type,

FIG. 124.

FIG. 126.

separate air and gas pumps are provided, the constituents of the charge being delivered under pressure, and mixing immediately in front of the admission valve. Representative cards from air and gas pumps are shown in Figs. 122 and 123.

OIL ENGINE
In from
no

DIAGRAMS.

essential particular does the diagram obtained the oil engine differ from that given by the gas has already been said in engine, and in general what connection with the latter appliesequally well to the former. Some slight modification of form arises frem the different engines it systems of vaporising the oil, and in most will be found that the loss due to fluid friction is more higher than in the gas engine, a somewhat pronounced back pressure and the fall during the suction stroke frequently producing a very decided loop. In Fig. 124, which is a diagram from a Crossley oil engine, a pronounced

102

TEE

INDICATOR

HANDBOOK.

loop is seen however,

even

mainly is less than that often met the average loss shown with in other types of oil As engines. may be anticipated, the mixture of the oil vapour and air is not so intimately effected as in the gas engine, this being often evidenced by slight irregularities in the outlines of both compression sion and expanFurther, as a mixed charge of oil vapour and curves. liable than a gas engine charge to ignite more air is much spontaneously during compression, the risk of pre-ignition imposes a much lower limit to the compression pressure ; indeed, it is generally true that oil engine diagrams will both a lower compression show and a lower explosion pressure than are usually found in gas engine diagrams. In the Diesel petroleum engine exceptionally high pressures, 600 7001b. or sometimes reaching per square inch, are employed, but as air alone is admitted during the compression is impossible. Firing is stroke, pre-ignition effected by injecting oil into the compressed air, the temperature of the latter being sufficient to ignite the spray of finely-divided Under these oil vapour, and hence to explode the charge. the combustion conditions of working of the charge is practically perfect, and hence the heat efficiency shows a distinct advance upon other types of gas and oil engines. An important advantage is also obtained in the ease and

at the high scale of spring employed ; it is, confined to the outer half of the stroke, and

precision with which the governing of the motor is effected, less of the this being arranged for by by-passing more or An indicator charge as it is delivered from the oil pump. diagram from a Diesel engine is shown in Fig. 125.

CHAPTER
DIAGRAMS FROM
AIR

VI.
PUMPS,

COMPRESSORS,

ETC.

tions exhibit a cycle of operamachines inverse of that which may be regarded as the indicated by the steam engine diagram. Thus, referring to the theoretical diagram, Fig. 126, the line LA represents flow of air into the cylinder during the the unimpeded whole of the piston stroke. At A the admission valve is
air compressing

AIR

COMPRESSOR

DIAGRAMS."

Diagrams

from

FIQ.

the returning piston compresses the air as closed and A C, which latter, for curve indicated by the compression the best results, should be isothermal in character ; in other At C should be a rectangular hyperbola. words, the curve the delivery valve opens and the contents of the cylinder discharged at a uniform are pressure equal to that of the receiver, as indicated by the horizontal delivery line C D. At D the delivery valve closes, and simultaneously the

admission
vertical

valve reopens, resulting in the formation of the D L, indicating an instant fall to the lower
103

pressure.

104

THE

INDICATOR

HANDBOOK.

In practice, the chief divergences from the ideal method due (1)to the resistance offered by both are of working inlet and discharge valves and ports ; (2) to the generation of heat during compression, which modifies the character of the In compression ; and (3)to the effect of cylinder clearance. Fig. 127, which shows the effect upon the diagram of the several influences cited, both the adiabatic and isothermal drawn in order to afford a comparison curves are with the From what has been said in a of compression. actual curve previous chapter (page1 4) it will be understood that the A F represents the curve pression adiabatic curve along which comwould take place if no heat was lost by the working fluid ; while A H is the curve which the compression would

FIG. 127.

follow

that sufficient heat is abstracted the assumption In practice, to maintain the air at a uniform temperature. is found to lie between however, the compression curve the to A F when little care two reference curves, approximating
on

A H nearly approaching for absorbing are the more as efficient means provided But even heat generated. under the very best conditions to isothermal conditions is not a close one. the approach
is taken to cool the air, and
more

by the equation pvn C, the value of the curve 1 '406 for the n the limiting values of the index n are, 1 for the isothermal curve A H. A F, and n adiabatic curve In practice, n may be as high as 1 '4 ; but for ordinary singleDesignating
=
"

="

n has often a value cylinder compressors with a water jacket, of 1 '3. In the better class of wet compressors with spray 1'25 and 1'20 ; while for large n injection, often liesbetween compressors of good design, a value as low as compound

DIAGRAMS

FROM

AIR

COMPRESSORS,

PUMPS,

ETC.

105

n=

i'lo has been reached. But whatever the value of the it should lie evenly in the space enclosed by the two curve, definite changes in its direction standard reference curves,
or

breaks in its contour indicating leakage past the When the leakage is very pronounced, piston or valves. thermal curve the isothe compression will fall distinctly under The importance of securing the isothermal curve. condition as far as practicable arises from the fact that in abrupt
heat in the delivered air is dissipated by general the excess radiation before it is used, and hence the discharge volume then contracted to H D', represented by C D' will have

involving

loss of compression work approximately sented repreby the area A C H A. From the this will be seen desirability not only of cooling the air as effectually as possible during compression, but also of using the compressed as convenient. air at as high a temperature Upon referring to Fig. 127, it will be seen that owing to
a

of the delivery valve the compression curve the line D D', representing the receiver pressure, and also that the delivery line presents a series of undulations, the latter being due to oscillations of to secure the valve under the action of the springs employed When the receiver prompt closing at the end of the stroke. the resistance

weight arises above

and

capacity is small, these undulations are often absent, and falling more the delivery line rises somewhat, abruptly as the end of the stroke is approached. In the absence of any provision for minimising the effects of clearance, the high-pressure air in the clearance space expands as the return movement of the piston commences, forming the expansion line D' E. This reduces the volumetric to E A, but does not efficiency of the compressor from LA entail a loss of power beyond that due to the small amount of heat lost by the clearance air. It is, however, obviously desirable to reduce the clearance effect as far as possible,
this end have been various methods of accomplishing One of the most simple plans consists in providadopted. ing by-passes at each end of the cylinder, so arranged small and the end of the stroke, communication is established between the clearance space on one side In on the the the this of suction space piston and other. way the greater part of the clearance air expands into the
as
nears

that

the piston

106

THE

INDICATOR

HANDBOOK.

suction space, and pressure therein.

Reverting

is usefully

employed

in

raising the

that the again to Fig. 127, it will be seen line A E course, suction exhibits a somewhat undulating due to the oscillation of the admission valve on its seat, and the resistance offered to the inflow of air. The area included between this line and that of atmospheric pressure A L, represents an amount lost of work which rarely averages less than lib. per square inch for the whole stroke, and is often in excess Owing to the slowing down of that amount. much the end of the stroke, the atmospheric of the piston near pressure is usually attained before the point A is reached. If, however, owing to badly-arranged valves, the pressure is
to

stillbelow A L when the compression stroke is commenced, further loss of volumetric efficiency will follow, as some a movement of the piston must take place before the pressure reaches that of the atmosphere
commences.

and

the compression
"

proper

From what heating of the effectof the prejudicial during it loss be seen that this air compression, will will be for Hence greater as the degree of compression is higher. pressures above 60 or 701b. per square inch it is customary to effect the compression in stages, passing the air, after compression in the first cylinder, through inter-cooler in an Further order to reduce it to the atmospheric temperature. compression in a second cylinder follows, while if the desired final pressure is from 300 to lOOOlb. per square inch, a stage second cooler is used and a third compression Similarly, for from 30001b to 1000 , pressures of adopted. four- or six-stage compressors are often used, the air being described. alternately compressed and cooled in the manner Diagrams from compound are air compressors combined
in

Diagrams from Compound has been said as to the

Air Compressors.

bining essentially analogous to that adopted in comfrom steam useful engines ; much compound cards information can be obtained from the combined cards, more particularly in regard to the efficiency of the inter-cooler. In the combined card shown in Fig. 128, A F is the adiabatic while A N P S represents the and A H the isothermal curve,
a manner curve. complete actual compression is L A N R, and the high pressure

The low-pressure card R P S D, while L A and

DIAGRAMS

FROM

AIR

COMPRESSORS,

PUMPS,

ETC.

107

L M represent the comparative volumes of the two cylinders. From the diagram it willbe seen that the action of the interfrom cooler was quite complete, the volume R N discharged the L.P. cylinder being cooled to atmospheric temperature, by the H.P. compression commencing as shown at the point Had the cooler action been P in the isothermal curve. the air in the L.P. cylinder retaining a portion ingly of the heat of compression would have been of correspondlarger volume, and hence would have necessitated a higher pressure in the L.P. cylinder and involved a loss of By continuing the compression line A X up to C, work.
-.lertect.

it will be

seen

that

an

amount

of work

approximately

FlQ. 128.

FIG. 129.

has been saved by the NCSP represented by the area inter-coolingof the air. The diagram from a three-stage compressor given in Fiiz. 129 shows how, by increasing the number of stages, isothermal to a compression is stillcloser approximation attained. In this case the intermediate cooling effect is sufficient to bring the starting point of each compression line upon the isothermal curve. Hence the lost work is formed by the represented by the three triangular areas lines overlapping the isothermal curve, to compression formed by which has to be added the small loop-like areas the overlapping of the several cards, the amount of which depends upon the resistance of the passages between the cylinders and inter-coolers. Blowing Engine Diagrams are a variety of air-compressor the cards in which the chief points to be noted are

308

THE

INDICATOR

HANDBOOK.

losses due to clearance and to the resistance of the valves. Although the pressures dealt with are low, rarely exceeding 251b. per square inch, the volumes are and piston areas large, and hence in these engines the loss above referred Fig. 130 is a card increasingly important. to becomes from a blowing engine with unduly large clearance spaces,
loss of about nine per cent, of capacity. The blowing engine diagram Fig. 131 shows the extent to which in these engines, the loss due to valve resistance often occurs loss during admission being 10 '5 per cent., and the mean 12'1 per cent, of the power during discharge usefully involving
a

expended. Compression Machines differbut Diagrams from Ammonia littlefrom those considered in the foregoing sections, except with regard to the suction pressure, which is above that of

FIG.

130.

PIG.

131.

; hence the resistance offered by the inlet atmosphere the suction valves cannot well be ascertained by comparing However, with the atmospheric lines,as in air compressors. gauges are almost invariably fixed to both the suction and

the

delivery pipes, and by comparing the pressures thus indicated by the indicator diagram, the work with those shown be due to resistance valve readily determined, may always provided that the indicator (which for ammonia Part I., page 57) see work must be of special construction
"

has

been

found, by

testing, to be in agreement

with

the

pressure gauges employed. Various devices have been adopted with the objectof due loss to the the expansion of the gas contained minimising form of vertical in the clearance spaces, and in one filled with oil which is maintained in constant circulation. This method has the tage advanthe not clearance spaces, but only of nullifying gas. also of assisting in the cooling of the compressed compressor
these spaces
are

DIAGRAMS

FROM

AIR

COMPRESSORS,

PUMPS,

ETC.

109

Fig. 132 is a diagram taken from a 14in. compressor of this type running without oil, while Fig. 133 is the corresponding card taken when the circulationof the oil has been restored. In each case E H is the isothermal and E F the adiabatic

FIG. 132.

FIG. 133.

curve.

Leakage past the piston is clearly indicated in Fig. 132 by the falling of the compression curve below EH, confirmation of this view being found in the form of the DB. A comparison with Fig. 133 shows expansion curve the marked gain in volumetric efficiencywhich results

"fxN^

VS/v/^-

FIG. 134.

FIG. 135.

from the use of the clearance oil,and also an improved, but by no means perfect,compression curve. Pump Diagrams. The theoreticaldiagram from a water is a figure very closely approxipump plain rectangle"a mated to in cards from water-works pumps, of which Fig. 134 is a good example. Commencing at a, the suction stroke is performed at an average pressure of about 31b. At b per square inch below that of the atmosphere. suction ceases, and with the reversal of the plunger the pressure rises immediately to c, the peaks formed being
"

16

110

THE

INDICATOR

HANDBOOK.

due to hydraulic shock in the indicator. The quent subseminor fluctuations are caused by slight changes of the pump, those near the end of the pressure within delivery stroke being due to the influx of water into the main from another of the three cylinders of the pump. The pressure against which these pumps operate is 891b. per square inch ; the plungers are 33in. in diameter and have a The card shown in Fig. 134 was taken at stroke of 60in.
mainly

pumps, or through the of the corners of the diagram as in Fig. 135, which is a card taken from a 4inboiler feed pump. Leakage of the delivery valve is prob-

15 revolutions per minute. Leakage past the plungers of water valves, is indicated by a rounding

FIG.

136.

FIG. 137.

of the marked curving at the commencement ably the cause again evident as of the suction line a b, the effect becoming the plunger towards the end of the stroke, slows down Leakage past the causing curving of the line as at cd. for the piston or of the suction valve would account

rounding at d e. When feed and similar pumps are run above their much intended speed, the resistance to the inflow of water drawn in at each stroke. considerably reduces the amount Hence not only does the suction line appear well below the atmospheric line, as in Fig. 136, but also, as there shown, a large portion of the stroke is completed before the pressure similar effect is seen rises to that of delivery. A somewhat drawing water from a hot well, in cards from feed pumps in which case the barrel is partially filled with vapour and
air, and the capacity of the pump
is much

reduced.

DIAGRAMS

FROM

AIR

COMPRESSORS,

PUMPS,

ETC.

Ill

the delivery valve, by delaying the closing to pressure, will result in the formation of a toe beak as at c, Fig. 137, where or a portion cd of the return stroke is completed before the valve is completely
action

Sluggish

of

the point which marks The more the true commencement of the suction stroke. less violent fluctuations of pressure, as at a b, which often or during the early portion of the delivery stroke, are due occur closed and
pressure shock, the effect being, as already mentioned, partly due to the indicator. When air vessels of a suitable volume are smoother action is obtained, provided, a much fitted on the are with stillbetter results if such chambers suction as well as on the delivery side of the pump. Diagrams
taken various
to hydraulic

the

falls to

pumps

at

of duplex steam speeds, while presenting no features not

from

the

water

side

"L

A-

FIG.

138.

Fit;. 139

already alluded to, will frequently be found to differ materially in their lengths, the cards obtained at the low of the lower velocity of speeds being shortened by reason the moving parts and their consequent earlier stoppage in the stroke. Air Pump Diagrams, under the best conditions of working,
often approximate

pressors. obtained from air comThis is more especially the case with single-acting in connection with surface condensers, as pumps working the quantity of air and water to be dealt with is considerably less than with jet Thus in Fig. 138, which is a condensers. in diagram from a vertical single-acting air pump working charge disconnection with a surface condenser, the maximum
to those

in form

pressure is 21b. per square inch above the atmosphere. In Fig. 139, however, which is a card from a single-acting

112

THE

INDICATOR

HANDBOOK.

air pump

the discharge pressure attains a maximum of lOlb. per square inch. When the valves of an are air pump allowed to become foul owing to deposits of grease, etc., they will often fail to

used with

jetcondenser,

J\

FIG.

140.

FIG.

141.

lift, and for one or more strokes the air and water contained in the pump and expanded, will be alternately compressed finally in the accumulation of water the condenser causes until its intended function. the valves to open, and the pump fulfils A diagram resembling that shown in Fig. 140 is obtained

FIG. 142

during such an idle stroke, Fig. 141 being the corresponding diagram obtained under normal conditions of working. from a vertical double-acting air pump Diagrams of the in Fig. 142. The are bucket-and-plunger type shown irregularity in the discharge line from the larger diagram is frequently met than one usually more with, although fluctuations of pressure are is found. Such undulation doubtless due to the oscillations of the valve and the
spasmodic expulsion
of the air and
water.

CHAPTER
DIAGRAM

VII.

CALCULATIONS.

The indicator diagram HORSE-POWER," furnishing as it does a graphic record of the pressure the stroke, rinds an acting upon the piston throughout important use in connection with the measurement of engine it becomes deduce For to this purpose necessary power. from the diagram the mean pressure exerted during effective the stroke ; in other words, to determine that pressure which, the stroke, would produce a rectangular diagram precisely equivalent in area to the actual Then if P is the mean effective pressure in pounds per card. of the piston in square inches, L the square inch, A the area length of the stroke in feet, N the number of strokes ( twice
acting
=

INDICATED

uniformlythroughout

the

per revolutions)

minute,

and

I.H.P.

the

indicated

horse-power,

When

the cylinder diameter

p
T

D in inches is given, PLD2N

T)2 V
~^

I.H.P.=

42,017

r =0-0000238

...

(2)

If the piston speed S in feet per minute

p TI
-^

is given, then

I.H.P.=
It should

4i',017

~1.0-0000238
=

PD2S

.........

(3)

be noted that the net or is piston area effective required ; hence in ordinary cases allowance should be made for the piston from A in rod by deducting one-half its area If a tailrod is used, one-half the sum (1).' of the areas of the two

rods should

be deducted.
113

The

piston rod

can

be

114

THE

INDICATOR

HANDBOOK.

allowed for in (2)or (3)by deducting one-half the square of the rod diameter if a single rod is used, or one-half the sum of the squares of the two rod diameters if a tailrod is used. is In four-cycle gas and oil engines no such allowance forms of two-cycle gas ordinarily required ; but in some It is to be obengines the correction will be necessary. is always to be the number servedfthat in this case N in (1)
of firing strokes per minute. When a number of cards from

engine are to be dealt with, the horse-power calculation may be simplified considerably by expressing the non- variable factors of the Thus, for any engine, equation, in the form of a constant. the area of the piston (A)and the length of stroke (L) are the
same

FIG.

143.

FlO.

144.

unalterable factors, and by multiplying out, once A x L x 2

constant,"
" "

hence

may be simplified for all,the value of the " engine

matters

Then

this constant

multiplied

by

the number of revolutions per minute, and by the mean effective pressure (P) deduced from the diagram, will give the I.H.P. developed. be effected when A still further simplification may the uniform, by multiplying the constant piston speed remains found as above by the number of revolutions per minute, this giving a by mean the before. Mean-Presswe
"
"

which, when piston constant effective pressure, gives the

"

multiplied I.H.P. as

Calculations. It may be said that the area A C D F L A under the forward pressure line of the diagram on in Fig. 143 represents work done by the steam shown the piston ; while the area A B G F L A under the back pres-

DIAGRAM

CALCULATIONS.

115

sure

line represents work done on the steam by the piston. B C D F G B, and for The difference is the effective work area that the back the present purpose it is quite immaterial is really coincident with the forward pressure work area of the card from the other end of the cylinder, pressure area have no bearing upon the result, as since obviously this can both the cards are ultimately taken into account. Except in the case of looped diagrams (page 117),it is the forward and back unnecessary to separately compute described, the required M.E.P. being as just pressure areas directly and accurately by dividing the area obtained more B C D F G B by its length as A L. as of the actual diagram
The

result gives in effect the height

of the mean-pressure

FIG. us.

ordinate as G E, and this,multiplied by the scale of the spring pressure. employed, gives the required mean finding direct method A more the M.E.P. consists in of in Fig. 144. in the manner dividing the diagram shown height here is to obtain approximately The the mean object of the 10 rectangular sections into which the diagram may this resolves to be divided ; but, as will be seen, be assumed
10 equally-spaced ordinates, so that the spaces remaining at each end are each one-half of the common interval, as shown in the illustration. A convenient of effecting the required division, method by the aid of an ordinary rule or scale, is indicated in the it is preferable to make a figure ; but for continued use special scale divided in the particular matter required. itself into drawing

116

TEE

INDICATOR

HANDBOOK.

Another method of locating the ordinates is by the aid of in Fig. 145, which be drawn the diagram on shown may stout card, C D being conveniently made about 6in. long, B E, 2in., and the vertical height about Sin. In using the diagram, the exact length of the card to be divided, as A L, is marked off on the edge of a strip of paper, and this is placed horizontally on the diagram, and in such a position The interthat A and L fall upon B C and E D, as shown. mediate
off on the paper strip, marked transferred to the card, and the ordinates drawn in. The author prefers to draw the diagram upon stout tracing paper or cloth, and to apply this directly to the card, locating the ordinates by pricking through the division lines where they cross the card length line A L. Special parallel rulers are sometimes supplied for spacing the ordinates, but as these usually divide the length into 10 equal parts they are as not so convenient could be
are

divisions

then

wished.
by of the ordinates in Fig. 144 may be measured the scale corresponding to the spring used, and the pressures so obtained added together; the result, divided by 10, will give approximately the M.E.P. per square inch throughout Each the

A more accurate stroke. in consists mechanically adding

means

strip of paper or A mark near one as a starting point end of this strip serves from which the lengths of the several ordinates are stepped off in succession, so that the total length of the marked of the 10 ordinates. portion of the strip is equal to the sum This length, divided by 10 and multiplied by the scale of the spring, gives the M.E.P. required. for effecting the summation Special instruments of the ordinates with greater accuracy have been introduced from Of these the Meanometer time to time consists of a rule bearing scales and fitted with a sliding runner cursor. or Hale's Slide Scale comprises a suitably divided scale with aslidIn ing vernier, by which readings to O'OOlin. can be made. using this instrument, the ordinates are drawn as described, and the zero on the slide having been brought opposite to the zero on the scale, the scale is placed on the firstordinate The slide with the slide on the lower line of the diagram.
of

convenient method by together ordinates card having a straight edge.

and

the

DIAGRAM

CALCULATIONS

117

is then moved along the ordinate until the edge of upward When this the slide cuts the upper line of the diagram. for 10 been each of the ordinates, repeated operation has the reading on the slide is taken, and this, multiplied by

the scale of the spring used, gives the M.E.P. in pounds per square inch. Among purpose, mention other simple devices for the same White-Bean Area Scale, be which consists made of the may sheet of transparent celluloid on which is printed a dotted. series of equidistant lines, alternately full and is placed under diagram The the celluloid so that each extreme end of the figure lies equidistant between a pair of dotted and solid lines. The lengths of the several ordinates lying within the outline of the diagram are then successively of
a

FIG. 1*6.

off on a strip of paper, and the total length measured on or one other of two scales (giving sq. in. or sq. cm.) marked on the upper part of the celluloid sheet. This area, divided by the length, gives the M.E.P. Low's Diagram is of somewhat Measurer struction similar con-

marked

but transverse
the

a (against straightcelluloid sheet over edge) be the sum of the intercepted ordinates can read off on a scale at one of the figure in side, giving the area square inches. The followed of measuring plan sometimes separately those portions of the ordinates above and those below the to atmospheric line, and adding the results, has nothing its adoption, but rather the reverse, recommend since it

scale lines are the diagram

added.

By sliding

increases

errors

of measurement

and is wasteful of time.

118

THE

INDICATOR

HANDBOOK.

to any vibrations of the pencil distort the diagram to a line marked degree the ordinates should be measured drawn midway between the crests and hollows of the undulations.

When

loops are best dealt which include one or more described in connection with with by the indirect method Fig. 143. Thus, in such a case as shown in Fig. 146, the card should be divided and ordinates drawn as before. Then A L and the the sum of the ordinate lengths between forward pressure line B G F E is taken, and from this is

Diagrams

deducted the sum A L and of the ordinate lengths between The difference divided by the back pressure line E D C B. 10 and multiplied by the scale of the spring will give

FIG.

147.

traction required, which is in effect that, due to the subfrom the of negative work of the two shaded areas unshaded diagram area. In diagrams from four-cycle gas engines the (negative) area of the loop formed by the suction and exhaust lines is In two-cycle engines the usually a negligible quantity. is more readily calculated. work done in the air and gas pumps

the M.E.P.

It should be deducted from the positive work card to obtain the true indicated horse-power of the engine. A more Planimeters. of accurate and expeditious method
"

the area and hence the of an indicator card form of mechanical is by the use of some required M.E.P. Various types of this intrument integrator or planimeter. are made, but the modified form of Amsler's Polar Planimeter

obtaining

"

"

for the present in Fig. 147 is found very convenient purpose, as it enables the M.E.P. to be read directly without firstascertaining the area of the card and dividing this by

shown

DIAGRAM

CALCULATIONS.

119

As will be seen, the instrument consists of two hinged together, the needle point F at the free metal arms of the arms providing a pivot, while the extremity of one A is furnished with a tracing point P with which other arm The to be measured. to trace the outline of the diagram
its length. roller wheel D upon which the instrument
moves

is provided

with a scale graduated to record the area traced, the reading being facilitatedby the addition of the vernier E and the counting disc G. In using the planimeter it should be placed relatively to in Fig. 148, so in the position shown the diagram, somewhat

FIG.

148.

in tracing the outof movement line. The weight F is then placed in position, and the needle point pressed into the board carrying the instrument, and upon which the indicator card is fixed. It is desirable
as

to allow perfect freedom

also to mount

the

board upon the board a piece of flat unglazed cardfreely Placing can the travel. roller wheel upon which P at any convenient pointer point upon the outline

of the figure to be measured, the measuring wheel is to be Then to zero or the present reading taken. either adjusted the tracing point is carefully moved round the figure, in the

direction of the hands of a watch, until the starting point is again reached. The reading given (either by direct by subtracting or the old reading from the observation new, will under ordinary according to the method pursued)

120

THE

INDICATOR

HANDBOOK.

in square conditions be that of the area of the diagram inches. The illustration of the recording mechanism of the planito explain the manner meter given in Fig. 149 will serve of E. Referring to the on the the vernier scale reading scale D, it be 10 figured seen that each of the wheel will spaces is subdivided into 10 equal parts. The vernier scale is also divided equally into 10 parts, but the spaces are each less than those on D ; in other words, 1 0 divisions on ET^th are As shown in the illustration, equal to 9 divisions on D. the instrument is arranged to give the area of a figure,one complete D to in. lOsq. The revolution of corresponding number

FIG. 149.

of completed revolutions of D are recorded on the disc G, D are read against the zero of the while the graduations on consists of 1 vernier scale. Thus, the reading here shown ten, 4 units, 7 tenths, or 14'7, plus a fraction of a space on by following along the vernier scale D, which is determined of the division line thereon which and noting the number it agrees with any division on the main scale. In this case is seen that the third division on E is that sought, and the complete reading will be 14'73 sq. in. For as less than those on D, it is the spaces on E are each y^n obvious that three spaces on E will be ^ths less than three Hence, taking the coinciding graduations as a spaces on D. common starting point, it is clear that the small interval marked a will be ^ths of a space on D, or three-hundredths of a square inch. hence

DIAGRAM

CALCULATIONS

121

the particular instrument shown in Fig. 147, however, directly in the form of the the result can be obtained more This is average or mean-pressure ordinate of the diagram. S and so the bar effected by loosening the screw adjusting A (Fig. 147) that the two steel points exactly contain between to be measured them the length of the diagram in this manner, the figures on 150). When adjusted (Fig. the counting disc G are to be read as hundreds, those on the
With units, roller wheel as tens, the intermediate graduations is used The instrument and the vernier reading tenths. in the manner explained, but it is desirable to commence As, however, the reading obtained with the wheel at zero. will be the average height of the diagram in fortieths of an.

Fio. iso.

inch, the figures on the counting disc do not usually enter is 40, the into the result. When the scale of the diagram reading will be the required ALE. P. per square inch; for other scales it is necessary to divide the observed reading by Thus, if the 40 and to multiply by the scale of the diagram. 4j roller wheel gives 42 and the vernier 8, the reading 1-07, and multiplied by, say 60, as the scale of the -=-40 64'21b. per square inch. diagram, the M.E.P. is 1'07 x 60 The same result can be obtained directly by multiplying the The reading by a factor corresponding to the scale used.
=

factors
are

as

corresponding follows :
"

to the

springs
20

most

generally used 30
40

Springs...

12

16

24

Factors... 1-25

1-5

2'0

2'5

3-0

3-75

4'5

122

THE

INDICATOR

HANDBOOK.

Planimeter, shown in Fig. 151, has a wide tracing range, and the accuracy of every reading can be immediately checked by a compensating measurement, and any error rectified. The polar arm P and the tracer arm F are two pendent indebut linked parts, fitted separately in the case, together for use by inserting the ball pin G into a socket in After the diagram the roller frame. has been traced and the reading taken, the pin G is lifted and the arms P and F The pin G is then swing round without moving the pole p.

Ott's Compensating

FIG. 151.

re-inserted in a position symmetrically opposite to its former position. The measuring operation is then repeated and the mean of the two readings obtained is the correct area of the figure. To find the mean height of an indicator diagram the area obtained is divided by the length of the diagram measured between the extreme the area obtained verticals. Assuming is 4'27sq. in., whilst the extreme length of the diagram is l'13in. height is 3'78in. ; then the mean With or -|;f-|the aid of a slide rule this division and the subsequent be effected in multiplication by the scale of the spring can
a

very convenient very accurate.

To obtain
must

manner,

while

the results obtained

are

accurate

strumen readings with any planimeter the inbe clean and the base board perfectly flat.

DIAGRAM

CALCULATIONS.

123

in Fig. 152, shown is a very convenient modification of the planimeter, giving directly without calculation or the M.E.P. of adjustment

The

CoffinAveraging

Instrument,

FIG. 168.

any kind. is mounted

As will be
carries

seen,
a

in the position shown

which the apparatus metal plate I, being held grooved by a thumb-screw on the underside.
on

the board

124

THE

INDICATOR

HANDBOOK.

The indicator card is placed under the clips C and K, being line is near to and so that the atmospheric adjusted B of the fixed clip, while the parallel with the lower arm is placed close to left-hand portion of the diagram extreme
the perpendicular arm of the same clip. The movable clip fit K lower in lateral a the end of which slides with a close is then moved along until the bevelled edge almost groove
"
"

touches the extreme right-hand end of the diagram, the the ends of the diagram space left between and the corresponding being diameter to the equal of the clips one-half tracing point D. is then placed on The beam of the instrument the board with the pin at the lower end resting in the groove in the

plate I, and the weight W placed on the top of the pin to keep it securely in position. The tracing point is then to the extreme right hand of the diagram, and a moved slight indentation made in the paper at E, the point where the The graduated clip K and the diagram touch each other. mark coincides with wheel is next tiirned, so that its zero The tracing point is now carethe vernier. moved fully direction diagram line in the of the of the along the Keeping hands of a watch until the circuit is completed. by the eye upon the wheel, the tracer is then moved upward
that
on

sliding it along the edge of the clip K until the reading on to zero, the when another slight wheel again returns A.is The beam indentation of the paper of made, as at be removed, now the clip K drawn the instrument may the two indentations, away, and the distance E A, between by the scale corresponding to the spring measured when used, gives the M.E.P required. is required instead of the If the area of the diagram be obtained by taking the pressure, this can average the circuit of the wheel when reading of the graduated The wheel is divided into has been completed. diagram fifteen principal divisions, each of which is again subdivided into five parts. A vernier scale attached enables the result to be read to 0'02 of a square inch. is an The Hatchet Planimeter exceedingly simple appliance, to be the area or the obtain used either which may It indicator height of an mean consists essentially of card. a rod or at right wire of which the ends are turned down

D1AGEAM

CALCULATIONS.

125

The in Fig. 153. the end A forms angles, as shown tracing point, while B is flattened and brought to a knifeIn edge, but with a rounded or hatchet-shaped contour. the special form used to obtain the M.E.P. direct from the on the horizontal bar, diagram, the limb B is adjustable and is so set that the distance between the centres of A and B is equal to the horizontal length of the diagram to As, however, the accuracy of the instrument be measured. is increased as A B is made greater, many prefer to use a being bar of fixed length (lOin. and, after convenient),

FIG

154.

obtaining the area, to divide this result by the length of the card to obtain M.E.P. In using the instrument, the pointer is placed approxi 154), mately at the centre of gravity of the diagram C (Fig. and the hatchet end D pressed into the paper or card upon From C the pointer is moved in a direction which it rests. at about right angles to C D until the point H is reached, the diagram being then traced over in the direction of the hands When H is again reached the pointer is taken of a watch. along H C, and when at the latter point another indentation E is made by pressing on the hatchet end of the instrument. Next, without disturbing the bar or the marks D and E, the

17

126

THE

INDICATOR

HANDBOOK.

diagram

is turned through 180" and the tracing process to H' and completing the circuit as repeated, first moving before, but in the opposite direction. When C is again F is obtained, and midway between reached a final mark

the point P is found, giving E P as the result If the instrument has been so that CD sought. adjusted is equal to the diagram length, then E P, measured by the scale of the diagram, will give the required M.E.P. in pounds If,however, the arm is of any other length per square inch. in then E P is to be multiplied by x (giving the area (x), square inches)and divided by the diagram length to obtain and
It will be seen the M.E.P. that by using a length of lOin. the multiplication is readily effected by moving the decimal point.

di!|iii;rxiii^i^M'|l|i^M

FIG

155.

M.E.P. having been The Horse-power Calculations. described, the indicated obtained by any of the methods horse-power can be calculated by the rules given on page
"

113, the seyeral pairs of cards from multi-cylinder engines being treated separately and the results added to obtain the These developed. total power calculations, especially if are numerous, tedious and time-taking, and hence considerable is derived from the use of specially-arranged slide rules, such as shown in Fig. 155, which represents, on half full size, the author's Power Computer a scale of about This, as will be seen, confor Steam, Gas, and Oil Engines. sists is lower a a on the scale of of portion of which stock advantage

cylinder diameters, while the upper portion carries a scale In the groove between these scales, two of horse-powers. slides,also carrying scales, are so arranged as to be capable with the stock and with each of sliding in edge contact
other.

DIAGRAM

CALCULATIONS

127

determining the indicated horse-power of gas or oil per square inch is set to engines, the M.E.P. in pounds coincide with the cylinder diameter on the lower scale, after of firing strokes per minute being set to which, the number the length of stroke, the indicated horse-power is read over " In the case I.H.P." arrow of steam engines, the number the number of working strokes. of firing strokes is,of course, If in the latter calculation the piston speed is given in place of stroke length and number of strokes, the given piston speed is set to 1ft. on the "stroke" scale, and the result read off as before. Other calculations may also be readily effected. Thus, the dimensions of an engine to develop a found by setting the "I.H.P." arrow given power maybe to the required indicated horse-power, and the length of
In stroke to the number the M.E.P. is found

under of strokes per minute, when the required cylinder diameter. ment, To find the brake horse-power of an engine by this instruthe net weight in pounds acting on the brake strap is set to (orthe net weight at the end of the brake lever)
arrow
"

setting the revolutions per minute length of lever), to the effectiveradius of the brake wheel (or the upper scale over the brake horse-power is read on the " B.H.P." The calculation of the mechanical efficiency arrow
of engines, piston speed, ratio of compound engine cylinders, delivery the of pumps with any efficiency, the horse-power of belting, velocity ratio of pulleys and gear wheels, and the the other velocity of belts and ropes, are among principal purposes for which the computer may be advantageously

the

A."

Then

Water

employed. Consumption

Calculations.
"

Owing

to cylinder densatio con-

of internal waste in the steam and other sources engine, a much larger quantity of steam passes through the for by the indicator engine cylinder than is accounted diagram. Nevertheless, the calculation of the water consumption the indicator card often supplies some interesting data on the comparative performances of engines of different types and under varying conditions of working,
from

particularly in regard to the relative economy of degrees of expansion. varying If A is the area of the piston in square inches, L, the length of stroke in feet, N the number of strokes per minute, and
more

128

THE

INDICATOR

HANDBOOK.

P the M.E.P. in pounds per square inch, then the volume displaced by the piston, or the piston displacement, will be L N
144
x

60cub. ft. per hour. per I.H.P. per hour

will be

Hence

the piston displacement

**"*
...........

"5"

no results that with a cylinder having clearance, and hence no compression, the theoretical steam consumption per I.H.P. per hour would be found by dividing

From

this

it

FIG. 156.

the M.E.P. obtained from the sion actual diagrams, with well-defined compresin lines, the volume the clearance of steam retained for by the following simple be readily allowed space may P Through as a point on the expansion curve expedient. a (Fig.156) taken justbefore opening to exhaust occurs, in S. horizontal line is drawn cutting the compression curve Then if I is the intercepted length, L the whole stroke, and
the constant In diagram.

13,750 by

the

ratio of

these

lengths,

r,

Li

and

L.

Sub-

stituting r L for L in the expression for piston displacement it is seen that the piston displacement in cubic feet per (4),
T

I.H.P. per hour will now

be 13,750

p,

and if W

is the weight

DIAGRAM

CALCULATIONS

129

in Ib. per cubic foot of steam

steam

of pressure

P B, the weight
rW

of

accounted

for by the indicator will be 13,750

-^-Ib.,

engines with a late cut-off,or which the foregoing of compression, show only a small amount method is inapplicable, and the following may be substituted. Express the length P Q as a percentage of the whole stroke L, add the percentage of clearance volume Q C, and multiply by the weight W of a cubic foot of steam of pressure From by found P B. this subtract the product multiplying the percentage of clearance by the weight w of a cubic foot as at at the pressure at the end of the compression of steam k. Multiplying this result by 137 '5, and dividing by the M.E.P., will give the weight in pounds of steam per I.H.P. per hour accounted for by the diagram. For multi-cylinder engines, the M.E.P. employed in these calculations is to be that of all the cylinders referred to the particular cylinder from which the card under consideration has been taken.

P being the M.E.P. For diagrams from

APPENDIX.

APPENDIX.

131

TABLE

IV." PISTON

CONSTANTS.

THE

INDICATOR

HANDBOOK.

TABLE

V." AREAS

OF

CIRCLES.

APPENDIX.

133

TABLE

VI.

"

PROPERTIES

OF

SATURATED

STEAM.

134

THE

INDICATOR

HANDBOOK.

TABLE

VI."

PROPERTIES

OF
Continued.

SATURATED

STEAM.

INDEX

TO

PART

II.

TA.OK

Absolute pressures Adding a condenser

the Adiabatic expansion curve, Admission and exhaust lines in gas engine cards line, the
"

22

72
14 89 23 101 106 103
4'2

Air and gas pump

diagrams

compressor cards, combined diagrams leakage in condensing pump diagrams

Ammonia Amsler's polar planimeter Analysis, diagram
Areas of circles Averaging instrument,

engines

Ill

compression machines,

diagrams from

108 118 48
132

the Coffin

123

Backfiring
pressure line, the Blowing engine diagrams Back Bottom

92

39

107
88

loop

or

weak

spring diagrams

Circles,areas Clearance

of

13-2 34

volumes, values of, per ceiit. Coffin averaging instrument, the

35
123 106

Combined

air compressor

cards Ott's
from

Combining
Compound

diagrams
planimeter,

78
122

Compensating

air compressors, diagrams engines, diagrams from

curve,

106

75
45 46

Compression
,

the

excessive

135

136

THE

INDICATOR

HANDBOOK.
PAOK

Compression
,

line (gasengine), the

the

93
44

machines, ammonia, Computer, power

diagrams

from
,

108
126
.-

Concluding

notes

on

valve setting

60

Condenser, adding a Construction of theoretical expansion Corliss gear, dashpot action in

valve gear valves, leakage of Crossed or eccentric diagrams

72
curves

16

60

57
66 6'2 30

Cylinder condensation Dashpot

action in Corliss gear

60
49

Defective valve setting Defects in engine design, diagrams

indicating

63
9
48

Definitions, preliminary
Diagram

considerations and

analysis

calculations in detail, the

measurer,

113 23

Low's

117
103

Diagrams,
"

"

air compressor blowing engine bottom loop or weak combining

107
spring
88

78
eccentric
".

crossed

or

62

"

from air compressors, pumps, from compound engines from

etc,

103

75
86 18 102
35

gas and oil engines

in practice Diesel oil engine, the

Distorted expansion lines diagrams Double-acting air pump,

Dryness

from

112 82
96

fraction, the

...

Early and late firing closing of gas engine exhaust valve

closure of gas engine admission valve Eccentric or crossed diagrams diagram, the Elementary
Engine

91
91

62 9 63
24

design, diagrams

indicating defects in

Excessive lead

Exhaust

closure, point of

21

INDEX.

137
PACK

Exhaust, lead to
,

37
38 43
91
-

line,the
lines, typical

silencers Expansion
curve,
,

11 14 12 13

adiabatic, the hyperbolic, the for saturated steam

curves
,

gas engine

16 14

indices of theoretical,construction of isothermal

,
,

16
11

line (gas engine), the

,

98

the

30 35 56
96

lines,distorted
valve gear Firing, early and late lead FluM
resistance Friction diagrams

96 88

73
86
curves

Gas engine diagrams

,

expansion

16

Giildner's diagram
Hatchet planimeter, the

97
124
126

Horse- power calculations Horse-power, indicated

113

Hyperbolic

curve

on
curve,

the diagram, drawing the

the

31
12

expansion

Ignition line, the

95 96 113
curves

Ignition tube, the Indicated horse-power Indices of air compression

of expansion curves Isothermal expansion Late closure of gas engine admission Lead
,

104
14

11

valve

91
24

excessive

24
26

negative
to exhaust

37

1 38

THE

IND

1C A TOR

HA

NDBOOK.
PAGE

Leakage
,

32

air in condensing motion

engines

42

Link

valve gears

53
55

Linking-up
Mean

pressure factors Meanometer, the

130
116 114

Mean

pressure calculations

Negative

lead

26 101

Oil engine diagrams Overloaded engines

Piston and valve leakage
constants

70

66 131 109 118

...

leakage in air compressors Planimeter, Amsler's polar

,
"

Ott's compensating
the Hatchet
...

122
124

Planimeters
Power
" "

..

118 126

computer

unequal Pre-ignition
,

for steam, gas, and oil engines distribution of

77
94

Preliminary considerations and definitions Pre-release Pressure factors, terminal Properties of saturated steam Pump diagrams Pumps, leakage of

...

37
"

15

133
109 110

Release line, the Saturated steam,

,

35

expansion

curves

for

13 133 13 91
116

Saturation

properties of curve, the

Silencers, exhaust Slide scale, Hall's valve gear, plain Steamchest diagrams
Steam

49 29

line, the

27

supply, wiredrawing during Stratification of the charge, the

27
99

INDEX.

139
PAOl

Terminal

pressure factors Theoretical expansion curves,

15

Three-stage air compressor Two-cycle gas engine cards

Typical exhaust lines engines in the exhaust

construction of diagrams

16

107
100
43

Underloaded
Undulations Unequal
Valve

69

line

91

distribution of power

77
57
56
49 53

gear, Corliss
.

expansion

plain slide gears, link motion

,
"

setting, concluding defective ,

notes

on

60
49
41

Vapour
Water

pressures for various temperatures

Weak

consumption calculations spring or bottom loop diagrams

area

127
88
...

White-Bean Wiredrawing

scale, the during steam supply

117
26

PRINTED THE.

IN

GREAT

BRITAIN LIMITED

BY

DUNEDIN

PRESS

EDINBURGH.

ADVERTISEMENTS

POWER
STEAM,
A

COMPUTER
GAS,
AND OIL

ENGINES,

Etc.

time

of great taken, and

and labour-saving device which engineers will find service, as it gives in a fraction of the time ordinarily
without mental effort
or

risk of

error,

Oil Gas, and Horse-Power Indicated of Steam, Engines Horse-Power The Brake of Steam, Gas, and Oil Engines Necessary to Develop The Size of Engine any Given Power The Mechanical Efficiency of an Engine Engine Cylinders The Ratio of Compound The Engine Piston Speed of an Pumps Delivery The of with any Efficiency The Horse-Power Belting of Speeds Speeds Belts, Etc. The Rim of Wheels, of Ropes, Speed Ratios of Pulleys, Gearing, Etc.
The
Pocket
case, with instructions size, in neat Post Free. 7s. 6d. net.

and

examples,

LOGARITHMS
FOR
"

BEGINNERS
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SYNOPSIS Preliminary \otes COXTRXTS : OF Definitions Indices The and by Powers Derivation dotation Index Laws" of 10 Logarithms of Logarithms Advantages of 10 as a Base -Characteristic and Mantissa of a Logarithm The Four Rules Calculation by Logarithms Tables of Logarithms Proportional Parts or Differences Antilogarithms Tables of Antilogarithms Calculations involving Negative Characteristics Examples in Logarithmic Computation Higher Power Logarithms Higher Power Tables of Common Tables used as AntilogaLogarithms to Bases than rithms 10 Tables Transformation of Logaother rithm Miscellaneous Logarithms Hyperbolic Natural or Application Tabular Logarithms Functions Ratios Ansirers to Exercises or Table of Trigonometrical Logarithms Logarithms Table of Four-Figure of Four-Figure of Useful Factors Tables Logarithms Logarithmic Antilogarithms Trigonometrical of Hyperbolic Functions.
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SEVENTH

EDITION.

Is. 8d. Post Free.

C. N.

PICKWORTH,

Withington,

Manchester.

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CROSBY
I For STEAM
or

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CAS

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Send

RESULTS CAN AN OPTICAL

for illustrated

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147

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BRITISH
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CALCULATIONS

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MATHEMATICAL

JOHN DAVIS " SON

All Saints'
AND

(Derby)LTD
DERBY
S.W.

Works,
ST.,

17

VICTORIA

WESTMINSTER,

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The Recognised

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ADVERTISEMENTS

16th

EDITION,

REVISED

AND

FURTHER

ENLARGED.

THE
A

SLIDE
MANUAL
BY

RULE.
FOR ENGINEERS.

PRACTICAL

CHARLES

N.

PICKWORTH,
OF

Wh.Sc.

SYNOPSIS
Introductory
" " "

CONTENTS.
" "

Mathematical Principle The Notation by of the Slide Rule Rule The The Mechanical Principle the Primitive Slide Slide 10 of of Celluloid, or Faber Slide Rule The Notation The Gravel, Mannheim, Rule of The Goulding The Cursor or Runner the Slide Rule and other Special Cursors The Use of the Upper Scales for Multiplication and Multiplication" Division Multiplication and Continued Multiplication and Division Reciprocals Division Proportion Tables of Conversion Factors Division with the Slide Inverted Uses Slide Proportion General Hints on the Elementary the Rule Inverse of Roots Cube Roots Miscellaneous Powers Squares Square Cubes and and and by Logarithms Other Methods Powers Roots and Roots of obtaining Powers Hints on Evaluating Cursor Combined Operations ExThe Radial pressions and Roots Points. Gauge Mensuration, in Technical Calculations: Examples etc. Weights of Metals The Steam Engine Steam Boilers Speed Falling Bodies Centrifugal Force Screw Spur Wheels Cutting Strength Ratios of Pulleys, etc." Belts and Ropes Pumps, Pipes, HorseMoments Inertia Discharge Shafting from etc. of of Miscellaneous Commercial" Electrical Engineering Power Water Wheels
Powers
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of

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Calculations. Tangents Cosines. Sines Applications: Trigonometrical of Angles of Angles The Right-angled Cosecants Angles Solution Secants Co-tangents, and of of Practical Trigonometrical Triangles The Solution of Oblique-angled Triangles Applications. The Jackson-Davis The Davis Log-log Rule Slide Rules with Log-log Scales: Slide Rule" The Faber Log-log Rule" The Perry Double Slide. Rule" The Yokota Log-log Rule. The Precision Slide Rule The Rietz Rule Special Types of Slide Rules: Beghin Fix Slide Rule" The Slide Rule" The The Universal Slide Rule" The " Long " Slide RuleThe The Multiplex Slide Rule Slide Rule Anderson Hall's Nautical Slide Rule. " R.H.S." Calculator Fuller's Calculating Rule- The Slide Rules: Long-Scale lator. Rules Proell's Pocket CalcuGridiron Slide Thacher's Calculating Instrument
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S perry's The Halden Calculex Calculator Circular Calculators: The Boucher " Calculator. The " K and E Pocket Calculator Power Computer Pickworth's Engine Slide Rules for Special Calculations: MaitThe Baines Slide Rule Piecework Calculator Balance The Smith-Davies Slide Rule. land's Hydraulic Accuracy The in Slide Rules Improvements Constructional of Slide Rule Results. New Slide Rules Appendix Fifth Roots, etc. The Solution of Algebraic Points and Signs on Slide Gauge Screw-cutting Gear Calculations Equations Slips. Slide Rule Data Rules Tables and Data
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With

numerous

Illustrations and

Diagrams,

35. gd. Post

Free.

N.

PICKWORTH,

Withtngton,

Manchester,

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CASARTELLI INDICATORS
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Made External
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