Dr.C.Ergun, Asst.

Prof
Mak214-E

MAK214E
Summer 2006-2007
Lecture Notes 1

Dr.C.Ergun, Asst.Prof
Mak214-E

Fe/C ve Fe/Fe3C Phase diagrams

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Dr.C.Ergun, Asst.Prof
Mak214-E
Iron Cementite Phase Diagram
Cementite : Fe3C
δ+L Ferrite : α
Perlite : α + Fe3C
Ostenite: γ
Delta iron: δ
Temperature (oC)

γ+L L Ledeburite.
γ (ostenite) Teutectic
≈1148oC

Ledeburite
Teutectoid
Perlite

Steel Cast Iron

3
C (wt. % )

Dr.C.Ergun, Asst.Prof
Mak214-E

A1, A2, A3 ve Acm temperatures

Acm
A3
γ
γ+Fe3C
α+γ
A1

α+Fe3C

A2: Manyetikliğin kaybolduğu Curie sıcaklıdır: 769oC.

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Dr.C.Ergun, Asst.Prof
Mak214-E
I II III
γ
I II III

γ γ
y 1

α+γ yy 12 y2
y3 y 1
y3
α y4 y2 y4
Perlite

α Cementite
α+Fe3C

y5 y3 y5
Perlite
⇑ Perlite
Eutectoid
Composition

Dr.C.Ergun, Asst.Prof
Mak214-E

Iron and steel making

1. Iron Making: Blast furnace and Pig Iron
2. Steel Making:
– Secondary processes
– Refining processes for clean steel
3. Ingot teeming
– Segragation, piping
– Rimmed, semi-killed and killed steels
4. Homogenizing with a soaking process at 1150oC.
5. Shaping processes: Semi-finished products (Billets, blooms, slabs)
• Forging
• Rolling
• Continuous casting
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Dr.C.Ergun, Asst.Prof
Mak214-E Coal Mining
Limestone, CaCO3
Processed to Iron ore
change to coke Hematite
Crushing magnetite
Coke limonate Palletizing
sintering

CO
Fuel for heating of air
and other furnaces
Hot air
Blast furnace

Slag
Later used in
Casting of Road ballast
pig iron Cements
Carried with ladles (small cars) Filler materials

Steel production
Couple furnace
Cast iron production Basic Oxygen Furnace
Vacuum Arc Remelting
Open Hearth Furnace (S-M)
Vacuum Induction
Electric Arc Furnace Melting
7
Vacuum Degassing Electro-slag Refining

Dr.C.Ergun, Asst.Prof
Mak214-E
Iron and steel making and Blast furnace
Ore to Steel • The principle ores: Hematite (Fe2O3), Magnetite
(Fe3O4), Siderite (FeCO3), etc.
• Limestone: (CaCO3) to produce fluxes to remove
the impurities from the molten metal and react with
imruties forming fluid fluxes and slag.
•Coke: generates heat for
chemical reaction and
produce CO to reduce iron
oxide to iron.
• Hot air: supplies
Pig oxygen to burn the coke
Steel
iron and produce CO.
•Air used is preheated by
For 1 ton pig iron Æ 0,5 ton slug are produced using CO leaving the
6 tons CO furnace thus necessary
coke was decreased about
8
70%.

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Dr.C.Ergun, Asst.Prof
Mak214-E Iron making and Couple Furnace
•Slug: taken at the intervals of 5-6 hrs. Later
used in making cements, fertilizer,
pavements, road ballasts, building materials,
insulations.
•CO: first washed and then use to power the
preheating system of air and fueling the other
furnaces in the plant.
Pig iron + Scrap+Limestone + Coke + Hot air.

Reduction of the iron oxide:

F2O3 (ore) + 3C Æ 2Fe + 3CO
Fe2O3 (ore)+ 3CO Æ 3CO2
Production of reducing gas:
C (coke) + O2 Æ CO2
9
CO2 + C Æ 2CO

Dr.C.Ergun, Asst.Prof
Mak214-E
Steel Making: Secondary processes
•Pig iron: Carbon 4-6 %C + ingredients Si, S, P, Mn, etc.
Basic oxygen •In steel: 0,06-2% C and other inclusions such as S, P,
furnace
(Converter)
Si, Mn, and non-metallics- oxides silicates, sulfides, etc.
detrimental to the properties of steel by reducing the
Open Heart mechanical properties of steel such as fatigue, fracture
furnace
(Simens-Martin)
resistance. Therefore clean steel is always prefered.
•Oxygen to remove C and fluxing agent to remove
Electric arc ingredients.
furnace
•“Bessemer process” : used in the past.
•“Open heart process” : used until recently.
Vacuum •Today:
Degassing
•Basic oxygen furnace
•Open hearth furnace
Vacuum •Electric furnace
Arc-remelting
•For production of very clean steels
•Vacuum degassing
Electroslag •Vacuum arc remelting
melting
•Vacuum induction melting 10
•Electro-slag refining

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Dr.C.Ergun, Asst.Prof

Steel Making: Refining Processes

Mak214-E

Basic oxygen furnace (converter): Ladle shaped vessel,

scrap 25%, molten pig iron 75%. Pressurized oxygen
introduced into molten charge. No external heat needed.
Short refining times compared to with open heart furnace.

Open heart furnace (Simens-martin): Heart shaped vessel,

scrap + molten pig iron. Fuel air mixture with oxygen
introduced into molten charge. A slag layer forms at the top
of the molten metal. Capacity: 300 tons / 5-8 hrs

Electric arc furnace: Scrap and/or pig iron. Arc forms between
Carbon electrodes and metal charge. Capacity: 50 tons. Less
Complex equipments. Clean steel. Recycling of steel done in
a cheap and quick way

In steel: 0,06-2% C and other inclusions such as S, P, Si, Mn, and non-metallics- oxides
silicates, sulfides, etc. All inclusions are very detrimental to the properties of steel by
reducing the mechanical properties of steel such as fatigue, fracture resistance.
There is a need for clean steels for advanced applications 11

Dr.C.Ergun, Asst.Prof

Steel Making: Refining Processes

Mak214-E

Vacuum degassing: The steel is first melted in another furnace

(OH, OF, electric F.) and then vacuumed under
the molten state. Thus dissolved gasses such as N2, O2, H2,
etc., removed.
Vacuum Arc Remelting: Ingots are remelted with an arc
established between the electrodes and water cooled copper
mold when all the system was under vacuum. Used for super
alloys and extra clean steels.

Electro-slag melting: Ingots are used as electrodes for

remelting the metal in a water cooled copper mold Purification
by the molten flux removing the impurities. Used for tool steels and
special purpose steels.

Vacuum induction melting: Ingots or scrapts are melted in

a cruciple by high frequency induction currents under vacuum.
Casting also performed under vacuum.

New methods:
Electron beam refining: during the pouring of the molten metal into the mold under vacuum, it is
subjected to an electron beam that vaporizes the impurities.
Ladle refining: this is still under development. The refining process is achieved during the
transportation of the molten metal in the ladle cars by using fluxing agents and argon gas. 12

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Dr.C.Ergun, Asst.Prof
Mak214-E

Ingot Teeming (pouring) ****

• Molten steel is poured into ingot molds which are refractory lined steel boxes.
•During the solidification, segregation and shrinkage is problem in this ingots
•Inhomogenity (Segregation): Composition differences at different zones.
•In a regular solidification process: The first solidified metal is to be purer than
the last solidified ones. This is a natural tendency. Steel that obtained from an
ingot having a skin purer than its center is called “Rimmed steel”. These
steels have many detrimental effects in their structures.
•The pipe region can be cut off.
•Segregation can be minimized by adding elements to the steel such as Si and Al
which have higher chemical affinity to the oxygen than carbon and alter the ingot
solidification characteristics by removing dissolved O from the melt and
preventing boiling action. These are called “KILLED STEELS” because
molten metal stays quit during the solidification.
•If only Si is used, the steel is called Semi-killed steels.

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Dr.C.Ergun, Asst.Prof
Mak214-E

Only Si is used in
semi-kill steels ****
Al and Si is used
in killed steels.

• Rimmed
• Capped
• Semi-killed
• Killed

•Pipe formating - piping is due to the volumetric shrinkage

occurs during the solidification: cut off.
•Segregation can be reduced by homogenization heat
treatment at 1150oC
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Dr.C.Ergun, Asst.Prof
Mak214-E

Shaping
• Ingot has very limited applications.
• Therefore it is converted into semifinished products
usually with hot working process.
• Forging, Rolling or extrusion common methods.

Product Dimensions Cross section

Ingot 500 x 500 x 2000 Square
Slab 150 x 400 x 3000 Thin rectangular
Bloom 200 x 250 x 3000 Thick rectangular
Billet 100 x 100 x 9000 Square
Flat Products
Plate 5mm-50mm
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Sheet <5mm

Dr.C.Ergun, Asst.Prof
Mak214-E
Converting steel ingot into shapes

•Converting ingots and continuous

cast into shapes and finished
products.
•Thousands of different shapes by
steel mils starting from ingots can
be produced
•Semi-finished shapes depending
on their dimensions: billets,
blooms, slabs.
•Different manufacturing
tolerances, different terminology,
different surface finishes, different
chemical composition are possible
•Cold finished or tempered
conditions are possible

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Dr.C.Ergun, Asst.Prof
Mak214-E
Continues Casting (Strand casting)

•First introduced in 1960s.

•Eliminates the Ingot teeming
process.
•Pouring the molten steel into a
water cooled mold with a hole in the
desired shape: rounds, rectangles,
etc.
•Usually cut into lengths and sold in
this form or rolled into bars, shapes
or sheets.

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Dr.C.Ergun, Asst.Prof
Mak214-E
Steel Semi-finished Products

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Dr.C.Ergun, Asst.Prof
Mak214-E

The effects of the alloying elements on the

properties of steels

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Dr.C.Ergun, Asst.Prof
Mak214-E The effects of the alloying elements
Carbon (C): decreases the ductility, formability, weldability increases the
strength and hardenability.
Manganese (Mn): increases the strength, shock resistance, toughness,
hardenability, weldebility, hot formability, no change in ductility. In addition
Mn is a strong austenite former by reducing the eutectoid temperature below to
room temperature. Handfield steel with 1% C and 12% Mn has strong
deformation hardening ability allowing increase in strength in service
(helmets, railway equipments, rock crushers jaws, shovel dippers, etc.)
Silicone (Si): increases strength, decreases the weldability, magnetic losses,
oxide formation affinity, no change in ductility. In addition Si has higher
affinity to O than carbon therefore used as deoxizing agent (semi-killed steels).
It is also austenite former agent leading the nucleation of austenite grain in
many size yielding finer grain size.

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Dr.C.Ergun, Asst.Prof
Mak214-E The effects of the alloying elements
Chromium (Cr): as the Cr content increases, strength, hardenability, corrosion
resistance, high temperature strength, decreases the oxide formation tendency.
(forms a very coherent oxide layer on the surface preventing further oxidation-- in
stainless steels).
It is also strong carbide former as an essential factor behaving as a strong second
phase particle, therefore, obstructs the dislocation motion particularly at
elevated temperatures.
Nickel (Ni): increases the strength, toughness (even at sub zero temperatures),
hardenability, no change in ductility. It is an austenite former, therefore, widely
used in austenitic stainless steels.
Molybdenum (Mo): increases the hardenability, high temperature strength,
decreases the risk for temper embritterment (~0.5 % Mo). Since the melting
point of molybdenum carbide is very high, it provides high temperature
strength which is very useful in some HSS (high speed steel) tools.

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Dr.C.Ergun, Asst.Prof
Mak214-E The effects of the alloying elements

Vanadium (V) and Tungsten (W): as the V and W content; increases the
strength, high temperature strength, wear resistance, since both are strong
carbide formers widely used in HSS tools.
Copper (Cu): restricted to max. 0.35%. Up to 0.2 % provides some resistance
against to atmospheric corrosion. Not desired in spring steels.
Aluminum (Al): used as a grain refinement agent especially in the form of
AlN particles. It is also deoxidizing agent used in killed steels. Also increases
nitridability.
Zirconium (Zr), Titanium (Ti), Niobium (Nb) and Tantalum (Ta): Strong
carbide formers even better than Cr. Therefore commonly used in austenitic
stainless steel to free the Cr and thus further increase the corrosion resistance.
Their even small concentration (~0.5 % ) can forms small carbides at grain
boundaries providing very fine grain size which is the reason to high strength
and ductility of low alloy (HSLA) steel, commonly used in automotive industry.

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Dr.C.Ergun, Asst.Prof
Mak214-E The effects of the alloying elements

Phosphorus (P): decreases the toughness, impact resistance, cold formability,

weldebility increase the corrosion resistance. Its contend is limited 0.035%
max. in quality steels.
Sulfur (S): The excess sulfur reduces the ability for hot (900oC) deformation
of steel forming the brittle FeS phase at the grain boundaries (hot brittleness).
The solubility of S is higher than C therefore it restricts the formation of pearlite
in the zones with higher S contents, leading a banded structure of pearlite and
ferrite. (Macroscopy experiment: flow lines). This causes severe anisotropy in
the mechanical prop of steel therefore S content is limited 0.035%. However,
0.3% S may be added to free cutting steels to increase the chip formation thus
the machinability.
Oxygen (O): Produces iron oxide at grain boundaries leading high brittleness in
steels. Therefore steels are deoxidized with Si and Al to avoid the risk.

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Dr.C.Ergun, Asst.Prof
Mak214-E The effects of the alloying elements

Hydrogen (H): ıt is smallest element therefore can penetrate inside of the steels
along their grain boundaries. The formation of H2 molecules creates pressure at
the grain boundaries. When this is associated with the external stresses acting on
the material, brittle fracture may occur which is called hydrogen embitterment.
This is particularly very harmful for high strength steels.
Nitrogen (N): Increases the tendency of aging and strain aging of low carbon
steels. Thus the distinct yield point becomes apparent and the strength increase
and ductility decrease. The nitrides of Cr, Al etc. increases high temperature
strength of steels. It is used in PH (precipitation hardening) stainless steels
for this purpose.

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Dr.C.Ergun, Asst.Prof
Mak214-E
Types of Steels
•Constructional steels:
•Profiles ( Fe37, Fe 42, Fe 50, 1010, 1020, 1040, etc.),
•Sheet or plates -deep drawing quality ( low carbon, fine grain), thin plate, galvanize, plates for ship
buildings.
•Heat treatable steels (for combination of strength and ductility)
•Carbon steels
•Low Alloy steels (alloyed less than 5%)
•Carburizing steels (low carbon steels for case hardening)
•Nitriding steels (alloyed with nitride formers such as Al and Cr)
•Free cutting steels: (To be easiliy cut by tools: high machinability, high S content)
•Spring steels (0.5-0.6 C and good hardenability and elastic properties)
•Bolt steels (Good cold formability for thread rolling)
•High temperature steels: For boilers and pipes
•Sub zero steels (shows no DBTT, generally austenitic steels)
•Valve steels (high strength, good toughness and ductility)
•Stainless steel (Ferritic, Martensitic, Austenitic, Precipitation Hardening)
•Tools steels (Hot work and Cold work Tool steel, High speed steels)
•Ball bearing steels
•Electrical steels Extra low C with Si up to 3%.
•Non-magnetizable steels -austenitic steels
•High strength low alloy steels (HSLA) micro alloyed with V or Nb etc. Common in automotive industry.
•Dual phase steels (contains martensite in ferrite matrix, obtained with inter-critical range annealing and
quenching, widely demanded for transport vehicles)
•Maraging steels ( ultra high strength as a result of martensitic transformation and following aging
treatment)
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•Cast steels:

Dr.C.Ergun, Asst.Prof
Mak214-E
Designation - Coding system Coding system
of Steels
1. Symbols based on the Processing method:
Carbon Reduction processes Turkish and German
Thomas Process (T)
Basic Oxygen (O)
Simens Martin (M)
Electric arc (E)
Induction Furnace (I) American
Solidification Process TS DIN
• Rimmed (K) (U)
• Semi killed (Si) (SY) (R)
• Killed (Si + Al) (S)
American Standards
Symbols based on: •Carbon and Low alloy (1040)
•Stainless steel (316)
2. Mechanical Properties (Tensile)
•Tool steels (T1)
(construction steels) FeXX or StXX
3. Chemical Composition
a. Plain carbon (C35)
b. Low alloy (15CrMo5)
c. Free Cutting (22S20)
d. Alloy steels (X 50 CrMoW 9 11) 26

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Dr.C.Ergun, Asst.Prof
Mak214-E
2. Construction Steels Fe XX (or St XX)
Minimum tensile
Constructional
Fe14 ??? strength in Kgf/mm2
Steel

St 37 (Tensile strength: minimum 37 kgf/mm2)

3. Chemical Composition C35

(a) Plain carbon steels C % content
Plain Carbon steel x 100

C 35 Plain Carbon Steel (S and P: lower than 0.050%)

Ck 35 Quality Steel (S and P: lower than 0.035%)
Cf 35 Surface Hardening grade Steel
Cq 35 Cold Forming grade Steel

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Dr.C.Ergun, Asst.Prof
Mak214-E

3. Chemical Composition
(b) Low alloy steels

C % content
x 100 % of the highest
Alloying element content element
ordered with x MF
respect to amount

Elements Multiplication Factor

Cr, Mn, Ni, Si, Al, Mo, Nb, W, etc 4
V, Zr 10
C, P, S, N, Ce 100
B 1000
No number if concentration is <1%

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Dr.C.Ergun, Asst.Prof
Mak214-E
15 CrMo 5 1.25 % Cr
content
0.15 % C

Cr and Mo: Principal alloying

elements

Simens M S Ck45 Thomas T K St42

0.45 % C
Martin
42
Quality C Rimmed
Kgf/mm2
Killed Steel Steel Steel
Constructional
Steel
Basic O Sy C20 0.20 % C
Oxygen

Carbon
Semi Killed Steel 29

Dr.C.Ergun, Asst.Prof
Mak214-E

3. Chemical Composition
(c) Free cutting steels
S
C % content
x 100 Free cutting S % multiplied
Steel by 100
Alloying element
other than C and S
0.22 % C 22 S MnPb 36
22 S 20
Free
Cutting 0.22 % C
Steel 0.36 % S 0.2 % S

Mn and Pb other Free Cutting

than C ranked order Steel

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Dr.C.Ergun, Asst.Prof
Mak214-E
3. Alloy steel: If total alloying element content is higer
than 5%.
X % Alloying
Simens elements
Martin without factors
Alloying
C % Content elements
x 100 other than C

No number if concentration <1%

High 18 % Cr
High 9% Ni
X 50 CrMoW 9 1 1 Alloy
Alloy <1% Ti
Steel
Steel
Main Alloying 9 % Cr
0.5 % C 1% Mo X 5 CrNiTi 18 9
elements Cr,
Mo, W 1% W

Cr, Mo, Ti
0.05 % C 31

Dr.C.Ergun, Asst.Prof
Mak214-E
American Standards
First 2 digit: Second 2 digids: C
XXXX content X100
Main Alloying elements

Carbon and Low alloy Steels 4xxx Molibdenum St

1xxx Plain Carbon St. 41xx Mo + Cr St
11xx Free Cutting St (resulfurized) 43xx Mo + Cr + Ni St
12xx Free Cutting St. (Si added) 5xxx Chromium St
13xx Plain Carbon St (Mn added) 6xxx Vanadium St
2xxx Nickel steels 7xxx Tungsten St
3xxx Nickel+Chromium St. 86xx Ni + Cr + Mo Steels
92xx Si steels

Stainless Steels
Three digit designation
3xx Austenitic stainless steel 304, 316, 321, etc.
4xx Ferritic and/or Martensitic Stainless steel, 410, 430 (ferritic),
440 (martensitic), 32

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Dr.C.Ergun, Asst.Prof
Mak214-E
Tool Steels
Letter: Alloying elements,
Code Type of Tool Steel working cond., heat
M1 Molybdenum HSS treatment, etc.
T1 Tungsten HSS
H10 Chromium Hot work tool steel
H21 Tungsten Hot work tool steel
H42 Molibdenum Hot work tool steel
A2 Air Hardening Medium Alloy Cold work tool steel
D2 High C High Cr Cold work tool steel
O1 Oil Hardening Cold work tool steel Digits: Designation
S1 Shock resistant steel the Composition
L2 Low alloy special purpose tool steel
P2 Low C mold steel
W1 Water hardening tool steel

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Dr.C.Ergun, Asst.Prof
Mak214-E
Types of Steels
1. Constructional steels
2. Heat treatable steels
3. Carburizing steels
4. Nitriding steels
5. Free cutting steels
6. Spring steels
7. Bolt steels
8. High temperature steels
9. Sub-zero steels
10. Valve steels
11. Stainless steels
12. Tool steels
13. Bolt steels
14. Electrical steels
15. Non-magnetizable steels
16. HSLA steels
17. Dual phase steels
18. Maraging steels
19. Cast steels
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Dr.C.Ergun, Asst.Prof
Mak214-E
Coding systems of Steels

What should be the

characteristic feartures
of heat treatable steels?
Why a steel becomes a
heat treatable steel?

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Dr.C.Ergun, Asst.Prof
Mak214-E

Describe the difference

between carburizing and
nitiding steels?

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Dr.C.Ergun, Asst.Prof
Mak214-E

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Dr.C.Ergun, Asst.Prof
Mak214-E

What would be the

mechanism to make a
steel appropriate for
high T applications?

Why subzero?
Which elements
are improtant?

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Dr.C.Ergun, Asst.Prof
Mak214-E

Which elements
should be dominant?

Which elements are

needed for martensitic
stainless steels? Why?

Which elements
should be dominant?

How can a PH SS be
strenghtened?

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Dr.C.Ergun, Asst.Prof
Mak214-E

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Dr.C.Ergun, Asst.Prof
Mak214-E

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Dr.C.Ergun, Asst.Prof
Mak214-E

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