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Published in IET Wireless Sensor Systems Received on 11th October 2010 Revised on 20th December 2010 doi: 10.1049/iet-wss.2010.0079

ISSN 2043-6386

Signal detection in passive wireless sensor networks based on back-propagation neural networks
A. Abedi
Wireless Sensor Networks Laboratory, Electrical and Computer Engineering Department, University of Maine, Orono, ME 04469, USA E-mail: abedi@eece.maine.edu

Abstract: Passive wireless sensors with no onboard power source, enable a myriad of embedded sensor applications in hard to reach areas, rotating or moving objects and harsh environments. Structural monitoring, weight-limited aerospace vehicles, smart homes and smart grids are some examples in which usage of wireless sensors are ideal. However, power consumption requirements for active wireless sensors is a limiting factor in wide usage of wireless sensing applications. Passive wireless sensors aim at addressing this shortcoming by eliminating the power source and shifting the complexity to the reader side. In most embedded sensor applications, several sensors are placed in close proximity of each other posing new challenges in the multiuser interference domain. In this study, neural networks are used for signals detection in a multiple-access passive wireless sensor network. In a multiuser system, conventional receivers are based on matched lters suffering severe performance degradation as the relative powers of the interfering signals become large. Despite prior research works in active sensor networks, where channel, code and power control is easy to perform, in this study, passive wireless sensors are considered where there is no control at the node level making signal detection a challenging problem. A novel method for passive wireless sensing employing back-propagation neural network is proposed. A conventional receiver is used as a benchmark to compare the performance of the proposed method. The proposed algorithm demonstrates near-optimum performance in side-lobe suppression, while requiring a much lower implementation complexity compared to conventional receivers.

Introduction

The proposed passive wireless sensing system can be used to eliminate wires in weight-limited aerospace vehicle enabling structural monitoring and various other applications where power consumption and interference are critical limiting factors. Recently, there has been a great deal of research activities in the eld of multiuser detection in the presence of wireless interference in spread-spectrum systems [1 4]. Multiuser detection studies the demodulation of one or more digital signals in the presence of multiuser interference. In time division multiple access, the inter-user interference occurs because of non-ideal effects such as channel distortion and out-of-cell interference. This paper is focused on multiple access techniques such as asynchronous code division multiple access (CDMA), where the inter-user interference occurs by design. As detailed in the background section, neural networks have been used for spread-spectrum signals detection in active sensor networks, whereas in this article application of neural networks in passive wireless sensor network is reported for the rst time. This work is motivated by two major problems limiting wide-scale usage of wireless sensor systems, namely power consumption and interference. We propose the use of passive wireless sensors to alleviate the
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power consumption problem. However, this approach presents new challenges in interference mitigation since power control (as widely used in active wireless nodes) in passive wireless sensors is not practical. In a multiple-access network, as the distance of the receiver unit from the transmitter unit increases, the signal quality (signal-to-noise and interference ratio) decreases. This is in part owing to the effect of external noise from the channel. However, there is also some amount of interference from the signals from the rest of the sensors in the network. This interference is usually small, but can grow progressively large when the relative power of the interfering signals become larger compared to the strength of the signal to be detected. This is commonly known as the near-far effect. The near-far effect makes detection of the desired sensor signal harder. This becomes more pronounced in case of randomly scattered transmitters. In this case, since the distances of the units are random, probability of the interfering signals being stronger than the required signal is higher. In passive sensors, the main criterion and feature used to identify a given signal is the autocorrelation peak. In case of interference, it is observed that the signal at the antenna of the receiver unit is a mixture of CDMA signals from all the sensors in the vicinity of the sensor under interrogation. After this signal is passed through the matched lter, it is
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observed that the signal contains multiple peaks. This includes the autocorrelation peak from the signal in question, along with the cross-correlation peaks from the other sensors. In case of the near-far effect, the cross-correlation peaks become stronger relative to the autocorrelation peak, rendering the peak detection a hard task. The goal of our proposed method is to increase the peak-to-side-lobe ratio (PSLR) in the received signal, making the autocorrelation peak more prominent, hence reducing the effect of the cross-correlation peaks. The system, although suboptimal, have reasonable complexity to ensure easy implementation and reasonable time delay in interpreting the signals. The rest of this paper is organised as follows. Section 2 provides background and literature study relevant to both areas of passive sensors as well as neural networks. Section 3 describes the communication system model and the structure of orthogonal codes used in the passive sensors. Receiver structure for the multiple access system is introduced in Section 4. Specic experimental scenarios are considered in Section 5 in order to validate the proposed approach. We conclude in Section 6. with the number of users. This method is extremely complex for a realistic number of users. Consequently, there has been considerable research into sub-optimal detectors. These detectors achieve signicant performance gains over conventional detectors without the exponential increase in receiver complexity. Several factors motivate us to utilise neural networks as multiuser detectors. They are adaptive to each wireless sensor network design and are computationally efcient after training is completed. Also, the cyclo-stationary structure of MAI and non-linear decision boundaries formed by an optimal receiver in CDMA can be estimated by neural networks [8]. A study of multilayer perceptron in CDMA systems has shown that in the case of applying the complicated assisted back-propagation (BP) algorithm, the performance is close to that of the optimum receiver in both synchronous and asynchronous Gaussian channels [8]. The receiver proposed in [9] uses the radial basis function (RBF), whose complexity in terms of centres (neurons, nodes) grows exponentially with the number of users and becomes too complex under the multipath environment. The energy function of a Hopeld recurrent neural network is shown to be identical to the likelihood function encountered in multiuser detection [10]. However, the desired optimal solutions are not guaranteed, since a combinatorial optimisation problem always involves a large number of local minima. Also, the number of connections grows with the square number of users and the number of neurons increases for asynchronous transmission. The performance of three-layer perceptron neural networks using a BP algorithm in AWGN and multipath fading channels are studied in [11]. The minimum error probability demodulators require computational loads that grow exponentially with the number of active users. Optimum multiuser receivers for asynchronous systems also have an exponential storage requirement and a variable decoding delay. Unfortunately, this computational intensity is unacceptable in many applications. For instance, a 10-user system operating with a bit rate of 100 Kb/s using quadrature phase shift keying (QPSK) signalling would require up to l05 million computations of the likelihood function per second. Hence, there is a need for suboptimum receivers, which are robust to near-far effect with a reasonable computational complexity to ensure their practical implementation. A class of multiuser detectors based on linear transformations of a bank of matched lter outputs is considered in [12, 13], which constitutes the sufcient statistics. The resulting multiuser receivers effectively tuned out the MAI while their computational complexity is linear with respect to the number of users. In another approach to obtain near-optimum lowcomplexity multiuser detectors a class of multistage detectors is introduced in [14], which attempt to improve the estimate of the desired information bit by iterating on the decision while subtracting an estimate of the multipleaccess interference. The decision statistics involved in this demodulation scheme are non-linear functions of the sufcient statistics. The computational and storage complexity of the multistage detector is linear with respect to the number of users. It was shown that the multistage detection scheme alleviates the near-far effect with performance that approaches the optimum performance as interfering signal strengths increase. In this manuscript, we take the concept of multiuser environments to a new level by introducing interference mitigation in passive wireless sensors. Elimination of
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Background

Direct sequence spread spectrum (DSSS) is considered as the third generation of cellular mobile, indoor wireless and personal communication systems. DSSS offers attractive features, such as frequency reuse, soft handoff, increased capacity and robustness to multipath effect [5]. In a DSSS/ CDMA system, several users simultaneously transmit information over a common channel using pre-assigned codes. One promising approach to interference suppression in DSSS systems is based on using neural networks [6], where the performance of a multilayer perceptron is demonstrated to be comparable to that of the optimum receiver which is more complex than perceptron-based approach [7]. The conventional single-user detector consists of a lter bank matched to the spreading codes [6]. This detector suffers from two major problems. First, multiple access interference (MAI) produced by the other co-channel users poses a signicant limitation on the capacity of the network. The second problem is the near-far effect, which occurs when the relative received power of interfering signals is larger than main signal. The conventional wisdom was that it is best to simply neglect the presence of multiuser interference, since its statistical properties would be asymptotically similar to additive white Gaussian noise (AWGN), and therefore a single-user-matched lter should be near optimal for combating such interference. However, in practical scenarios (which are not close to asymptotic cases) this approach may not be optimal noting the derivation and analysis of the optimal multiuser detector in [7], which exploits information of the interfering signals. This paper showed that there is, in general, a huge gap in performance between the performances of the conventional single-user-matched lter and the optimal attainable performance. Furthermore, the infamous near-far effect was shown to be not an inherent aw of CDMA, but a consequence of the inability of single-user-matched lter to exploit the structure of the multiuser interference. The optimum multiuser detector evaluates a log-likelihood function over the set of all possible information sequences. It achieves low error probability at the expense of high computational complexity, which increases exponentially
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onboard power source in passive wireless sensors opens up a whole new world of applications as well as new challenges. There are various approaches in making passive sensors, while our focus is on the surface acoustic wave (SAW) devices. A metallic pattern deposited on a piezoelectric crystal constructs a SAW passive wireless sensor that can be interrogated wirelessly from a short distance. The main operation concept is based on energy transduction from electrical to mechanical and vice versa. The electromagnetic waves hitting the metallic surface excite the piezoelectric crystal and generate mechanical waves travelling on the sensor surface. The speed of this travelling surface waves is proportional to environmental conditions such as temperature, pressure etc. Through choosing appropriate materials, each sensor may be designed to measure a specic physical, chemical or biological entity. Orthogonal codes can be embedded in passive SAW sensors to enable usage of multiple sensors in close proximity of each other while maintaining each sensors identity for data separation at the interrogator. In our previous works, we have achieved 16 ft range using DSSS method with orthogonal coding as reported in [15]. the thresholds for the two criteria, one could generate larger or smaller nal subsets of codes. A set producing about 31 codes seemed to be a good compromise balancing performance against number of usable codes. The proposed scheme in this article is different from the methods based on nite projective planes [16], where only auto-correlation is minimised. In our method, a set of 1024 codes is reduced to a subset with a PSLR (of their auto-correlation) of 5 or greater. This drops the subset size down to 73 codes, rendering the search space much smaller. The cross-correlation of the 73 codes are depicted in Fig. 1, where the Z-axis value at each point represents the peak value of the cross-correlation of the codes with their indices given on X and Y axes. As expected, along the diagonal (autocorrelation) the values are always 31. In the top square region of Fig. 1, the perpendicular dark lines represent some codes with desirable cross-correlation characteristics. A graphical representation with the nal set of selected codes highlighted by dark lines is presented in Fig. 2. The cross-correlation plot of the nal set of selected codes is shown in Fig. 3. The diagonal is a constant value, and all the off-diagonal values (cross-correlation peak values) are much lower.

System description

In the multiple-access network of interest, our transmitters are assumed to share a radio band in a combination of the time and code domain. One way of providing multiple access in the code domain is using spread spectrum, which is a signalling scheme that uses a much wider bandwidth than necessary for a given data rate. Let us assume that in a given time interval, there are K active transmitters in the network. In a simple setting, the Kth active user transmits a signal from a binary signal set derived from the set of code waveforms assigned to the corresponding user. The signal is time limited to the interval [0, T ], where T is the symbol duration. In a general CDMA system, the signal at a given receiver is the superposition of the K-transmitted signals in additive noise channel
P K

r (t ) =

i=P k =1

i) b( k Sk (t iT tk ) + n(t ) t [ R

(1)
Fig. 1 Cross-correlation of the 73 code subset

i) where 2P + 1 is the packet length and b( k [ {1, 1} denotes the kth users information bit in the ith time interval. In (1), the relative time delays among the K signals at the receiver are denoted by tk [ [0, T ), k 1, 2, . . . , K and the additive channel noise process is denoted as n(t ). The modulating signal waveform of the kth user, Sk(t ), is the time-limited wide-band signal, which is derived from the code sequence assigned to that packet in the spreadspectrum CDMA system. The main objective of orthogonal codes considered in this article is to add multiple-access features to passive sensors. The proposed codes are 31 bits in length, and were selected based on their auto-correlation and cross-correlation characteristics. The following criteria are used to select the most appropriate codes for this application: (i) Largest PSLR of the auto-correlation response of a given code; and (ii) Smallest maximum peak value of cross-correlation of that code with any other code. The proposed code design method is developed based on the experimental results with SAW devices, where imperfection in the device fabrication process leads to undesired side lobes in the sensor response. Depending on

Fig. 2 Cross-correlation of nal set of selected codes

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Fig. 5 Sample signal from the SAW sensor

Fig. 3 3D auto and cross-correlation plot

perceptron, the output of the ith node of the lth layer takes the following value
l) v( i =g M l 1 j =1 l ) (l =1) l) v( v( ji vj 0i ,

Each sensor node has a particular 31-bit code embedded in it, as shown in Fig. 4. The codes are embedded in the sensor, on both sides of the antenna element, but with each side being at a different distance from the centre, causing a delay between the two peaks in the returned signal. When the interrogating signal strikes the antenna, the signal excites the sensor and the generated SAW travels over the metallic ngers on each side, corresponding to the same embedded code, and gets encoded. This has the effect of coding the signal, using the 31-bit spreading sequence, resulting in an encoded spread-spectrum signal. This signal then bounces off the ends of the device and are then combined back at the antenna. The combined signal is then transmitted back to the interrogating unit. The sensors response consists of two identical CDMA coded responses, overlapping one another, but separated by some distance, as shown in Fig. 5. In this experiment, this distance is directly proportional to the temperature measured by the sensor. Note that depending on material used and pattern deposited on the sensor, various parameters other than temperature may be measured.

i = 1, 2, . . . , Ml

l = 1, 2, . . . , L

(2)

Receiver structure

In this section, a neural network is utilised for classifying different signals in a multiple-access channel. These networks consist of an input layer of nodes, one or more layers of hidden (i.e. intermediate) nodes and a layer of output nodes. Each node in a given layer is connected to all the nodes of the next (upper) layer. Therefore in a L-layer

where Ml denotes the number of nodes in the lth layer, and l) v( ji denotes the weight associated with the connection between the jth node of the (l l )st layer to the ith node of l) the lth layer and v( 0i is the corresponding threshold. Nonlinearities that are commonly used for the activation function g(.) include the hard-limiter and sigmoid function [16]. In this model, v(0) represents the jth input to the j network. Fig. 6 depicts a diagram of a two-layer perceptron used in the numerical examples in this paper. The symbol in Fig. 6 represents a node, which consists of a summation device followed by the non-linearity. In this multiuser detection problem, the number of nodes in the output layer ML will be equal to K [ {1, 2, . . . , K}, that is, the number of demodulated signals. A multilayer perceptron is trained to demodulate spread-spectrum signals after training using an iterative process of modifying weights and thresholds to minimise an error function. The BP algorithm is a training algorithm that has been applied to several classication problems. BP is an iterative gradient descent algorithm that minimises an empirical error function. The error function is dened as the sum of errors because of each exemplary pattern, 1(v) = p 1p where the error corresponding to the pth exemplary pattern (i.e. l) 2 training data) is dened as 1/2 i (di v( i ) where di is the ith desired output specied by the supervisor (i.e. the

Fig. 4 Sensor and interrogator units

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Fig. 6 Two-layer perceptron

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user). At any step of the iteration, changes in the weights are in the direction of the negative gradient of the error
l) Dv( ji /

1p
l) v( ji

j , i, l

(3)

l) where the initial values of weights, v( ji (0) are chosen to be some small random numbers. Assuming the sigmoid nonlinearities are employed as squashing functions, the ( j, i )th weight in the lth layer is updated by l) (l ) (l) l 1 v( ji (t + 1) = vji (t ) + hdi vj , i, j and l = 1, 2, . . . , L

(7) is converted to its corresponding discrete version. The received waveform is converted to an N-dimensional vector by sampling the output of the front-end lter at the 1 chip rate Tc . This structure synchronises the front-end lters with the chip waveforms resulting in an Ndimensional-vectored hypothesis testing problem where N corresponds to the length of the code sequence. It is assumed that the information bits of the rst of the K signals is of interest (i.e. K 1). The receiver is synchronised with S1(t ). Therefore the relative time delay and phase angle of the desired signal are assumed to be zero (i.e. t1 1 and u1 0).

(4)

Numerical results

denote a specied step size and the measure where h and of discrepancy between the ith actual and desired output, respectively. The desired output is dened as
L) (L ) (L) (L) d( i = vi (1 vi )(di vi ),

l) d( i

(5)

l) where d( i s, l = 1, 2, . . . , L 1 represent the discrepancies propagating backwards to the hidden layers Ml +1 k =1

l) (l ) (l ) d( i = vi (1 vi )

l+1) (l +1) d( v1k , k

(6)

In the multiple-access system of interest, we consider a passive wireless sensor network, which consists of a group of passive sensors that communicate with the interrogating unit using DSSS/CDMA scheme. This system has been designed and implemented at the laboratory for surface science and technology (LASST), University of Maine, Orono, ME. Performance of the proposed neural network receiver has been compared with the conventional matched lter receiver in two scenarios. Importance sampling technique [17 19] is employed to reduce the number of samples necessary to evaluate the performance of these receivers in a multiuser environment in two different scenarios. Scenario 1: This example considers demodulation of one sensor signal in a multiuser Gaussian channel, with no external noise. We consider the channel with 16 transmitters and one receiver. The system is used to detect a single user from among the 16 different users each with different 31-bit spreading sequences. This involves feeding the mixed signal, which consists of the required signal, as well as interfering signals from the rest of the 15 transmitters, to the neural network. After passing the signal through the matched lter, it is correlated with the spreading sequence for one particular signal (from the transmitter of interest). The PSLR is then calculated to approximate the performance of the system without the neural network module. In the next phase, a network with a 3-layer feed-forward BP neural network with a 20-3-1 structure is created and trained. This implies that there are

Noting the redundancy in the neural networks, the BP algorithm will, in general, nd a local minimum of the error surface. As it will be illustrated in the following sections, the BP algorithm is successful in training the neural network receiver for signal detection problem in multipleaccess channels. The performance of this training algorithm is improved by supervising the learning procedure in the hidden layer as described in the next section. We consider situations where the receiver is interested in the data transmitted by only one of the K active users. In these cases, the receiver needs to demodulate a single user in the presence of K 2 1 interfering users. The optimum decentralised receiver is shown to be a one-shot detector where the detection of each symbol is based on the received process during its corresponding interval [12]. Therefore the suboptimal neural network receiver is formulated as a oneshot single-user detection system. In an asynchronous K-user Gaussian channel, this detection problem can be modelled as a binary hypothesis-testing problem.
K

H0 : r(t ) = +S 1(t ) + + b(0) k Sk (t

k =2

1) [b( Sk (t tk + T ) k

tk )] + nt ,
K 1) [b( Sk (t k k =2

0tT tk + T ) 0tT

(7)
Fig. 7 PSLR of 1.28 without neural network (NN)

H1 : r(t ) = S 1(t ) + + b(0) k Sk (t

tk )] + nt ,

where without loss of generality the desired information symbol is assumed to be the rst bit in the packet of the rst user b(0) 1 , where the overlapping bits of the kth user (0) 1) , b(0) with b1 are denoted by {b(0 1k k }, k = 2, 3, . . . , K . Since multilayer perceptron only allows discrete-time inputs, the continuous-time hypothesis testing problem in
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Fig. 8 PSLR of 4.98 with NN

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20 neurons in the rst layer, three in the hidden layer and there is one output neuron. The signal from the output of the matched lter is fed to the neural network and the output signal is collected to calculate the new PSLR. This represents the performance of the modied system, with neural networks. A sample signal, at the output of the matched lter, without a neural network, with PSLR of 1.28 is shown in Fig. 7. After passing through the neural network, PSLR is increased to 4.98 as shown in Fig. 8. This is over 3.89 times improvements that can be translated into 1.97 times range enhancement noting the free space path loss model. Range of operation in our original system [15] without neural network is increased from 16 to 31 ft using the neural network approach proposed in this article. This experiment is repeated for increasing values of PSLR, and the results are plotted in Fig. 9. We notice that with an increase in the relative energy of the interfering signal, the performance of the system without the neural network (i.e. just the matched lter) degrades rather drastically. The performance of the system with the neural network, however, remains mostly consistent, demonstrating a robust

Fig. 9 Average PSLR against relative signal energies for a 16-user Gaussian channel

Fig. 10 Performance of different codes against number of training sessions

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response. This is in accordance with the objectives of the project. Scenario 2: In this example, we consider the performance of different spreading codes that are generally used in spreadspectrum systems: Gold Codes, punctured Walsh Hadamard sequences and maximum length sequences (m-sequences), along with the neural network. Three different 31-bit codes are synthesised and their performance after using the neural network is analysed. The network is retained for different number of sessions with each code. The mean-square error (MSE) of the output of the neural network is observed for a given set of inputs. The variations are stored as a plot of the MSE against number of training sessions as seen in Fig. 10. The MSE of the network decreases in each case indicating that the neural network functions successfully. The variation of the system for different codes, however, is not uniform causing the curves to crossover for the following reason. It is observed that the Gold Code starts off with a high value of MSE, but the error rapidly decreases with an increase in the number of training sessions. The Walsh Hadamard sequences start off with a low error, but the gradient of decrease of error is slower in that case. The Walsh Hadamard codes appear to converge to a solution slower than the Gold Codes or the m-sequences. We see that the Gold Codes show the best performance among the three codes considered even when the number of training sessions is large enough in all cases.

Acknowledgment

Financial support was provided by National Aeronautical and Space Administration (NASA) grant no. NASA-EP-07-02.

References

Conclusion

In this work, problem of signal detection in a multiuser environment with passive wireless sensors is considered from both theoretical and experimental point of views. A comparative PSLR analysis of the proposed neural networkbased receiver and conventional matched lter-based receiver demonstrated an increase in PSLR from 1.28 to 4.98 that is equivalent to extending the range by a factor of 1.97. The performance of the conventional receiver (matched lter) is very sensitive to the strength of the interfering users. PSLR in neural network receiver is 3.89 times higher than conventional receiver which proves the superiority of the proposed method while maintaining lower complexity. Furthermore, performances of different classes of orthogonal codes (Gold, Walsh Hadamard and msequences) used along with the neural network are compared. It is observed that the Gold Codes deliver superior performance among the codes considered even if the number of training sequence for all classes of codes are signicantly increased. This comparative study provides insight in code selection design for practicing engineers. However, several questions remain open on optimal code design and comparison with other families of codes. Each of the passive sensors used, is a SAW device, which is designed to act as a temperature sensing unit as detailed in Section 2. Other kinds of sensors can be designed using SAW technology for harsh environment applications [20].

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