Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
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More information
Find out more about phonological and phonemic awareness with these resources from Reading Rockets, The
Access Center, and LD OnLine:
How Now Brown Cow: Phoneme Awareness Activities
Phonemic Awareness in Young Children
Considerations When Selecting a Reading Program (Access Center)
Teaching Strategies and Techniques (LD OnLine)
Articles A-Z: Phonemic Awareness
Reading 101: Phonemic Awareness
Research & Reports: Phonemic Awareness
There are many reasons why reading can be hard. It's important to note that struggling readers will often have problems
in multiple areas. For example, children who have problems with phonemic awareness almost always have problems in
word decoding and phonics; children with fluency problems usually have comprehension weaknesses; and a weak
vocabulary also impacts comprehension.
Information sheets for Phonological and Phonemic awareness, Decoding and Phonics, Vocabulary, Fluency, and
Comprehension obtained at: http://www.readingrockets.org
Target the Problem!
Word Decoding and Phonics
Decoding is the ability to apply your knowledge of letter-sound relationships, including knowledge of letter
patterns, to correctly pronounce written words. Understanding these relationships gives children the ability to
recognize familiar words quickly and to figure out words they haven't seen before. Although children may
sometimes figure out some of these relationships on their own, most children benefit from explicit instruction in
this area. Phonics is one approach to reading instruction that teaches students the principles of letter-sound
relationships, how to sound out words, and exceptions to the principles.
Information sheets for Phonological and Phonemic awareness, Decoding and Phonics, Vocabulary, Fluency, and
Comprehension obtained at: http://www.readingrockets.org
A parent's perspective: What I see at home
Here are some clues for parents that a child may have problems with word decoding and phonics:
She often gets stuck on words when reading. I end up telling her many of the words.
His reading is very slow because he spends so much time figuring out words.
She's not able to understand much about what she's read because she's so busy trying to sound out
the words.
It's as if he doesn't know how to put the information together to read words.
Saying "sound it out" to her just seems to make her more frustrated.
He guesses at words based on the first letter or two; it's as if he doesn't pay close attention to the
print.
More information
Find out more about word decoding and phonics with these resources from Reading Rockets, The Access
Center, and LD OnLine:
Phonics Instruction
Teaching Alphabetic Code: Phonics and Decoding
Phonics and Word Recognition Instruction in Early Reading Programs: Guidelines for Accessibility (LD
OnLine)
Early Reading Assessment: A Guiding Tool for Instruction (Access Center)
Articles A-Z: Phonics and Decoding
Reading 101: Phonics
Research & Reports: Phonics
Other recommended links:
A Child Becomes a Reader: Kindergarten Through Grade Three Guide For Parents (383K PDF)*
Teaching Phonics With Wiley Blevins (Scholastic.com)
Starting Out Right: A Guide to Promoting Children's Reading Success (National Academy Press)
Related articles
Seeking Help for a Struggling Reader: Seven Steps for Teachers
By: Joanne Meier and Karen Freck (2005)
Children come to our classrooms from so many different ability levels and backgrounds. As a teacher, it's important to
recognize and know what to do to help a struggling reader.
There are many reasons why reading can be hard. It's important to note that struggling readers will often have problems
in multiple areas. For example, children who have problems with phonemic awareness almost always have problems in
word decoding and phonics; children with fluency problems usually have comprehension weaknesses; and a weak
vocabulary also impacts comprehension.
Information sheets for Phonological and Phonemic awareness, Decoding and Phonics, Vocabulary, Fluency, and
Comprehension obtained at: http://www.readingrockets.org
Target the Problem!
Vocabulary
Vocabulary refers to the words we must understand to communicate effectively. Educators often consider four
types of vocabulary: listening, speaking, reading, and writing. Listening vocabulary refers to the words we need
to know to understand what we hear. Speaking vocabulary consists of the words we use when we speak.
Reading vocabulary refers to the words we need to know to understand what we read. Writing vocabulary
consists of the words we use in writing.
Vocabulary plays a fundamental role in the reading process, and contributes greatly to a reader's
comprehension. A reader cannot understand a text without knowing what most of the words mean. Students
learn the meanings of most words indirectly, through everyday experiences with oral and written language.
Other words are learned through carefully designed instruction.
Information sheets for Phonological and Phonemic awareness, Decoding and Phonics, Vocabulary, Fluency, and
Comprehension obtained at: http://www.readingrockets.org
What teachers can do to help at school
Help build language skills in class by playing oral and written word exercises and games.
Teach students about the important, useful, and difficult vocabulary words before students read the
text. This will help them remember the words and improve comprehension.
Offer students many opportunities to encounter target vocabulary words beyond the context in which
they are taught.
Have students use taught vocabulary words often and in various ways both orally and in writing so they
are better able to remember the words and their meanings.
Teach vocabulary via explicit instruction and also through independent readings.
Help students learn to use context clues to determine the meanings of words. Teach them that some
context clues are more helpful than others and provide examples of helpful and less helpful clues.
Read to your class each day. When the book contains a new or interesting word, pause and define the
word for your students. After you're done reading, engage your students in a conversation about the
book.
Engage your students in conversations every day. If possible, include new and interesting words in
your conversation.
Explicitly teach the meanings of common prefixes, roots, and suffixes.
Draw students' attention to common roots in a variety of words (for example, the similar roots and
meanings of the words vision, visual, visible, invisible) and lead a discussion of the meanings of the
words and how they tend to be used.
More information
Find out more about vocabulary issues with these resources from Reading Rockets, The Access Center, and LD
OnLine:
The Six Ts of Effective Elementary Literacy Instruction
Vocabulary Instruction for Reading Comprehension
Literacy-Rich Environments (Access Center)
Using Mnemonic Instruction to Facilitate Access to the General Education Curriculum (Access Center)
LD In Depth: Reading (LD OnLine)
Articles A-Z: Vocabulary
Reading 101: Vocabulary
Research & Reports: Vocabulary
Other recommended links:
Vocabulary Instruction (Partnership for Reading)
Basic Principles and Practice in Vocabulary Instruction (The Language Teacher)
A Focus on Vocabulary (Pacific Resources for Education and Learning)
Bringing Words to Life: Robust Vocabulary Instruction (Guilford Publications)
There are many reasons why reading can be hard. It's important to note that struggling readers will often have problems
in multiple areas. For example, children who have problems with phonemic awareness almost always have problems in
word decoding and phonics; children with fluency problems usually have comprehension weaknesses; and a weak
vocabulary also impacts comprehension
Information sheets for Phonological and Phonemic awareness, Decoding and Phonics, Vocabulary, Fluency, and
Comprehension obtained at: http://www.readingrockets.org
Target the Problem!
Fluency
Fluency is defined as the ability to read with speed, accuracy, and proper expression. In order to understand
what they read, children must be able to read fluently whether they are reading aloud or silently. When reading
aloud, fluent readers read in phrases and add intonation appropriately. Their reading is smooth and has
expression.
Children who do not read with fluency sound choppy and awkward. Those students may have difficulty with
decoding skills or they may just need more practice with speed and smoothness in reading. Fluency is also
important for motivation; children who find reading laborious tend not to want read! As readers head into upper
elementary grades, fluency becomes increasingly important. The volume of reading required in the upper
elementary years escalates dramatically. Students whose reading is slow or labored will have trouble meeting
the reading demands of their grade level.
Information sheets for Phonological and Phonemic awareness, Decoding and Phonics, Vocabulary, Fluency, and
Comprehension obtained at: http://www.readingrockets.org
A parent's perspective: What I see at home
Here are some clues for parents that a child may have problems with fluency:
He knows how to read words but seems to take a long time to read a short book or passage silently.
She reads a book with no expression.
He stumbles a lot and loses his place when reading something aloud.
She reads aloud very slowly.
She moves her mouth when reading silently (subvocalizing).
More information
Find out more about fluency issues with these resources from Reading Rockets, The Access Center, and LD
OnLine:
What Works in Fluency Instruction
Early Reading Assessment: A Guiding Tool for Instruction (Access Center)
Learning Disabilities and Challenging Behaviors: A Guide to Intervention and Classroom Management (LD
OnLine)
Articles A-Z: Fluency
Reading 101: Fluency
Research & Reports: Fluency
Other recommended links:
Fluency Instruction (Partnership for Reading)
Effective Fluency Instruction and Progress Monitoring (208K PDF)*
The Role of the SLP in Improving Reading Fluency (American Speech-Language Hearing Association)
Printable Oral Ready Fluency Table (26K PDF)*
Related articles
Seeking Help for a Struggling Reader: Seven Steps for Teachers
By: Joanne Meier and Karen Freck (2005)
Children come to our classrooms from so many different ability levels and backgrounds. As a teacher, it's important to
recognize and know what to do to help a struggling reader.
There are many reasons why reading can be hard. It's important to note that struggling readers will often have problems
in multiple areas. For example, children who have problems with phonemic awareness almost always have problems in
word decoding and phonics; children with fluency problems usually have comprehension weaknesses; and a weak
vocabulary also impacts comprehension.
Information sheets for Phonological and Phonemic awareness, Decoding and Phonics, Vocabulary, Fluency, and
Comprehension obtained at: http://www.readingrockets.org
Target the Problem!
Comprehension
Comprehension is the understanding and interpretation of what is read. To be able to accurately understand
written material, children need to be able to 1) decode what they read; 2) make connections between what
they read and what they already know; and 3) think deeply about what they have read. One big part of
comprehension is having a sufficient vocabulary, or knowing the meanings of enough words.
Readers who have strong comprehension are able to draw conclusions about what they read – what is
important, what is a fact, what caused an event to happen, which characters are funny. Thus comprehension
involves combining reading with thinking and reasoning.
Information sheets for Phonological and Phonemic awareness, Decoding and Phonics, Vocabulary, Fluency, and
Comprehension obtained at: http://www.readingrockets.org
What kids can do to help themselves
Use outlines, maps, and notes when you read.
Make flash cards of key terms you might want to remember.
Read stories or passages in short sections and make sure you know what happened before you
continue reading.
Ask yourself, "Does this make sense?" If it doesn't, reread the part that didn't make sense.
Read with a buddy. Stop every page or so and take turns summarizing what you've read.
Ask a parent or teacher to preview a book with you before you read it on your own.
As you read, try to form mental pictures or images that match the story.
More information
Find out more about comprehension issues with these resources from Reading Rockets, The Access Center, and
LD OnLine:
Comprehension Instruction: What Works
Improving Comprehension for Students with LD
Reading Aloud to Build Comprehension
Early Reading Proficiency and its Relationship to Accessing the Curriculum (Access Center)
Articles A-Z: Comprehension
Reading 101: Text Comprehension
Research & Reports: Comprehension
There are many reasons why reading can be hard. It's important to note that struggling readers will often have problems
in multiple areas. For example, children who have problems with phonemic awareness almost always have problems in
word decoding and phonics; children with fluency problems usually have comprehension weaknesses; and a weak
vocabulary also impacts comprehension
Information sheets for Phonological and Phonemic awareness, Decoding and Phonics, Vocabulary, Fluency, and
Comprehension obtained at: http://www.readingrockets.org
Self-Esteem and Reading Difficulties
The effects of falling behind in reading and feeling like a failure can take a large toll on kids. Children can lose
all desire to learn to read or go to school. Some begin to act out in class or set low expectations for themselves.
Madeline, an appealing 8-year old at the Lab School in Washington, D.C., remembered what it was like before
she was given intensive help with reading. "I just couldn't read the words that were in the books we had to
read. I always felt left out. And a lot of the mornings when it was time to get up and go to school, I kept
saying, 'No, no. I don't want to go.'"
Although the best remedy for a child's low self-esteem about reading is, of course, to teach him or her how to
read, there are other things that can help:
Put Downs & Comebacks
Learn how to respond to a discouraged kid so he or she keeps trying. Put Downs & Comebacks
includes six typical "put downs" a child who is struggling may say or think about himself as well as
suggested "comebacks" you can say to turn these negative thoughts and feelings around.
Children are, of course, much more than how they do in school. You are your child's biggest fan. No matter
what, let them know how much you value them just the way they are!
Related articles
New Teaching Approach Shuns Labeling Children
(2003)
Tips for Developing Healthy Self-Esteem In Your Child
By: Coordinated Campaign for Learning Disabilities (1999)
When Kids Hate to Read
By: Anne Svensen (2004)
Children who aren't motivated to read can benefit from support at home. Learn what parents can do to make reading a more
enjoyable experience for struggling readers in this interview with Dr. Marie Carbo.
See also
Put Downs & Comebacks
Target the Problem
Articles A-Z: Personal Stories
PBS Shows: Reading Rocks!
KidZone Magazine on LDOnLine.org
Top Ten Tips for Parents Who Have a Child With LD on FamilyEducation.com
Information sheets for Phonological and Phonemic awareness, Decoding and Phonics, Vocabulary, Fluency, and
Comprehension obtained at: http://www.readingrockets.org