PALEOLIQUEFACTION EVIDENCE FOR RECURRENT

STRONG EARTHQUAKES
SINCE 20,000 YEARS BP
IN THE WABASH VALLEY AREA
OF INDIANA
Patrick J . Munson and Cheryl Ann Munson
Department of Anthropology
Indiana University
Bloomington, Indiana 47405
u. S. Geological Survey
Reston, Virginia 22092
in fulf1llment of
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS .............................................................................................. iv
1. INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................... 1
2. NEAR-SURFACE GEOLOGIC HISTORY OF THE WABASH VALLEy ............................... 4
2.1. Geomorphic History as Relevant to Liquefaction Susceptibility ..................................... 9
3. DISCOVERY AND RECORDING OF PALEOLIQUEFACTION EVIDENCE ....................... 12
3.1. Survey ......................................................................................................... 12
3.2. Examination and Recording ............................................................................... 15
4. DATING OF PALEOLIQUEFACTION EVIDENCE ...................................................... " 18
4 .1. Rad iocarbon Dating......................................................................................... 18
4.2. Dating by Archaeologic Relations ........................................................................ 21
4.3. Dating by Regional Stratigraphy .......................................................................... 23
4.3.1. Prairie Creek member ............................................................................. 23
4.3.2. Black River member ............................................................................... 23
4.3.3. Conger Creek member ............................................................................ 26
4.3.4. Elnora member ...................................................................................... 26
4.3.5. Hyatt Island member ............................................................................... 26
5. PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE PALEOLIQUEFACTION
FEATURES AND THE SEDIMENTS IN WHICH THEY OCCUR .................................... 30
5.1. Dikes ........................................................................................................... 30
5.2. Lateral Spreads ............................................................................................... 30
5.3. Sills ............................................................................................................. 33
5.4. Sand (or Sand and Gravel) Blows ........................................................................ 33
5.5. Factors Affecting the Presence-Absence, Frequencies,
and Sizes of Dikes and Blows ............................................................................. 35
5.5.1. Grain Sizes of Source Materials ................................................................. 35
5.5.2. Topstratum Thickness .............................................................................. 36
5.5.3. Surface Topography ................................................................................ 36
5.5.4. Depth and Breadth of Alluvial Sediments ..................................................... 36
5.5.5. Presence-Absence of Blows ....................................................................... 38
6. LATE PLEISroCENE AND HOLOCENE PALEOEARTHQUAKES
IN THE WABASH VALLEY AREA OF INDIANA ........................................................ 39
6.1. Vincennes-Bridgeport Earthquake, -6,100 200 yr BP, ML7.5 ................................. 39
6.1.1. Dating the Vincennes-Bridgeport Earthquake ................................................. 44
6.1.2. Severity and Estimated Magnitude of the
Vincennes-Bridgeport Earthquake ................................................................. 73
1
6.2. Skelton-Mt. Carmel Earthquake, -12,000 + 1,000 yr BP, M-7.1 ................................ -74
6.2.1. Dating the Skelton-Mt. Carmel Earthqyake ................................................... 78
6.2.2. Severity and Estimated Magnitude of the .
Skelton-Mt.CarmeI Earthquake .... : ........................................ _ ........................ 78
6.3. Vallonia Earthquake, -3,950 + 250 yr BP, M-6.9 ....................... : ......... : .. ... ......... 78
6.4. Martinsville-Waverly Earthquake, -8,500-3,500 yr BP, M-6.8 ....... :'.-.-........................... $.7
6.4.1. Dating the Martinsville-Waverly Earthquake ......................................... : .... : .. 92
6.4.2. Severity and Estimated Magnitude of the .
Martinsville-Waverly Earthquake ........................ . \ . ! . : .................................... 92
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6.5. lana Earthquake, -4,000 500 yr BP, M-6.5-6.6 ................................................... 92
6.5.1. Dating the lona Earthquake ...................................................................... 92
6.5.2. Severity and Estimated Magnitude of the lona Earthquake ................................ 95
6.6. Elnora Earthquake, -2,000 500 yr BP, M-6.5-6.6 ................................................ 95
6.6.1. Dating the Elnora Earthquake .................................................................... 95
6.6.2. Severity and Estimated Magnitude of the Elnora Earthquake ............................. 95
6.7. Early Woodfordian Earthquake, -20,000 + 1,000 yr BP ........................................... 97
6.7.1. Dating the Early Woodfordian Earthquake .................................................... 97
6.7.2. Severity and Estimated Magnitude of the
Early Woodfordian Earthquake ..................................................................... 97
6.8. Dikes through Illinoian Tills .............................................................................. 99
7. PRELIMINARY ESTIMATES OF RECURRENCE OF LARGE EARTHQUAKES ................ 100
8. SUMMARY ......................................................................................................... 102
APPENDICES
A. ALLUVIAL STRATIGRAPHY OF THE MARTINSVILLE FORMATION
IN THE WABASH AND WHITE RIVER VALLEYS
by Whitney J. Autin ........................................................................................ 109
B. DESCRIPTIONS OF STRATIGRAPHIC SECTIONS OF THE MARTINSVILLE
FORMATION MEMBERS
by Whitney J. Autin ........................................................................................ 124
C. LOCATIONS OF PALEOLIQUEFACTION SITES ......................................................... 132
D. CHARACTERISTICS OF PALEOLIQUEFACTION SITES .............................................. 134
E. RADIOCARBON DATES ........................................................................................ 136
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The research reported upon here was funded by the U.S. Geological Survey, National Earthquake
Hazards Reduction Program, Grant No. 14-08-OOO1-G2117 to Indiana University and the Indiana
Geological Survey. The views and conclusions contained in this document are those of the authors and
should not be interpreted as necessarily representing the official policies, either expressed or implied, of
the U.S. Geological Survey, Indiana University, or the Indiana Geological Survey.
Numerous individuals and institutions contributed in significant ways to this project. Foremost
among these is Stephen F. Obermeier (U.S. Geological Survey), who willingly shared his knowledge of
paleoliquefaction and enthusiastically cooperated with us at every stage of this study. The Indiana
Geological Survey provided equipment, facilities, and geological expertise; to Norman C. Hester
(Director), Donald L. Eggert, Samuel S. Frushour, Henry H. Gray, and especially Ned K. Bleuer we
express our gratitude. Noel Krothe, Department of Geological Sciences, Indiana University,
generously loaned the boat and motor used in the river bank surveys. Leon R. Follmer (Illinois State
Geological Survey), Edwin R. Hajic (Illinois State Museum), and E. Arthur Bettis III (Iowa Geological
Survey) gladly shared with us their knowledge of alluvial sediments and pedology. In theSe regards,
Whitney J. Autin's contributions are apparent in two of the appendices to this report. Geologist
Richard L. Powell (Bloomington, IN) also assisted the project. Most of the radiocarbon samples were
processed and dated under the direction of Chao-Ii "Jack" Liu (Illinois State Geological Survey) and
Meyer Rubin (U.S. Geological Survey).
Archaeologic collections and site records, which were in many cases instrumental in dating deposits,
were made available to us by Indiana State University, Indiana Division of Historic Preservation, Glenn
A. Black Laboratory of Archaeology-Indiana University, Illinois Archaeological Survey, Illinois State
Museum, University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, and numerous avocational archaeologists; of the latter,
special thanks is given to Thomas Ciskowski, Nancy Hendricks, and Mark Wolfal. Permits (910031,
930021, 930047) for the limited archaeologic excavations that were conducted at several sites as a part
of the project were expeditiously issued by the Indiana Division of Historic Preservation and
Archaeology.
In the course of the study we interacted with, and sometimes imposed upon, many farmers,
commercial fishermen, cabin owners, gravel pit operators, conservation officers, and USDA
Agriculture Stabilization and Conservation personnel, whose cooperation and assistance is greatly
appreciated. Lastly, special recognition is given to our long-suffering field and laboratory assistants:
Mike Labitzke, Rex Garniewicz, David Tabaczynski, Mary Pirkl, Andrew White, and Jocelyn Turner.
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1. INTRODUCTION
The Wabash Valley seismic zone, as defined by Nuttli (1979), is a weakly delimited area of
seismicity that straddles the lower Wabash River valley in southeastern Illinois and southwestern
Indiana (Fig. 1.1). During the 200 years of the historic record seven earthquakes with moment
magnitudes 5.0-5.5 and many smaller events have been centered in or near this zone (Stover and
Coffman, 1993). Although the nature of the basement structures in which these earthquakes originate is
imperfectly known, both the historic seismicity and the tectonic setting have suggested to some
researchers that these structures are capable of producing earthquakes much stronger than those of the
past 200 years (Nuttli, 1979; Braile et al., 1982).
Because bedrock in the Wabash Valley area is generally deeply veneered by unconsolidated
tills, alluvium, or residuum, faults are not readily apparent on the surface. Consequently, surface
indicators of paleoseismicity are more likely to be from secondary effects, namely the presence of
flowage features (sand blows, feeder dikes, and sills) that formed in liquefaction-susceptible sediments
during strong shaking.
Liquefaction is the transformation of saturated granular material from a solid state into a fluid
mass as a consequence of increased pore-water pressure during strong shaking. Where saturated
granular sediments are constrained by a cap of low-permeability silt or clay, Jiquefied sediments can be
extruded upward through fissures formed in the topstratum and vented onto the surface. When shaking
ceases, the liquefaction features remain as sand- or sand and gravel-filled dikes and sills througb the cap
and low mounds or ridges of vented sand or gravelly sand (sand blows) on the surface.
The bedrock valleys of the Wabash River and many of its tributaries are partly fllJed with
unconsolidated late Pleistocene- and Holocene-age alluvium, consisting of thick beds of sand and gravel
(generally 15 to 30 m in depth) that are abruptly overlain by 2 to 10 m of sandy or clayey silt. The
normal elevation of the water table is generally higher than the top of the granular facies. This
combination of thick granular sediments, a relatively thin low-permeability cap, and a high water table
provide an excellent environment for liquefaction and the formation of flowage features during strong
earthquake shaking (Seed and Idriss, 1982).
Liquefaction features did not form during any of the historic earthquakes that were centered in
or near the Wabash VaJley seismic zone, nor were any reported for the M -6.4 Marked Tree,
Arkansas, earthquake of 1843 (that was centered in a geologic and geomorphologic setting similar to
that of the Wabash Valley). Consequently, it is assumed that any liquefaction features in the Wabash
Valley seismic zone would be indicative of earthquakes much stronger than the strongest historic event
in this area',
In 1990 S. F. Obermeier (U.S. Geological Survey) searched a number of gravel pit and river
cutbank outcrops of terminal Pleistocene- and Holocene-age alluvial sediments in and near the lower
Wabash Valley. Sand- or sand and gravel-filled dikes, some of large size (> 30 cm wide) and some
with preserved sand blows, were discovered at eight locations. The degree of pedogenesis in dike
fillings, combined with the fact that blows are commonly capped by a meter or more of post-:event
alluvium that also has undergone a moderate degree of pedogenesis, indicated some antiquity for all of
the features. Further, a preserved sand blow -.at one site was constrained by radiocarbon and
archaeologic relations to the 7,500-1,500 yr BP time-bracket (Obermeier et aJ., 1991).
. .
In the summer of 1991, with funding from the National Hazards Reduction
Program, we began an extensive, systematic survey of exposures into liquefaction-susceptible
in and near the part of the Wabash Valley seismic zone that lies in southwestern Indiana. By the end of
the 1991 field season, we had searched nearly all exposures intQ liquefaction-susceptible sediments
throughout the lower Wabash and lower White River valleys in d'OCJiana (an area about 180 km north-
south and 60 km east-west), and had found an additional 17 paJeoliquefaction sites (Munson et al.,
...
Illinois
WABASH
VALLEY
SEISMIC
ZONE
\
87
0
W
85
0
W
I
Michigan 42 N
Indiana


Fort 0 I Ohio
Wayne
Louisville
0 50mi
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75 km
40 N
N
Figure 1: 1. Map showing Wabash Valley seismic zone in an? Illinois.
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1992). Concurrent surveys within a comparable-sized area on the western (Illinois) side of the Wabash
Valley seismic zone resulted in the discovery of 14 more paleoliquefaction sites in that area (Obermeier
et al., 1992).
The 1991 surveys also demonstrated that sizable dikes ~ 1 5 cm wide) occurred throughout the
areas that had been examined by that date, suggesting that paleoliquefaction evidence might extend far
beyond the lower Wabash Valley. Therefore, in subsequent years, during periods when river levels
were low and maximum depths of riverbanks were exposed, we extended the survey to the north,
northeast, and east along the Wabash and White Rivers and their tributaries. By the completion of this
study we had searched all areas that appeared to have potential for cutbank, gravel pit, or ditch bank
exposures into liquefaction-susceptible sediments throughout southwestern, west-central, central, and
south-central Indiana. A total of 330 paleoliquefaction features at 83 sites were found in Indiana and
along the Illinois bank of the Wabash River.
Both during and following the survey phase of the research, concerted efforts were made to
date the liquefaction evidence. Dating (or, in most cases, date-bracketing) was determined by the
stratigraphic relations of liquefaction features to samples of materials suitable for radiocarbon dating, to
archaeologic artifacts of known age-ranges, and to regionally correlative alluvial sediments whose ages
had been determined by radiocarbon dates and archaeologic relations. Dating of individual
paleoliquefaction sites, combined with the distribution of paleoliquefaction evidence, indicates that
within the past 12,000 years at least six earthquakes strong enough to cause liquefaction have been
centered in or near the eastern half of the Wabash Valley seismic zone, as well as at least two other
earlier events.
In Sections 2-5 of this paper we describe the near-surface geologic setting of the Wabash Valley
area, the research methods that were used to discover, record, and date the liquefaction evidence, and
the physical characteristics of the liquefaction features and the sediments in which they occur. In
Section 6 we present the evidence for each of the eight observed paleoearthquakes and estimate their
dates, approximate epicenters, and probable magnitudes. Section 7 is a preliminary attempt, based on
the paleoliquefaction evidence from the eastern half of the Wabash Valley seismic zone, to estimate the
average recurrence intervals of strong earthquakes in this area.
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2. NEAR-SURFACE GEOLOGIC HISTORY OF THE "'ABASH VALLEY
Pre-Wisconsinan ice sheets covered almost all of Indiana except for a northward-extending
tongue of bedrock hills in the south-central part of the state (Fig. 2: 1). Tills from these glaciations,
from a few to > 20 m in thickness, commonly rest directly upon bedrock, although in some valleys till
overlies sand and gravel alluvial or proglacial outwash. During the Sangamonian interglacial and the
early and middle parts of the Wisconsinan glaciation (before ice had advanced into the watersheds of
the Wabash River and its tributaries) streams re-entrenched, removing much of the pre-Wisconsinan
sediments in the valleys and often degrading to bedrock.
By about 23,000 yr BP ice of the advancing Woodfordian stade of the Wisconsinan had entered
the upper basin of the Wabash Valley, and by shortly before 20,000 yr BP the ice-front had advanced to
its maximum southward limit. During this period torrents of meltwater carried great quantities of sand,
gravel, and boulders down the valleys of the Wabash River and its Indiana tributaries White River, East
Fork of White River, and Eel River (Fig. 2: 1). Meltwater was also flowing down the Ohio River at
this time, from southward flowing sluiceways upstream from southern Indiana. Granular materials,
deposited as cross-bedded or plane-bedded strata within broad braid plains, filled the valleys to depths
of 15-50 m above bedrock (Thornbury, 1950; Schneider and Gray, 1966; Fraser, 1993). These coarse-
grained deposits generally fine both upward and downstream and are veneered by 1-2 m of sandy or
sandy and gravelly silt. Remnants of the early Woodfordian valley train presently exist as one .or more
terraces along the margins of the valleys, their surfaces lying 10-20 m above the modem flood plains
(Fig. 2:2).
Melting of both active and stagnating ice continued to supply great quantities of both water and
sediment to the trunk valleys for several thousands of years after the maximum advance of the
Wisconsinan ice, but by perhaps 17,500 yr BP ice had wasted from the headwaters of these streams and
a cycle of degradation began. Ice then re-advanced into the upper basins of the Wabash River and
White River during the mid-Woodfordian, and the Wabash River carried a final torrent from the
draining of glacial Lake Maumee shortly after 14,000 yr BP. However, the water from these mid-
Woodfordian events carried little sediment, and in the central and lower valleys of the Wabash and
White Rivers the effect was generally a reworking of near-surface deposits (Fidlar, 1948; Thornbury,
1958), which by that time had already been degraded to elevations 5-15 m below the early Woodfordian
braid plain.
The middle-late Woodfordian surface is also a multi-channeled braid plain, but the granular
facies are less coarse and are abruptly capped by 2-3 m of silt or sandy silt with occasional stringers or
scatterings of small gravel. The surface of these deposits exists as a low terrace, generally 1-4 m above
the Holocene flood plain. The frequent occurrence of Paleo-Indian Period (12,000-10,500 yr BP)
artifacts within the uppermost 15 cm (Ap horizon) on this terrace demonstrates that sedimentation has
been negligible since that time.
Streams that carried early Woodfordian meltwater but ceased to function as sluiceways after the
disintegration of the ice from those advances have notably different late Pleistocene sediments. Streams
of this category in Indiana include Eel River, Mill Creek, Indian Creek, East Fork, Flatrock River,; and
Big Blue River. Although early Woodfordian outwash in these valleys resulted in thick sand and gravel
braid plains, comparable to the high terraces of: the Wabash and White Rivers, the streams had
degraded to the level of the Holocene flood plain long before the end of the Pleistocene. The volume of
water carried by these small rivers and creeks'l during the middle and late Woodfordiap was only from
local precipitation, and consequently water volume was little different fro!.D Holocene 'conditions. The
result is that sediments are much finer-grained than those in comparable-aged deposits in the .valleys
that continued to carry meltwater. In fact, middle and late Woodfordian-age sediments in these smaller
streams are difficult to distinguish from those of the early Holocene sediments; both consist of cross-
bedded or plane-bedded bar facies of sand or sand and small gravel that are abruptly overlain by sandy
silt that fines upward into massive silt less than 1 m above the interface.
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EXPLANATION
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Bedrock
Hilfs
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Southern
limit of
Wisconsinan
graciation
;
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t' Southern
j limit of
,.,., Illinoian
,,' graciation
o City
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Figure 2: 1. Map of Indiana showing southern limits of Illinoian and glaciatiops, bedtock
hilJs in south-central Indiana, and streams.
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meters
AMSl
175
150
125
Figure 2:2. Schematic cross-section of a Wisconsinan glacial sluiceway valley, showing relations of
Wisconsinan braid plains (terraces), Holocene flood plain, water tables, and granular sediments .
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Tributary valleys that did not carry meltwater have yet another depositional history and are
very different from the sluiceways. These also were deeply degraded, often to bedrock, during the
Sangamonian interglacial and early Wisconsinan, but as meltwater began flowing down the trunk
streams their mouths were blocked by the high water levels and valley train sediments. Sediments in
the basins of the resulting slackwater lakes are dominated by silt and clay, although sand or silty sand
deltaic facies often interfinger with lacustrine sediments around their margins (Fig. 2:3). By the final
episode of glacial outwash, many of these basins had been filled with sediments to elevations nearly as
high as the valley trains of the trunk valleys (Frye et al., 1972; Gray, 1974; Fraser and Gray, 1992).
Many of these broad, nearly flat lake plains border the sluiceway valleys in southern Indiana, the
largest ones being Patoka River (a tributary of the lower Wabash River), Muscatatuck River (a tributary
of East Fork), and Pigeon Creek (a tributary of the Ohio River).
By or only shortly after the beginning of the Holocene most of the former sluiceway streams
entrenched further, with their flood plain surfaces lying several meters below the lowest, late
Pleistocene braid plain surface. The lower Wabash River downstream from its confluence with White
River and the lower sections of both White River and East Fork were actively meandering streams by
9500 yr BP, and had stabilized at elevations that would remain unchanged throughout the Holocene.
The depositional sequence in these valley segments, as with meandering streams generally, is one of
fIning-upward, cross-bedded or plane-bedded sand or sand and gravel point bars which, as the river
migrated away from them, were overlain first by plane-bedded alternating sandy silt and silty sand
splay facies and then massive silt. At the surface of the massive silt facies, generally 3-4 m above the
granular bar facies, moderate soil development occurred before 6,000 yr BP. In most cases in the
lower White River, lower East Fork, and lower Wabash River valleys the surface of this paleosol lies
beneath about a meter of later overbank alluvium.
The meandering regime apparently migrated upstream during the middle Holocene, and after
about 5,000-6,000 yr BP alluvial sediments in the central Wabash, central White, and upper East Fork
River valleys are comparable to Holocene sediments in the downstream sections of these valleys.
However, early Holocene sediments in the upstream sections of these valleys are very different, and in
all cases the boundary coincides with sections of the valleys where the rivers are flowing over a series
of bedrock rapids; in the 30 km-Iong reach from 5 km upstream from Vincennes to 10 Ian downstream
from the mouth of White River the Wabash River flows over nine such rapids, and both the White
River and East Fork intersect high bedrock hills for 50 to 70 kID (Fig. 2: 1), where their valleys are
very narrow and bedrock rapids and low waterfalls are common. Upstream from these nick-points, the
rivers also had entrenched deeply into the late Pleistocene alluvium by the beginning of the Holocene,
but they were not, at that time, meandering streams. Rather, the rivers occupied narrow flood plains
and apparently flowed through only slightly sinuous channels. With the lower water velocities of these
relatively straight channels, granular sediments were not deposited as high point bars, but rather as
bedload and low mid-channel bars, and flood plain elevations were low relative to water surfaces. With
a change to a meandering regime iri the middle Holocene, granular sediments began to be deposited in
high point bars, and fine-grained materials began accumulating at an accelerated rate on the flood plain
as overbank splays, scroll bars, natural levees, and backswamp deposits.
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This phenomenon of low, relatively stable, non-meandering stream sediments and then' rapid
aggradation by meandering stream sediments is very pronounced in the reach of the Wabash RIver from
about 40 kIn north of Vincennes upstream to at least Lafayette, Indiana. In this section of the river the
tops of the early Holocene sand and gravel, facies' are generally 4-6 m lower than the tops of middle and
late Holocene point bars, and the surfaces of paleosols that formed on .the silt .facies that overlie the
sand and gravel deposited during the early Holocene are only 1-2 m ~ p o v e water during the ~
modern river levels. Since 6,000 yr BP, the surfaces of the early Holocene paleosols have been buried
by 3-5 m of overbank alluvial sediments, which show at least one and sometimes three episodes of soil
development in addition to the modern soil. These relations iI1 the central Wabash Valley are well-
illustrated by measured sections at paleoliquefaction sites TC,(. VO, ~ C , and CA (see Section 6, Figs.
6: 10, 6: 17, 6: 18, 6: 19). The differences in elevation between early and middle-late Holocene
7
meters
AMSL
175
150
125
Figure 2:3. Schematic cross-section of a slackwater valley.
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sediments is not as pronounced in the sections of the White, East Fork, and Eel Rivers upstream from
their bedrock nick-points, probably as a result of their smaller sizes, but nonetheless the tops of early
Holocene granular sediments are generally 1-2 m below lowest modern river levels (whereas middle
and late Holocene point bar tops are commonly 1-2 m above lowest water), and early Holocene
paleosol surfaces are generally mantled by 2-3 m of later overbank alluvium.
2.1. Geomorphic History as Relevant to Liquefaction Susceptibility
Except for the upstream sections of the smaller, non-sluiceway streams, all pre-Woodfordian
sediments that might have been susceptible to liquefaction were either removed by the torrents of early
Woodfordian meltwater or deeply covered by valley train or slackwater lacustrine deposits.
The early Woodfordian valley train deposits, which are frequently preserved as high terraces
along the margins of the sluiceway valleys, might have been moderately or slightly susceptible to
liquefaction during the early Woodfordian, when water levels were much higher than present.
However, their granular facies are very coarse (high percentages of gravel and small boulders),
particularly upstream from the Wisconsinan end-moraine, but also for many kilometers downstream
from the moraine. Further, the surficial, finer-grained "topstratum" sediments are so thin (generally
< 2 m) and so sandy (or sandy and gravelly) that there is some question as to whether they were
sufficiently confining for the formation of liquefaction flowage features. Of greatest importance,
however, is that the water table remained at the elevation of this surface for only a few thousands of
years; by about 17,500 yr BP, entrenchment into this surface had lowered the water table to elevations
well below the top of the granular facies.
The middle and late Woodfordian braid plains (low terraces) in the sluiceways would have been
much more susceptible to liquefaction than the early Woodfordian valley train deposits, at least during
their period of deposition and probably for several thousands of years thereafter. Because little or no
coarse-grained sediments were added to the valleys by meltwaters that were flowing into the valleys at
these times, the existing early Woodfordian sediments were reworked and sorted and are generally
much finer; sand and small gravel predominate in the upper part of the granular facies except in the
farthest upstream sections of the Valleys. Further, because the topstratum is generally thicker (2-3 m)
and less sandy than that of the high terrace surface, it provided confining conditions much more
conducive to the formation of liquefaction features. However, in the valleys of the Wabash, \\'hite, and
East Fork Rivers the're was further entrenchment by the beginning of the Holocene, which lowered
normal water table to levels below the top of the granular facies; it is unlikely that the low terrace
deposits in these valleys would liquefy today or would have liquefied at any time since the end of the
Pleistocene except during unusually wet conditions (e.g. prolonged floods). The relations of the low
terrace, Holocene flood plain, and modern river level in the lower Wabash Valley are illustrated in a
measured section at Site MA (see Section 6, Fig.
The minor early Woodfordian sluiceways (e.g. Eel River, Mill Creek, Indian Creek, Flatrock
River), apparently because of their lower volumes of water during the middle and late Woodfordian,
stabilized much earlier, and water table elevations, relative to granular bar tops, was much the sames in
both the late Pleistocene and Holocene. There is little doubt that strong shaking today would fate
Pleistocene sediments in these valleys to liquefy and flow.
The slackwater lake plain sediments of the non-sluiceway valleys are dominated by silt and
clay. Potentially liquefiable situations are not'common in the Jake plains, existing where lacustrine
sediments shallowly overlie deltaic facies of c1'ean Oittle silt, no clay) sand or where Holocene streams
have intersected deltaic facies and reworked the derived granular materials"into their bedloads. L'
The Holocene alluvia] sediments in the former sluiceway valleys are generally moderately to
highly susceptible to liquefaction, and have been since the beginning of the Holocene. Clean granular
sediments of the bar facies fine upward to sand or sand and small gravel, most bar tops lie beneath the
9

normal water table, and the granular sediments are overlain by cohesive massive silt facies of sufficient
thickness to act as constraining caps. However, there are four situations in the valleys of the Wabash
River and its tributaries and that part of the Ohio Valley upstream from its confluence with the Wabash
River where local conditions or the characteristics of the rivers result in either lower liquefaction
susceptibility of sediments or fewer susceptible sediments.
1. Although the uppermost parts of the granular bar facies are generally dominated by sand, where
stream bends have laterally migrated into late Pleistocene terraces the bars for several kilometers
downstream often contain a high percentage of coarse gravel. Such situations are infrequent and
localized in most of the Valleys. However, from Indianapolis to a point about 30 km downstream
(southwest), White River flows through an extensive area of kames and eskers that are dominated by
very coarse, poorly sorted sediments, and upstream (northeast) from Indianapolis the river is
frequently eroding into coarse graveJ- and boulder-rich tills. Even though they fine upward, the
Holocene bedload and point bars in these sections of river are often dominated by coarse gravel, even
in their upper parts.
2. A 50 km-Iong section of White River and a 70 km-long section of East Fork intersect a range of
high, bedrock hills. In both cases, the valleys are narrow, and alluvial deposits overlying bedrock are
generally shallow. Few paleoliquefaction features were found in these sections of the rivers, despite the
fact that numerous and sometimes large features occurred in the wider and more deeply alluviated
sections of the valleys immediately upstream and downstream from the highlands.
3. In the Wabash River flood plain upstream from the numerous bedrock rapids near Vincennes,
the granular sediments that were deposited during the early Holocene had become capped by only 3-4
m of fine-grained sediments by 6,000 yr BP. Strong shaking prior to this date could have caused the
granular sediments to Jiquefy and flow. However, during the middle and late Holocene an additional 4-
6 m of fine-grained overbank sediments were deposited upon the early Holocene surfaces. It is
assumed that the 7-10 m thickness of the topstratum after 6,000 yr BP would have been sufficient to
have suppressed liquefaction of the early Holocene sediments in this section of the valley througbout the
late Holocene and much of the middle Holocene. However, it is to be noted that most granular
sediments deposited during the middle and late Holocene are veneered by only 3-5 m of fine-grained
topstratum, and consequently these sediments have been susceptible to liquefaction since their
deposition.
4. With meandering streams, deposition of fine-grained sediments upon granular, former point bar
surfaces is initially very rapid, but then slows as both height of the sediment pile increases and the river
migrates away. It is only with the slowing of sedimentation that significant soil development begins.
The thickness of the fine-grained sediments, from the top of the point bar to the top of the soil,
generally correlates with stream size, and is a function, in part, of volume of water and amplitude of
bends. In the Wabash Valley area, thicknesses of initial top strata (disregarding subsequent overbank
and backswamp sedimentation) is generally 1.5-2.5 m for creeks, 2-4 m for small and medium-sized
rivers (Eel, East Fork, White), 3-6 m for the Wabash River, and 5-8 m for the Ohio. Most
paleoliquefaction features that we have observed occur where topstratum thicknesses are, or were, ~ e s s
than 4 m (maximum 6.5 m). The relative abundance of liquefaction evidence in the flood plain of Eel
River, the lesser frequency in the Wabash and White River valleys, and its absence in the Ohio River
flood plain is probably in part a result of variations-in topstratum thicknesses.
A final observation on geomorphologic effects has to do not with liquefactipn susceptibility but
rather the preservation of liquefaction evidence. All streams in the study area have :been meandering
for at least 5,000 years and many have meandered for 9,500 years.- . The consequence is ,that the
majority of the early Holocene deposits have been destroyed by lateral erosion, and the flood plain is
now dominated by deposits whose basal members are middle or late Holocene in age. We iJlustrate this
with an example in the lower Wabash Valley (Fig. 2:4), where in 'a' 40 km-Iong section of valley there
are 29 cutbank exposures; at only five are there preserved sediments older than 6,500 yr BP.
10
o
I
o
EX PLANA TION
Dissected
Uplands
late Pleistocene
P7'77A Braid Plain and
rLLL.cd lacustrine
Sediments
Early
Bert
Sediments
Mid -late
O
Holocene
Meander Belt
Sediments

D

o
Surveyed
Rlver
Banks
Surveyed
Gravel Pit
Banks
Uquefaction
Srte
Town
MILES
III I
KILOMETERS
5
r
8
8800'
38
8
00'
Figure 2:4. Map of a 40 km-long section of the lower Wabash Riyer showing cutbank
exposures into terminal Pleistocene, early Holocene, and middle-late Holocene sediments.
.V
, l.1
11
3. DISCOVERY AND RECORDING OF PALEOLIQUEFACTION EVIDENCE
The methodology of this study was divided into four parts: discovery of paleoliquefaction
evidence, examination and recording of paleoliquefaction sites, dating or date-bracketing
paleoliquefaction features, and estimating the probable epicentral areas and approximate magnitudes of
the earthquakes that caused the liquefaction based on the distributions of paleoJiquefaction features of
same ages. Dating of paleoliquefaction evidence is the subject of Section 4, and the methods,
assumptions, and results of the fourth part of the study are the subject of Section6. We discuss in this
section the methods used for the discovery and recording of paleoliquefaction evidence in Indiana.
3.1. Survey
The discovery of paleoliquefaction evidence is dependent upon: (a) the existence, at the time of
an earthquake, of sediments that would be susceptible to liquefaction during strong shaking; (b) the
preservation of these sediments since the liquefaction event (Le. that they have not been destroyed by
post-event erosion); and (c) the presence of clean exposures into the sediments.
Three maps have been very useful in identifying general areas in Indiana that might meet
conditions necessary for liquefaction. A 1 :500,000 map prepared by the Indiana Geological Survey
shows surficial sediments as alluvial, lacustrine, aeolian, till, or in origin (Gray, 1989), and
another shows the thicknesses of unconsolidated sediments (Gray, 1983). The third is a 1: 1,000,000
map in preparation by the U.S. Geological Survey that shows the textures of surficial sediments
(coarse-grained, fine-grained, till) and their thicknesses (Soller, 1995). All areas with thick, coarse-
grained sediments (one of the conditions for liquefaction and flowage) could be determined from these
maps. U.S. Geological Survey 1: 100,000 or 1 :24,000 topographic maps were then consulted to
determine which of the areas having thick, coarse-grained deposits lay within stream valleys; stream
valleys are the only situations in southern and central Indiana where water tables are normally high
enough for the granular sediments to be saturated (another condition for liquefaction), From maps of
these scales one could usually determine if there were meandering streams (which might have cutbank
exposures), drainage ditches, and gravel pits in the valleys, all situations where liquefaction evidence, if
present, might be exposed.
After identifying, from the maps, areas that might have both liquefaction-susceptible deposits
and exposures into these deposits, a preliminary, on-the-ground assessment was made of each area
during a period of normal or below normal water levels. A "driving tour" was usually sufficient to
determine if other conditions necessary for liquefaction and the preservation and discovery of
liquefaction evidence were present. The most critical condition is the presence of clean exposures into
sediments where dikes or other flowage features might be preserved: eroding stream banks (normally
cutbanks on the outside margins of bends), freshly excavated ditches and borrow pits, and active gravel
pits. If exposures were present, then other conditions were assessed. Relative coarseness of granular
sediments (presence-absence and relative proportions of silt, sand, gravel, and boulders) is easily
determined where tops of former bars are above water level, but even where the coarse-grained
sediments lie entirely below water it is usually possible, unless they are at great depth, to estimate their
relative coarseness by probing down to them with an Oakfield probe. The thickness of the fine-grafned
sediments that cap the granular sediments, measured both from the modern surface and from the
surfaces of paleosols, also can be determined easily where tops of former bars are above water, but can
also be detennined by probing in those situations where the granular sediments lie entirely below water.
The valleys of many smaller streams,'.as well as some sections of larger rivers, were eliminated
from further consideration on the basis of this initial assessment; .. they were found to no
exposures, or the fine-grained topstratum thicknesses are too thick (> 7 m), or their granular sediments
are too coarse (high percentage of gravel or boulders; low percentage of sand) or too silty. However,
valleys that were found to have exposures into fine-grained tQPMrata, thicknesses of topstrata that do
not everywhere exceed 7 m, and underlying granular strata that are dominated by sand or sand and
12
),..-
small to medium gravel, were totally surveyed for paleoliquefaction evidence, throughout the study
area. This area eventually encompassed the entirety of southwestern, south-central, west-central, and
central Indiana (Fig. 3: 1).
In the Wabash Valley, the most common exposures into sediments that might contain
liquefaction evidence are the cutbanks that form (and are repeatedly cleaned) along the outside margins
of bends of actively meandering streams. Nearly all (> 95 per cent) of the cutbanks of the meandering
streams that are within the study area and that cross deposits with liquefaction-susceptible sediments
were visually inspected. The Jarge- and medium-sized rivers were surveyed with a 14-ft johnboat and
20 hp motor; 15-25 valley-kID generally could be surveyed in an 8-10 hr day. Small rivers and larger
creeks were surveyed by canoe, generally at the rate of 6-10 valley-km per day. Small creeks, as well
as ditches, gravel pits, and borrow pits, were walked and waded. In the course of four summers of
research, more than 1200 stream-km were surveyed, wherein are located 1387 cutbank exposures with
a total length of 406,000 m. The greatest number of paleoliquefaction sites (73 of 83) were discovered
in cutbank exposures.
Drainage ditches, which are the most common situations where dikes and sills are observed in
the New Madrid area (Obermeier et al., 1990; Wesnousky and Leffler, 1992), were of little utility for
the discovery of liquefaction evidence in the Wabash Valley .. Although many hundreds of kilometers of
ditches have been excavated across the flood plains, Jow terraces, and slackwater lake plains of the
Wabash River and its tributaries, all of these excavations were completed many years ago, and, unlike
the New Madrid area, there is no active program of widening ditches. Consequently, since their
excavation, banks have slumped and become covered with vegetation down to normal water levels, and
the bottoms of ditches with stagnant or slow-moving water are so blanketed with silt that liquefaction
features, if present, are obscured even at low water levels. However, in a few cases there are
channel ized creeks where current is strong enough to keep the lowermost meter or so of the trench
cleaned of both vegetation and silt. During periods of very low water, sections of dikes can be
observed just above water level or, in cases where the water was both very low and clear, below the
water. Six paleoliquefaction sites were discovered in ditches of channelized streams.
Gravel pits were of only limited value in the survey. Walls of inactive pits normally slump and
become covered with vegetation within a few years of abandonment, and active pits are infrequent in
the Wabash Valley and, in most cases, are located either on high terraces (coarse sediments, thin cap's,
low water tables) or late Holocene point bars. Only three paleoliquefaction sites were discovered in
gravel pits.
Highway borrow pits in valley locations are often placed into liquefiable deposits, but their
banks also quickly slump and become covered with vegetation. Only one site' was discovered in a
borrow pit, and the dikes here were found less than a year after the pit was excavated.
At all exposures, the lower part of the fine-grained topstratum above the granular sediments
(the potential source material for dikes, sills, and sand blows) or, in those situations where granular
materials lie below water, the part of the bank just above water level, were carefully searched for sand-
or sand and gravel-filled dikes and sills. The upper parts of the exposures (if they were not covered by
slump or vegetation) also were examined for possible sand (or sand and gravel) blows. ,"
' ~ .
Banks that are steeply sloping to the water's surface could generally be examined from the boat
or canoe, but where basal parts of banks gently slope to water's edge (a common situation where the
top of the granular sediments is greater than 1 m above water level) it was often :.necessary to walk
along the exposed base of the fine-grained topstratum. Any "suspicio1:Js-looking" concentration ?,f sand
or sand and gravel within the fine-grained sediments was dug into or scraped across with a shovel to
determine if it might be a dike, sill, or buried sand-blow. Similarly, any feature that looked like a
small but deep gully, runnel, or crack was dug into to determiQe if it might be a dike from which the
sand or sand and gravel had been partly removed by recent erosion.
13
; ...
,,-
EXPLANATION
:::::=:=:::::=;::
-
..
o
Bedrock
Hills
Surveyed
Stream
Uquefaction
Site
City
Vincennes
Evansville
WABASH
RIVER
"
WHITE
RIVER
"
50 Miles,
I I I .
i I I
75 Km
Figure 3: 1. Map showing surveyed streams and locations of paleoliqoefaction sites in Indiana ahCi on
the Illinois bank of the Wabash River. ..
~ .
\ t.'
14
.... l-
With a bit of practice, dike features are generally easily recognized on the cutbanks for at least
several months after the recession of floodwaters, and larger dikes (> 15 cm wide) that have been
partly flushed of their granular fills (Fig. 3:2) were often identified as at least "probable dikes" from
distances of 100-300 m. Buried sand blows are Jess obvious, but in some cases, particularly when they
are thick and not heavily modified by post-deposition pedogenesis, they are more susceptible to erosion
during floods and hence appear as narrow benches on steeply sloping banks (Fig. 3:3). Sills are more
difficult to see, and were generally found only upon very close examination of the exposed sediments.
As banks dry out following spring floods they begin to crumble, making it more difficult to
recognize liquefaction evidence, and minor summer floods, that commonly carry greater quantities of
suspended silt and clay, sometimes blanket the banks with mud. However, because liquefaction-
induced dikes and sills are filled with granular materials, they are ready conduits for moisture, and the
differential drying of the features is often a clue to their existence, even on exposures that are badly
obscured by "crumbs" or dried mud.
"Pseudo-liquefaction" features are common, but generally they can be recognized as such with
minimal investigation. These include: abandoned muskrat and beaver dens, crayfish holes, root holes,
gullies, and slump cracks that had been filled with silty sand or silty sand and gravel during recent
floods; desiccation cracks that are sometimes filled with light-colored silt and very fine sand; and
overbank sand and gravel splays that sometimes can be confused with sand blows.
When paleoliquefaction features were found during the discovery part of the survey, they were
marked with wire flags and the site location was marked on the appropriate U.S.G.S. 7.S minute
topographic quad sheet. Additionally, any readily apparent and potentially datable materials (either
radiometric or archaeologic) that were noted were collected and their positions relative to liquefaction
features were both measured and marked with wire flags. More detailed investigations of the sites were
then deferred to a later part of the study.
A total of 83 paleoliquefaction sites were discovered in Indiana and along the Illinois bank of
the Wabash River (Fig. 3: 1), at which 330 dikes (sometimes with preserved sand blows) and si1ls were
observed. The locations of the sites and the numbers and characteristics of the paleoliquefaction
features at each are summarized in Appendix C and Appendix D.
During the surveys we also recorded information on all observed exposures, whether or not
they contained liquefaction evidence. In addition to their locations and lengths, we noted elevation
relative to water level of granular sediments, elevation of the modern surface and surfaces of paleosols
relative to the top of granular sediments, our somewhat impressionistic estimates of compactness of the
fine-grained sediments and degree of soil development in the paleosols, and any horizontal stratigraphic
relationships (e.g. "drapes" of sediments that formed behind meandering or prograding channels and
lateral truncation of sediments by later channels). These observations became the basis for the
assignment the alluvial sediments of each exposure into one of five late Pleistocene- and Holocene-age
allostratigraphic "members" (see A and Section 4.3).
3.2. Examination and Recording
Because of the size of the area being searched, and because it was important to cover as much
as possible of this area when water levels low and banks were clean, only cursory examinations
and assessments of the liquefaction sites were carried out at the time of discov.ery.More detailed
examinations were deferred until much of the"survey had been completed. __ Then nearly all of the sites
that had been discovered were revisited, at which time concerted effortS were made to find and dOllect
datable materials in stratigraphic relations to the paleoliquefaction features.
,
Potentially datable materials in the upper (above-ware'r) sediments often occur as small,
discrete, "unusual" concentrations or singJe specimens (individual Jogs or small I eafmats , burned
15
Figure 3:2. Two parallel, 15 em-wide, sand- and gravel-filled dikes exposed in cutbank of Wabash
River at Site NP. Sand and gravel has been partly eroded from the dikes during an earlier high water
stage.
v
Figure 3:3. Two dikes (A) and their sand and gravel blow (B) exposed in cutbank: of Wabash River at
Site ac. Sand and gravel has been partly eroded from the blp\'{ during an earlier high water stage,
creating a pronounced bench. Bank height (above water) is 4 ffi. L
16
. , , ) ~
stumps, small archaeologic hearths, isolated archaeologic artifacts, etc.). Because these materials are
generally small and infrequent, it was often necessary to carefuJly search the exposures, sometimes
repeatedly over a period of several years as floods laterally eroded into the deposits and removed slump
and vegetation, creating new or fresh exposures. At some sites, reduced, fine-grained sediments,
which have the potential for anaerobically-preserving plant macrofossiJs, were discovered with an
Oakfield probe at depths 1-3 m below water level; collection of radiocarbon samples from these
deposits required hand-augering to these depths.
At most sites where datable materials were found in stratigraphic relations to paleoliquefaction
features, measured sections ("logs") were made, showing the locations and sizes of the
paleoliquefaction features and their relations to water level, granular source sediments, paleosol
surfaces, modern surface, and the datable
! t
17
f-
\ /..!
{;
.: .....
4. DATING OF PALEOLIQUEFACTION EVIDENCE
Except for three sites (BC5, CD and MO), all of the liquefaction features discovered in the
study area originated in or intruded through sediments that were deposited during the Holocene or the
last few millennia of the Pleistocene. Furthermore, it can be stated with certainty that all of these
features fonned prior to the historic era (Le. they did not result from the great New Madrid earthquakes
of 1811-1812 that were centered >200 Jan to the southwest of the Wabash Valley seismic zone). Two
observations support this conclusion: (1) the ftllings of all of the features have undergone considerable
pedogenic alteration ("beta-B," iron oxide, and clay enrichment), in some cases to the bases of dikes;
and (2) except in the few instances where dikes or blows have been truncated by recent erosion, the
features are overlain by sediments that have undergone at least moderate soil development. However,
greater resolution was necessary to determine if the features reSulted from a single, very large
earthquake or from a number of events of smaller magnitudes.
4.1. Radiocarbon Dating
Radiocarbon dating is the most precise technique presently available to date prehistoric events
in the Wabash Valley area, and it is for this reason that considerable effort was expended in finding and
collecting radiocarbon samples that were in stratigraphic relations to paleoliquefaction features. The 60
radiocarbon dates relevant to this study are listed, with their locations and sample material, in Appendix
E. Note that all dates are reported here as uncalibrated radiocarbon years before present (BP). For the
period 3,000 to 7,000 yr BP, uncalibrated radiocarbon dates are generally 200 to 900 years younger
than calendric dates (Stuiver and Becker, 1993),
The ideal would have been the discovery at all sites of datable samples that had been deposited
contemporary with, or nearly contemporary with, the earthquake event that created the liquefaction
evidence. However, this ideal was rarely met, largely because of the depositional environments under
which the host sediments were fonned.
The upper 2-5 m of the flood plain sediments (and upper 3-10 m of terrace sediments), where
the upper parts of dikes and their associated sand blows (if preserved) are found, are above the normal
water table. The oxidizing conditions in these parts of the sediment pile preclude preservation of
uncarbonized plant materials for longer than a few years. Nor are snail shells commonly preserved,
apparently because of the slightly acidic nature of the sediments in most parts of the valley, and even in
the occasional situations where shells were found we chose not to date them because of the unreliability
of dates obtained from mollusks (Rubin et al., 1963; Tamers, 1970; Goodfriend and Stipp, 1983).
Paleosols, often with sufficiently high carbon content to be suitable for bulk soil dating,
commonly occur in the upper parts of the deposits. Again, however, we chose not to date them, for it
has been demonstrated in other situations that bulk soil dates vary greatly from the ages of the surfaces
or paleosurfaces beneath which the soils formed (Gilet-BJein et al., 1980; Geyh et al., 1983; Taylor,
1987). Moreover, is geologic settings such as the Wabash Valley it is expected that the errors would be
even greater, for the alluvial sediments in which the soils formed likely contain significant quantitJes of
humates, carbonates, and small particles of coal, organic shale, and charcoal that had been redeposited
from older, upstream deposits (see, for example, Blong and Gillespie, 1978). We dated a single bulk
soil sample from the Wabash Valley, which was collected at Site YO from a soil above (later than) two
archeologic carbonized wood and nutshell, samples; the bulk soil sample dated 3,340 90 yr BP,
whereas the stratigraphically earlier archaeoJogic charcoal s:unples dated .2,400 90 yr BP and 2,410
70 yr BP. '. '
. i,
Particles of carbonized plants, therefore, are the only acceptable materials that can be expected
in the upper parts of the sediments. However, concentrations or particles of sufficient size to be dated
(or readily seen) are relatively uncommon. Unlike the Charleston, South Carolina situation, where
charcoal from forest fires commonly collected in the open fissures and "craters" that remained after
18
;,
strong earthquake events (Amick et al., 1990), the Wabash Valley liquefaction features are in flood
plains; any carbonized materials deposited on the flood plain surface will be swept away by the next
flood (yearly events on the low flood plain, 25-100 year events on the high flood plains). Only
charcoal that was formed and then buried before the next flood will survive. There are only two
common situations where this occurs.
Stumps or dead trees that are ignited during forest fires will sometimes burn down into their
roots. Charcoal formed in the root holes or falling into these holes is beneath the surface and can be
buried (and thus protected) by the collapsing of the upper walls of the cavity. However, because these
concentrations of charcoal are generally only 1-2 m in diameter, very close examination of the
exposures, under the best conditions, is required to find them. Furthermore, because of their relatively
small sizes and the fact that they are exposed on stream banks only in vertical section, they are
"ephemeral." During one examination of a cutbank an existing burned stump might be entirely behind
the face and thus not observable, but might be exposed during a subsequent flood as the bank is
laterally eroded. Then the next flood might erode away entirely the charcoal concentration. Burned
stumps were not common on the Wabash Valley exposures. Only five were found and dated; four are
stratigraphically above and one is penecontemporary with sand blows.
The second way in which charcoal is commonly preserved in the upper sediments is when it
was incorporated in the fillings of archaeologic pit features. Prehistoric Indians frequently made
temporary encampments on the flood plain, where they excavated small, shallow pits for hearths (Fig.
4: 1) and earth ovens (Fig. 4:2). Carbonized fragments of wood and nutshells that were used as fuel are
often found in the fillings of these pits. Because the hearths and earth ovens are generally only 0.3-1.5
m in diameter, they share with burned stumps the problems of visibility and rapid destruction by lateral
erosion. However, they are much more common than burned stumps, at least along the Wabash River
proper and its larger tributaries. Hearths or earth ovens containing plant charcoal were discovered and
dated in 14 situations where their stratigraphic relations to paleoliquefaction features could be
determined: four pre-date, nine post-date, and one is penecontemporary with liquefaction features.
Un carbonized plant materials are preserved in the Wabash Valley area only in anaerobic
(reducing) conditions, which exist only beneath the normal water table. Logs are frequently
incorporated in bar deposits, and smaller stems, nuts, and leaves often occur, sometimes as extensive
"mats," in the lowermost fine-grained sediments overlying the bar facies. During droughty conditions,
stream levels sometimes fall below the elevation of the normal water table, in some cases exposing as
much as a meter of these normally saturated deposits. When thus exposed, large radiocarbon samples
are readily observed and can be easily collected. More commonly, however, anaerobically-preserved
plant materials lie below even the lowest stream levels. In these situations, discovery was made by
probing, from water level, with an Oakfield probe. If plant macrofossils were observed in the small
core -that can be extracted with this tool, or if the sort of blue-gray, odoriferous, fme-grained sediments
that often contain plant macrofossils were encountered at depths less than 3.5 m below water, a 3-in
(7.5 em) diameter, hand-operated bucket auger was used to extract enough sediment to yield an
adequate-sized radiocarbon sample.
-j
In the majority of situations where liquefaction features are stratigraphically associated .with
these low-lying sediments, the liquefaction features intrude through them, and consequently the
radiocarbon samples pre-date liquefaction. However, in a few cases dikes or the paleosurfaces upon
which they vented were truncated by .later the lower parts of which are below the normal
water table, and in these situations anaerobically-preserved plant materials post-date the liquefaction
features. A total of 40 radiocarbon dates were obtained from anaerobi.cally-preseived logs, stems,
leaves, and nuts; 22 pre-date liquefaction features, 9 post-date liquefaction features, and 9 3!etttom
deposits that did not have liquefaction evidence (the last 9 samples were assayed to establish date-ranges
for geomorphic "members"). t
't'
19
;J-
... ....
Figure 4: 1. Archaeologic hearth feature (A) intersected by a sand- and gravel-filled, 15 em-wide dike
(B) exposed in cutbank of Wabash River at Site PB. Carbonized nutshells from the hearth were
radiocarbon dated 7,570 130 yr BP.
,"
Figure 4:2. Archaeologic rock-fuled earth oven (at fingertip) 2 m above 'a dike (A) and sand bIgw (B)
exposed in cutbank of Wabash River at Site YO. Carbonized wood and nutshells from the earth oven
were radiocarbon dated 2,400 90 yr BP. Sand has been partly eroded from the blow to the left of
the dike during an earlier high water stage, creating a pronounced bench.
20
4.2. Dating by ArchaeoJogic Relations
Archaeologic hearths and earth ovens, which are often "reservoirs" for charcoal, were found
frequently in stratigraphic relations to liquefaction features. However, in addition to direct dating of
carbon samples found in archaeologic contexts, correlative dating can be used when previously dated
artifact types are found in stratigraphic relations to liquefaction features. Dating of surface faults by
their stratigraphic relations to artifacts of known ages has been successfully applied for many years in
West Africa (Thompson, 1970), China (Zbang et al., 1986), Greece (Stiros, 1988; Stiros and
Papageorgiou, 1989), Italy (Giraudi, 1988; Brunamonte et al., 1991; Serva et al., 1991), and California
(NoUer et al., 1992). Dating of paleoliquefaction features by this method has been done only in this
decade and only in the mid-continental United States (Obermeier et aI.,1991, 1993; Saucier, 1991;
Munson et aI., 1992, 1995; Tuttle et aI., 1993; Tuttle and Schweig, 1995).
More than 1,000 radiocarbon dates have been obtained from archaeologic sites in the
midwestern United States, and the date-ranges of many artifact stylistic types are well established.
These artifact types can thus be used as "index fossils" to date the surfaces or deposits in which they
were found. The prehistoric cultural chronology of the Indiana and Wabash Valley area, and
descriptions of the more common "index artifacts" of the prehistoric periods and phases, are
summarized by Winters (1967), Cook (1980), Hargrave (1982), May (1982), Kellar (1983), and Justice
(1987), and is presented in abbreviated, tabular form here (Table 4: 1).
The most likely to be discovered "diagnostic" artifacts on prehistoric archaeologic sites in the
Wabash Valley area are projectile points and pottery sherds. Most of the styles of projectile points that
were manufactured before 4,000 yr BP can be assigned date-ranges of 500-1,000 years, and those
made after 4,000 yr BP to date-ranges of + 200-500 years. Pottery, which first appears in the
archaeologic record of the Wabash Valley about 2,700 yr BP, canin most cases be assigned date-ranges
of 200 years or less.
In addition, as a result of the present research project and some of the radiocarbon dates that
resulted from it, it was determined that a frequently discovered class of archaeologic site that rarely, if
ever, contains projectile points or pottery, can be confidently assigned a date-range and thus used to
date or date-bracket liquefaction evidence when found in stratigraphic relations. These sites are
characterized by high frequencies of thermally-fractured ("fire-cracked") rocks, "moderate frequencies
of pitted anvils ("pebble manos"), and occasional hearths and earth ovens, but an absence or near-
absence of projectile points or any other classes of artifacts, residues, or facilities. Winters (1967),
with the limited data then available to him, suggested that these kinds of sites were part of the
settlement system of the Riverton phase of the Terminal Archaic Period. Subsequent to Winters' work,
the Riverton phase has been bracketed, by 14 radiocarbon dates, to the interval from about 3,700 yr BP
to 2,700 yr BP (Anslinger, 1986). We obtained radiocarbon dates from four "fire-cracked rock" sites,
which range from 3,975 170 yr BP to 2,750 70 yr BP; we suspect that most or all such sites are
of the Riverton phase.
Archaeologic sites were found frequently in stratigraphic relations to paIeoliquefaction
in the Wabash Valley, and at many sites where carbon samples were not found the distinctive artifacts
from these sites were the only means by which deposits could be directly dated. Although no instances
were found where liquefaction features penetrated sediments from which artifacts of known age were
recovered, at 22 paleoJiquefaction sites (26 per "cent of the total discovered sites) such artifacts were
found in strata superimposed upon the liquefaction evidence, thus providing .minimal dates for the
liquefaction events. Archaeologic associations also proved to be very. yaluable ill the assignment of
date-ranges to the regional stratigraphic members that have been defi"ned for the Wabash YaJ1ey (see
Appendix A). For example, the occurrence of Paleo-Indian Period (12,000-10,500 yr BP) artifacts on
the surface of the low terrace, "Prairie Creek member" that deposition of this member
ceased some time prior to 10,500 yr BP. I t I
21
Table 4: 1. Archaeologic cultural periods and index artifacts by age.
~ G E ka
Common Index Artifacts
:> - CULTURAL PERIOD Phase Projectile Point Types Pottery Types
Cabo m-Welbom
Vincennes
Madison
VariOU8 men-
MISSISSIPPIAN
AngellOlivMI
tempored tv1*B
I - LATE Yankeetown Madison
Yankeetown typeI
Albee Jacko. Reof
WOODLAND lM40tte
lowe
AlbeelStoner Cordr"Mrked
MIDDLE
Mann/Allison
lowe
Mann/Embwan typH
WOODLAND
Havana and Crab Hopewell!HavanaiCtab
~ -
Orchard Hopewell
Snydel'8
Orchard types
EARLY
Early Havana! Snydel'8 Marion/Sugw Hill typM
WOODLAND
Early Crab Orchard Adena Sistel'8 CreekIHavanaI
Marion Kramer Crab Orchard types
Turlc:ey Taill
~ -TERMINAL Red Och&(/
ARCHAIC
Rivertonl
Riverton
Buck Creek
~ -
Saratoga/Karnak
LATE
ARCHAIC
.-
MatanZ88
I -MIDDLE
ARCHAIC
Raddatz/Godar
-
Bifurcate-base
--
EARLY
Kirlc:
ARCHAIC
PalmerI
9 -
St. Chartes/ThebH -j
Hardin
EARL Y ARCHAICI lanceolateIDalton
-LATE PAlEO-INDIAN
TRANSmON .
&aver lake
10
...
Cumberland/
"
-,'
, "
i. '
1 --
FolsomlBarnea
,
PALEO-INDIAN
Gwney ~ -
, /..1
Clovis
12 -
22
,V
4..3 .. Dating by Regional Stratigraphy
All alluvial sediments in Indiana that were deposited during the Holocene and latest Pleistocene
are dassified as the Martinsville Formation (Wayne, 1963), which is approximately equivalent to the
Cahokia Alluvium of Illinois (Witman and Frye, 1970). An important part of the present research has
been the subdivision of the Martinsville Formation into five allostratigraphic "members" that are
correlative throughout the Wabash Valley. These members are confidently dated on the basis of
numerous radiocarbon dates and archaeologic associations. Observations on the presence or absence of
liquefaction features in the various members, as well as the stratigraphic relations of correlative
sediments to dikes or the surfaces upon which they vented, have been essential both for the dating of
individual paleoliquefaction features and for the determination of which paleoliquefaction sites resulted
from the same or different causal events.
The five members of the Martinsville Formation are described in detail in Appendix A and
Appendix B. Their characteristics are summarized below.
4.3.1. Prairie Creek member
The Prairie Creek member, large stream facies (I), was deposited during the final millennia of
the Pleistocene, while the Wabash River and its major tributaries were still either braided or "island
braid" steams. Fining-upward, coarse-grained bedload and bar sediments are abruptly overlain by
fining-upward sandy (or sandy and gravelly) sHt, which has undergone moderately heavy pedogenic
alteration. Where existing as a Jow terrace, several meters higher than the early Holocene flood plain,
soil development extends downward from the present surface, but in those sections of the valley where
the surface of this member is at an elevation equivalent to or slightly lower than the Holocene flood
plaiD the paleosol is sometimes veneered by a meter or more of Holocene overbank or backswamp
sediments. A limited number of radiocarbon dates (fable 4:2), combined with regional geologic
correlations, suggests that deposition began after 14,000 yr BP, and the frequent inclusion of
macrofossils of coniferous trees and extinct Pleistocene animal species in the sediments of this member
and the presence of Paleo-Indian Period artifacts on or very near its surface indicates that deposition
had ceased before 10,500 yr BP.
The Prairie Creek member, small stream facies (Is), is generally similar to the large stream
except that, probably because of the smaller sizes and lower water volumes of of the streams,
sediments are somewhat finer. Further, because the surface of these sediments is at nearly the same
elev.n:ion as the Holocene flood plain, the soil that developed in the upper part is everywhere veneered
by a meter or more of later overbank alluvium. Because of these characteristics, it is often difficult, if
not impossible, in the smaller stream valleys to segregate the Prairie Creek member from the foHowing
early Holocene Black River member; certain identification is possible only when chronologically-
distinctive macrofossils or radiocarbon dates are available for exposures.
4.3.2. Black. River member
'S
The Black River member (II) was deposited by, usually, meandering streams that were slfghtly
inset into the earlier, Prairie Creek member sediments. Bedload and point bar sediments are generally
fmer than those of the earlier member, fine-grained bar caps and overbank sediments are much finer
(less sand, more clay), and soil while still significant, is less pronounced. The soil that
formed on the Black River sediments is almost everywhere capped by at least a meter of later overbank
alluvium, and in the Wabash River from Vincennes may be capped by 3-5 m of later
sediments. Numerous radiocarbon dates (Table 4:3), plus the occasional lnclusion of Early and
early Middle Archaic Period artifacts, indicate a date-range from about 10,500 yr BP to 6,500 yr BP.
23
f"
't'
Table 4:2. Radiocarbon dates from Prairie Creek member (1) sediments
in the Wabash Valley area.
Site Date lab. No.
OH1 10,640 ! 60 Beta-66625/CAMS-9423
EXp. 1366 12,090 ! 140 \1-6379
\Je3 12,200! 110 15G5-2704
\JA 18,460 ! 280 ", \1-6497
1ft S ~ l e from peaty sediments in a f1 lled runnel 2 m below base of sandy loam
topstratum. Runnel is perhaps in a deflated Early Woodfordian outwash
deposit upon which Prairie Creek member sediments are disconfonmably
SuperiflllOsed
/
I 1..' .
24
!.'
.;,..
; ....
Table 4:3. Radiocarbon dates from Black River member OJ) sediments
in the Wabash Valley area.
Site Date lab. No.
PA ',O15!
70
Beta-51300/ETH-9416
CF 6,990 ! 70 ISGS-2311
\.II 7,110 ! 70 ISGS-2912
UT 7,220 ! 70 ISGS-2710
SN 7,4BO ! 80 ISGS-2582
HA 7,4BO ! 90 Beta 51299/ETH-9415
PB 7,S70! 130 \1-6268
W 7,600 ! 100 ** \1-6370
BG 8,160 ! 70 ISGS-2nO
HA 8,220 ! 110 ISGS-2312
Exp. 879 8,670 ! 70 Beta-m8S
AZ 8,700 ! 70 ISGS-2530
IC 8,730 ! 70 ISGS-2876
SSP 9,020 ! 70 ISGS-2709
NH 9,040 ! 150 \1-6267
HV 9,200 ! 70 ISGS-2713
Al 9,470 ! 80 ISGS-2315
El2 9,690 ! 180 \1-6473
CA 10,700 !
60 **'"
Beta-66627/CAMS-9425
'" AHS date on a small sample of soot(?) from an archaeologic hearth feature
in pa'leosol at top of sediments, and hearth is overlain by Conger Creek
member sediments. Date is at least 5,000 years later than expected
* Sample from an archaeologic hearth feature in paleosol at top sediments.
Date is equal to or later than deposition of Black River member.
*** AHS date on very small piece of wood, possibly redeposited.
, "
..
I,-!
25
t. .
4.3.3. Conger Creek member
The Conger Creek member (III) can be differentiated, in most cases, from the Black River
member. It is slightly less compacted and slightly sandier and exhibits a less developed soil profile.
Further, in the central Wabash River valley the tops of granular bars are at elevations much higher than
those of the preceding Black River member. Except for the central Wabash Valley, the paleosol that
developed at the surface of the fine-grained sediments of this member are only shallowly buried (S.1
m) by later overbank sediments. Numerous radiocarbon dates (Table 4:4) and associations of Middle
and Late Archaic Period artifacts indicate a date-range from about 6,500 yr BP to 3,500 yr BP.
4.3.4. Elnora member
Elnora member (IV) fine-grained sediments are Jess compacted and somewhat more brown in
color than those of the Conger Creek member, and there is only moderate soil development in the upper
part of the sediments. Twelve radiocarbon dates (Table 4:5), plus the frequent inclusions of Terminal
Archaic, Early Woodland, and Middle Woodland Period artifacts, bracket the member from about
3,500 yr BP to 1,500 yr BP.
4.3.5. Hyatt Island member
The Hyatt Island member (V), the latest depositional episode in the Wabash Valley, has fine-
grained sediments that are very soft, frequently show distinct bedding planes, are distinctly brownish in
color, and have undergone little, if any, soil development. Although most researchers have generally
assumed that these very youthful-appearing sediments were all deposited after (and partly as a result ot)
Euroamerican land clearing, five radiocarbon dates (Table 4:6) and the occasional association of Late
Woodland Period artifacts indicate that the depositional episode began about 1,500 yr BP.
, ,.
t
.-
I l I
26
Table 4:4. Radiocarbon dates from Conger Creek member (III)
sediments in the Wabash Valley area.
Site Date Lab. No.
Exp. 530 1,280 !
70 'III ISGS-2714
YO 2,400 !
90 'IIr'IIr ISGS-2532
YO 2,410 !
70 'III.
ISGS-28n
YO 3,340 !
90 '111*.
ISGS-2878
Exp. 1383 3,830 ! 50 Beta-84019
OC 3,975 ! 170 ** UGa-4784
PS 4,012 ! 90 \.1-6342
EXp. 231 4,070 ! 70 ISGS-2716
SP 4,170 ! 70 ISGS-2711
SP 4,230 ! 70 JSGS-2531
EL2 4,290 ! 80 Beta-.72237
CC 4,440 ! 80 ISGS-2314
HA 4,920 ! 220 JSGS-2538
BG 4,950 ! 70 ISGS-2523
TC 5,420 ! 110 JSGS-2539
Exp. 1384 5,890 ! 60 Beta-mao
OH1 5,960 ! 80 ISGS-2525
BR 6,100 ! 80 Beta-59788/ETH-10065
Exp. 1385 6,180 ! 80 Beta-m79
OH3 6,190 ! 80 JSGS-2527
." Date on 12 gms of carbonized wood from a burned stUll' midway in
depositional seqUence. Much later than expected
* Sample from an archaeologic hearth feature in paleosol at the top of the
sedimentary member. Date is equal to or later than the member.
*** Bulk soil sample from paleosol that fonmed at the top of the member.
Date is equal to or later than t h e . ~ r .
, "
f
I (!
. ,.
27
v
Table 4:5. Radiocarbon dates from Elnora member (IV) sediments in the
Wabash Valley area.
Site Date lab. No.
CA 930 ! 70 '"
ISGS-2715
Exp. 49 1,170 ! 70 ** W-159A
EXp. 49 1,400 !
70 "''''
W-159B
UC4 1,630 ! 70 ISGS-2705
Ell 2,570 !
60 lit Beta-66624/CAMS-9422
Ell 2,580 ! 70 ISGS-2712
SAJ 2,750 ! 70 ISGS-2524
\JO 3,140 ! 270 lit ISGS-2529
OC 3,190 ! 80 Beta-15615
\JO 3,240 ! 70 ISGS-2528
CA 3,no! 50 **'"
8eta-66626/CAMS-9424
EXp. 886 8,860 ! 90 .*"'", Beta-84022
", Dated sample from an archaeological hearth feature in a paleosol that
formed at the top of the sedimentary member. Date is equal to or later than
the deposition of the Elnora member sediments.
"'''' Split sample.
"'*'" Sample from a burned stump in a paleosol at the top of a sedimentary
member; there is some uncertainty whether the sediments are late Conger
Creek member (III) or early Elnora member (IV).
***'" The date, on a large sample of uncarbonized wood, is at least 5000 years
earlier than expected.
~ .
l/..)
28
v.
,,,y,,,,-
Table 4:6. Radiocarbon dates from Hyatt Island member (V) sediments
in the Wabash Valley area.
Site Date
Wc3 240 :t 70
WC5 870 :t 70
YO 1,220:t 120
YO 1,390 :t 70
OH1 1,580 .:t 70
29
Lab. No.
ISGS-2703
ISGS-2706
ISGS2316
ISGS-2309
ISGS-2526
I-
1,-' .
1"
y ' ~
5. PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE PALEOLIQUEFACTION FEATURES
A1'41) THE SEDIl\fENTS IN WHICH THEY OCCUR
The paleoliquefaction features of the Wabash Valley seismic zone have been described in detail
in previous publications (Obermeier et al., 1991, 1993; Munson et al., 1992, 1995). We present here
only some general descriptions and several observations that have not been presented previously.
Obermeier et ale (1993) have demonstrated that the dikes and si1ls in the Wabash Valley late Pleistocene
and Holocene alluvial sediments resulted from liquefaction during strong earthquakes rather than from
artesian conditions, nonseismic landsliding or slumping, sudden lowering of water levels,
syndepositional conditions, weathering, or frost action.
5.1. DIKES
The most commonly observed paleoliquefaction features are vertical or steeply dipping, sand-
or sand and gravel-filled dikes that originate in a sand or gravelly sand substratum and penetrate
upward through a silt, sandy silt, or clayey silt topstratum. Although some dikes, especially smaller
ones, pinch out before reaching the surface or a paleosurface, many extend to what was the surface at
the time of the causal earthquake, sometimes terminating in lens-shaped deposits of silty sand or silty-
gravelly sand that we interpret as sand blows.
The sand or gravelly sand substratum (dike source material) is usually a cross-bedded or pJane-
bedded bar facies of a previous stream channel. Beddings directly beneath dikes are commonly
distorted or homogenized and often show evidence of flowage into the dikes. The fulings in the
lowermost 1-2 m of the dikes approximate the composition (sand/gravel ratio, maximum particle sizes)
of the uppermost 0.5-1.0 m of the source material, but above 1-2 m the fillings commonly fine upward;
the fillings in the upper parts of dikes often contain a high percentage of silt or clay, much of which
might be the result of post-event pedogenesis. Clasts of sidewall material are common in dike fillings,
especially in the lower parts of the dikes, and often show evidence of upward transport.
Dike walls are commonly parallel or widen downward. Although when dikes are intersected at
a right angle by a vertical exposure, it might be mistakenly assumed that they are circular tubes (e.g.
Fig. 5: 1), excavation into the dikes has demonstrated in all cases that they are linear ("tabular")
features. In numerous instances, either where the dikes are exposed on sloping banks or where the
exposure intersects banks at an angle acute to their orientation (e.g. Fig. 5:2), the dikes can be traced
horizontally for many meters (35 m at Site HC, 40 m at Site BC3); dike widths usually vary only a few
centimeters throughout these lengths.
5.2 LATERAL SPREADS
Many of the larger dikes that were observed might represent lateral spreads, where blocks of
topstratum were detached and slid or "floated" on the liquefied granular substratum toward a
topographic low. Because the paleosurfaces that were in existence at the time of the causal earthquakes
are now buried by a meter or more of subsequent alluvium, and because we made no attempts d ~ r i n g
this study to expose the horizontal extents of paleoliquefaction features, our observations generally" were
limited to vertical or near-vertical sections of the features. Consequently, in most cases it 'was not
possible to determine if dikes continued for great distances or were the upslope sides of discrete,
detached blocks. .
However, at Site ER (near the inferred epicenter of the -6,100 yr BP'vincennes-Bridgeport
earthquake) we were able to determine that what initially appeared as a 2:5 m-wide dike was in tact the
spreading that resulted from a block that had migrated toward a partly filled, former channel of the
Embarras River, which lies '-20 m to the northeast (Fig. 5:3). Ex.posed vertically and to some extent
horizontally on a sloping bank of the Wabash River, the walls of the feature were parallel both
vertically and horizontally when observed in 1991 and 1992. The feature was filled with sand and
30
Figure 5: 1. Sand- and gravel-filled, 105 em-wide dike (A) and sand blow (B) exposed in Wabash River
cutbank at Site CF. Scale above blow is 1 m.
v
Figure 5:2. Sand-filled, 67 em-wide dike exposed in Wabash River ~ t b a n k at Site VW. Scale is 4 m.
, t 1
31
Top at
Cutbank
Fonner, Now-Filled
Channel at
Embarras
,/'
"I
,
,;'
,l
.t'
,t"
,l
,i
./
./
,I'
/f'
I'
,./--/
. .""
/-=-- Bass of Cutbank
.'
,;
,;
i
i
i
i
i "'/ , ,
WABASH
RIVER
I "
."
.,
, ,
: ,
, ,
. ,
i
i
f
Lateral
Spread
5m
".,
,,'
N
Figure 5:3, Schematic pJan view of 2.5 m-wide lateral spread exposed on sloping cutbank of Wabash
River at Site ER.
v
{
11..\
32
; , , ~
small gravel to its top (2.2 m below the modern flood plain surface), and a sand and gravel blow 25 m
wide and as much as 50 cm thick had formed on the paleosurface. High and sustained flooding during
the summer of 1993 eroded laterally about 3 m into the cutbank in which this feature occurred,
destroying all of it except for the extensive (and very obvious) blow.
5.3 SILLS
SilJs are not common in the Wabash Valley, probably because most liquefaction features in this
area penetrate a massive silt that rarely contains bedding planes; Obermeier (1994) has demonstrated
that sills most commonly occur along interfaces of beds of clay that abruptly overlay silt. The sills that
we observed could usually be traced to a connection with a vertical dike, and are rarely horizontal for
more than a few meters.
S.4 SAND (OR SAND AND GRAVEL) BWWS
In 116 instances lenses of silty sand, sand, or gravelly sand occur at the tops of dikes (e.g. Fig.
5: 1), and the lenses frequently Jie on or near the surface of a paleosol. In all cases the lenses are a
meter or more beneath the modern flood plain surface. We interpret these features as sand blows (or
sand and gravel blows) that were deposited on the surface that existed at the time of the causal
earthquakes and that have since been buried by overbank alluvium.
Blows are thickest above and adjacent to the dike vents and become thinner and more diffuse
with distance from the vent. Where paleosurfaces are flat or nearly so the blows extend about
equidistant from each side of the dike vents, but where dikes vented onto sloping surfaces the blows are
wider and thicker on the downslope side. Pieces of coal, lignite, and shale (all materials with specific
gravities much lower than sand and gravel) were sometimes observed near the margins of the blows.
Many blows are only a few meters wide and less than 10 cm thick. Because these small blows
have been heavily modified by pedogenic processes before and during burial by post-event alluviation,
those that contain only sand (as opposed to sand and gravel) are often difficult to see under most
conditions of soil moisture. However, when banks are very dry and "sun bleached," the sandy blows
often stand out as rusty-colored lenses, and even when moist their sandy texture can be felt with the
fingers (or the teeth). Other blows, especially those associated with large dikes, are much larger and
much more obvious; some extend more than 15 m to each side of dike vents and are as much as 50 cm
thick adjacent to the dikes. Because of their greater thicknesses, pedogenesis has affected only the
upper parts of these features; the basal and middle parts consist of nearly clean sand or sand and
gravel.
Where feeder dikes originate in gravelly sand or sandy grave), the blows contain quantities of
gravel, including, in some inStances, particles as large as 40 mm in maximum dimensions. Further, in
instances where blows contain both gravel and sand and are thick enough not have been heavily altered
by pedogenesis, the highest proportion of gravel occurs near the middJe of the vertical accumulation of
vented sediments. Rather than a simple fining-upward sequence, the sequence begins as sand or\ silty
sand, becomes markedly gravelly some 10 to 20 em above the base of the blow, and then fines u.pward
into mostly sand and, finally, silty sand or sandy silt (Fig. 5:4). A concentration of coarser materials
near the middle of the blows was not anticipated,-for blows associated with separate liquefaction events
in the New Madrid area (sand only, no gravel) usually have simple fming-upward sequences, from sand
to silty sand to sandy silt (Obermeier, 1989; Wesnousky and Leffler, 1992.; Tuttle,and Schweig, 1995).
- '... . ~ .
It is possible that the position of the gravel in the Wabash VaHey blows resulted from two
strong episodes of shaking that were not widely separated in time (there is no evidence of either
pedogenic alteration or alluvial accumulation within the blow sequences), specifically a strong
foreshock that vented only sand, followed by a stronger mainshock that vented both sand and gravel.
However, a phenomenon similar to the alternating fine-grained to coarser-grained sediments in the
33
\-
V.lI


...
DEPTH (eml
166
166 -1 \

00 ... .... . -=:::: ............ ,
0 '"
186 nQ..P .. . . \:
196
206
216
226
236
o 20 40
GRAVEL
>9.6 mm
60
a
ABOVE
BLOW
PEDO
-f
\-----41 BLOW
80
BELOW
BLOW
100%
P O-O-o<:il GRAVEL
(00
0
nq 9.6.2.0 mm
DEPTH lem)
116
-I \"
126
135
146
166
166
116
186
196
o 20
SAND
40 60
b
ABOVE
BLOW
PEDO
MIX
BLOW
BELOW
BLOW
80 100%
r-- I SllT-
CLAY
Figure 5:4 .;. Percentage of silt-clay, sand, and gravel relative to depth in large sand-gravel blows: (a) Site ER, and (b)
Site VW.
Wabash Valley blows has been noted in blows that resulted from historic earthquakes in Quebec and
California, where only single, strong shocks were recorded. In these instances the explanations that
have been offered are that pulsing action or changes in the flow direction of venting water might have
produced the multiple fining-upward sequences (Holzer et aI., 1989; Tuttle, 1994). We propose an
alternative explanation. In the Wabash Valley the granular bars that are the source materials for the
vented sediments usually fine upward, their upper parts being dominated by (or consisting exclusively
of) sand, with increasing proportions of gravel at depth. During the initial seconds of strong shaking
and liquefaction, only the upper part of the sediment pile would be vented. As strong shaking
continued, sediments from deeper in the pile, which contain higher proportions of gravel, would begin
flowing upward and be ejected to the surface, where they would be deposited on top of the finer
materials that had been deposited earlier. Finally, as the intensity of shaking decreased, only smaller
particles (sand and silt) would be ejected.
5.5 Factors Affecting the Presence-Absence, Frequencies, and Sizes of Dikes and Blows
The frequencies and sizes of liquefaction features are not only functions of the magnitude of the
causal event and distance from the energy source, but also of the relative susceptibility of sediments to
liquefy. Although liquefaction susceptibility is a geophysical factor that was largely beyond the scope
of this study, our observations, encompassing more than 400 km of exposures into near-surface alluvial
sediments and the examination of 330 dikes at 83 paleoIiquefaction has revealed a number of
relations between quantities of liquefaction evidence and various geologic and geomorphic
characteristics of the alluvial sediments in the Wabash Valley.
5.5.1 Grain Sizes of Source Materials
Many of the paleoliquefaction features in the Wabash Valley area originate in gravelly source
sediments, and particles > 10 nun in maximum dimensions were observed frequently in both dike
fillings and blows that formed on the surfaces upon which the dikes vented. It is, apparently, a
misconception of many geologists and engineers that gravelly sediments will not liquefy, a
misconception that perhaps results from two facts: (1) in the relatively weJl-studied New Madrid area
of southeastern Missouri and northeastern Arkansas, the source materials for the extensive liquefaction
features that resulted from the great 1811-1812 earthquakes is fme to medium sand; and (2) vented
materials worldwide are commonly referred to as "sand blows," regardless of the grain sizes of the
materials in the blows. However, gravelly sand (and, in some cases, sandy gravel) liquefied
extensively and formed dikes and blows during some historic strong earthquakes. Examples include the
M 9.2 Alaska earthquake of 1964 (Tuthill and Laird, 1966), the M 7.3 Fukui, Japan earthquake of
1948 (Ishihara, 1985), and the M 7.3 Borah Peak earthquake of 1983 (Andrus et al., 1991). In the
latter case, 80 per cent (by weight) of the liquefied sediments are > 2 mm, and nearly 60 per cent are
> 10 mm.
Although we did not make systematic, quantified observations on the physical characteristics of
the source materials at the paleoliquefaction sites in the Wabash Valley, it is apparent that gravelly
sediments frequently liquefied and flowed in this area. However, there do seem to be general
between grain sizes of the source sediments and both frequencies and sizes of dikes. All other. factors
being equal (topstratum thickness, surface topography, distance from energy source), jf the source
material is dominated by sand, then dikes are .generally more numerous and wider, whereas if the
source materials contain a high percentage of gravel (and especially a high percentage of gravel > 10
mm), then dikes tend to be less numerous and narrower.
,.
Site VW (see Section 6, Fig. 6:9) is an exampJe of the relation of dike frequencies to
coarseness of the source materials. The northeastern 135 m of the exposure at this site is 'underlain by a
mixture of sand and moderately coarse gravel (maximum dimensions about 40 rom); only two dikes
occur in this part of the exposure, the largest of which is 12 em, wide. The southwestern 300 m of the
exposure is underlain by sand or sand with a low proportion of small gravel 1 0 mm); nine dikes
35
;,
ocrur in this section, four of which are > 12 cm in width and two of which are > 60 cm wide. The
observations at this site and others in the Wabash Valley seem to be in accordance with experimental
that have demonstrated that gravelly sediments are less susceptible to liquefaction than sandy
sediments (Wong et al., 1975).
5.5..2 Topstratum Thickness
Topstratum thickness (distance from top of granular source material to the surface upon which
dikes vented) was recorded for every dike where this measurement could be made (Fig. 5:5), including
most of those situations where the top of the source material lies below water (depth to source material
in these cases was determined with an Oakfield probe). All other factors being equal (relative
coarseness of source sediments, surface topography, distance from energy source), there appear to be
general relations between topstratum thickness and frequency of dikes. No dikes were found where
topstratum thickness is < 1 m, and dikes are infrequent where topstratum thickness is 1-2 m; we
assume that topstratum thicknesses less than 2 m are generally insufficiently constraining for flowage
features to form in the Wabash Valley sediments. Dikes are very common where topstratum thickness
is 2-4 m. Frequency of dikes decreases markedly where topstratum thicknesses exceed 4 m, and dikes
in these situations are generally narrow. No blows were observed where topstratum thickness exceeds
4.7 m above granular source materials, and no liquefaction evidence of any kind was observed where
topstratum thickness is greater than 6.5 m ..
5.5.3 Surface Topography
Dikes, sills, and lateral spreads are much more likely to form adjacent to topographic lows.
Obernleier (1989) has shown that sand blows that resulted from the New Madrid earthquakes of 1811-
1812 are most commonly found along the tops and sides of meander scroll bars in the Mississippi River
flood plain, and the feeder dikes to the blows tend in the same directions as the bars. Obermeier et ale
(1993) have demonstrated the same relation to topography for paleoliquefaction features at numerous
locations in the Wabash River flood plain.
In addition to the relief formed by scroll bars and eut-off channels of meandering rivers,
another common situation where topographic lows exist in the Wabash Valley is where tributary creeks
or the partly filled former channels of creeks dissect otherwise flat or nearly flat expanses of river flood
plain. Not only are paleoliquefaction features common adjacent to these channels or former channels,
but also they are generally oriented in the same direction as the channels and are generally more
common and larger closest to the margins of the channels.
As an example, at Site TC (see Section 6, Fig. 6: 10) a former, partly filled channel of Turman
Creek is intersected by a 780 m-Iong cutbank of the Wabash River. From 0 to 200 m north of the
former creek bank there are 13 dikes, the largest of which is 42 em wide, and the sum of the widths of
the 13 dikes is 158 cm. From 200 m to 400 m north there are 11 dikes, but the largest is only 21 cm
wide and sum of widths is only 100 cm. From 400 m to 600 m north there are only 2 dikes, the largest
of which is 3 cm wide and the sum of widths is 4 cm. Beyond 600 m from the creek bank no
occur. This relation of dike sizes and frequencies with distance from a topographic low is at
many sites in the Wabash Valley area. .
5.5.4 Depth and Breadth of Alluvial Sediments
Field observations in the Wabash Valley area indicate that liquefaction-induced dikes are {puch
more common in situations where total thickness of alluvial sediments (fine-grained topstratlim plus
granular substratum) exceeds 15 m and where the areal extent of alluyial sediments greater than 15 m in
depth exceeds 1 km in minimum dimension. Depth of alluvial sediments, in 15 m incremenlC\, as well
as their areal extent, can be determined for all valleys in Indiana from maps prepared by Gray (1983,
36
JP
(f)
w
25
20
~ 15
o
u.
o
0::
w
CO
:::E 10
:::>
Z
5
o I r /1/ '1 / V q? f ?V '1 <
o 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 6.0 8.0
DIKE HEIGHT (m) FROM SOURCE BED TO BASE OF BLOW
Figure 5:5. Dike heights (top of granular source material to base of sand blows).
37
I-
I t I
v
1989) and Soller (1995). Of the 83 paleDiiquefaction sites discovered, only five (Sites BC3, EV, NP,
PL, PV) are located in situations where alluvial sediments are less than 15 m thick. The infrequency of
liquefaction features in < IS-thick sediments cannot be explained totally by the relatively small number
of exposures into such sediments. Of the 1387 exposures (of various ages) that were searched, 135 (10
per cent) have sediment depths < 15 m; the frequency of sites in shallow sediments (l site to 22.5
exposures) is about 70 per cent of that of sites in sediments with depths > 15 m (1 site to 16.1
exposures). It is perhaps additionally relevant that drill logs exist for three of the shallow-sediment
liquefaction sites, which show depths to bedrock of 11 m, 13 m, and 14 m at these sites. We suspect
that thicknesses of alluvial sediments at the other two paleoliquefaction sites is greater than 10 m.
Further, it is to be noted that the dikes at all five of the shallow-sediment sites are located less than 200
m from broad (> 1 km wide) expanses of alluvial sediments that are greater than 15 m deep.
Alluvial sediments in narrow valleys, regardless of the depths of the sediments, are even Jess
likely to contain dikes. The central White River, central East Fork, and upper Patoka River valleys
intersect higb, bedrock hills. All of these stream segments are characterized by pre-Wisconsinan
bedrock valleys that are fuled by late Wisconsinan and Holocene alluvial sediments 15 m to > 30 m in
depth, but the alluvial valleys are less than 1 km wide. Only a single paleoliquefaction site (WI), with a
single small dike, was discovered in these valley sections, despite the facts that (a) 114 exposures (of
various ages) were searched, and (b) all of these exposures are within a 100 km radius of the inferred
epicenter of the great Vincennes-Bridgeport paleoearthquake.
No paleoliquefaction features were discovered in situations where alluvial valley widths are < 1
km and alluvial sediment depths are < 15 m.
5.5.5 Presence-Absence or Blows
Although sand blows (or sand and gravel blows) were observed with many of the dikes that
were discovered, blows did not occur (or at least were not discerned) with all dikes. In some cases the
tops of dikes have been erosionally truncated, and blows, if originally present, have been destroyed. In
many other cases, however, particularly with small dikes 5 cm wide at the base), the dikes narrow
upward and appear to pinch out before reaching the modern surface or a paleosurface. It is possible
that in some instances blows do exist with these small dikes, but were not seen; as noted above, when
only small quantities of sand (no gravel) were vented, pedogenic alterations can make blows very
difficult to see except under ideal conditions of soil moisture. However, we suspect that many of the
small, pinching dikes either never formed sand blows (i.e. only muddy water was vented to the surface)
or that such small quantities of sand were ejected that the blows were dispersed within a year or two by
floods.
However, some areas of the Wabash Valley blows were never observed, regardless. of the
sizes of dikes, specifically at sites along Indian Creek, the lower section of East Fork, and the lower
and middle sections of Eel River. All of these streams or stream sections share a common geologic
bistory in that they carried glacial meltwater only during the early part of the Woodfordian Stade of the
Wisconsinan, but then were partially blocked near their mouths by high water and valley train materijals
during middle Woodfordian. The result is that these valleys or valley segments are poorly drain'ed,
with the consequence being the formation of relatively thick, gleyed, often very organic B-horiZons.
When dry, the B-horizon is very "crumbly," tendingto fracture into small, rectanguloid particles.
Dikes, including some as wide as 45 em near their bases, commonly extend upward to the base
of the gleyed B-horizon, but then "break up" into numerous tiny, diffuse stringers that usually
cannot be traced upward for more than about 50 cm. We postulate under some conditions orsoil
moisture (dry?) this horizon is insufficiently cohesive to rupture, and as a consequence the-force o'f the
upward flowage of liquefied sediments is absorbed in a wick-like manner. .
.-
\ 1..\
38
6. LATE PLEISTOCENE AND PALEOEARTHQUAKES IN THE WABASH
VALLEY AREA OF Il'.1])IANA
During the early phases of research (1990 and 1991 field seasons) in southwestern Indiana and
southeastern Illinois, the evidence that was then available suggested that all of the paJeoliquefaction
features that had been discovered in this area might have resulted from a single, strong, middle
Holocene earthquake centered in the general vicinity of Vincennes, Indiana (Obermeier et aJ., 1992,
1993; Munson et al., 1992). However, as surveys were extended farther north and east from
Vincennes in 1992, 1993, and 1994, and as dating of the liquefaction features was tefmed through a
combination of radiometric, archaeologic, stratigraphic, and geomorphologic methods, this preliminary
model was found to be too simplistic.
When the now-known paJeoliquefaction sites are plotted by both the maximum dike widths at
the sites and by the allostratigraphic sedimentary members in which the liquefaction features occur
(Fig. 6: 1), at least seven (and possibly eight) clusters of sites are apparent, with most of the clusters
having sites with large dikes near the center and maximum dike sizes generally decreasing with distance
from the center. Although unequivocal evidence of mUltiple episodes of liquefaction was observed at
only one site (Site IC), we beHeve that each of these clusters of paJeoJiquefaction sites represents a
separate earthquake, with the energy source (here assumed as the epicenter) located near the center of
the cluster.
Following are descriptions of the evidence for seven earthquakes large enough to have caused
susceptible sediments to liquefy and flow that have occurred in the past 20,000 years in the Wabash
Valley area of Indiana, as well as a possible earlier (Illinoian, Sangamonian, or early Wisconsinan)
event. Also discussed here are the assumptions and methods we used for inferring the probable
epicenters, dates, and magnitudes of these events.
6.1. Vincennes-Bridgeport Earthquake, -6,100 200 yr BP, M :2.7.5
Of the 83 paleoliquefaction sites found in southern Indiana and along the Illinois bank of the
Wabash River, at least 48 (58 per cent) are bel ieved to have resulted from the Vincennes-Bridgeport
earthquake. Dikes that resulted from this event originate in and penetrate alluvial sediments of either
the Black River member (10,500-6,500 yr BP) or the earlier but geomorphically very similar small
stream facies of the Prairie Creek member. Sand blows, if preserved, lie upon or in paleosols that had
fonned or were forming on the surfaces of these members and invariably are buried by > 1 m of
overbank sediments of the Conger Creek member (6,500-3,500 yr BP) and later members.
Additionally, in a number of instances, dikes are erosionally truncated by stream channels that are fined
with'sediments of the Conger Creek or later members. In a few cases, dikes penetrate both Black River
member sediments and the basal parts of overlying Conger Creek member sediments.
Disregarding, for the moment, clusters of sites south of Indianapolis and south of Columbus,
when sites with dikes that terminate in the Black River or small stream facies of the Prairie Creek
member are plotted by maximum dike widths (Fig. 6:2), it is seen that sites with the largest dikes
cm wide) are found along the Wabash River from 22 Ian southwest of Vincennes to 16 kIn nor$"of
Vincennes. Sites with dikes of the next smaller maximum size-class (30-59 cm wide) are found-from
48 km north to 80 Ian northeast to 55 Ian southwest-of Vincennes (the absence of dikes of this 'size-c)ass
to the east and southeast is explained by the paucity of exposures of sediments of appropriate ages in the
lower White River valley). A 45 cm-wide dike at Site NTI along the Embar.ras in Illinois and 70
kIn northwest of Vincennes (Obermeier et 31., '1992; Su and Follmer, 1992) and a recently discovered
49 em-wide dike along the Little Wabash River, also in Illinois and 62 kmwest-southwest of Vincennes
(Hajic et al., 1994), penetrate what appear to be early Holocene sediments and probably resulted from
the same event. Sites with maximum dike widths 15-29 cm are, found at greater distances from
Vincennes: 137 Ian north, 93 km north-northeast, 36 Ian east-southeast, and 102 Ian south-southwest.
The limits of liquefaction effects from this earthquake (small to medium-sized dikes, < 15 cm wide)
39
. ~
0
,..
-
....
\.
EXPLANATION
INDIANA
o City Surveyed streams
liquefaction Sites by Maximum Dike
Width and Stratigraphic Member
. "
I Is/II m IV

~ 60 em
0
30-59 em
0

C 15-29 em
0

C 8 <15cm
Liquefaction Sites in Earlier Sediments
t dikes < 10 cm in Illinoian till
,.Y" dikes < 5 em in Early Woodfordian
lafayette
o 50 Miles
I ' I I
iii
o 75 Km
Figure 6: 1. Map showing all paleoliquefaction sites in Indiana and along the Illinois bank of the Wabash River by both
maximum dike width and the latest stratigraphic member intersected by dikes.
~
~ ,
EXPLANATION
INDIANA.
o City or Town
Surveyed streams
. .liquefaction Sites by
Maximum Dike Width
~ 60 em
30-59 em
15-29 em
< 15 em
~ 1 em
~ 15 em
~ 3 0 e m
~ 6 0 e m
o v 50 Miles
I I I I
I I
o 75 Km
Figure 6:2. Map showing all liquefaction sites of the Vincennes-Bridgeport earthquake in Indiana and along the Illinois
bank of the Wabash River by maximum dike width at sites.
extend much farther: 150 km north of Vincennes; at least 98 kIn northeast and probably 122 kIn
northeast (assuming that one of the two liquefaction events at Site IC relates to this earthquake); and at
least 76 km east. The southern and southwestern limits of liquefaction have not been determined,
because our survey extended onJy to the confluence of the Wabash River with the Ohio River (110 kIn
south-southwest of Vincennes), but it is possible that the small dikes at Site SH near Shawneetown,
Illinois (Obermeier et al., 1993), located 125 krn south-southwest of Vincennes, were formed by this
earthquake. We also suspect that many, perhaps most, of the paleoliquefaction sites that have been
discovered in the SkiJIet Fork, Little Wabash River, and Embarras River valleys of southeastern and
east-central lllinois (Obermeier et al., 1993; Hajic et al., 1994) resulted from this event, although the
chronologic relations of features at these sites have not yet been determined.
Where liquefaction susceptibilities of sediments are similar, which seems to be the case for
most of the early Holocene and some of the late Pleistocene alluvial deposits of the Wabash Valley, it is
assumed that liquefaction severity will be greatest near the epicenter of the causal event and attenuate
with distance from the energy source. The "buJI's-eye" distribution of very large liquefaction features,
surrounded by "rings" of dikes with decreasing widths, supports the conclusion that the features
resulted from a single, large earthquake centered in the general vicinity of Vincennes. However, the
"symmetry" of the distribution is improved if one assumes that the center of distribution is not at
Vincennes, Indiana, but rather about 25 krn to the west, near the town of Bridgeport, Illinois.
A methodology previously used by Munson et al. (1995) also supports the conclusions that the
paleoliquefaction evidence in early Holocene and some terminal Pleistocene sediments in southwestern
and west-central Indiana resulted from a single, large earthquake and that the epicenter of this event
was near Bridgeport. This methodology is based on observations on historic North American
earthquakes, that have shown that where limiting factors are generally similar, liquefaction severity
attenuates as a logarithmic function with distance from the energy source (Youd and Perkins, 1987). It
will be assumed here that there are reasonably well-defined relations between liquefaction severity and
both the largest dikes and the sum of dike widths at liquefaction localities.
Considering only those sites where liquefaction features are found in sediments of the Black
River member or the small stream facies of the Prairie Creek member, when maximum widths of
observed dikes at sites are plotted relative to distance from Bridgeport (Fig. 6:3a), the upper bound
approximates a logarithmic curve to the north and to the south. To the northeast and east, the curves
are similar to the north and south curves out to distances of 125 Jan and 100 krn respectively, but
beyond those distances anomalously large dikes occur.
Similarly, the upper bounds for the sum of widths of observed dikes at sites relative to distance
from Bridgeport (Fig. 6:3b) are approximately logarithmic to the north, northeast, east, and south,
except that again anomalously high sums occur beyond 125 km and 100 km to the northeast and east.
We will argue below that the anomalies to the northeast and east resulted from separate earthquakes,
specifically the Martinsville-Waverly and Vallonia events. If dikes that apparently resulted from these
two earthquakes are disregarded, then both maximum dike widths and sum of dike widths relative to
distance support a conclusion that most of the paleoliquefaction features in southwestern and west-
central Indiana resulted from a single seismic event centered near Bridgeport, Illinois. .
As supportive as these data seem for the conclusion that the large dikes (and large sums of dike
widths) in the Vincennes-Bridgeport area and many of the smaller dikes (and smaller sums of dike
widths) surrounding this area resulted frem a single large earthquake, the are not perfect;
at some sites, including some near the inferred epicenter, maximum dike widths and sums of dike
widths are low. However, many of these apparent anomal ies probablycali be explained by lengths of
exposures, for both maximum observed dike widths and sum of observed dike widths at sites is partly
controlled by lengths of the exposures at the sites (Munson et al., Further, the presence-absence
and observed quantities of liquefaction evidence correlates not only with earthquake magnitude,
distance from epicenter, and liquefaction susceptibility of sediments, but also with the quantities of
42
N - NNE
MAXIMUM DIKE WIDTH PER SITE

200
I 160
100

60

o 0 0 OJ
01 ,0 0, 0 p
SUM OF DIKE WIDTHS PER SITE
400
1
300
200
4IIl
100
o I ) Pi Q - i
o 60 100 160 200 0 60 100 160 200
NE
250 r' ------------
200
I 160
i=
o 100

60
*
01 y QV
i
QQ
o 60 100 160
250. EI
200
200
ENE - ESE I 160
i=
e 100
3: 0
50
01 !f1 m 9
o 60 100 160 200

200
I ::l
I
o i i
SE - SSW
o 60 100 160 200
DIST ANa: Ckml FROM INFEflRfD EP'IC:EJ'lT'ER
a
400
1
300
200
In
100
o
*
o I lfipo 00 SiO
o I
400
I 300f 0
0
:;) 200
In
100
60 100 160
o I "P' [JJ '" ,W'iP
400
1
300
200
4IIl
100
o 50 100 150
o
200
200
01 i Vii I
o 60 100 160 .200 .
o 1ST ANC (km) FROM INfERRED mcalTER
b
Figure 6:3. Vincennes-Bridgeport earthquake. Relations in four ,directions of (a) maximuw dike
widths at sites to distance from Bridgeport, Illinois (inferred epicenter), and (b) sums of dike 'widths at
sites to distance from Bridgeport, Illinois. Most or all sites in brackets > 125 km northeast of
Bridgeport (*) are probably from the Martinsville-Waverly ea{thquake; most or all sites in brackets
> 125 km east of Bridgeport (**) are probably from the Vallonia earthquake.
43
exposures into susceptible sediments that were present at the time of the causal earthquake. For a
variety of reasons, quantities of exposures into liquefaction-susceptible sediments of different ages are
variable from area to area in the Wabash Valley, with some lengthy sections of rivers having few or no
exposures into sediments of certain ages, or, in some cases, few exposures into sediments of any ages.
To control for the variables of quantities of exposures, we have normalized the quantities of
liquefaction evidence (both numbers of dikes and sums of dike widths) relative to sum lengths of
exposures into alluvial sediments of each of the five allostratigraphic members. These data (numbers of
dikes and sums of dike widths per 1,000 m of exposure) in 50 kIn increments and in four directions
from Bridgeport are presented in Tables 6: 1 and 6:2.
Similar to what is shown by the relations of maximum dike widths and sum of dike widths at
sites to distance for inferred epicenter (Fig. 6:3), numbers and sums of dike widths normalized for
quantities of exposures into sediments of the Black River and small stream facies of the Prairie Creek
member (fable 6: 1) attenuate approximately logarithmically to the north, northeast, east, and south
from Bridgeport, but again with anomalously high values appearing beyond 100 kIn to the northeast and
east (i.e., the liquefaction effects of the Martinsville-Waverly and Vallonia earthquakes).
Table 6:2 shows the quantities of liquefaction evidence in the other four allostratigraphic
members and the distances and directions of this evidence from Bridgeport. Unlike the liquefaction
features that resulted from the Vincennes-Bridgeport earthquake, liquefaction evidence in other
allostratigraphic members does not radiate from Bridgeport. Features in the large stream facies of the
terminal Pleistocene Prairie Creek member are found only in exposures south and east of Bridgeport,
and, as will be discussed below, apparently resulted from another earthquake (the Skelton-Mt. Carmel
event). The very small amount of liquefaction evidence in the middle Holocene Conger Creek member
is found only in two disjunctive 50-km increments east of Bridgeport (apparently the result of the
Vallonia and lona earthquakes, discussed below), and the very small amount of liquefaction evidence in
the late Holocene Elnora member is confined to exposures within a single 50-kIn increment east of
Bridgeport (apparently the result of the Elnora earthquake).
6.1.1. Dating the Vincennes-Bridgeport Earthquake
Stratigraphic data, combined with the distributional relations just discussed, show that the
liquefaction features that resulted from the Vincennes-Bridgeport earthquake were formed after the
deposition of the all sediments of the smalI stream facies of the Prairie Creek member (14,000-10,500
yr BP) and the Black River member (10,500-6,500 yr BP), but before deposition of most sediments of
the Conger Creek member (6,500-3,500 yr BP) and before deposition of any sediments of the Elnora
(3,500-1,500 yr BP) and Hyatt Island (1,500-0 yr BP) members. Bracketing this earthquake in time is
further refined by the numerous radiocarbon samples and archaeologic artifacts, residues, and pit
features that were found in stratigraphic relations to the dikes and s'and blows.
The stratigraphic relations of dated radiocarbon samples (Table 6:3) and archaeologic "index
artifacts" at 18 sites are shown in Figures 6:4 through 6:22 .. AU of the 14 radiocarbon dates that:pre-
date the liquefaction features of the Vincennes-Bridgeport earthquake are older than -6,200 yr BP, and
all of the 18 that post-date are younger than -5,900 yr BP. Temporally-diagnostic archaeologic
artifacts, which were found in post-dating contexts at 20 sites, generally support a date before 3,700 yr
BP and, in one instance, a date before 5,000 yr BP. Dates from several sites are particularly important
for both bracketing this earthquake in time and demonstrating the cO!1tempor3.l1eity of formation of
I iquefaction features over an extensive area. '. .
1.'
At Site OH3 (Fig. 6:5), dikes penetrate a stratum containing anaerobically-preserved wood and
nutshells dated 6,190 . 80 yr BP. About 1,000 m north of this location, at Site OH 1, other dikes are
erosionally truncated by a stream channel, the filling of which ,also contains anaerobically-preserved
wood and nutshells, and these dated 5,960 80 yr BP. At Site BR (Fig. 6:6), a burned tree stump is
44
~
V'i
...,
Table 6: 1. Vincennes-Bridgeport Earthquake: Paleoliquefaction data for the Black'River (Early Holocene) and Prairie Creek--small
stream facies (terminal Pleistocene) members, normalized for length of exposures by distance and direction from Bridgeport, Illinois.
1 50 km 51 - 100 !em 101 - 150 !em 151 - 200 !em 201 - 250 icm
Sun (em) SI.Jn (em) Sun (em) Sun (em) SI.Jn (em)
Nurber Dike Nurber Dike Nurber Dike Nurber Di!ee Nunber Dike
Sun (lem) Dikes \.Ildths Sun (Icm) Dikes Uldths SI.Jn (icm) Dikes Uidths SI.Jn Cicm) Dikes Uidths SI.Jn (!em) Dikes Uidths
length per !em per !em length per km per !em length per km per !em length per Icm per !em length per km per km
of EXp. of Exp. of Exp. of Exp. of Exp. of Exp. of EXp. of Exp. of EXp. of Exp. of EXp. of Exp. of EXp. of Exp. of Exp.
N-tINE 2.70 11.8 153.0 3.30 4.5 27.9 4.86 2.9 22.6 4.13 2.0 4.1 3.56 -- -
---
NE 0.57 26.3 450.9 5.42 8.9 70.3 3.03 5.6
8
37.0
8
0.34 8.-'& 8.-'& 0.76 --- -- -
ENE-ESE 3.38 10.4 192.0 3.97 3.8 31.0 4.74 0.2 0.6 8.73 3.6
b
25.3
b
No Exposures
SE-SSW ' ~ . 1 0 7.8 121.7 4.89 6.1 43.6 No Exposures No Exposures No Exposures
- .. - - . - - - - ~ - - .. ---
a Some dikes from the Martinsville-Waverly event (see TabLe 6:4C). b Many or all dikes from the Vallonia event (see Table 6:48).
(--
t-
~
\1-
Table 6:2. Paleoliquefaction data for Prairie Creek-large stream facies, Conger Creek, Elnora, and Hyatt Island members, normalized
for length of exposures by distance and direction from Bridgeport, Illinois.
1 - 50 Ian 51 .. 100 Ian 101 - 150 Ian 151 - 200 Ian 201 - 250 Ion
Sun (cm) Sun (cm) Sun (cm) Sun (em) Sun (cm)
Nunber Dike Nunber Dike Nunber Dike Nunber Dike Nunber Dike
Sun (Ian) Dikes Yidths Sun (Ian) Dikes loIidths Sun (Ion) Dikes loIidths Sun (Ion) Dikes Yidths Sun (Ian) Dikes loIidths
length per Ian per !em length per Ion per km length per km per km length per Ian per Ian length per km per km
of Exp. of Exp. of Exp. of Exp. of Exp. of Exp. of Exp. of Exp. of Exp. of Exp. of Exp. of Exp. of Exp. of Exp. of Exp.
A. Prairie Creek member--large stream facies (terminaL Pleistocene)
N-NNE 0.84 --- --- 0.36
-- - --- No Exposures No Exposures No Exposures
NE 0.97 --- --- O.B
--- --- LOS -- - -- - o.n --- --- 0.58 --- ---
ENE-ESE 3.58 2.0
8
12.0
8
0.45 -- - ---
1.25 --- -- - 2.78 --- ---
No Exposures
SE-SSIoI 0.57 3.5
8
63.2
a
9.22 1.3
8
11.7
a
No Exposures No Exposures No Exposures
B. Conger Creek member (Middle Holocene)
H-NNE " No Exposures 2.54 -- - --- 3.73 --- --- 0.10 --- ---
1.10 --- ---
NE 0.79 --- --- 1.02 --- --- 2.38 --- --- No Exposures 0.10 --- ---
ENE-ESE 4.16,! O.Sb 1.9
b
4.33 --- --- 4.58 0.2
c
4.4
c
0.68
--- --- No Exposures
SE-SSY 3.88 --- --- 5.22 --- ---
No Exposures No Exposures No Exposures
C. ELnore member (early late Holocene)
N-NNE 1.04
_a.
.-- 9.66 --- -- . 6.16 --- --- 4.94
--- ---
5.28 --- ---
NE 3.92 --- --- 4.68
--- ---
6.10
--- -- - 4.28
--- ---
1.84 --- ---
ENE-ESE 9.71
--- --- 9.52 0.4
d
0.8
d
5.44 --- --- 8.13
--- ---
No Exposures
SE-SSY 15.60 --- --- B.70 -- - --- No Exposures No Exposures No Exposures
D. H'yett Island member (late late Holocene and Historic)
H-NNE 4.90 --- --- 11.75
--- --- S.B --- --- 11.16 --- ---
2.14 -- - ---
HE 4.97 -- .. --- 8.47 -- - ---
14.12
--- --- 5.10
-- - ---
0.80 -- - ---
,
ENE-ESE 21.19
--- --- 21.31 --- --- 6.60
--- --- 13.70
--- ---
No Exposures _
SE-SSY 9.75
---
...
27.50 -- -
_.-
No Exposures No Exposures No Exposures
-- -- ----
' ~ H o ' t or III dik from the Ikelton-Ht. Carmel event ( Table 6z4A). bAll dlkel from the lona event. C All dikes 'rom tho Vallonia
event (lee Table 6:4B). d All dike. from the Elnora event.
t-
'''';''
Table 6:3. Stratigraphic relations of radiocarbon dates to
liquefaction features of the Vincennes-Bridgeport earthquake.
Site Date Lab. No.
Stratigraphically later than liquefaction features:
CA 930 ! 70 ISGS-2715
YO 1,220 ! 120 ISGS-2316
YO 1,390 ! 70 JSGS-2309
OH1 1,580 ! 70 ISGS-2526
YO 2,400 ! 90 ISGS-2532
YO 2,410 ! 70 ISGS-28n
SA]
2,750 ! 70 ISGS_2524
we 3,140 ! 270 ISGS-2529
OC 3,190 ! 80 Beta-15615
we 3,240 ! 70 ISGS-2528
CA 3,no! 50 Beta-66626/CAMS-9424
DC 3,975 ! 170 UGa-4784
PS 4,012 ! 90 \.1-6342
EL2 4,290 ! 80 Beta-n237
MA 4,920 ! 220 ISGS-2538
BG 4,950 ! 70 ISGS-2523
TC 5,420 ! 110 ISGS-2539
OH1 5,960 ! 80 ISGS-2525
Stratigraphically penecontemporary with liquefaction features:
BR 6,100! 80 Beta-59788/ETH-10065
Stratigraphically earlier than liquefaction features:
OH3 6,190 ! 80 ISGS-2527
CF 6,990 ! 70 I SGS-2311
\.II 7,110 ! 70 ISGS-2912
HA 7,480 ! 90 Beta-51299/ETH-9415
PB 7,570 ! 130 \.1-6268
W 7,600 ! 100 \1-6370
BG 8,160 ! 70 ISGS-2nO
HA 8,220 ! 110 ISGS-2312
IC 8,730 ! 70 ISGS-2876
NH 9,040 ! 150 \.1-6267
AL 9,470 ! 80 ISGS-2315
EL2 9,690 ! 180 \1-6473
OH1 10,640 ! 60 Beta-66625/CAHS-9423
CA 10,700! ,60 Beta-66627/CAHS-9425
f"
I L I
47
L'
j'"
"t.._"
Uquefaction Symbols
.c::::=:::::::: Blow

)
,
I
Dike
Projected Dike
Liquefiable Deposits
Sand and Gravel
San d
Geomor
Mem
)hic
ber
G
Soil
Clas:
S
f--Ap __
V
Bw
IV 2Bw
Bt
ill
BC
Archaeologic Symbols
ification
Hearth ,
Fire-Cracked Rock tt.
Chert Flake F
Pottery Sherd S
, .. C Symbols
Log.
Tree Stump A\
Sticks x
Figure 6:4. Key to symbols used on measured sections of paleoliquefaction sites.
t
1'-1
48
v

\0
1
H N E ) S
SITE OH 2 HI SITE OH 3
ae
se . .,
reO .+:i 0
+Jill re
tO
20m
. 10 III
CD


>-
Modern Surface
S II Surface
Modern Surface
y
I G y
Vb I Bw II
Bw
IVb
l
or IV)
F
IV
'
2BC or
IV 2BC
4Bt
3Bt
1"'11
\ I
/
J
\ 'lC __ II 4C
I Is
1,580 t
3BC .- ..,,'" _ ........
(Is)
, Is 14Cg
6/30/92 , "
, "
II,
, -

Figure 6:5. Measured section of Sites OHl-3 (cutbank of Eel River) showing relations of dikes to stratigraphic
members;' paleosols, and radiocarbon dates. Exposure at OH3 continues for an additional 100 m south (right), with one
additional 9 em-wide dike.
V1
I
0
( , t"":
'\
~ 2 0 m I
NNW E ) SSE SITE SR
Soil Profile
V
2Bt
II
~ ? 0 1 1\1 2-12cm 12 em 15 em \
l6em
15 em
It I"
II r V/////] 11111
,
I I Recent
Channel
l2BC.'lI
I V/////1
)1111 r 2 em
\ \
Plug Fill
(V)
: - Figure 6:6. Measured section of Site BR (cutbank of Wabash River) showing relations of dikes and blows to
stratigraphic members, paleosols, and radiocarbon date. Type section for Black River stratigraphic member at location
indicated as "Soil Profile" (see Appendix A).
.. .,;...
V\
G
III I 2St
28C
38t
If I B C
l20m I
ESE
( ) WNW
y Modern Surface
"
Hearth 112 14 C
SITE MA
E PART
4,920 t 220 yr BP 13 cm
'r
Figure 6:7a .. .;. Measured section of Site MA (cutbank of Wabash River) showing relations of dikes and blows to
stratigraphic members, paleosols, radiocarbon dates, and archaeologic site 11 WH221.
I
}

I
:
1

-
-
G
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-
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.
.
J

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.
.
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~

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\j.)
r-
G I .S
III I 2Bg
II 13Cg
i20m I
N (; ) S SITE CF
N PART
Figure 6:8a. Measured section of Site CF (cutbank of Wabash River) showing relations of dikes and blows to
stratigraphic members, paleosols, and radiocarbon date.
.
'
T

"
T
1

~
.

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.
.
,

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l20m I
105 em I
,

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t.-
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Bcml ~ 9 em
\ 2 em
, r 13 em -_\
3 em 6 I \
em-
2em I
~ I
i
..
..
\\
"
SITE CF
S PART
1!....12 em
"-
\I
\\
River level
\I 7/30/91
II
"
Figure 6:8c. Site CF (continued, south part).
:Tv Bw V
2Bt
1\ I III
II 2BC
II 3Bt
113BC
III
U.
0\
to.
~ 2 0 m I
Recent
Channel
Plug Fill
ENE + - - - ~ ) WSW
River level
anl91
SITE VW
NE PART
24 cm
2Bg
llJ
2BC
38t
3BC I II
Figure 6:9a. . Measured section of Site VW (cutbank of Wabash River) showing relations of dikes and blows to
'r statigraphic members, paleosols, radiocarbon date, and archaeologic site 12K763.
Vl
.......
<::-
~ 2 0 m I
I
ENE wsw
Modern Surface
y
L.--3 em
I.e.-- 9 em
SITEVW
SW PART
61 em
River level
811191
Figure 6:9b. Site VW (continued, southwest part).
Bw I V
2Bg
2BCI III
3Bt
3BC
II
("
'.,

00
,..
-

![20m I
Modern Surface
V Bw
IV I 2Bt
2BC
3Bt
IIIJ H
3BC
4Bt
II
4BC
4C
f

II
II
I
II
..
..
II
..
Ii
Hearth
#3
N E ) S
Hearth
#1 1#4
AIWIll. I A AA



I I I

I I I
I

I I
I
I I I
I I

II
I I
Ii.
I
I
...
I I
AA
em
A
A A
Burned Stump 14 C
5,420 t 110 yr BP

6 em
""-42 em
River level
9/26/91
SITE TC
(V)

Figure 6:10. Measured section of Site TC (cutbank. of Wabash River) showing relations of dikes and blows to
stratigraphic members, paleosols, radiocarbon date, and archaeologic site 12SU526. Depth to granular source material
was not'determined. Exposure continues north (left) for an additional 200 m, with five more small 5 cm wide)
dikes.
V'I
\0

I;:"-
I
GI S
Bt
III I
BC
2Bt
i
2BC
n
2C
S E
A
A
A
,

) N
A
A
Intersecting
Channel
SITE BG
y
Modern Surface
3cm I cm
x
Sticks 14C
4,950 t 70 yr BP
Wood IC
8,160 t 70 yr BP
/'
Figure 6: 1 t. Measured section of Site BG (cutbank of Eel River) showing relation of dikes and blows to stratigraphic
members, paleosols, radiocarbon dates, and arcbaeologic site 12CY360.

-\
I
E E. ) W SITE PO 1
GI S II
--
c,Modern Surface
Bt
l:t. A l:t. A
A
A
III
Projectile Point

x
BC
lBt
(lV-V)
5 cm
II
2BC
Figure 6: 12. Measured section of Site POI (cutbank of Eel River) showing relations of dike and blow to stratigraphic
paleosols, and site 12CY356.
J'
I
0\
I
NNE ( ) SSW SITE NH

I
Deflated?
y Modern Surface
1/
4Bt
I
III
II
\ 1 cm

4BC

\""- Ap
2Btg IV
48tg
I II
4Cg
Figrire_6:13. Measured section of Site NH (cutbank of Wabash River) showing relation of dikes to stratigraphic
members, paleosols, and radiocarbon date.
0'\
N
':'"
GI S II I
NNW ( )" SSE SITE PB
y Modern Surface
HI "
C
lIb \2Bt
2C
38
II. I 3C
/ ..
Figure 6:14. Measured section of Site PB (cutbank of Wabash River) showing relations of dikes and blow to
members, paleosols, radiocarbon date, and archaeologic site llW113.
0\
V.lI
'\."
't
~ 2 0 m I
N ( ) S SITE RF
~
:11:: ~
~
, Modern Surface
A A A
2BC
~ M3Bt
II
3BC
21 em
152 em
3 cm
River level
, I 9/14/91
Figure 6:15; Measured section of Site RF (cutbank of Wabash River) showing relations of dikes and blows to
stratigraphic members, paleosols, and archaeologic site 12K764.
~
'r
"\
i20m I
1
4cm
l
II' em
Scm
N E ) S
Modern Surface
y
i:J.A-
A-
Hearth '''c
SITE PS
4,0121' 90 yr B,
S I G
A
Bw I V
2Bt
II I nIl
112BC
. IV
16 em
-----lGBt
River Level
"3BC I IT
Figure 6:16. Measured section of Site PS (cutbank of Wabash River) showing relations of dikes and blows to
stratigraphic members, paleosols, radiocarbon date, and archaeologic site 12SU525.
0\
Vi
'r
!20m I
S E ) N SITE YO
MnrlAr'n Surface
A
A
,
A A
A A A
Hearth 13 14 C
A A A
.. Bw I V
A A
2,400 t 90 yr BP
A
IJd II 2Bt
IIV
I/V yr Dr.
2BC

I I
\2 em
IScm
m
'9 em
River level
1
3cm
114Bt
Ii
8/21191
I.
II
I

,
I
. .... """"............ .. ,_,,\".. .. . .:-..... .
114BCI D
4C
,. Figure 6:17. Measured section of Site YO (cutbank of Wabash River) showing relations of dikes and blows to
stratigraphic members, paleosols, radiocarbon dates, and archaeologic site l1CLl66. Exposure continues (without
additional dikes) for 300 m north (right): a partial Middle Woodland Period ceramic vessel was found in this section,
1.5 m below the top of stratigraphic unit IV; and another hearth feature (#2) was located 15 cm above the base of
stratigrap"ic unit V, which was radiocarbon dated 1 ,220 120 yr BP.
' . .;;..,
~
~ ,
"'t ..
~ 2 0 m I
2Bt
~
m
2BC
3Bt
E (. ) W
(IV)
A A
3.915 t 110 yr BP (ill)
As.:;:> fF'
.1 it> - -1
SITE OC
Modern Surface
y
II .3BC
9 em 11 em
River level
3C
I I
I I
I I
I I
I I
I I
I
I I
I'
611/92
Figure 6: 18. Measured section of Site OC (cutbank of Wabash River) showing relations of dikes and blows to
stratigraphic members, paleosols, radiocarbon dates, and archaeologic site 12VI245.
0'\
....,J

\.
ESE
II
I
V Bw
4
A
IVI
2BC II
Hearth #1 14 C
930t 70 yr BP
A
A
A
A
A

Hearth
#2
IV
3Bt II F A A A
or
F A
III
3BC
4Bt
III
4BC
5St
n
5C
Wood 'C
/1 0,700 t 60 yr BP
4 ) WNW SITE CA
y Modern Surface
S F
A

A
A
F
A A A A A
A A
,.
3 em I
Hearth
#3
A F
II
1.L--15 em
II
.S
II
III""--- 6 em
'I
II
II
'I
I'
II
II
14C
Burned Stump BP
3,770t 50 yr
River Level
8/26/92
A
Figure"6.:19. Measured section of Site CA (cutbank of Wabash River) showing relations of dikes and blows to
stratigrapnic members, paleosols, radiocarbon dates, and archaeoiogic site 12VE332.
0'\
00
: ..
I
E ( ) W
SITE El2
" Historic Surface 1
___ -------------- II >I' ..., I
III
I
Be
2Bt
. .,;
18 cml

\ .....

11
2BJ
u
Figure 6:20. Measured section of Site EL2 (cutbank of White River) showing relations of dikes, blows, and a sill to
stratigraphic members, paleosols, radiocarbon dates, and archaeologic site 12DA871.
0\
\Q
t-
. .i
i20m I
SW 4: ) NE
Hearth
#1
(IV,)
.A
.A ~ .A !
.A .A
Hearth 12 14 C
3.140t 210 yr BP 1
Sticks 14C
3,240t 70 yr BP
y
x
SITEWO
MnrtArn Surface
~ ~
3Bt
G
V
IV
II
or
3BC III
Figure' 6:.21. Measured section of Site WO (cutbank of White River) showing relations of dikes and blow to
stratigraphic members, paleosols, radiocarbon dates, and archaeologic site 12GR1412.
...,J
0
~ . ':'
or:
"\
i20m I
(IV)
(V)
J L J
Vegetation
for 340 m
2Bt
III
2C
3Bt
I II 13BC
4Btg I
Is I 4BC I
SW ( ) NE
SITE SA 3
Modern Surface
A A A A
(V)
(IV)
.. -..Q:.v.!'.Z ..;;, lit! II 11 ....... "-
\
l o ~ 14C
r:: 7 ~ Biface Fragment
2, 50
t 70 yr BP
I ;;J'l.;na
\
j
River level
Figure 6:22. Measured section of Site SA3 (cutbank of Eel River) showing relations of dikes and blows to stratigraphic
members;-.paleosols, radiocarbon date, and archaeologic site 12CY355.
-l
!,.
i20m I
N ( ~ S SITE WI
tl S
..
y Modern Surface
_Ap
V I Bw
2Bt
III
2BC
2C
Figure 6:23. Measured section of Site WI (cutbank of East Fork) showing relation of dike to stratigraphic members,
paleosols, radiocarbon date, and archaeoiogic site 12LR848.
-l
N
t-
\.
!10m I
E ~
V Profile
)W
Gl
~ I
SITE CL 2
yModern Surface
VI C
IV 1
2BW
2BCg
2C&
3Bt
3Bt
Is
3C
Figure 6:24. Measured section of Site eL2 (cutbank of Eel River) showing relations of dikes to stratigraphic members.
paleosols, and archaeologic site 12CY361. Exposure continues for 100m east (left) with one additional 17 em-wide
dike. Type section for the Prairie Creek stratigraphic member, small stream facies, at location indicated as "Soil
Profile" (see Appendix A).
corporated within the sand blow of a 15 cm-wide dike. It is assumed that the tree was growing at the
time of the earthquake (and perhaps was kiJIed by the disruption of its roots or partial burial by sand),
Carbonized wood from the stump dated 6,100 yr 80, which falls between the closely bracketing
dates from Sites OH 1 and OH3.
Samples from other sites with dikes that are assumed to be contemporary do not bracket as
tightly, but nonetheless support a date within about 1,000 years of 6,100 yr BP. At Site MA (Fig.
6:7), carbonized acornsheJls from an archaeologic hearth 75 cm below sand blows dated 7,480 + 90 yr
BP, and carbonized wood and nutshells from another hearth 22 cm above the blows dated 4,920 + 220
yr BP. Anaerobically-preserved wood from dike source material at Site CF (Fig. 6:8) dated 6,990
70 yr BP, and carbonized nutshells from a hearth below a sand blow at Site VW (Fig. 6:9) dated 7,600
+ 100 yr BP; at both sites Terminal Archaic Period (3,700-2,700 yr BP) artifacts occur -1 m above
the blows. At Site TC (Fig. 6: 10), carbonized wood from a burned stump 50. cm above a sand blow
dated 5,420 .. 110 yr BP. Dikes and a sand blow at Site BG (Fig. 6: 11) are erosionally truncated by a
stream channel, the filling of which contains anaerobically-preserved wood dated 4,950 70 yr BP.
And at Site POI (Fig. 6: 12) a Raddatz or Godar side-notched projectile point was found 75 cm above a
sand blow; this artifact style was popular during the late Middle Archaic Period and probably dates
about 7,000-5J)OO yr BP. Radiocarbon and archaeologic samples from other sites (Figs. 6: 13 through
6:24) yield even broader brackets, but nonetheless are consistent with a temporal assignment of -6,100
yr BP for the Vincennes-Bridgeport earthquake.
6.1.2. Severity and Estimated Magnitude of the Vincennes-Bridgeport Earthquake
In the inferred meisoseismal region of the Vincennes-Bridgeport earthquake, liquefaction was
pervasive and extensive in alluvial sediments. Every exposure into sediments of the Black River
member within 30 km to the south, east, and north of Bridgeport has numerous dikes and sand blows,
with dike widths commonly exceeding 60 em and sums of dike widths at sites commonly exceeding 250
cm. At Site ER, 16 kIn east of Bridgeport, a block of sediment spread laterally, opening a fissure 250
cm wide (Fig. 5:3), through which sand and small gravel vented to form a sand blow 25 m wide and as
much as 50 em thick; the size of this feature is comparable to lateral spreads and sand blows that
resulted from the M 7.5 Charleston, South Carolina earthquake of 1886 and the M 7.9-8.3 New
Madrid, Missouri earthquakes of 1811-1812 (Obermeier et al., 1990). Very strong shaking is also
indicated by the extensive area that has liquefaction effects and by the fact that many liquefaction
features, including some as far as 100 km from the inferred epicenter, originated in and vented
sediments that contain high percentages of gravel.
Estimation of the actual magnitudes of earthquakes that occurred prior to the deployment of
seismographic instruments is a young and imprecise science. However, comparison of shallow-focus
historic earthquakes worldwide has shown that there is a reasonably well-defined relation between
earthquake magnitude and the maximum epicentral distance of liquefaction (Ambraseys, 1988). Tiling
into account liquefaction susceptibility (especially grain size, thickness, and density of granular
sediments) and seismological situation (thickness and lithology of overlying sediments; nature of
bedrock), Obermeier et ale (1993) refined this relation for the Wabash Valley, and, on the basis ofjthe
paleoliquefaction evidence that was known at the end of the 1991 field season (which suggested an
epicentral distance of liquefaction 2..89 krn), they estimated that the event that we're referring to' here
as the Vincennes-Bridgeport earthquake have, had a inoment magnitude as high as -7.5.
With the discovery during 1992-1994 of liquefaction features at much greater distances to the
north, northeast, and east, this preJiminary estimate of magnitude might be somewhat conservative.
from BridgeP.Ort, Site CAp wi.th a 15 dike :xtensive s.andi;blow
p
IS 140 .Ian north of the mferred epIcenter, and SIte PL, WIth eight small dikes (1-3 cm WIde) IS' 150 km
north. Site CH, with one 24 cm-wide dike, five smaller dikes, and extensive sand blows, is 108 kIn
northeast of Bridgeport, .and if some of the small (1-7 em dikes at Site IC and/or Site MC
resulted from the Vincennes-Bridgeport event, then a northeastern epicentral distance of 135-145 km is
73
I'
indicated. At least small dikes occur 100 km to the east (Site WI), in an area where an extensive range
of bedrock hills precludes many liquefaction-susceptible sediments. At Site MT, near the southern limit
of our survey and 93 km south-southwest of Bridgeport, two 18 em-wide dikes occur, and if the small
dikes at Site SH near Shawneetown, Illinois resulted from this event then at least minor liquefaction
extended 115 km to the south-southwest. An epicentral distance of liquefaction of 100-150 km,
compared to the Ambraseys-Obermeier estimated bound for the Wabash Valley seismic zone
(Obermeier et al., 1993), suggests that the magnitude of the Vincennes-Bridgeport earthquake might
have been as great as M 7.6 or 7.7.
6.2. Skelton-Mt. Carmel Earthquake, -12,000 1,000 yr BP, M -7.1
In the early stages of paleoliquefaction research in the Wabash Valley seismic zone (Obermeier
et al., 1991, 1992, 1993; Munson et al., 1992), it was assumed that all of the liquefaction features
found in both late Pleistocene and early-middle Holocene sediments resulted from a single, large,
middle Holocene earthquake. However, the data that are now available strongly suggest that the
liquefaction features at eight sites in southwestern Indiana, as well as (probably) Site PT in the lower
Embarras River valley in southeastern Illinois (Obermeier et al., 1992), were formed during strong
shaking from an earlier earthquake. We refer to this event as the Skelton-Mt. Carmel earthquake.
All liquefaction features from this earthquake are found in sediments of the large stream facies
of the Prairie Creek member (14,000-10,500 yr BP). Particularly relevant to the argument that these
features resulted from an event separate from the Vincennes-Bridgeport earthquake is the fact that their
occurrence is restricted to exposures into these sediments only to the south, southeast, and east of the
Vincennes-Bridgeport area, despite the existence of numerous and extensive exposures of sediments of
comparable age to the northeast and north of Bridgeport (fable 6:2A). Although the potentially
liquefiable granular sediments of the Prairie Creek member tend to become coarser to the north and
northeast, we think it very unlikely that this fact would account for the observed distribution, for the
relative coarseness of near-surface granular sediments within 50 km north and northeast of Bridgeport
(where no liquefaction evidence was found in this allostratigraphic member) is not appreciably greater
than it is 50 km to the south, southeast, and east, where numerous and, in some instances, large dikes
were found.
When sites are plotted by maximum dike sizes (Fig. 6:25), the sites with the largest dikes (> 30
cm wide) are seen to occur near the center of the cluster, and maximum dike widths decrease to the
south, east, and north, a fact that also supports the conclusion that the dikes were formed by a single
event that was separate from the Vincennes-Bridgeport earthquake. Further, the distribution suggests
an epicenter to the south of the epicenter of the Vincennes-Bridgeport event, near the confluence of
White River with the Wabash River, and not far from the hamlet of Skelton, Indiana and the town of
Mt. Carmel, Illinois (the latter not related to nor to be confused with the well-known Mt. Carmel fault
in south-central Indiana). Applying the same methods used above, and measuring distances from
there are approximately logarithmic relations between distance from the inferred epicentral
area and maximum dike widths at sites (Fig. 6:26a), sums of dike widths at sites (Fig. 6:26b), and
numbers of dikes and sums of widths normalized for lengths of exposures (fable 6:4A), which also
support the conclusion that these liquefaction features resulted from a separate event that was
in or near the Skelton-Mt. Carmel area.
All sediments containing liquefaction features of the Skelton-Mt. Carmel earthquake fall within
the envelope of liquefaction of the later Vipcennes-Bridgeport earthquake. The explanation for the
absence of liquefaction evidence for that event in sediments of the Prairie Creek member lies in the
geomorphic and geochronologic character of these sediments. During the .last 3,()()()..4,OOO years of the
Pleistocene, when the Prairie Creek sediments were being deposited in the larger valleys,. alluvial
surfaces were several meters higher than they were during the Holocene. It is assumed that the
elevation of the terminal Pleistocene water table equaled or ,exceeded the top of the granular
substratum, and, with a 2-4 m thick confining cap of low-permeability silt or sandy silt above the
74
....,J
VI
~ <
t.
EXPLANATION
INDIANA
o City or Town
Surveyed streams
liquefaction Sites by
Ms?Cimum Dike Width
30-59 em
15-29 em
< 15 em
>1 em
~ 30 em
Mt. Carmel

PT
",
GR ,,/
" " '.. ,""
... -..... -,
o 20 Miles
I I
i
o 25 Km
Figure 6:25. Map showing aU liquefaction sites of the Skelton-Mt. Cannel earthquake by maximum dike width at sites.
MAXIMUM DIKE WlDTH PER SITE
eo
6Ot-
I
j:40
~
o
~
20 t-
o
o
o 0 00
o 20 40 eo
DISTANCE Ikml FROM 1WEm.ED EP1C9l'T'ER
a
SUM OF DIKE WlDTHS PER SITE
120
~
eo I-
I
::I'
i 40
o o 0
o I 0 0 0
o 20 40 60
DlST N ~ (!un) FROM INF"ERRED EPlcarrER
b
Figure 6:26. Skelton-Mt. Carmel earthquake. Relations of (a) maximum dike widths at sites to
distance from inferred epicenter, and (b) sums of dike widths at sites to distance from inferred
epicenter.
. "
v
f'
I L'
76
-.J
-.J

'-\
Table 6:4. Paleoliquefaction data normalized for length of exposures by distances (all directions) from inferred epicenters of
the Skelton-Mt. Carmel, Vallonia, and Martinsville-Waverly events.
t""
1 - 25 Iem 26 50 !em 51 - 75 !em 16 - 100 Iem 101 - 250 Iem
SUTI (cm) SUTI (cm) SUTI (em) SUTI (em) Sl.I1I (em)
NUTber Dike NlITIber Dike NUTber Dike NUtber Dike Nunber Dike
SUTI (Iem) Dikes \.Iidths SUTI (km) Dikes \.Iidths SUTI (km) Dikes \.Iidths SUTI (Iem) Dikes \.Iidths SUTI (Iem) Dikes \.Iidths
Length per Iem per !em length perlcm perlem length per Icm per km length per Iem per km length per km per km
of Exp. of Exp. of Exp. of Exp. of Exp. of Exp. of Exp. of Exp. of EXp. of EXp. of Exp. of Exp. of Exp. of EXp. of EXp.
A. S!eeLton-Mt. Carmel event
a
,'0.41 14.6 224.4 3.38 1.2 5.6 10.54 0.1 3.5 1.55
---
._-
6.50
--- ---
B.
. i b
Vallonia event
13.06 1.9 16.6 4.59 1.5 5.2 0.50
c
--- --- 0.32
c
--- --- No exposures
c
C. Martinsvllle-\JaverLy event
b
2.43 3.3 _J_ O.71
u
--- ---
0.18
--- ---
No exposuresO
_ .. _- ------ ----
8 b
Exposures of Prairie Creek member--large stream facies (terminaL Pleistocene). Exposures of the Prairie Creek member--amall
: ...
stream factes (terminal Pleistocene), Black River member (Early Holocene), and Conger Creek member (Middle Holocene). cOnly
exposures SE, E, NE, and M from Vallonia; deposits to the S\J, \.I, and NU are impacted by the Vincennes-Bridgeport and/or the
Martinsvflle-Uaverly events. d Only exposures E, ME, and N from Martinsville; deposits to the SE, S, S\J, U. and N\.I are impacted
by the Vincennes-BrIdgeport and/or Vallonia events.
-
saturated sand and gravel, these sediments would have been, at that time, moderately to highly
susceptible to liquefaction and to the formation of dikes in the confining cap. However, by -10,500 yr
BP the flood plains of the Wabash River and its major tributaries had incised 2-3 m into the earlier
surface, which lowered the normal water table to a depth 1-2 m below the top of the granular sediments
of the Prairie Creek member; note on Figures 6:27 and 6:28 the great height of the granular sediments
above the modern river level. Because the upper 1-2 m of sand and gravel was not saturated (normally)
after 10,500 yr BP, these granular sediments would not have liquefied after this date.
6.2.1. Dating the Skelton-Mt. Carmel Earthquake
Neither radiocarbon samples nor archaeologic artifacts were found in stratigraphic relation to
the liquefaction features of the Skelton-Mt. Carmel earthquake. Consequently, the date of this event is
estimated on the basis of geochronology and archaeology. Geologic correlations and radiocarbon dates
from other localities indicate that deposition of the Prairie Creek member (the host sediments for
liquefaction features of this earthquake) did not commence until shortly after 14,000 yr BP (Frye et al.,
1972; Fullerton, 1980; Fraser, 1993). Because dikes at some sites extend almost to the surface of this
member, the earthquake must have occurred after most or all sedimentation had occurred, which we
suspect was a thousand years or more after 14,000 yr BP and certainly was completed before 10,500 yr
BP, for numerous artifacts of the Paleo-Indian Period (11,500-10,500 yr BP) have been found in the
plow-zone (0-15 em below surface) of this terrace. Although iI.l some instances dikes extend upward
almost to the present surface of the terrace, it is unlikely that the features formed after 11,000-10,500
yr BP, because by this date the water table had been lowered to an elevation 1-2 m below the interface
of the granular substratum and the silty, low-permeability topstratum. We believe that a date-range of
13,000 to 11,000 yr BP is a reasonable estimate for this event.
6.2.2. Severity and Estimated Magnitude of the Skelton-Mt. Cannel Earthquake
In the inferred meisoseismal region of the Skelton-Mt. Carmel earthquake, liquefaction was
extensive. At Site GR, 22 km southwest of the estimated epicenter, there is one 36 cm-wide dike and
numerous smaller features; the smaller dikes originate in and vented sediments that contain a high
percentage of gravel (maximum dimensions -10 nun). At the short exposure at Site DE (Fig. 6:27), 24
km northeast of the probable epicenter, a 1.5 m-wide by 1.8 m-high block of topstratum was detached
by a dike-and-sill complex and subsided 35 cm into the gravelIy sand substratum. It is likely that
J iquefaction effects were even more severe nearer the epicenter; however, there are no exposures into
the Prairie Creek member in the 45 kIn span between Site GR and Site DE.
Measured from the inferred epicenter, sites with small dikes 5 cm wide) occur 56 kIn
southwest (Site HM), 48 km south-southeast (Site EV), and S4 km northeast (Site WA). Site PT, in the
Embarras River valley in Illinois (Obermeier et 31., 1992) and 48 Ian north of Skelton, has dikes 5-14
cm wide that probably resulted from this earthquake. An epicentral distance of liquefaction of -55 lan,
compared to the estimated bound for liquefaction effects for the Wabash Valley (Fig. 6:29), suggests a
moment magnitude of -7.1 for the Skelton-Bridgeport earthquake.
6.3 Vallonia Earthquake, -3,950 + 250 yr BP, M "6.9
The Vallonia earthquake, apparently centered about 1 00 kID east of the Wabash Valley seismic
zone (as generally defIned), has recently been described elsewhere (Munson et aI., 1995), and will only
be summarized here. At 17 sites along the Fork and its tributaries in south-central Indiana (Fig.
6:30), dikes originate in or penetrate sedime!lts of the Conger Creek (middle Black River
(early Holocene), and small stream facies' of the Prairie Creek Pleistocene) members.
Measured sections of seven of the sites are shown in Figures 6:31 through 6:34. i..
Although some of the small dikes in the early Holocene ,and terminal Pleistocene sediments
might have resulted from the Vincennes-Bridgeport I centered about 150 km to the west-
78
;..
;,
L
S ( ) N SITE DE
~
~ Modem Surface
Ap
n I Bt
~ Diffuse Sand and Gravel (blow?)
2St
Massive Silt
2SC
..,...., Weak Laminations
. "
. 1.-
Figure 6:27. Measured section of Site DE (cutbank of White River) showing relations of dike,
vertically displaced block of topstratum, and possible blow to strat,lgraphic members and paleosols (no
vertical exaggeration). I '- I
79
)c.,
... ) .....
N ( ) S
SITE WA
2Bt
2BC
Figure 6:28. Measured section of Site WA (cutbank of White River) showing relation of dikes to
stratigraphic members, paleosols, and radiocarbon date. Type section for Prairie Creek stratigraphic
member, large stream facies, at location indicated as "Soil Profile" (see Appendix A).
I l I
::!
80
v
,-
1>..
l'
10 iii ill 1111
C
9
~ 8
~
z
~ 7
!Z
LIJ
5 6
::!:
5 1 ~
4 I 11111 1111 !I'I
10 100 1000
MAXIMUM EPfCENTRAL DlSTANC (Re) TO LIQI,JEFAcnoN EFFECTS (km)
Figure 6:29. Relation between earthquake magnitude and maximum epicentral distance to liquefaction ..
induced ground failure; modified from Ambraseys (1988) and Obermeier et ale (1993). Open circles
are shallow-focus events; shaded circles are deep-focus (> 60 kIn) events; lower line is the upper
bound for worldwide shallow-focus events; upper set of Jines is the range of upper bounds for the
Wabash Valley seismic zone; solid square is the estimate for Skelton-Mt. Carmel event.
'"
81
~ .
\ (I
I_ J"
v
) " ~
00
N
-" ~
( ..
t-
EXPLANATION
INDIANA
o City or Town
Surveyed streams
liquefaction Sites by
Maximum Dike Width
~ 60 em
30-59 em
15-29 em
< 15 em
'\
'\
'\
'\
'\
'\
,
\
\
,
,
,
,
I

I

I
Figure 6:30. Map showing all liquefaction sites of the Vallonia earthquake by maximum dike width at sites.
\.
00
~
, -
t-
~ 1 0 m I
NNE ) SSW
Filled Borrow Pit
Modern Surface
y
SITE VA
BC IIV?
2Bt
2BC I II
Figure 6:31. Measured section of Site VA (cutbank of East Fork) showing relation of dikes to stratigraphic members
and paleosols.
\1'
00
.a:a.
!--
GIS
Bt
III
c
I
Sticks 14C
4,170 t 70 yr BP
14 '\
log C x
4,230 t 70 yr BP
.............
.........
NE ) SW
y Modern Surface
Mouth
of
Buffalo
Creek
SITE SP
River level
6/16/92
Figure 6:32. Measured section of Site SP (cutbank of East Fork) showing relation of dike to stratigraphic members,
and radiocarbon dates.
\.-
t)lo.
00
~
t""
~ 1 0 m I
N ( ) S SITE AZ
Q.J2
P--II- .. CD .. ___
y Modern Surface
~ - - -
Bt
Be
Figure 6:33. Measured section of Site AZ (cutbank of East Fork) showing relation of dikes to stratigraphic members,
paleosols, radiocarbon date, and archaeologic site 12B916.
00
0'\
t ..
'r
'\
SITE we 5
GJp S
-"
Vb I Bw II
2Bt 1/
Va
"c
2C 870t 7f yr 8P
5cm
Is I 3C
H
E
8
co
S E ) N
_LS'TEWC4
10 m
Modern Surface .......
------
(IV)
gcm
H
E
8
SITE we 3
(Vb)
(Va)
Sticks 14C I
240 '!-70
yr BP
1 I
H
E
o
LO
M
SITE we 1
r / / j II 3Bt
r / .-i I II 3BC I Is
Figure 6:34. Measured sections of Sites WCt, WC3, WC4, and WC5 (cutbanks of White Creek, a tributary of East
showing relation of dikes to stratigraphic members, paleosols, and radiocarbon dates.
southwest, radiocarbon and archaeoJogic dates bracket other dikes between 4,170 70 and 3,700 yr
BP, which is approximately 2,000 years after the Vincennes-Bridgeport earthquake. Furthermore, the
site with the largest dikes (Site VA, 3 km southwest of Vallonia, Indiana) lies near the center of the
upper East Fork cluster and maximum dike widths generally decrease with distance from this site.
Similar to the two paleoearthquakes discussed above, maximum dike sizes at sites (Fig. 6:35a), sum of
dike widths at sites (Fig. 6:35b), and numbers of dikes and sums of dike widths normaJized for lengths
of exposures (fable 6:4B) all show approximately 'logarithmic relations to distance from the central
area. Epicentral distance of liquefaction effects (36 km, Site VA to Site AZ) and geotechnical
investigations at three sites (SP, SSP, AZ) both suggest a moment magnitude of -6.9.
6.4. Martinsville-Waverly Earthquake, -8,500-3,500 yr BP, M -6.8
Only recently have we recognized that dikes at four (possibly five) liquefaction sites 25 to 50
kID southwest of Indianapolis, Indiana (Fig. 6:36) resulted from a separate episode of strong shaking
that was centered in the vicinity of the central White River vaJley. Previously (Munson et a1., 1994)
we assumed that these sites represented the northeastern margin of liquefaction from the Vincennes ..
Bridgeport earthquake, and further assumed that their great distance from the inferred epicenter of that
event (170 Ian from Bridgeport to Site SV) and large dike sizes (one 27 em-wide dike at Site MV, 140
km northeast of Bridgeport) resulted from some poorly understood local geologic factor(s) that
a m p I i f i ~ sha1cing in this area. Our inabil ity to date-bracket the liquefaction features in this area to
more closely than within 2,000-3,000 years of the date of the Vincennes-Bridgeport event
contributed to (or at least did not detract us from) our earlier assumptions.
With a more detailed examination of the relations of the quantities of liquefaction effects to
epicentral distance normalized for lengths of exposures (fable 6: 1) and, especially, the results of
geotechnical investigations carried out by E. C. Pond (Virginia Polytechnic Institute, written comm.,
1995) at two of the sites (MV and SV), we have became convinced that most of the liquefaction
evidence in this area resulted from a separate, local event. However, there remain severa] areas of
uncertainty in regard to important aspects of this earthquake, which result from four facts: (1) at only a
few sites were liquefaction features exposed (or preserved); (2) at even fewer sites were datable
materials (either radiometric or archaeologic) found, and these did not closely bracket the liquefaction
features; (3) there remains some as-of-yet unresolved ambiguity as to which earthquake caused the
small dikes at Sites IC and MC in the southern and western parts of the apparent cluster; and (4),
because of local geologic factors, granular sediments in parts of the area are much coarser than in other
parts, which has probably differentially affected liquefaction susceptibility.
With these caveats, we believe that all dikes at Sites MY, WV, and SV resulted from the
Martinsville-Waverly earthquake. In addition, we believe that one of the two episodes of strong
shaking observed in a dike at Site IC (Fig. 6:37) represents this earthquake. We assume that the other
episode at this site was the northeastemmost effect of the Vincennes-Bridgeport earthquake. Small
dikes at Site MC, at the western margin of the "cluster," might have formed during either the
Martinsville-Waverly or the Vincennes-Bridgeport earthquakes.
Observed liquefaction effects are most severe at Site MV (Fig. 6:38), located 5 km southwest
of Martinsville, Indiana, where there is one dike 27 cm wide and another 11 em wide, both ' with
substantial gravelly blows. However, relative severity of liquefaction in this section of the White River
vaJley does not, necessarily, correlate well with' epicentraJ distance. Site MY lies about 13 km
southwest and downstream from the Wisconsjnan end-moraine, and, because of downstream fining, the
granular sediments here are sand with some, small and medium gravel. -Closer to ,the moraine (and
north of it), granular sediments are much coarser, commonly being sandy-grave) or mixtures of sand,
gravel, and small boulders. At Site WV, near the center of the cluster' of sites, but where White iRiver
flows through a ground-moraine, a single 1 em-wide dike originates in a 60 cm-thick lens rof sand with
smaJl gravel that abruptly overlies a deep bed of very coarse gravel, and at Site SV, the
northeasternmost observed liquefaction site of this cluster and L also within the ground-moraine, the
87
,I.-
;'
MAXIMUM DIKE WIDTH PER SITe SUM OF DIKE WIDTHS PER SITE.
70
160
60
60
I 40
~ 30
~ 20
': I
s'O 0
o 0
p
0
100
!
~
~
:;)
60 CD
0
0
9
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 0 10 30 40
DtST ANCE tkm) moM INf'EPAEO EPtCeITER DISTANCE tkm) FROM I ~ EP'IC:ENTR
a
b
Figure 6:35. Vallonia earthquake. Relations of (a) maximum dike widths at sites to distance from
inferred epicenter, and (b) sums of dike widths at sites to distance from inferred epicenter.
, "
,.-
1(.1
88
v
'- .. '"
j.,
.I ....
'\
00
\0
: ..
t-
EXPLANATION
INDIANA
o
o City or Town
Surveyed streams
\ Southern limit of
, ~ Wisconsinan
i glaciation
liquefaction Sites by
Maximum Dike Width
15-29 em
< 15 cm
"" ,
,
,
,
I
,
I
,
,
,
,
I

I
"
"
... .,..,. ......... ----------
" - ~
Indianapolis
......
'\.
"
"
"
,
,
"
,
"
,
\
,
,
,
I
I
I
I
,

,
I
I
,
I
,
I
,
Figure 6:36. Map showing aU liquefaction sites of the Martinsville-Waverly earthquake by maximum dike width at
sites. Site Me might not be associated with this event.
Figure 6:37. Dike at Site Ie (exposed in eutbank of Indian Creek) showing two episodes of venting.
Sand vented during the earlier episode is dark-colored from moderate pedogenesis. During the later
episode a 2 em-wide stringer of Iighter-colored sand (lower right to upper left) intruded into the dike.
Seale is 19 em.
L'
'"
I \. t
90
\0
'r
~ 2 0 m I
S ( ) N SITE MV
!U B: 11===="
", Modern Surface
6
6
6 6
6
I 2BI
lu
1 2 B ~
3BC
(III)
11 cm 11:1
II
(.-
Figure 6:38. Measured section of Site MV (cutbank of White River) showing relations of dikes and blows to
stratigraphic members, paleosols, radiocarbon date, and archaeologic site 12MG178.
source material for small dikes (1-3 cm wide) apparently is sandy, moderately coarse gravel.
Disregarding the probable effects of different liquefaction susceptibilities of sediments in the central
White River valley, the center of the distribution of liquefaction features in this area lies near the town
of Waverly, Indiana.
6.4.1. Dating the J\.Iartinsville-Waverly Earthquake
It has not been possible to closely bracket the date of the Martinsville-Waverly earthquake. AU
observed liquefaction features originate in and penetrate sediments of the Black River allostratigraphic
member, which indicates a date after the beginning of the Holocene. Because no features were found
in the numerous outcrops of liquefaction-susceptible sediments of the late Holocene Elnora and Hyatt
Island members, the earthquake must predate 3,500 yr BP. However, because there are no outcrops of
the middle Holocene Conger Creek member in the central White River valley, it cannot be determined,
on the basis of stratigraphy, if the earthquake occurred during the early Holocene or during the middle
Holocene. Anaerobically-preserved wood from sediments that are intersected by the dikes at Site MV
(Fig. 6:38) dated 9,200 70 yr BP, and Terminal Archaic Period (3,700-2,700 yr BP) artifacts occur
stratigraphically 80 cm above the sand blows from these dikes. Anaerobically-preserved stems and
seeds in dike source materials at Site Ie dated 8,730 70 yr BP, which only slightly narrows the date-
bracket for this event to -8,500-3,500 yr BP.
6.4.2. Severity and Magnitude of the Martinsville-Waverly Earthquake
Shaking was at least moderately severe in the inferred meisoseismal region of this earthquake,
as fndicated by the large dikes (27 cm wide) and extensive sand blows at Site MV and the fact that
granular sediments containing a high percentage of coarse gravel liquefied at Site SV. Determination of
the epicentral distance of liquefaction is compromised by the paucity of exposures into early and middle
Holocene age sediments in this area, by the uncertainty that the dikes at Site Me represent the western
limit of liquefaction from this earthquake rather than the northeastern limit of the Vincennes-Bridgeport
event, and by the great variation from southwest to northeast in relative coarseness of granular
sediments. However, the distance from Site SV (northeastern limit of observed Jiquefaction) to Site
Me (probable western limit) is 38 kIn, and a circle with a radius of 25 kIn would encompass all sites
that probably resulted from this earthquake. Assuming that liquefaction susceptibility in the central
White River valley was generally simi1ar to or only slightly less than that of the lower Wabash Valley,
an epicentral distance of liquefaction of 25 lan, when compared to the Ambraseys-Obermeier bound for
liquefaction effects, suggests a moment magnitude of -6.8.
6.5. Iona Earthquake, -4,000 500 yr BP, M -6.5-6.6
The liquefaction evidence for this earthquake was observed only at Site CC (Fig. 6:39), located
5 km southeast of the hamlet of lona, Indiana. At this 490 m-long exposure (Fig. 6:40), there are two
small dikes (6 cm and 2 cm wide) that originate in a sand substratum and extend upward only 40-50 cm
into the massive silt topstratum before apparently pinching out.
6.5.1 Dating the Iona Earthquake
The dikes originate in and penetrate sediments of the middle Holocene Conger Creek
allostratigraphic member, which, on the basis of radiocarbon dates and archaeoJogic associations at
other exposures, has an estimated date-range 'of 6,500 to 3,500 yr BP. An .anaerobically-preserved log
in the sand source material for the dikes at Site CC dated 4,440 + 80 yr BP, indicating that liquefaction
at the site occurred after this date. Because no liquefaction evidence. waS observed in the n u ~ r o u s
exposures into the moderately to highly liquefaction-susceptible Elnora member sediments (3,500 to
1,500 yr BP) that exist near Site CC (fable 6:2C), it is assumed tbat_ the dikes at the site formed before
3,500 yr BP. \ 1-' f
92
\0
w
...,
! ~ ..
t-
EXPLANATION
INDIANA
o City or Town
Surveyed streams
liquefaction Sites by
Maximum Dike Width
5-9 em
<5 em
Dikes in Illinoian till Lafayette
Early Woodfordian
earthquake
(20,000 t 1,000 yr BP)
o 50 Miles
I I I I
I I I
o 75 Km
Figure 6 : 3 9 ; ~ Map showing liquefaction sites of the Iona, Elnora, and Early Woodfordian earthquakes, and sites with
dikes through Illinoian till.
r
\
\0

i20m I
Soil Profile
s
V
1\ V
2Bt
2Bto
Iii IlBCO
2eg
c-
E ( ) W
Modern Surface
j/
SITE CC
(V)

Channel
Plug
Fill
Figure 6:40. Measured section of Site CC (cutbank of White River) showing relation of dikes to stratigraphic
t'"" members; ,paleosols, and radiocarbon date. Type section for the Conger Creek stratigraphic member, at location
indicated as ''''Soil Profile" (see Appendix A).
6.5.2 Severity and l\Jagnitude of the Iona Earthquake
The severity of liquefaction at Site CC (and in the vicinity of Site CC) apparently was very low.
The two observed dikes are very small, and the source material is loose, medium sand that is assumed
to be highJy susceptible to liquefaction. In addition, there are numerous exposures of contemporary and
apparently similarly liquefaction-susceptible sediments that He within 25 km to the east, north, and west
of Site CC, all of which lack evidence of liquefaction. The only other observed site with a
paleoJiquefaction feature through Conger Creek member sediments is at Site SP in the upper East Fork
valley, about 110 kIn east-northeast of Site CC; because of the distance that separates these sites and
the absence of observed liquefaction evidence at intervening Conger Creek member exposures, we
assume that dikes at the two sites resulted from separate earthquakes (specifically, that the dike at Site
SP resulted from the Vallonia earthquake). Because there are no exposures into liquefaction ..
susceptible, middle Holocene sediments for more than 50 kIn to south and southeast of Site Cc, there is
some possibility that the features at Site CC might represent the northern limit of liquefaction from an
earthquake centered as much as 25 km to theo south or southeast. However, based on the available
evidence, the most reasonable assumption is that the dikes at Site CC resulted from an earthquake that
was centered near lona and that had an epicentral distance of liquefaction less than 5 kID.
The small sizes of the features at Site CC, plus the assumed high liquefaction susceptibility of
the source sands and the assumed short epicentral distance of liquefaction, suggest that the magnitude of
the lona earthquake was at or only slightly above the threshold for liquefaction to occur in the alluviaJ
sediments of the Wabash Valley. This threshold has not been determined, but can be estimated on the
basis of the effects of historic earthquakes in the New Madrid seismic zone, where liquefaction
susceptibility of sediments is only slightly higher than those of the lower Wabash Valley (Obermeier et
al., 1993). No sand blows or other kinds of liquefaction features were observed from the 1843 Marked
Tree, Arkansas, earthquake (M -6.4), and only small sand blows occurred within an 8 to 16 kIn radius
of the epicenter of the 1895 CharleSton, Missouri, earthquake (M -6.8). We therefore assume that the
liquefaction threshold for the lower Wabash Valley, and the magnitude of the lona earthquake, is -6.5-
6.6.
6.6 Elnora Earthquake, -2,000 + 500 yr BP, M .... 6.5 .. 6.6
Liquefaction evidence for the Elnora earthquake was observed only at Site ELI (Fig. 6-39),
located 3 km west-northwest of the town of Elnora, Indiana, and consists of four small dikes (1-3 cm
wide) that originate in a loose sand and small gravel substratum and extend upward only 50-125 cm
before apparently pinching out (Fig. 6-41).
6.6.1. Dating the Elnora Earthquake
The dikes of this earthquake originate in and penetrate sediments of the late Holocene Elnora
allostratigraphic member, which, on the basis of numerous radiocarbon dates and archaeologic
associations at other exposures, has an estimated date-range of 3,500 to 1,500 yr BP. A smaJI,
anaerobically-preserved log in basal sediments that were intersected by dikes at Site ELI was
radiocarbon dated 2,580 70 yr BP, and carbonized wood from a hearth containing Early Woodland
Period ceramics higher in the section was radiocarbon dated 2,570 . 60 yr BP. The liquefaction
features at this site formed after these dates. But ~ e r e is a very high probability that they were formed
before 1,500 yr BP, because no liquefaction evidence was observed in the very numerous exposures
into liquefaction-susceptible Hyatt Island member sediments (1,500-0 yr BP) that exist near Site ELI
(Table 6:2D). -
6.6.2. Severity and Magnitude or the Elnora Earthquake
v
The severity of liquefaction at Site ELI (and in this s ~ i o n of the lower White River valley)
apparently was very low. The four observed dikes along the 250 kID-long exposure at Site ELI are
95
)..
) .......
\;y
\0
0'1
!20m I
NE 4 ) SW SITE Ell
S'
Historic Surface '"
y - - - - ..
., .. - - - .. - .... - -
y Modern Surfacf
earth
#5
... ... ...
Bw
1Vb12Bw
2Bt
IVal
2BC
II
------
Figure 6:41. Measured section of Site ELI (cutbank of White River) showing relation of dikes to stratigraphic
members, paleosols, radiocarbon dates, and archaeologic site 12DA869. Type section for the Elnora stratigraphic
member, at indicated as "Soil Profile" (see Appendix A).
very smal1. the source material is a relatively loose mixture of sand and small gravel, and the confining
cap of low-permeability silt is less than 3 m in thickness. Additionally, there are numerous exposures
into apparently contemporary and apparently equally liquefaction-susceptible Elnora member sediments
within a few kilometers to the northeast and southwest of Site ELI, none of which has observed
liquefaction evidence. Furthermore, and in contrast with the situation at Site CC (discussed above), the
configuration of streams and their exposures into liquefiable sediments in this section of the White
River valley would seem to preclude the possibility that the dikes at Site ELI represent the only
observed liquefaction evidence from a large earthquake centered tens of kilometers from the site. We
suspect that the earthquake was centered near Elnora and had an epicentral distance of liquefaction less
than 5 km. On the basis of relations of epicentral distances of liquefaction discussed above, the
magnitude is estimated at -6.5-6.6.
6.7. Early Woodfordian Earthquake, -20,000 + 1,000 yr BP
At Site MO (Fig. 6-39), located along Indian Creek (a tributary of White River) between the
towns of Morgantown and Martinsville, Indiana, two sand-fuled dikes penetrate 5.2 m of Wisconsinan-
age proglacial lake sediments (Fig. 6-42). The maximum widths of the dikes is not known, because
only their tops are exposed above the level of the creek; at creek level, and about 4.5 m above the
medium sand source material (measured and sampled with an Oakfield probe), the dikes are 3 cm and 1
cm wide.
6.7.1. Dating the Early 'Voodfordian Earthquake
The date-range for the earthquake that caused the dikes is estimated on the basis of
geochronology. During the Sangamonian interglacial and early-middle Wisconsinan, Indian Creek at
this locality was entrenched about 4-5 m lower than its modem level. About 22,000 yr BP, advancing
ice of the Woodfordian stade of the Wisconsinan entered the basin of the upper White River, and the
torrents of meltwater flowing down the river dammed the mouth of Indian Creek valley (about 10 km
northwest of Site MO) with high water and valley train sediments. In the resultant slackwater lake in
the central part of Indian Creek valley, 5-7 m of silt and clay were deposited over the pre-Woodfordian
alluvial deposits in the creek Valley. The source material for the dikes at Site MO apparently is point
bar or bedload deposits of the pre-Woodfordian Indian Creek channel, and the dikes intersect the
overlying early Woodfordian lacustrine sediments. Because the dikes extend upward almost to the top
of the lacustrine sediments, it is assumed that the earthquake occurred after most or all of this
sedimentary episode was completed. By about 20,000 yr BP, the ice had advanced far enough south
that it entered the upper basin of Indian Creek, and meltwater flowing down the creek carried quantities
of granular sediments that buried the lacustrine sediments at Site MO by almost 5 m of fining-upward
gravel, sand, and silt. It is assum-oo that the initial 2-3 m of the outwash sediments were deposited
within less than 1 ,000 y ~ s after meltwater began flowing down Indian Creek valley, and the addition
of this much sediment over the dike source material (a total of 8.5-9.5 m) would have suppressed
liquefaction by or before 19,000 yr BP. A date of 20,000 1,000 yr BP for the formation of the dikes
seems reasonable.
6.7.2. Severity and Magnitude of the Early Woodfordian Earthquake
Unfortunately, we have not discovered, in Indiana, any other exposures that are comparable in
both age and liquefaction susceptibility to those at Site MO, and consequently we are not able to
estimate either the magnitude (other than L-.6:5) or the probable epicenter of the earthquake that created
these dikes. It is possible that they resulted frem a moderate, liquefaction-threshold event centered near
the site. However, it is equally possible, in the absence of preserved or exposed comparable sediql.ents,
that Site MO is near the limit of liquefaction from a large or very large earthquake that was centered at
a great distance from the site.
.-
, (I
97
~ 1 0 m I
~ ~ Modem Surface
A
at II
C
3C
Peoria loess
Indistinct Boundary
"
_ .. ---------
, .
I
I ,
, '
, I
I'
I'
I I
, ,
I I
, I
, I
I'
I'
, ,
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,

,
"
"
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Sandy Sift
(fining upward)
Creek level
10/13193
lacustrine Clay
SITE MO
. ;. ,.
i .
Figure 6:42. Measured section of Site MO (cutbank of Indianl. Creek) showing relation of dikes to
Early Woodfordian proglacial lake and outwash sediments.
98
;:..
;'"
In regard to the latter possibility, it is of some interest that a site has been found along the Little
Wabash River, a few kilometers south of Effingham, lllinois (E. Hajic, lllinois State Museum, oral
corom., 1994), where small- to medium-sized, sand-filled dikes penetrate peaty alluvial sediments that
were deposited only shortly before the Woodfordian stade (Le., during the latter part of the Farmdalian
interstadial). Similar to the situation at Site MO, by shortly after 20,000 yr BP these sediments were
capped by early Woodfordian outwash to a depth that probably would have suppressed liquefaction
after that date. The distance from the Little Wabash site to Site MO is 180 km. With all the caution
that is appropriate, if the dikes at these two sites resulted from the same earthquake, then the epicentral
distance of liquefaction (L90 km) suggests a magnitude of 2:..7.3, and the approximate mid-point
between the sites is along the Wabash River near Vincennes.
6.8. Dikes through Illinoian TIlls
At two sites in west-central Indiana, sand-filled dikes penetrate Illinoian tills (Fig. 6-39). At
Site CD, along Mill Creek, a single 1 cm-wide feature originates below the modern water level of the
creek and is erosiona1ly truncated, about 1 m above water level, by a now-filled late Wisconsinan or
early Holocene channel of the creek. At Site BCS, along Birch Creek (a minor tributary of Eel River)
and 40 km southwest of Site CD, four dikes ranging in width from 0.5 to 9 cm also originate below the
modern level of the creek, but extend upward at least 3 m, where their tops are obscured by masses of
tree roots at the top of the creek bank. In both cases the tills lie in pre-Illinoian bedrock valleys and
presumably overlie pre-Illinoian alluvia1 or outwash sediments.
We are not certain that the dikes at these sites resulted from earthquake-induced liquefaction.
In the absence of drilling at either site, we do not know if thick sand deposits lie at shallow depths
beneath the tills; if it should be demonstrated by future research that they do not, then the sites would
not have this necessary condition for liquefaction, and, consequently, some other mechanism would
have to be responsible for the formation of these dikes. Furthermore, even if thick sands are found at
shallow depth, it still does not preclude the possibility of some other (glacier-related?) cause.
Nonetheless, the distribution of sand-filled dikes in Indiana, and in Illinois, leads us to suspect that they
are earthquake-induced liquefaction features.
The sites with dikes through tills are the two westernmost exposures of tills in deep bedrock
valleys that we have observed in Indiana. Despite the examination of 32 other Illinoian and
Wisconsinan till exposures (with a combined length of almost 7,500 m) in similar geologic settings to
the north, northeast, east, and southeast of Sites CD and BC5, we did not fmd sand dikes in tills in
these areas of Indiana. However, in east-central and southeastern Illinois, similar features are common
at exposures of Illinoian tills in alluvial valleys, including some dikes, in the central Embarras River,
that are > 30 cm wide (S. Obermeier, U.S. Geological Survey, oral comm., 1994; E. Hajic, Illinois
State Museum, oral comrn., 1994). Thus, the distribution in Indiana and Illinois of dikes through
Illinoian tills, as presently known, suggests a central area of large dikes (in east-central Illinois), with
dike sizes decreasing with distance from the central area. This is the same relation that has been
observed for the quantities of liquefaction evidence that resulted from large Holocene and late
Pleistocene earthquakes in the Wabash Valley, and from large historic earthquakes in other areas.
Consequently, it is possible that the small dikes at Sites CD and BCS not only resulted from s ~ o n g
shaking, but are also the easternmost evidence for a large earthquake during or after the Illinoian
glaciation that was centered in eastern Illinois. .
(
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99.
L
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;,
7. PRELIMINARY ESTIMATES OF RECURRENCE OF LARGE EARTHQUAKES
The research reported upon here was confined to the eastern (Indiana) half of the Wabash
Valley seismic zone (WVSZ) and to areas to the east and northeast of that zone (as generally defined).
This research has resulted in the identification and dating of paleoliquefaction features from six
earthquakes in the past 11,000-13,000 years that were of sufficient magnitudes (M 1) to cause
susceptible sediments to liquefy and flow. Ongoing studies in the western (lJlinois) half of the WVSZ
(Obermeier et aI., 1993; Hajic et al., 1994) have found numerous paleoJiquefaction features in
southeastern, east-central, and central Illinois, but these studies have not yet reached the stage where
separate events can be identified. Until results from the Illinois research are firmer, it will be
premature to estimate with confidence recurrence rates for the entire area. Nonetheless, we believe that
some prel iminary and tentative estimates are warranted on the basis of what is known from Indiana.
Two very large earthquakes have occurred in the recent geologic past, one about 6,100 yr BP
that was centered about 25 km west of Vincennes, Indiana, which had an estimated magnitude of M
2..7.5 (the Vincennes-Bridgeport event), and one about 12,000 1,000 yr BP centered about 40 km
southwest of Vincennes, which had an estimated magnitude of M -7.1 (the Skelton-Mt. Carmel event).
Because of the large distances of liquefaction effects from these earthquakes (> 100 km and -60 krn
respectively), it is unlikely that other earthquakes of magnitudes greater than 7.0 have occurred within
the area in the past 12,000 years; unless centered far to the west of the Wabash River, one would
expect liquefaction evidence to be present in Indiana (none was observed). Therefore, because (a) the
two observed > 7.0 earthquakes are likely the oruy ones to have occurred in the past 13,000-11 ,000
years, because (b) these events occurred about 5,000 to 7,000 years apart, and because (c) there is no
evidence of earthquakes of this magnitude in the past 6,000 years, we estimate that the recurrence of
very large earthquakes in the WVSZ area is about 6,000-7,000 years. This estimate gains some slight
support from the possibility that paleoliquefaction features dated -20,000 + 1,000 yr BP in central
Indiana and in east-central IJlinois might have resulted from anotberlarge (M ,L7.3) earthquake; this
tentatively identified event occurred 6,000 to 10,000 years before the Skelton-Mt. Carmel earthquake.
The recurrence interval of earthquakes with magnitudes of M 6.8-6.9 is more problematic.
Liquefaction evidence for two earthquakes in this range was discovered in Indiana, the M -6.9 Vallonia
event about 3,950 250 yr BP and the M -6.8 Martinsville-Waverly event that occurred some time
within the date-range of 8,500-3,500 yr BP. Because of (a) the large numbers of outcrops. of middle
and late Holocene-age, liquefaction-susceptible sediments that were searched in Indiana and (b) the
absence of liquefaction evidence for earthquakes of this magnitude-range in these sediments, we are
confident that no other M 6.8-6.9 earthquakes have been centered in Indiana since -6,000 yr BP.
However, we are much less confident that events of this magnitude-range did not occur between 6,000
yr BP and 12,000 yr BP, despite the fact that no evidence was observed for such events during this
interval.
The reason for our lack of confidence is because the great Vincennes-Bridgeport earthquake of
-6,100 yr BP caused susceptible sediments to liquefy throughout an area from 150 km north to 100 km
east and to at least 90 km south of the inferred epicenter of that event. Any liquefaction features from
possible early Holocene earthquakes, unless they had discernible sand blows that laid stratigraphically
below the blows of the Vincennes-Bridgeport earthquake, would not be recognized. In fact, jr' the
Vallonia and Martinsville-Waverly events bad not been centered at or beyond the limits of liquefaction
effects from the Vincennes-Bridgeport earthquake;it is unlikely that the liquefaction features from these
events would have been would been recognized as evidence for separate events; most dikes from these
earthquakes penetrate early Holocene sedimeIlts, and blows were observed.at only.on,e site.
Because of the problems of recognition of evidence for M events in
than 6,000 yr BP, we believe that it is possible that as many as two more earthquakes 'of this range
might have been centered in Indiana since 12,000 yr BP. Furilier,:because the distance of liquefaction
effects for M 6.8-6.9 earthquakes is'25-35 km, any events in 'this range that were centered in Illinois
100
and more than 25-35 kIn west of the Wabash River would not have liquefaction evidence in Indiana.
Therefore, the inferred four events in the past 12,000 years centered in the eastern half of the WVSZ
area could be doubled for the entire WVSZ area. A recurrence interval of -1,500 years is estimated for
M 6.8-6.9 earthquakes in or near the WVSZ.
The recurrence of liquefaction-threshold events, thought to be about M 6.5-6.6 in the Wabash
Valley area, is even more problematic. Liquefaction evidence, consisting of very small dikes that
appear to pinch out and that lack discernible sand blows, was discovered for two such events in post-
6,000 yr BP sediments in Indiana: the 10na earthquake dated 4,000 + 500 yr BP; and the Elnora
earthquake dated 2,000 500 yr BP. However, it is very unlikely that the two observed events are the
only earthquakes of this magnitude that were centered in Indiana in the past 12,000 years.
As was the case for the M 6.8-6.9 earthquakes, any small, pinching dikes in terminal
Pleistocene and early Holocene sediments would not have been differentiated from the numerous and
widespread features that resulted from the large Skelton-Mt. Carmel and Vincennes-Bridgeport
earthquakes. On the basis of this fact alone, the number of M 6.5-6.6 events could be doubled for the
past 12,000 years. However, a more serious problem in the identification of liquefaction-threshold
events results from the fact that the distance of liquefaction effects is expected to be less than 5 km.
Because of the configuration of streams with liquefaction-susceptible sediments in Indiana, there is only
about a 25 per cent probability that an epicentral radius of liquefaction of 5 k.m would intersect a valley
with susceptible sediments. Therefore, the number of events of this magnitude might be four times
greater than the two observed events in the past 6,000 years (or eight times greater for the past 12,000
years). Because our research was confined to the eastern half of the WVSZ area, that total can be
doubled for the entire area. An estimate of 32 earthquakes of M 6.5-6.6 in the past 12,000 years yields
an estimated recurrence interval of 375 years for events of this magnitude centered somewhere within
the WVSZ area.
101
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v
8. SUJ\.i1dARY
During the 200 years of the historic record, seven moderate (M ,5.5) and many small
earthquakes have been centered in or near the Wabash Valley seismic zone (WVSZ). This loosely-
defined area of historic seismicity straddles the lower Wabash River valley in southeastern Illinois and
southwestern Indiana. Beginning in 1991, we systematically surveyed exposures into liquefaction-
susceptible sediments in the lower and central Wabash Valley and its tributaries in Indiana in search of
liquefaction evidence for stronger, prehistoric earthquakes.
At the completion of these surveys, nearly 1,400 exposures had been searched in southwestern,
west-central, south-central, and central Indiana, representing an estimated > 95 per cent of all banks of
streams, gravel pits, borrow pits, channelized creek, and ditches that intersected Jiquefaction-
susceptible sediments and that were not obscured by vegetation, slumping, or riprap. Most of the
exposed and examined sediments are of Holocene age, although the basal parts at 151 exposures (11 per
cent of the total) were deposited during the last 10,000 years of the Pleistocene and 33 (2 per cent) are
Illinoian or Wisconsinan tills.
A total of 330 liquefaction flowage features were discovered at 83 of the exposures. Most
features are sand- or sand and gravel-filled, planar dikes that originate at depth in saturated, clean sand
or sand and gravel and extend upward vertically or nearly vertically for 1 to 5 m through a low-
permeability silt, clayey silt, or sandy silt topstratum. In the majority of instances, dike widths
(measured about 1 m above the granular substratum) range from 1 cm to 15 cm, although many exceed
that width (maximum observed width is 250 cm). Many dikes terminate, at their upper ends, at lens-
shaped (in cross-section) deposits of sand, silty sand, or gravelly sand that are now buried beneath 1 to
5 m of overbank alluvium; we interpret these sandy-gravelly lens as sand blows that were vented upon
former surfaces. A small number of horizontal or nearly horizontal, sand- or sand and gravel-filled
sills were also discovered at the sites where planar dikes occur.
Obermeier et ale (1993) have demonstrated that the dikes, sand blows, and sills in the Wabash
Valley sediments resulted from liquefaction during strong earthquake shaking in the prehistoric past,
rather than from oilier, nonseismic mechanisms. On the basis of liquefaction effects from historic
seismicity in the similarly liquefaction susceptible New Madrid seismic zone, it may be assumed that
the Wabash Valley paleoliquefaction features fonned during earthquakes that were much stronger than
the M 5.0-5.5 events that have occurred in this area during the historic era.
The ages of the paleoliquefaction features at the 83 sites were determined, within brackets
ranging from several hundred to several thousand years, on the basis of their stratigraphic relations to
radiocarbon samples, archaeologic artifacts of known ages, and sediments of regionally-correlative
allostratigraphic members. When paleoliquefaction. sites of comparable ages are viewed from a
regional perspective, eight groups are apparent in Indiana, most of which are' characterized by a
centrally-located cluster of sites with large features that are surrounded by sites with features that
generally decrease in size with distance from the central area. We interpret each of these clusters as the
result of separate earthquakes of sufficient magnitudes to induce liquefaction (thought to be M > 6.4 for
the Wabash Valley area). Approximate magnitudes of these events are estimated on the basis of
epicentral distance of observed liquefaction effects. '
".
The eight paleoearthquakes observed in Indiana and their estimated magnitudes are:
L Vincennes-Bridgeport (M :2!.7.5), -6,100 ".+ 100 yr BP, probably centered in'southeastern lliinois
about 25 kIn west of Vincennes, Indiana. In Indiana the observed liqu,efaction effectS' extend ab0p.t 150
k:m north, 112 to 145 km northeast, 100 km east, and at least 93 Ian south-southwest of the-inferred
epicenter.
"
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102
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2. Skelton-Mt. Carmel (M -7.1), -12,000 1,000 yr BP, probably centered near the Wabash River
near the town of Mt. Carmel, lllinois or the hamlet of Skelton, Indiana. In Indiana the observed
liquefaction effects extend about 50-60 km to the north, and south of the inferred epicenter.
3. Vallonia (M: -6.9), -3,950 250 yr BP, centered in south-centrallndiana near the town of Vallonia
(and about 100 km east of the WVSZ as generally defined). Maximum distance of observed
liquefaction effects is 36 kIn northeast of Vallonia.
4. Martinsville-Waverly (M -6.8), 8,500-3,500 yr BP, centered in central Indiana near the towns of
Martinsville and Waverly (and about 100 km northeast of the WVSZ as generally defined). Epicentral
distance of liquefaction effects is probably about 25 kID.
5. Iona (M -6.5-6.6), -4,000 + 500 yr BP, probably centered near the hamlet of lona, Indiana (about
20 km southeast of Vincennes). Epicentral distance of liquefaction effects is probably < 5 lan.
6. Elnora (M -6.5-6.6), -2,000 + 500 yr BP, centered near the town of Elnora, Indiana (about 35 km
northeast of Vincennes). EpicentraJ distance of liquefaction effects is probably < 5 lan.
7. Early Woodfordian, -20,000 1,000 yr BP. Known from a single site in central Indiana, located
about 50 km south-southwest of Indianapolis. Because no other exposures of liquefaction-susceptible
sediments of similar age were found in Indiana, it has not been possible to estimate either the epicenter
or magnitude of this event. However, we suggest as a possibility that the -20,000 yr BP liquefaction
features in Indiana represent the eastern or northeastern limit of liquefaction effects from a large
earthquake (M: 2..7.3) centered near the Indiana-Illinois border.
8. Dikes through 11linoian tills. If the small- to medium-sized dikes found at two sites in west-central
Indiana are the result of earthquake-induced liquefaction, then at least one other episode of strong
shaking occurred at some time during the Illinoian, Sangamonian, or early-middle Wisconsinan in or
near the WVSZ area.
Because of the small number of exposures into liquefaction-susceptible sediments that are
greater than 14,000 years old, it has not been possible to estimate numbers, probable epicenters, or
magnitudes of strong earthquakes that affected the eastern (Indiana) haIf of the WVSZ before $is date.
However, for the period from 14,000 yr BP to the present, there is abundant liquefaction evidence for
two very large earthquakes (M > 7.0) that were centered in this area (the Vincennes-Bridgeport and
Skelton .. Mt. Carmel events). Because liquefaction effects from these earthquakes extended for great
distances from their inferred epicenters, we believe that it is unlikely that other M > 7 events could
have occurred in or near the Wabash Valley in the past 14,000 years without leaving recognizable
evidence in Indiana. Consequently, we estimate that the average recurrence interval of very large
-earthquakes in or near the WVSZ is about 6,000-7,000 years.
Estimation of the average recurrence interval of M 6.8-6.9 earthquakes in this area is more
problematic. Although evidence was found in Indiana for only two events of these magnitudes (the
Vallonia and Martinsville-Waverly events), it is unlikely that these are the only ones to have occuXl'ed
in or near the WVSZ in the recent geologic past. Because the severe and widespread
effects from the great Vincennes-Bridgeport earthquake could have obscured much or all of the
evidence for any M 6.8-6.9 events that might have occurred before 6,100 yr BP, combined with the
relatively small areas of liquefaction. that would result from earthquakes of these magnitudes, it is
plausible that as many as eight such events mIght have occurred during the .past 12.000 years in or near
the WVSZ, or an average recurrence of abouf'l,Soo years. '
. ,.
v
The frequency of liquefaction-threshold events (probably about M 6.5-6.6 in the Wabash'Valley
area) is even more problematic, given the infrequency and small sites of liquefaction features and very
small epicentral distances of liquefaction effects that would' be expected for earthquakes of these
103
magnitudes. Conclusive evidence was found for only two earthquakes of these magnitudes in terminal
Pleistocene and Holocene sediments in Indiana (the Iona and Elnora events). However, considering
factors of preservation and recognition of liquefaction evidence, distribution and extent of liquefiable
sediments, and distance of liquefaction effects, it seems plausible that as many as 32 M 6.5-6.6
earthquakes have been centered somewhere within or near the WVSZ in the past 12,000 years, or an
average recurrence interval of about 375 years.
v
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104
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{,
v
.-
II..)
108
1,-
APPENDIX A
ALLUVIAL STRATIGRAPHY OF THE MARTINSVILLE FORMATION
IN THE WABASH AND WHITE RIVER VALLEYS
Whitney I. Autin
Institute for Environmental Studies
Louisiana State University
Baton Rouge, LA 70803
The Martinsville Formation is a rock stratigraphic unit defined in Indiana that includes all
Holocene and some Late Woodfordian alluvial deposits (Wayne, 1958; Gray et aI., 1970, 1979; Gray,
1989). In general, the Martinsville Formation is a regional stratigraphic equivalent to the Cahokia
Alluvium and part of the Equality Formation in Illinois (Willman and Frye, 1970; Lineback, 1979),
and the DeForest Formation of Iowa (Daniels et aI., 1963; Bettis, 1990). Recent investigations
(Munson and Munson, this report) suggest that the Martinsville Fonnation in the Wabash and White
River valleys can be systematically subdivided into members. Each member reflects an episode of
fluvial aggradation and development of preserved geomorphic surfaces. The systematic definition and
del ineation of these members faci] itates interpretation of the spatial and temporal distribution of
earthquake-induced paleoliquefaction features in the Wabash VaJley seismic zone.
Alluvial stratigraphic uruts comparable to the Martinsville Formation have been successfully
. subdivided in other areas of the midcontinentaI United States. Bettis (1990) used lithostratigraphy and
pedology to redefine the DeForest Formation of Iowa into three meander belt sequences and associated
alluvial fan deposits. Brakenridge (1981, 1984) combined lithostratigraphy and pedostratigraphy to
define alluvial units in the Pomme de Terre River of Missouri and the Duck River of Tennessee. In the
Gulf Coastal Plain, allostratigraphic units have been delineated using lithofacies, paleosols, and
geomorphic surfaces for Holocene alluvium of the Amite River in southeastern Louisiana 1992)
and the Colorado River of Texas (Blum and Val astro , 1994). In this Appendix, a combined
geomorphic, sedimentologic, and pedologic approach is used to suggest subdivision of the Martinsville .
Formation into five informal allostratigraphic members (Figs. A:I and A:2; Table A:l). Suggested
names for the members are, from earliest to latest, Prairie Creek (1), Black River (ll), Conger Creek
(Ill), Elnora (IV) , and Hyatt Island (V). The Roman numerals correspond to the stratigraphic
designations applied by Munson and Munson (this .report). The members encompass all of what has
been previously mapped as Martinsville Formation in southern Indiana (Gray et al., 1970, 1979). The
geomorphic evolution of these units appears to span the last 14 ka.
CHARACfERISTICS OF THE ALLOSTRATIGRAPHIC l'vrnMBERS
Each member of the Martinsville Formation consists of two general lithofacies: (I) a lower
sandy facies comprising all channel and bar deposits; and (2) a typically silty facies consisting of
overbank deposits that drape channel and bar deposits and locally veneer older members. GeOmetric
relations between sandy facies, such as laterally cross-cutting channel belts and the relative elevations
of bar crests among members, provide basic criteria for member differentiation. Lithologic, pedologic,
and geometric differences between silty facies that overlie the sandy facies 3:Dd overbank veneer
deposits that overlie older members provide additional criteria for differentiation .
. "
t-
A measured section was described for each recognized member (Appendix B), all-of which are
illustrated using a common key (Fig. A:3). Sites were selected locations previously identified in a
prior channel bank survey (Munson et aI., 1992); An attempt'was made to select a location at or near
109
J1 ...... ,!
'.-
t-d
t-d
o
r-
~ .
o
. 0"
Sand/Gravel
'. Early-Middle Woodfordian Valley Trains (> 14,000 yr BP)
I Prairie Creek member n4,000 - 10,500 yr BP)
II Black River member nO,500 - 6,000 yr BP)
m Conger Creek member (6,500 - 3,500 YBP)
IV' Elnora member (3,400 - 1,500 yr BP)
N Hyatt Island member n ,500 - 0 yr BP)
o
o o
o .
00
LOWER WABASH VALLEY
Figure A: 1. Conceptual cross section of Martinsville Formation members in the lower Wabash and
White River valleys.
~
~
~
Dune
Sandy Loam
'0'
Cf 0
o
o
Early-Middle Woodfordian Valley Trains (> 14,000 yr BP)
I Prairie Creek member (14,000 - 10,500 yr BP)
CENTRAL WABASH VAllEY
II Black River member (10,500 - 6,000 yr BP)
UI Conger Creek member (6,500 - 3,500 YBP)
IV Elnora member (3,400 - 1.500 yr BP)
i ,- V Hyatt Island member (1,500 - 0 yr BP)
Figure A:2. Conceptual cross sections of Martinsville Formation members in the central Wabash River
valley.
TABLE A: 1. Field Lithologic and Pedologic Properties of the Martinsville Formation in the
Wabash and White River Valleys.
1
HORIZON
MEMBER 2 SEQUENCE
HVATT A-t
ISLAND A-Sw-C
ELNORA 3
A-Bw-t
A-St-BC-t
COLOR
MATRIX MOTTLES
10VR 4/3
10VR 4/4
10VR 5/4 10YR 4/4
10VR 6/4 10YR 6/6
TEXTURE STRUCTURE CONS J ST ENCE CCMotENTS
Sit ab
sit sab
fr
fr
rt; bur;
stri wd
rt; bur;
st; str
CONGER -Btg-SCg-Cg
CREEK 3
10YR 5/4 10VR 6/2 rti bur; st Sit sab - ab fr
-St-SC-t 10VR 6/6 5VR 6/1
SLAtK -St-St-t
RIVER 3
10VR 5/4 10VR 6/6 Sit sab - ab fr rt; st: !ero
10VR 6/2
PRAIRIE -St-SC-t 7.SYR 5/6
CREEK 3
10VR 6/8 SCL
SL
sab hd - fr rt; st; cone
10VR 5/3 5VR 5/8
PRAIRIE -St-t 10YR 6/6
CREEK 4 10YR 5/3
10YR 6/2
7.SVR 6/8
SitL
sit
sab fr rt; sti COOC;
kro; poly
HORIZON: designations and descriptive terms are adapted from louisiana Geological Survey Staff (1915)
COLOR: notations from Munsell Soil Colors
TEXTURE: S = sand; Si = silt; C = clay; l = loam
STRUCTURE: ab = angular blocky; sab = subangular blocky
CONSISTENCE: fr = friable; hd = hard
COMMENTS: bur = worm burrows; cone = concretions; !ero = Icrotovina; poly = polygonal crack fills;
rt = roots; st = stains; str = stratified
Field properties apply to the silty facies on or near the bar crest within channel belts.
2 Martinsville Formation members all grade to sand and gravel within channel belts, and have overbank
veneer facies that drape older members.
3 Surface soil horizons fonned on the Elnora, Conger Creek, Slaclc River, and Prairie Creek members are
veneered by overbank facies of younger stratigraphic units.
4 field properties apply to tributary stream facies.
, "
.-
I L I
112
v
~
.. /ot.;'
the highest landscape position in the channel belt facies, i.e., point bar crests. However, the nature and
distribution of available exposures limited this attempt. This Appendix provides a reconnaissance level
summary of the field criteria for stratigraphic differentiation of the Martinsville Formation in the
Wabash and White River Valleys. Additional investigation is necessary to assess the spatial variation in
stratigraphic properties among the recognized members.
The Prairie Creek (I) member is the oldest and topographically highest unit of the sequence.
Younger members are inset into this unit, but the Prairie Creek cuts into only Woodfordian valley train
deposits of the Atherton Formation (Gray et aI., 1970, 1979; Fraser et al., 1983) and older
stratigraphic units. At the measured section (Washington section, Fig. A:4), the Prairie Creek member
has a 7.5YR sandy clay .loam to sandy loam paleosol with a -Bt-BC-C horizon sequence. The Prairie
Creek member is overlain by 1.4 m of overbank veneer deposits of the Black River member. The Bt
horizon has blocky structure, films on peds, and iron and manganese stains and concretions. The
Prairie Creek paleosol gradually increases in sand content with depth, then abruptly changes to either
sand or sandy loam. The heavily iron stained (7.5YR 5/6) coarse sand at the base of the weathering
profile possibly marks a pre-existing water table position within the Prairie Creek member. The stained
zone is more than 1 m above the present base flow of the White River.
The Eel lOver locality (Clay City section, Fig. A:5) represents a tributary stream equivalent to
Washington section. At this section the Prairie Creek member has a 10YR silty clay loam to silt loam
paleosol with a -Bt-C horizon sequence. The Bt horizon has blocky structure, films on peds, grayish
(lOYR) mottles, and iron and manganese stains and concretions. The lower solum contains polygonal
desiccation cracks and krotovina, gradually increases in sand content with depth, then grades to a sandy
loam to loamy sand. The Prairie Creek member is overlain by 1.8 m of overbank veneer deposits of
the Elnora and Hyatt Island members. The comparable geomorphic position and relatively finer
grained lithofacies of Prairie Creek tributary deposits suggest substantially lower energy conditions in
the tributary systems than in the Wabash and White River Valleys.
The sandy facies of the Prairie Creek reflects channel deposition in an island-braid pattern.
Larger streams such as the Wabash and White Rivers reworked both Early and Late Woodfordian
outwash deposits. Smaller tributary streams such as Eel River and Indian Creek reworked only Early
Woodfordian outwash deposits. The geomorphic surface is locally covered by eolian dunes and
overbank veneer deposits.
The Black River (II) member is the next youngest unit whose channel belt is inset into Prairie
Creek and older deposits. At the measured section (Black River section, Fig. A:6), the Black River
member has a lOYR silt loam paleosol with brownish yellow and brownish gray mottles and a
-Bt-BC-C horizon sequence. The paleosol is buried by 1 m of overbank veneer deposits of the Conger
Creek member. Regionally, the Black River member typically is veneered by 0.75-1.5 m of younger
overbank deposits in the White and lower Wabash Valleys, and by 3.0-5.0 m of younger overbank
deposits in the central Wabash Valley. At Site BR, the Bt horizon has blocky structure, fums on peds,
preserved root traces, and iron and manganese stains. Silty clay loam krotovina are preserved in the
BC and C horizons. In general, the Black River member is more gJeyed than the Conger ~ r e e k
member, especially in the central Wabash Valley upstream of Vincennes. .
The fine-grained facies of the Black River member typically grades to interbedded loamy and
sandy strata in its lower C horizon. This interbedded sequence directly overlies the continuous sand
and gravel of the sandy facies. In the White and lower Wabash Valleys, the Black River member has
point bar sands and gravels with bar tops about 2 m above the low water stage, 'whereas in the central
Wabash Valley, bar tops are 2-4 m below lowest modem water lev.el and 4-6 m below moder,n bars.
Bar crest positions relative to low water gradually become lower with distance upstream: '
The Conger Creek (III) member is the next youngest unit'whose channel belt is inset into Black
River and older deposits. At the measured section (Conger Creek section, Fig. A:7), the Conger Creek
113
, ~
; ~
FEATURES INSIDE OF COLUMN
ROOT TRACES

D \,# WORM BURROWS OR CASTS
1f 1f 1f KROTOVINA
T T T TONG.UES
MOTTLES OR ST AJNS
@ @@ IRON-MANGANESE CONCRETIONS
BEDDING OR LAMINA nON

,. GRAVel
ABRUPT BOUNDARY
SHADING OF COLUMN
c:::::J SIL fLEA9ES

FEATURES OUTSIDE COLUMN
GRANULAR OR
o 0 CRUMB STRUCTURE
o 0 BLOCKY STRUCTURE
o 0 POLYGONAL CRACKS
10YR 5/4 MUNSELl COLOR
HORIZONTAL SCALE OF
COLUMN l1li TEXTURE
Figure A:3. Key to symbols on vertical profiles of Martinsville Fonnation members.
114

I L'
t

;",
Depth
m
o
1
2 I
3
SITE WA
I Prairie Creek member
n Black River venHf

2BC .- -- --e
2C

10VR 4/2
II
10VR 6/4
7.SYR S/6
10VR S/3
I
2.SY 6/2
10VR 7/3
7.SYR S/6
Figure A:4. Vertical profile of the Prairie Creek member in the lower White River valley, Washington
section (Site WA). See also Munson and Munson, this report, Fig. 6:28.
I-
II.I
1-"
...
i
P
Depth
SITE CL2
I Prairie Creek member
tributary valley facies
m
o I --, itt Island veneer
00
DO
2
DO
DO
3

VIIIIIOO
4 I- I
5
6
7
HuV
ijeu
00
10VR 5/4
v
10VR 6/4
10YR 6/4
10VR 6/2 IV
10YR 6/4
10YR 5/6
10YR 6/6
10VR 6/6
I
7.5YR 6/8
10YR 6/8
10VR 6/8
v . '
Figure A:S. Vertical profile of the Prairie Creek member in the Eel ~ v e r valley,:' Clay City section
(Site CL2). See also Munson and Munson, this report ll Fig. 6:24. . ' " . 1.'
f"
'I..'
116
~ I ~
SITE BR
II River member
Depth I
m Conger Creek veneer
m
01 i \ Ii
10YR 6/4
00
m
DO
10YR 713
1

DO
DO
10m 6/4
I
I , \.
2
Figure A:6. Vertical profile of the Black River member in the lower Wabash River valley, Black River
section (Site BR). See also Munson and Munson, this report, Fig. '6:6.
i:
\ '- \
117
SITE CC
III Conger Creek member
Depth
IV Elnora veneer
m
o
Ii - I i 0 0 10YR 5/4
o 0 10YR 5/6
IV
00
10YR 4/4
DO 10YR 5/4
2
DO
10YR 5/6
ill
3
2Cg I '. A I
10YR 5/6
4 r

2 C 10YR 5/6
Figure A:7. Vertical profile of the Conger Creek member in the lower White River valley, Conger
Creek section (Site CC). See also Munson and Munson, this report, Fig. 6:40.
.-
,/..,
118
1
.:..
;"
member has a 10YR silt loam paleosol with a -Bt-BC-C horizon sequence, and the profiJe sequence is
locally gleyed. This localized gleying may be due to the measured section being slightly off the bar
crest position. The paleosol is veneered by 0.5 m of overbank veneer deposits of the Elnora member.
The Bt horizon has blocky structure, films on peds, preserved root traces and worm burrows, and iron
and manganese stains. The fine-grained facies of the Conger Creek member typically grades to the
sandy facies in its lower C horizon. Fine sandy and silty interbeds are common in the gradational
interval between facies.
In the White and lower Wabash Valleys, the Conger Creek paleosol typicaHy extends to the
modern surface, and has a rare or shallow burial by younger deposits. The Ap horizon developed in
the Conger Creek member is either pedogenically mixed with younger deposits or disturbed by
agricultural tillage. The Conger Creek point bar sands and gravels have bar tops typically 1-2 m above
the low water stage. The Conger Creek is well exposed in the White and lower Wabash channel banks,
but is rare in the Wabash River upstream of the mouth of the White River, except as an overbank
veneer covering older members.
The Elnora (IV) member is the next youngest unit whose channel belt is inset into Conger
Creek and older deposits. At the measured section (Elnora section, Fig. A:8),' the Elnora member has
a silt loam paleosol with a weakly expressed -Bw-Bt-BC-C horizon sequence. The paleosol is covered
by 0.3 m of silt loam overbank veneer of the Hyatt Island member. The paleosol has weak blocky
structure, discontinuous films on peds, root traces, worm burrows, and iron stains. The fme-grained
facies grades to the sandy facies in its lower C horizon.
The Elnora member point bar sands and gravels have bar tops about 2 m above low water. The
Elnora member has lithologic similarity with the Conger Creek member except for less compactness
and weaker soil development. Soil profiles range from a -Bw-C to a weakly expressed -Bt-BCg-C
horizon sequence. The paleosol is covered by up to 1.5 m of younger silt loam of the Hyatt Island
member.
The Hyatt Island (V) member is the youngest unit whose channel belt is inset into Elnora and
older deposits. At the measured section (Hyatt Island section, Fig. A:9), the Hyatt Island member has
a surface soil with a weakly expressed A-Bw-BC-C horizon sequence. The soil has a cumuJic Bw
horizon with slight color alteration, weak expression of blocky soil structure, plant roots, and worm
burrows. In general, the Hyatt Island surface has either a silt loam paleosol or surface soil with either
an A-C or weakly expressed A-Bw-C horizon sequence. The Bw horizon is typically capped by a
slightly darkened A horizon, andlor stratified loamy or sandy sediment. The Hyatt Island point bar
sands and gravels have bar tops about 2 m above modern low water.
ALLUVIAL CHRONOLOGY AND RELATION TO PALEOLIQUEFACTION FEATURES
The stratigraphic characteristics of the alluvial members of the Martinsville Formation can be
compared to available radiocarbon age estimates, general inferences of the prehistoric cultural
occupation sequences in the region, and the distribution of earthquake-induced paleoliquefact.ion
features (Munson et al., 1992; Munson and Munson, this report; Obermeier et al., 1993). This
comparison helps to place the proposed Wabash River stratigraphy into a temporal framework. Spatial
and temporal variations in Martinsville Formation stratigraphic characteristics may be related to (1)
regional source area variations in older deposits within the drainage basin, (2) evolution of the post-
glacial upJand ecosystem, (3) regional- to' continental-scale climatic variation, (4) prehistoric and
historic anthropogenic land use adaptation, . and (5) neotectonic modifications within th.e alluvial valleys.
Although this list of possible causal mechanisms are suggested, attempts to defme potential ~ l a t i v e
influences of these factors are merely specUlative. r
The Prairie Creek member developed as an island-braid "channel system. This channel belt
post-dates valley train braid belts associated with Late Woodfordian deglaciation in the upper Wabash
119
3
2C fdiK;;::::::&:S],W .':
10YR 5/3
2.5YR 6/4
10YR 7/3
Figure A:8. Vertical profi1e of the Elnora member in the lower White River valley, Elnora section
(Site ELI). See also Munson and Munson, this report, Fig. 6:41.
.{ .
I/..I
120
Depth
m
EXPOSURE 536.1
V Hyatt Island member
o I t=J ,=c: :::x:::i 10YR 7/4
10YR 4/3
DO
10YR 4/4
10YR 4/4
2
10YR 7/3
v
Figure A:9. Vertical profile of the Hyatt Island member in the lower White River valley, Hyatt Island
section.
121
f"
I/.!
t
""
)'
and White River drainage basins. Tributary deposits of the Prairie Creek member may be partly
contemporaneous with Late Woodfordian glacial outwash. Greater rates of aggradation in the Wabasb
and White River valleys relative to that of tributary valleys may have produced a sIackwater effect to
create relatively finer-grained tributary fiJls. Younger members of the Martinsville Formation are
Holocene meander belts with a mixed silt and sand load. The island-braid morphology of the Prairie
Creek member, the lack of silt preserved in its overbank deposits, and the eolian dunes associated with
its geomorphic surface indicate that this surface may have been partly a source of Peoria Loess
deposited on older geomorphic surfaces. Paleo-Indian artifacts (lO.S to 12 ka) are common in the Ap
horizon developed in overbank deposits of the Prairie Creek member. When these relations are
compared to avaiJable radiocarbon ages, a 10.5 to 14 ka period of fluvial activity is inferred for the
Prairie Creek member in the Wabash and White River valleys, and a slightly earlier age for initial
aggradation in tributary Valleys.
The Black River member is the oldest meander belt deposit of the Martirisville Formation. Silt
loam overbank deposits and preserved lateral accretion channel and point bar deposits typify this
member. The Black River member aggraded to the lowest relative elevation of all members of the
Martinsville Formation. This lower aggradational level is most pronounced in the central Wabash
Valley upstream of the inferred epicentral region of the large Vincennes-Bridgeport earthquake C6.1
ka) described by Obermeier et a1. (1993) and Munson and Munson (this report). This lowered base
level was possibly tectonically induced. Late Archaic.Period artifacts (3.7 to 5 ka) typically overlie the
paleosol at the top of the Black River member. The paleosol at the top of the Black River member is
also associated with liquefaction features dated -6.1 ka that reach up to or slightly above the
pal e9surface. These relations and the available radiocarbon ages suggest a 6.5 to 10.5 ka period of
fluvial activity for the Black River member.
The Conger Creek member represents a meander belt whose upper level of aggradation is near
the present level of the Wabash River. Terminal Archaic Period artifacts (2.7 to 3.7 ka) are common
in the upper part of the Conger Creek paleosol. When these inferences are combined with the avaiJable
radiocarbon ages, a 3.5 to 6.5 ka period of fluvial activity is suggested for the Conger Creek member.
The Elnora member represents a meander belt whose fluvial regime was similar to that of the
Conger Creek meander belt. Pedogenesis in the Elnora overbank deposits apparently began concurrent
with deposition to produce a weak surface soil. Associated cultural activity at the Elnora stratigraphic
section (Site ELI) began immediately after aggradation, as the river migrated away from the site.
Pedogenesis continued into the late Holocene, as late phase Elnora and Hyatt Island overbank veneer
deposits draped the site, slowly burying the paleosol. The upper part of the Elnora paleosol has a
cumuJic Bw horizon with slight color alteration and weak expression of soil structure. Hyatt Island
sediments veneered the Elnora surface, then erosional stripping removed much of the veneer from the
ELI site. In general, Early and Middle Woodland Period artifacts (1.5 to 2.7 ka) occur at the top of
the Elnora paleosol, and Late Woodland Period and younger artifacts 1.5 ka) occur in the veneer
facies and on the surface. These observations, when combined with the available radiocarbon ages,
suggests a 1.5 to 3.5 ka period of fluvial activity for the Elnora member.
The Hyatt Island member is associated with the present meander belt of the Wabash and Wliite
Rivers, forms a presently evolving geomorphic surface, and therefore is in part Historic in age. . The
Hyatt Island member deposits also contain Late Woodland and Mississippian Period artifacts 1.5
ka), but artifacts of older cultures are not associated with this unit. When combined with available
radiocarbon ages, these observations suggest continuous fluvial activity since 1.5 kat It is possible that
with additional data, the Hyatt Island member can be further subdivided ibto prehistoric and historic
components. ..
\ t I
122
t-
..
}"
REFERENCES CITED
Autin, W.J., 1992, Use of allofonnations for definition of Holocene meander belts in the middle Amite
River, southeastern Louisiana: Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 104, p. 233-41.
Bettis, E.A., m, 1990, Holocene alluvial stratigraphy of western Iowa, in Bettis, E. A., ill, ed.,
Holocene alluvial stratigraphy and selected aspects of the Quaternary history of western Iowa:
Midwest Friends of the Pleistocene, 37th Field Conference, Iowa Quaternary Studies Group
Contribution, no. 36, p. 1-16.
Blum, M.D., and Valastro, S., Jr., 1994, Late Quaternary sedimentation, Lower Colorado River, Gulf
Coastal Plain of Texas: Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 106: 1002-1016.
Brakenridge, G.R., 1981, Late Quaternary floodplain sedimentation along the Pomme de Terre River,
southern Missouri: Quaternary Research, v. 15, p. 62-76.
Brakenridge, G.R., 1984, Alluvial stratigraphy and radiocarbon dating along the Duck River,
Tennessee: Implications regarding flood-plain origin: Geological Society of America Bulletin,
v. 95, p. 9-25.
Daniels, R.B., Rubin, M., and Simonson, G. H., 1963, Alluvial chronology of the Thompson Creek
watershed, Harrison County, Iowa: American Journal of Science, v. 261, p. 473-487.
Fraser, G.S., Bleuer, N.K., and Smith, N.D., 1983, History of Pleistocene alluviation of the middle
and upper Wabash valley, in Shaver, R.H., and Sunderman, J.A., eds., Field Trips in
Midwestern Geology:. Annual Meeting of the Geological Society of America, Indiana
Geological Survey, Bloomington, p. 197-224.
Gray, H.H., 1989, Quaternary geologic map of Indiana: Indiana Geological Survey Miscellaneous
Map 49, scale 1 :500,000.
Gray, H.H., Bleuer, N.K., Hill, J.R., and Lineback, J.A., 1979, Geologic map of the lOX 2
0
Indianapolis quadrangle, Indiana and Illinois, showing bedrock and unconsolidated deposits:
Indiana Geological Survey Regional Geologic Map No.1, scale 1:250,000.
Gray, H.H., Wayne, W.J., and Wier, C.E., 1970, Geologic map of the lOX 2 Vincennes quadrangle
and parts of adjoining quadrangles, Indiana and Illinois, showing bedrock and unconsolidated
deposits: Indiana Geological Survey Regional Geologic Map No.3, scale 1 :250,000.
Lineback, J.A., 1979, Quaternary deposits of Illinois: Illinois State Geological Survey, scale
1:500,000.
Munson, P.J., Munson, C.A., Bleuer, N.K., and Labitzske, M.D., 1992, Distribution and dating of
prehistoric earthquake liquefaction in the Wabash Valley of the central U.S.: Seismological
Research Letters, v. 58, p. 337-342.
Obermeier, S.F., Martin, J.R., Frankel, A.D., Youd, T.L., Munson, P.J., Munson, C.A., and Pond,
E.C., 1993, Liquefaction evidence for strong Holocene earthquake(s) in the Wabash VaHey of
southern Indiana-Illinois, with a preliminary estimate of magnitude: United States Geological
SurVey Professional Paper 1536, 27 p.
Wayne, W.J., 1958, Glacial geology of Indiana: Atlas of Mineral Resources of Indiana: Indiana
Geological Survey Map No. 10, scale 1:1,000,000. .
Willman, H.B., and Frye, J.C., 1970, Pleistocene stratigraphy of Illinois: Illinois State Geological
Survey Bulletin 94, 204 p.
I L \
123
v
...
;"
APPENDIX B
DESCRIPTIONS OF STRATIGRAPHIC SECTIONS
OF THE MARTINSVILLE FORMATION MEMBERS
Whitney J. Autin
Institute for Environmental Studies
Louisiana State University
Baton Rouge, LA 70803
WASHINGTON SECTION (Site WA) --' White River, Daviess County, Indiana; SW1I4 SW1I4
Sec. 30, T3N R7W; Washington, Ind. 7.5-minute topographic quadrangle; section described from a
cutbank of the White River; landscape is a flat in the highest surface of the Holocene flood plain;
elevation from topographic quadrangle is 430 ft (131.1 m); river level is 330 em below top bank; 0-1
per cent slope; cutbank is in a com field; described on 7-26-93 by W. J. Autin.
MAKnNSYaLEFORMATION
ARTIFICIAL FILL
-- 0-40 cm -- Light yellowish brown (10YR 6/4) loam; hard consistence; common roots;
cobbles and cement blocks; abrupt, smooth boundary.
OVERBANK VENEER FACIES (Black River member)
Ap 1 -- 40-50 cm -- Dark grayish brown (10YR 4/2) silt loam; weak, fine angUlar blocky
structure; hard consistence; common grass roots; compacted mollic horizon; clear, smooth boundary.
Ap2 -- 50-70 cm -- Dark grayish brown (10YR 4/2) silt loam; weak, fine granular structure;
friable consistence; common grass roots; common pores and worm tubes; mollie horizon; clear, smooth
boundary. '
Btl --70-90 em --Dark grayish brown (10YR 4/2) silt loam with few, fine, faint light yellowish
brown (10YR 6/4) mottles; moderate, fine subangular blocky structure; hard consistence; gradual,
smooth boundary.
Bt2 --90-140 cm -- Light yellowish brown (IOYR 6/4) sUt loam; moderate, medium subanguJar
blocky structure; hard consistence; few pores, common roots; dark grayish brown to dark yellowish
brown (tOYR 4/2 to 4/4) films on peds; very dark brown (lOYR 212) and strong brown (7.5YR 5/8)
stains and concretions; gradual, wavy boundary. :'
PRAIRIE CREEK :MEMBER
2Btl -- 140-180 cm --Strong brown (J .5YR 5/6) sandy clay loam with few, fine, prominent light
brownish gray (tOYR 612) mottles; moderate, coarse, subangular blocky "structure; . hard consistence;
common roots; dark grayish brown to dark yellowish brown (tOYR 4f1: ,to 4/4) films on peds; yelJQwish
brown (IOYR 5/8), strong brown (7.5YR 5/8), and yellowish red (SYR 5/8) stains on peds and lh root
traces; very dark brown (10YR 2/2) concretions; gradual, wavy boundary.
'I..'
124
,.
~
)'
2Bt2 -- 180-230 cm --Strong brown (7.SYR S16) sandy clay loam with common, fine, prominent
light brownish gray (10YR 6/2) mottles; weak, medium, subangular blocky structure; friable
consistence; rare roots; rare pores; discontinuous films on peds; very dark brown (10YR 2/2),
yeJ]owish brown (lOYR 5/8), strong brown (7.SYR S/8), and yellowish red (SYR S/8) stains; sand
content increasing relative to overlying horizon; gradual, wavy boundary.
2BC -- 230-2S0 cm -- Brown (lOYR S/3) sandy loam with common, fine, prominent strong
brown [l.SYR 5/8) mottles; friable consistence; very dark brown (10YR 2/2) and yellowish red (SYR
5/8) stains; pockets and laminations of (10YR 8/3) fine to medium sand; abrupt, wavy boundary.
2Cl -- 250-260 cm -- Light brownish gray (2.SY 612) silt loam with common. medium,
prominent mottles; friable consistence; very dark brown (lOYR 2/2) and yellowish red (5YR 5/8)
stains, some stains on root traces; abrupt, smooth boundary.
2C2 -- 260-300 cm -- Very pale brown (IOYR 7/3) medium sand; loose consistence; bedded;
root mottled mud drape like 2CI at 280-290 cm; abrupt, smooth boundary.
2C3 -- 300-330 cm -- Brown (10YR 5/3) coarse sand; loose consistence; bedded; water
saturated; abrupt, smooth boundary.
2C4 --330+ cm --Strong brown (7.5YR 516) coarse sand; loose consistence; bedded; scattered
gravel; water saturated; very dark brown (10YR 212) and yellowish red (5YR 5/8) stains.
CLAY CITY 2 SECTION (Site CL2) --Eel River, Clay County, Indiana; NW 114 SE1I4 Sec. 10,
TI0N R7W; Saline City, Ind. 7.5-minute topographic quadrangle; section described from a cutbank of
the Eel River; landscape is a flat on the highest surface of the Holocene flood plain; elevation from
topographic quadrangle is 540 ft (165 m); river level is 625 cm below top bank; 0-1 per cent slope;
cutbank is in a corn field; described on 1-1S-94 by W.1. Autin with descriptive notes and samples from
P.1. Munson.

OVERBANK VENEER FACIES (Hyatt Island member)
Ap -- 0-30 cm -- Brown (IOYR S14) loam; weak, fine, granular structure; friable consistence;
common pores.
C --30-85 cm --Light brown (10YR 6/4) loam; friable consistence; laminated; basal loamy sand
bed. "
OVERBANK VENEER FACIES (Elnora member)
<
2Bw1 _ .... 85-100 cm _ ..... Light brown (10YR 6/4) silt loam; weak, fine, angular blocky structure;
friable consistence; common pores and partly filled worm tubes; very dark brown (lOYR 212) and
brownish yellow (lOYR 6/6) stains. -
2Bw2 -- 100-120 cm --Light brown (lOYR 6/4) silt loam with common, fine, distinct brownish
yellow (IOYR 6/6) mottles; weak, fine, angiilar blocky structure; friable __ consistence; common pores
and partly filled worm tubes; very dark grayish brown (10YR 312) stains.'" . . t-
2BC -- 120-135 cm --Light brownish gray (10YR 6n.) silt Jqam with common, medium, distinct
dark brown (lOYR 4/3) mottles; friable consistence; few pores land partly filJed worm tubes; very dark
grayish brown (lOYR 212) and brownish yellow (lOYR 6/6) stains and soft concretions.
125
2C -- 13S-1S0 cm -- Light brownish gray (lOYR 612) silt loam with common, medium, distinct
brownish yellow (lOYR 6/6) mottles; friable consistence; dark brown (IOYR 4/3) and very dark
grayish brown (lOYR 2/2) stains and soft concretions.
2C&3B -- lS0-I8S cm -- Light brown (IOYR 6/4) silt loam with common, fine, distinct light
brownish gray (IOYR 612) mottles; friable consistence; weak, fine, angular blocky structure; brownish
yellow (10YR 616) stains; very dark yellowish brown (10YR 2/2) concretions.
PRAIRIE CREEK MEMBER
3Btl -- 18S-2S0 cm -- Brown (IOYR S/3) silty clay loam with common, medium, distinct light
brownish gray (lOYR 6/2) mottles; moderate, medium, subangular blocky structure; friable
consistence; common pores and root traces; pale brown (10YR 6/3) clay films and white (lOYR 811)
silt coats on peds; strong brown (7.SYR S/8) and very dark yellowish brown (10YR 2/2) stains and
concretions.
3Bt2 -- 2S0-310 cm -- Brownish yellow (lOYR 6/6) silt loam with common, medium, distinct
light brownish gray (10YR 6/2) mottles; moderate, medium, subangular blocky structure; friable
consistence; common pores and root traces; pale brown (IOYR 6/3) clay films on peds; strong brown
(7.SYR S/8) and very.dark brown (lOYR 2/2) stains and concretions.
3Ct -- 310-SS0cm -- Brownish yeJIow (10YR 6/6) silty clay loam with common, coarse,
prominent reddish yellow (7.SYR 6/8) mottles; friable consistence; light brownish gray (lOYR 6/2) silt
loam and silty clay loam polygonal crack fills and krotovina; brownish yellow (IOYR 6/8) and reddish
yellow (7.SYR 6/8) stains.
3C2 -- 550-640 cm -- Reddish yellow (7.SYR 6/8) silty clay loam; friable consistence; Light
brownish gray (lOYR 6/2) silt loam and silty clay loam polygonal crack fills and krotovina; very dark
brown (10YR 2/2), brownish yellow (IOYR 6/8), and reddish yellow (7.SYR 6/8) stains and
concretions; heavy staining at base of horizon.
3C3 --640-660 cm --Reddish yellow (7.SYR 6/8) sandy clay loam; slightly plastic consistence;
very dark brown (10YR 2/2) stains; very pale brown (lOYR 7/3) loamy sand pockets.
3C4 -- 660-710 cm -- Brownish yellow (10YR 6/8) sandy loam; loose consistence; grades to
loamy sand at base; water saturated.
3CS -"-' - 710-730 cm -- Brownish yellow (lOYR 6/8) loamy sand; loose consistence; water
saturated.
BLACK RIVER SECTION (Site BR) - Wabash River, Posey County, Indiana; NW1I4 NW1I4
Sec. 24, T4N R14W; New Harmony, Ind. 7.S-minute topographic quadrangle; section described from a
cutbank of the Wabash River; landscape is a flat in lateral accretion topography in the Holocene flood
plain; elevation from topographic quadrangle is 410 ft (125.0 m); river level is > S m below top bank;
0-1 per cent slope; cutbank is in a soybean field; described on 7-30-93 by W.J. Autin.

OVERBANK VENEER FACIES (Conger Creek member)
t
Ap -- 0-30 cm -- Light yellowish brown (IOYR 6/4) silt _loam; weak, fine, granular structure;
friable consistence; common roots; very dark brown (lOY.R I 2n.) and brownish yellow (lOYR 6/8)
stains; abrupt, smooth boundary.
126
_'.1'-
B&2El -- 30-70 em -- Very pale brown (lOYR 7/3) silt loam with common, medium, distinct
brownish yellow (10YR 616) mottles; weak, fine, angular blocky structure; hard consistence; common
roots; dark yellowish brown (10YR 4/4) clay films on peds; very pale brown (10YR 7/3) silt loam
tongues;' very dark brown (lOYR 212) and brownish yellow (10YR 6/8) stains; gradual, smooth
boundary.
B&2E2 -- 70-100 cm -- Very pale brown (lOYR 7/3) silt loam with common, coarse, distinct
brownish yellow (10YR 6/6) mottles; moderate, medium, subangular blocky structure; hard
consistence; few roots; dark yellowish brown (10YR 4/4) clay films on peds; very pale brown (lOYR
713) silt loam tongues; very dark brown (10YR 212) and brownish yellow (10YR 6/8) stams; gradual,
smooth boundary.
BLACK RIVER MEMBER
2Btl -- 100-150 cm -- Brown (lOYR 5/3) silt loam with common, coarse, distinct brownish
yellow (lOYR 6/6) mottles; moderate, coarse, subangular blocky structure; hard consistence; few roots;
dad: yellowish brown (lOYR 4/4) clay fums on peds; very pale brown (lOYR 7/3) silt loam tongues
and root fills; very dark brown (lOYR 2/2) and brownish yellow (lOYR 6/8) stains; gradual, smooth
boundary.
200 -- 150-200 em -- Light yellowish brown (lOYR 6/4) silt loam with common, fine, distinct
light brownish gray (lOYR 6/2) mottles; moderate, coarse, subangular blocky structure; hard
consistence; rare roots; very dark grayish brown (10YR 3/2) clay films on peds; very pale brown
(10YR 7/3) silt loam tongues and root fills; very dark brown (lOYR 2/2) and brownish yellow (lOYR
6/8) stains; gradual, smooth boundary.
200 -- 200-250 cm -- Yellowish brown (10YR 5/4) silt loam with common, fine, distinct light
brownish gray (10YR 6/2) mottles; moderate, medium, subangular blocky structure; friable
consistence; very dark grayish brown (10YR 312) clay films on peds and in root traces; very dark
brown (10YR 2/2) and brownish yellow (lOYR 6/8) stains; gradual, irregular boundary.
2BCl -- 250-290 em --- Yellowish brown (10YR 5/4) silt loam with common, coarse, distinct
light brownish gray (10YR 6/2) mottles; weak, medium, angular blocky structure; friable consistence;
discontinuous very dark grayish brown (10YR 312) clay fums on peds and in root traces; very dark
brown (lOYR 212) and brownish yellow (lOYR 6/8) stains; diffuse, smooth boundary.
2BC2 --- 290-340 cm -- Brownish yellow (lOYR 6/8) silt loam with common, medium, distinct
light brownish gray (lOYR 6/2) mottles; friable consistence; very dark grayish brown (10YR 3(2) silty
clay loam krotovina; light brownish gray (lOYR 612) halos around root traces; very dark brown (lOYR
2/2) and brownish yellow (10YR 6/8) stains; gradual, smooth boundary.
2Cl-- 340-390 cm --- Brownish yellow (lOYR 6/8) silt loam with common, coarse, distinct light
brownish gray (10YR 6/2) mottles; very friable consistence; very dark grayish brown (10YR 3(2) silty
clay loam krotovina; light brownish gray (10YR 612) halos around root traces; very dark brown (10YR
2/2) and brownish yellow (lOYR 6/8) stains; smooth boundary.
2C2 --- 390-440 cm -- Brownish yellow (lOYR 6/8) loam with common, coarse, distinct light
brownish gray (10YR 6/2) mottles; very consistence; light brownish gray (10YR 6/2) halos
around root traces; silt loam, loamy sand, and sand interbeds; yellowish (5YR 5/8), strong brown
(J.5YR 5/8), and brownish yellow (10YR 6/8) stains; abrupt, irregularbOundary. .' v
2C3 --440-480 cm --Light brownish gray (2.5Y 612) loam; slightly sticky consistence; silt loam,
loamy sand, and sand interbeds; yellowish red (5YR 5/8), stiobg brown (J .5YR 5/8), and brownish
yellow (10YR 6/8) stains on root traces.
127
jr
BLACK RIVER SUPPLEMENTAL SAMPLES --476-525 cm -- interbedded C horizon sampled
by PJ. Munson in October 1993; sent to Baton Rouge on November 5, 1993; described by W. 1. Autin
on November 28, 1993.
2C4 --476-492 cm -- Pale brown (lOYR 6/3) silt loam; friable consistence; light gray (lOYR
7/2) halos xound root traces; brownish yellow (lOYR 6/6) stains.
2C4 -- 492-495 cm -- YeJIowish brown (lOYR 5/4) sandy loam; slightly sticky consistence;
strong brown [l.sYR 5/8) stains; wet.
2C4 --495-502 cm --Yellowish brown (lOYR 5/4) sandy clay loam; slightly sticky consistence;
strong brown [l.5YR 5/8) stains; wet.
2C5 --502-525 cm --Yellow (lOYR 7/6) medium to coarse sand; loose consistence; scattered 2-
4 mm granule gravel.
CONGER CREEK SECTION (Site CC) --White River, Pike County, Indiana; SE1I4 SW1I4 Sec.
9, TIN R9W; Iona, Ind. 7.s-minute topographic quadrangle; section described from a cutbank of the
White River; landscape is a flat in lateral accretion topography in the Ho)ocene flood plain; elevation
from topographic quadrangle is 410 ft (125.0 m); river level is 480 cm below top bank; 0-1 per cent
slope; cuthmk is in a corn field; described on 7-30-93 by W.J. Autin.

OVERBANK VENEER FACIES (Elnora member)
Ap -- 0-10 cm -- Yellowish brown (10YR 514) silt loam; weak, fine, granular structure; friable
consistence; common roots; few pores; very dark brown (10YR 2/2) stains; abrupt, smooth boundary.
B&2E -- 10-50 cm -- Yellowish brown (lOYR 5/6) loam; weak, fine, subangular blocky
structure; bard consistence; rare roots; few pores; brown (lOYR 5/3) and very pale brown (lOYR 7/3)
clay films on peds and in pores; very pale brown (lOYR 713) silt loam tongues; very dark brown (lOYR
212) and brownish yellow (lOYR 5/8) stains; gradual, smooth boundary.
CONGER CREEK MEMBER
2Btl --50-90 cm --Dark yellowish brown (lOYR 4/4) silt loam; moderate, medium, subanguJar
blocky structure; friable consistence; rare pores; brown (lOYR 4/3) and very pale brown (lOYR 7/3)
clay films 00 peds; very pale brown (lOYR 7/3) silt loam tongues; very dark brown (lOYR 2/2) and
brownish yellow (lOYR 5/8) stains and concretions; gradual, smooth boundary.
2Btgl -- 90-140 cm -- Yellowish brown (10YR 5/4) silt loam with few, fine, distinct light
brownish gray (lOYR 612) mottles; moderate, coarse, subanguIar blocky structure; .friable consistence;
few pores; brown (lOYR 4/3) clay films on peds; very pale brown (lOYR 7/3) silt loam tongues;'very
dark brown (10YR 2/2) stains; light brownish gray (lOYR 612) halos around root traces; gradual,
smooth boundary. .
2BCgl -- 140-190 em -- Yellowish brown (10YR 5/4) silt loam with common,. medium, distinct
light brownish gray (lOYR 6/2) mottles; weak, medium, angular blocky .structure; friable
common pores; discontinuous light brownish gray (10YR 612) films on peds; very dark brown OOYR
2/2) and brownish yellow (10YR 6/8) stains; discontinuous light brownish gray (10YR 6/2) halos
around root traces; diffuse, smooth boundary. ,; I.. I ..
128
2BCg2 -- 190-240 cm -- Yellowish brown (lOYR S/4) silt loam with common, medium, distinct
light brownish gray (lOYR 6/2) mottles; weak, fine, angular blocky structure; friable consistence; few
pores; discontinuous light brownish gray (lOYR 6/2) fums on peds; very dark brown (10YR 212) and
brownish yellow (lOYR 6/8) stains; discontinuous light brownish gray (10YR 6/2) halos around root
traces; diffuse, smooth boundary.
2Cgl -- 240-290 cm -- Yellowish brown (lOYR S/6) silt loam with common, medium, distinct
gray (lOYR 6/1) mottles; friable consistence; very dark brown (IOYR 2/2) and brownish yellow (lOYR
6/8) stains; discontinuous light brownish gray (lOYR 6/2) halos around root traces; diffuse, smooth
boundary.
2Cg2 -- 290-340 cm -- Yellowish brown (lOYR S16) silt loam with common, medium, distinct
gray (lOYR 6/1) mottles; friable consistence; very dark brown (lOYR 2/2) and strong brown (7.SYR
5/8) stains; few discontinuous light brownish gray (lOYR 612) halos around root traces; gradual,
smooth boundary.
2Cg3 -- 340-390 cm -- Yellowish brown (10YR 516) silt loam with common, medium, distinct
gray (10YR 6/1) mottles; friable consistence; abundant very dark brown (lOYR 2/2) and strong brown
(7.5YR 5/8) stains; few discontinuous light brownish gray (10YR 6/2) halos around root traces;
gradual, smooth boundary.
2Cg4 -- 390-430 cm -- Yellowish brown (10YR S16) loam with common, medium, distinct gray
(10YR 6/1) mottles; slightly sticky and slightly plastic consistence; abundant very dark brown (lOYR
2/2) and strong brown (7.5YR 5/8) stains;. abrupt, smooth boundary.
2CS -- 430-450 cm -- Yellowish brown (10YR S16) coarse to medium sand; loose consistence;
water saturated; river level at 480 cm.
ELNORA 1 SECTION (Site ELI) -- White River, Daviess County, Indiana; SE1I4 NE1I4 Sec. 7,
T5N R6W; Lyons, Ind. 7.S-minute topographic quadrangle; section described from a cutbank of the
White River; landscape is a ridge in lateral accretion topography in the Holocene flood plain; elevation
from topographic quadrangle is 470 ft (143.3 m); river level is 320 cm below top bank; 1-3 per cent
slope; cutbank is in a soybean field; described on 7-26-93 by W. J. Autin.
MARTINSVILLE FORMATION
OVERBANK VENEER FACIES (Hyatt Island member)
-- 0-10 cm -- Yellowish brown (lOYR S14) loam; weak, fme, granular structure; friable
consistence; common roots; faint laminations; road fill gravel; abrupt, smooth boundary.
Ap -- 10-30 cm -- Brown (lOYR 4/3) silt loam; weak, very fine, subangular blocky structure;
friable consistence; common roots; common pores; pores partly filled with worm casts; smooth

ELNORA MEMBER
2Bw -- 30-70 cm -- Yellowish brown {10YR S14) loam; weak, fine, angular',blocky structure;
friable consistence; few roots; abundant pores and worm tubes; brownish yellow (lOYI\ .6/6)
stains; charcoal pockets at the base of horizon; gradual, wavy boundary. .'
2Btl -- 70-100 cm -- Yellowish brown (10YR 5/4) silt Joarn; weak, fme, subangular blocky
structure; friable consistence; rare roots; few open pores; brown (10YR 4/3) silt loam films on peds
129
and in pores; very dark brown (10YR 2/2) concretions < 2 nun in diameter; rare scattered granule
gravel; gradual, wavy boundary.
2Bt2 -- 100-130 cm -- Yellowish brown (lOYR 5/4) silt loam with few, fine, faint brownish
yellow (10YR 616) mottles; weak, fine, subangular blocky structure; friable consistence; rare roots;
common pores and worm tubes; discontinuous brown (lOYR 4/3) silt loam fums on peds and in pores;
scattered granule gravel; gradual, wavy boundary.
2BCl -- 130-170 cm --Light yellowish brown (10YR 6/4) silt loam with common, fine, distinct
dark yellowish brown (10YR 4/4) mottles; weak, fme, crumb structure; friable consistence; common
pores and root traces; light brownish gray (10YR 612) root inftlls up to 5 cm in diameter; brownish
yellow (10YR 6/6) halos on root traces; gradual, smooth boundary.
2BC2 -- 170-220 cm -- Light yellowish brown (10YR 6/4) silt loam with common, medium,
distinct dark yellowish brown (10YR 4/4) mottles; friable consistence; common pores and root traces;
light brownish gray (lOYR 6/2) root infllis up to 5 cm in diameter; brownish yellow (lOYR 6/6) halos
on root traces; 'scattered granule gravel; gradual, smooth boundary.
2BC3 -- 220-250 em -- Light yellowish brown (10YR 6/4) silt loam with common, medium,
distinct dark yellowish brown (10YR 4/4) mottles; friable consistence; common pores. and root traces;
light brownish gray (10YR 612) root infills up to 5 cm in diameter; brownish yellow (lOYR 6/6) halos
on root traces; pockets of medium sand; scattered granule gravel; gradual, wavy boundary.
2e1 -- 250-260 cm -- Light yellowish brown (10YR 6/4) loam with common, medium, distinct
dark yellowish brown (lOYR 4/4) mottles; friable consistence; pockets of medium sand containing
scattered granule gravel; very dark brown (lOYR 2/2) concretions <2 nun in diameter; gradual,
irregular boundary.
2C2 --260-280 cm -- Brown (10YR 5/3) coarse sand; loose consistence; scattered granule gravel
and silt loam rip clasts; horizontal and cross-stratifications; abrupt, smooth boundary.
2C3 -- 280-285 em -- Light yellowish brown (2.5Y 6/4) silt loam with common, fine, distinct
brownish yellow (10YR 6/6) mottles; friable consistence; brown (lOYR 4/3) and strong brown (7.5YR
5/8) stains on root traces; stains diminish towards base of horizon; abrupt, smooth boundary.
2C4 -- 285-320 cm -- Very pale brown (10YR 7/3) medium to coarse sand; loose consistence;
scattered granule gravel; horizontal and cross-stratifications.
HYATT ISLAND SECTION - White River, Knox County, Indiana; Tract 295, T3N R8W;
Washington, Ind. 7.5-minute topographic quadrangle; section described from a cutbank, of the White
River; landscape is a ridge from the inside bend of a cutoff in lateral accretion topography in. the
Holocene flood plain; elevation from topographic quadrangle is 430 ft (131.1 m); river level is 280 em
below top bank; 0-1 per cent slope; cut bank is in a corn field; described on 7-26-93 by W. J. Autin.
MAKnNSvaLEFORMATION
HISTORIC OVERWASH
-- 0-10 em -- Very pale brown (10YR 7/4) silt loam; friable" consistence; common i;;ots;
laminations; abrupt, smooth boundary.
I t I
130
.-
.:...
;,.
HYATT ISLAND MEMBER
Ap -- 10-30 cm -- Brown (lOYR 4/3) silt loam; friable consistence; common roots; common
pores; pores partly filled very pale brown (lOYR 7/4) silt loam; gradual, smooth boundary.
Bw -- 30-80 cm -- Dark yellowish brown (lOYR 4/4) silt loam; weak, medium, angular blocky
structure; friable consistence; few roots; abundant pores and worm tubes; gradual, smooth boundary.
Be -- 80-140 cm -- Dark yellowish brown (lOYR 4/4) silt loam; friable consistence; rare roots;
common pores and worm tubes; horizontal streaks of very pale brown (lOYR 7/3) silt loam and sandy
loam; increase in sand content at base of horizon; gradual, smooth boundary.
Cl -- 140-180 cm -- Very pale brown (lOYR 7/3) fine to medium sand; loose consistence; silt
loam interbeds; horizontal and cross laminations; abrupt, smooth boundary.
C2 -- 180-280 cm -- Very pale brown (10YR 7/3) fine to medium sand; loose consistence; silt
loam interbeds.
>
\ 1..)
131
t
~
;'"
APPENDIX C
LOCATIONS OF PALEOLIQUEFACTION SITES
tJJ(..UACTlON
sm: LEGAl OCSCRlPTlON
COO( STATE COl.M"Y STREAM 1 /" 1 /4 1 /4 1 J 4 S(C TWP RNG
Ai.
N.)
SAN:>Y OOOK PIKE EAST F"ORK t
S(
S tffl 14 01N 07W
AZ
N.)
AZAUA BARmJlC.Ol EAST F"ORK t-NI SW t
S( 33 08N 06E
Be1
N.) SAlN: OlY a..AY BIRCH CR t SW S( S( 35 l1N 07W
BC2
N.) SAlN: aT'( a..AY BIRCH CR t-NI sw SW tffl 26 11N 07W
BC3
N.)
SAlN: OTY a..AY BIROi CR sw t-NI SE SW 25 11N 07W
BC4
N.)
SALK OlY a..AY BIROi CR S t S tffl 25 11N 07W
BC5
N.)
STALM'ON a..AY BIRCH CR t-NI
S( S(
S 24 11N 07W
8G
N.)
rom:R POINT a..AY EEl RIVER t-NI sw t-NI S 13 l1N 06W
BR
N.)
POS('( WABASH S t t-NI tffl 24 045 UW
CA
N.)
t-WPORT vtRMUJON WABASH S
p.
NW 15 17N 09W
cc
N.)
IONA PIKE WHIT RJVER sw t SE sw 9 01N 09W
co
N.) J,NACE PlJTNAM . KL CRro< S t SW tffl 1 12N 03W
Cf
N.)
ST. FlWOSVllE JO.()X WABASH t t NW tffl 21 01N 11W
CH
N.) POt...{)
CLAY EEl RIVER t NW S tffl 5 11N 05W
0.1
N.) SALK aT'( CLAY EEl mvtR S SE f' 11 10N 07W
a.2
N.)
SAlN: OlY C1..AY EEl RIVER f' f' NW S 10 10N 07W
a.3
N.)
SAlN: OTY C1..AY EEl RIVER NW 5W SE
NY(
16 10N 07W
eN
N.)
ClMON PARKE WABASH f' S f' tffl 2 14N 09W
OJ
N.) SI)'( OOOK DAVSS EAST FORK f' SE SE 10 01N 07W
CI/
N.)
CR01l-RSVUE scon t.A.JSCA T A ru::x SE f' NW 7 04N 07E
OC
N.)
OCCKER JO.()X WHTE RMR t
p.ffl
S sw 17 01N lOW
fl.l
N.)
LYONS DAVBS WHIT RIVER f' f' f' sw 7 05N 06W
f.l.2
N.)
PLA.Nv1..LE DAVSS WHTE RIVER S f' t-NI sw 18 05N 06W
EP
N.)
PlAWllE DAVSS WHTE RIVER sw S SE 5 04N 07W
ER U VN:ON:5 LAWRDC( WABASH
p.ffl
NW SW 3 02N l1W
EV
N.)
OHO
p.
f' 30 065 09W
Gf
N.)
TAAF1CO JACKSON GRASSY F"ORK NW 36 05N 05
GR
N.) t-W HARMONY POSEY WABASH t SW 5W tffl 7 045 13W
HA
N.)
JASPER
DlJBO(S EAST F"ORK t S sw 27 01N 05W
I-C
N.)
roNSON VlGO WABASH t
p.ffl
NW
S(
21 11M lOW
I-W
N.)
o.w.
PO5'(
WABASH NW p.ffl
NW SW 29 075 14W
HV U CRAWFORD WABASH sw
p.ffl
t S 29 08N l1W
C
N.) t-mJSTAN t.:lRGAN tOAN CR sw
p.ffl p.ffl SW 35 l1N 01
adA U MAlN WHIT WABASH S SW S tffl 6 065 11
t.c
N.)
EMtOC MORGAN KL CREEK S 20 13N 02W
t.() N)
),()RCAN
tOAN CR S sw S SW 28 l1N 02
MT U WABASH JSl{) GAUArn WABASH
S(
NW tffl 12 . 085 10E
W
N)
MARfflSVll MORGAN WHTE RIVER tffl p.
KN 12 11N 01W
N-I
N)
NEW HARMONY POSc:Y WABASH KN p.ffl
36 045 14W
NP N.) NEWPORT
VERMl..U)N WABASH S
S(
sw HE 36 17N 09W
oc
N)
NEW GOSrN VIGO WABASH NW S KN t-NI 22 13N 09W
OHl
N)
SALK arY C1..AY mRMR
p.ffl
S 20 10N 07W
0H2
N) SALK aT'( a..AY mlWER S sw S, 20 10N 07W
0H3
N) SA1.K aT'( a..AY EEl lWER KN NW tffl 28 10N 07W
PA U .oTHSVUE CRAWFORD WABASH': KN KN HE 1 06N 11W
P8 U GRAYVU.. WABASH WABASH sw sw 31 025 13W
PE
N) MOi'ROE aT'( PI<[ WHTE RMR NW sw
S(
S 14 01N 09W
PL
N)
PERRYSVU F"OlM'AN WABASH tffl 3 18N 09W
POl
N) POlAN) a..AY EEl RIVER sw sw tffl ,.21 12N 05W'
P02
N)
POlAND CLAY EEl RM:R
-
sw S SW 29 12M 05W
III AlL UTM em> DATA FOR Z()I 16
I L I
132
lJl"M$ E l.I'l'l.P N
486320 4263150
598710 4327140
487080 4354860
487480 4355600
487860 .4356620
488180 .4357350
488500 4358400
497830 4359960
418250 422.4920
464190 4419290
463460 4264180
525600 4373100
443800 4262230
500780 4363730
487380 .4352750
485280 4352320
483090 4351000
467340 4393530
485490 4264770
605720 4295880
452010 4262580
489490 4303620
489140 4301870
482080 4295660
445910 4276660
460360 4203050
594530 4299000
419790 4227650
504520 4260000
454900 4359120
410320 4193300
443630 4328470
551680 4358340
409050 4209620
5'29980 4377650
558630 4356300
406720 4189220
545540 4362300
419030 4221680
467570 4413770
464270 4379.020
482260 4349170
482240 4348930
482610 4348360
449860 4316600
420620 4238840
467360 -4262420
463820 4431880
501990 4368500
500840 4366110
ConIlruad
..
) .....
LlOlUACTlON
SITE LEGAL OCSCR1PTlON
cooe: STATE QUADRANGlE COlNTY STRrAM 4 1 4 SEC TW? iN) lJTM$ E lJT\f' N
pp IN)
!<}-'oX WHTE RIVER
t>N(

t>N(
SW 12 OtN OBW 477680 4264560
PS
IN)
I-ATHSVUE SUlJYAN WABASH SE NW t>N(
16 06N tOW 454320 4313540
PV
N)
GLOOALE DlA30IS EAST rOOK SE t>N( 24 01N 06W 497640 4261930
Rf" IN)
RUSSaLVUE IO)X WABASH SE sw SE SE 33 05N lOW 454670 4297090
RT
IN)
l-ATHSVUE StWVAN WABASH NW NW SE SE 6 06N tOW 451440 4315620
SAt
IN)
SALN: orr a..AY m RIVER SE NW 11 10N 07W 487100 4352970
SAl
IN)
SALK orr a..AY mRMR
t>N(
SE
t>N(
11 10N 07W 4B6370 4352920
SAl
IN) a..Ayorr a..AY mRMR MY sw t>N( sw 33 11N 06W 492220 4355160
SM U wroKS LAWIDa WABASH S NW 34 03N lOW 456230 4288570
SN
IN)
Cl-sn.uT RIDGE JACKSON EAST rOOK NW S SE SE 32 07N 06E 597510 4317010
SP
IN)
WASHNGTON EAST rOOK SE SE
t>N( t>N( 20 04N 03E 568080 4291460
SSP
IN)
JAa<.soN EAST rOOK sw t- SE sw 12 06N 05E 593650 4313750
ST
IN)
OCO<ER
IQ()X WABASH NW SE SE 18 02N lOW 451260 4272360
SV
N)
BARGERSVlli ..IClf-NSON WHTE RIVER
t>N(
sw 32 14N 03E 566640 4384100
TC
IN)
t.ROM StWVAN WABASH P sw P P 34 08N 11W 446920 4327500
TH
IN)
TERRE: HAUTE VlGO WABASH MY NW t>N(
P 17 12N 09W 462620 4371280
UT
IN)
CROnRSVlli WJSCA T A TlJO( t>N(
sw sw MY 4 04N 07E 607800 4297080
VA
N)
JACKSON EAST rORK
t>N(
NW SE sw 30 05N 04E 575900 429B720
VC N) SAl'{)Y HOOK DAVESS WHTE RIVER sw sw
t>N( t>N( lB 02N 07W 479190 4273220
vw N)
VJt.roN:S IQ()X WABASH N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A 03N l1W 447160 4277260
WA
IN)
WASHNGTON DAVlSS WHTE RIVER sw P sw SW 30 03N 07W 479360 4278680
WC1
IN)
BROWNSTOWN JACKSON WHTE CRfD( SE SE sw SE 31 07N 05E 5B5880 4316340
WC2
IN)
BROWNSTOWN JACKSON WHTE CREE)( SE t>N(
P 6 06N 05E 5B5860 4316130
WC3
IN)
BROWNSTOWN JACKSON WHTE CRfD( P t- sw P 6 06N 05E 585900 4315970
WC4
IN)
BROWNSTOWN JACKSON WHTE CRED< SE NW sw P 6 06H 05E 5B5710 4315820
WCS
IN)
BROWNSTOWN JACKSON WHTE CRfD( SE P SE sw 6 06H 05E 585560 4315000
WCS
N) BROWNSTOWN JACKSON WHTE CREE)( sw sw SE sw 6 06N 05E 5B5420 4314800
WC7
IN)
BROWNSTOWN JACKSON WHTE CREE)( SE P MY NW 7 06H 05E 585080 4314600
wca
IN)
BROWNSTOWN JACKSON WHTE CREE)( P sw P SE 3t 07N 05E 5B6000 4316840
WC9
IN)
BROWNSTOWN JACKSON WHTE CREE)( P NW SE SE 31 07N 05E 586100 4316690
WI
N)
WWAMS LAWRNC EAST roo< sw sw t>N( NW 9 04N 02W 530740 4294350
WO
It{) Bl()().fUD GRl)
WHTE RIVER NW NW
t>N(
SE 33 08N 05W 502700 4326340
WV
IN)
MOORESVll.E EAST MJRGAN WHTE RIVER sw SE t>N(
P 13 13N 02E 563810 43B0280
YO U ____ ClARK WABASH SE NW SE_ NW 09N __ U-'tL 4336880
ALL UTM GRlO DATA roo ZOI' 1 6
L
,-
\ L \
133
APPENDIX D
CHARACTERISTICS OF PALEOLIQUEFACTION SITES
WDlrf SUA N..M3ER Of" OEPlrf
UQLUACTlON N LARGEST DIKE DI<ES TO
sm: L.N:Ilrf SID TlGRAPHC or OI<E WIDTHS
I3(DROCK N="ERRED
COOE
(m) t.EJ.f3ER
DIKES (em) (em) 13l0W PINCH STOP T'RIJI.'C. I(m) EARTl-OJAKE
Ai.
860 I 2 18 27 0 0 2 0 >30
AZ
50 I 3 3 7 0 0 0 3 15-30. vmONA
Bel 250 Is 1 11 11 0 1 0 0 >30
Be2 100 Is 1 45 45 0 0 0 1 15-30
BC3
100 Is 1 2 2 0 1 0 0 0-14
BC4
100 Is 5 1 2 0 5 0 0 15-30
BC5
500 ru
"
9 14 0 0 4 0 15-30 lLNOtAN
9G 250 I 2 3
"
2 0 0 0 15-30
BR 380 I 10 15 75 6 4 0 0 >30
CA
780 I 3 15 24 3 0 0 0 >30
cc
490 III 2 6 8 0 2 0 0 >30 IONA
CO
50 ru 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 >30 lLNOtAN
cr
690 I 29 105 429 13 7 9 0 >30
CH
100 Is 6 24 48 3 3 0 0 15-30
0.1
20 Is 3 5 7 0 3 0 0 >30

ru
250 Is 7 17 51 0 7 0 0 15-30
0.3 75 Is 1 2 2 0 1 0 0 >30
CN
100 I 4 3 6 4 0 0 0 >30
OJ
370 1 15 15 0 0 1 0 >30
CV
500

1 1 1 0 1 0 0 15-30 VALLONA
DE
110 I 2 33 36 1 1 0 0 15-30 SKEI.. TON-MT CAfMl..
Ell
250 IV 4 3 8 0 4 0 0 >30
E:l.}K)RA
ELl
750 6 18 57 2 4 0 0 >30
EP
75 I 1 5 5 1 0 0 0 >30

ER
630 I 13 250 301 3 10 0 0 >30 VINCON.:s-RlGEPORT
EV
100 I 2 1 2 0 2 0 0 0-14 SKEl TON-MT CAfMl..
GF'
320 R 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 15-30 vmONA
GR
300 I 4 36 56 0 1 3 0 15-30 SKa TON-MT CAfMl..
HA
25 I 3 6 12 0 3 0 0 >30
He
13801 2 15 30 2 0 0 0 >30
I-t.C 2350 I 4 8 14 0 4 0 0 >30 SKl.. TOtHfT CA1Ml..
HV
300 I 4 42 96 3 1 0 0 >30
IC
50 Is 3 7 .,9 0 3 0 0 15-30 V-B AKJ td-W
MA
790 I 16 27 89 8 8 0 0 >30
t.C
30 I 2 2 3 0 2 0 0 15-30 V-B OR W-W

75 LACUSTSRK 2 3 4 0 2 0 0 15-30 EARLY We><:a"OROIAN
MT
820 2 18 36 0 2 0 0 >30
W 100 I 2 27 38 2 0 0 0 >30
MARrnsvuE -WA VERI.. Y

1440 I
2 7 13 0 2 0 0 >30
t-P 275 I 2 15 21 1 1 0 0 0-14
oc
400
5 24 59 4 1 0 0 >30
VN:lN'S-tR)G(PORT.\
001 100 Is
4 3 8 0 0 0
"
>30
0H2
250 Is
4 5 9 0 3 0 1 >30
0H3
300 Is
6 45 99. 0 6 0 0 {5-30
PA 940 I
2 15 17 2 0 0 0 15-30
PB
3120 3 54, 70 1 1 1 0 >30
PE
2090 , 3 5 15 0 3 0 0 .15-30 SKl.. TON-4AT CAfMl..
Pi. 175
8
3 'I
17 0 8 0 0 0-14
POl 100 I
1 5 5 1 0 0 .0 15-30

POl 125 D 1 5 5 0 0 1 0 15-30
TRtK = T'RIJI.'CA noN
contirued
V-B AKJ W-W = VtroKS-BRIOCiEPORT AKJ MARl'JIlSVI...lE-WAVERlY
V-B OR W-W = OR MARl'JIlSVI...lE-WAVERlY
I L \
134
y'}-
WIDTH SUM N.M3(R Of"
UQLUACTlON N LARGST DtJ<E DIKES
SlIT STRA TlGRAPHC Of OO<E WIDTHS [N)ING AS
COO( (m) t.OeR OO<ES (em) (em) BlOW PN::H STOP TR\..NC
pp
260 I 5 6 15 0 5 0 0
PS 210 I 4 6 17 4 0 0 0
PV 25 I 2 6 7 0 2 0 0
Rf 360 I 11 152 240 5 5 0 0
RT 100 I 1 15 15 1 0 0 0
SAl 100 Is 5 17 35 0 5 0 0
SAl 50 Is 3 30 52 0 3 0 0
SA.3 250 Is 3 15 24 2 1 0 0
SM 730 I 5 42 81 3 1 0 1
SN 25 I 2 7 9 0 1 1 0
SP 800 I 1 20 20 0 1 0 0
SSP 100 I 2 3 5 0 0 2 0
Sf 25 I 1 5 5 0 1 0 0
SV 50 I 2 1 2 0 2 0 0
TC 780 I 25 42 285 18 6 1 0
lH 600 I 4 3 10 4 0 0 0
UT 275 B 1 7 7 0 1 0 0
VA 150 10 63 144 0 5 5 0
VC 200 I 1 18 18 0 1 0 0
VW 660 I 12 76 252 8 1 3 0
WA 350 I 2 .. 5 0 2 0 0
WC1 20 Is 1 7 7 0 1 0 0
WC2 20 Is 1 5 5 0 0 0 1
WC3 30 Is 2 1 2 0 0 0 1
WC4 50 Is 2 9 12 0 0 0 2
WC5 25 Is 1 5 5 0 0 0 1
WC6 30 Is 1 6 6 0 1 0 0
we7 30 Is 1 2 2 0 1 0 0
wee 25 Is 1 4 .. 0 1 0 0
WC9 75 Is 1 4 .. 0 1 0 0
WI 250 I 1 3 3 0 1 0 0
WO 250 I .. 15 34 1 .3 0 0
wv 75 1 1 1 0 1 0 0
YO 540 B 9 10 52 9 0 0 0
'J'Rl.tC = TR\..tCA TION
I (.'
135
OCPTH
TO
BDROCK 1t-f"ERRD
I(m)
15-30
>30
0-14
>30
>30
>30
15-30
>30
15-30
15-30
>30
15-30
15-30
15-30
>30
>30
15-30
15-30
>30
>30
>30
15-30
15-30
15-30
15-30
15-30
15-30
15-30
15-30
15-30
15-30
15-30
>30
15-30
EARTtQJAKE
VlNC}KS-9RlDG(?ORT
VJt.W.N:S-9RlDG(?ORT
VK:DKS-9RlDG(?ORT




VJt.CE}KS-9RlDG(?ORT

VAllONA
VAllONA
VAllONA
SKEJ.. TON-MT CAFMl.
MARTNSVU -WAVERLY


VAllONA
VAllONA
SKEl. TON-MT CAlMl.

SKE:L TON-MT CAlMl.
VAllONA
VAllONA
VAllONA
VAllONA
VAllONA
VAllONA
VAllONA
VAUONA
VAUONA


MARTNSYllE -WAVERLY

1.:
.I..
)"
APPENDIX E
RADIOCARBON DATES
UQlUACTION
SITE OR STRA mRAPHC TYP Of SMftl: 14C 1
EXPOStJ< J.OR D?OSlT C(,.fIOSITlON
X! 8P SIGMA LAB t-lM3R
AL GEOLOGIC LNCARSONZED WOOO 9470 80 ISGS 2315
AI GEOLOGIC LNCARSONZED WOOO 8700 70 ISGS 2530
BG I GEOLOGIC LNCARSONZED WOOO & NJTS 8160 70 ISGS 2720
BG I GEOLOGIC LNCARSONZED WOOO 4950 70 ISGS 2523
BR I GEOLOGIC CARSClNZED WOOO 6100 80 BTA 59788 /ETl+-l0065
CA I GEOLOGIC l..tCARBONZED WOOO 10700 60 BTA 66627 /CAMS-9425
CA rI GEOLOGIC CARSClNZED WOOO 3770 50 BTA 66626 /CAMS-9424
CA we ARCHAEOLOOC CARSONZED WOOO & NJTS 930 70 ISGS 2715
CC .. GEOLOGIC LKARBONZED WOOO 4440 80 ISGS 2314
cr I GEOLOGIC LKARSONZED WOOO 6990 70 ISGS 2311
Ell rI GEOLOGIC LKARBONZED WOOO 2580 70 ISGS 2712
Ell
rltI
ARCHAEOLOGIC CARSONZED WOOO 2570 60 SUA 66624 /CAMS-9422
EL2 I GEOLOGIC LNCARSONZED WOOO 9690 180 W 6473
EL2 I GEOLOGIC CARSClNZD WOOO 4290 80 SETA 72237
IC I GEOLOGIC LKARBONZD WOOO & NJTS 8730 70 ISGS 2876
MA I GEOLOGIC LKARBONZED WOOO 8220 110 ISGS 2312
MA I AROW:OLOOC CARSONZED WOOO 7480 90 BTA 51299 /ETH-9415
MA III AROW:OLOGIC CARSONZED WOOO 4920 220 ISGS 2538
W

GEOLOGIC LN:ARBONZED WOOO 9200 70 ISGS 2713
~ I GEOLOGIC OCARSONZD lEAVES 9040 150 W 6267
OC
Ie
ARCHAOLOGIC CARSONZED WOOO Cot NJTS 3975 170 ~ A 4784
OC rI ARCHAOLOOC CARSONZED WOOO 3190 80 BTA 15615
001 I GEOLOGIC LNCARBONZD WOOO 10640 60 SETA 66625 /CAMS-9423
001 .. GEOLOGIC LNCARSONZED WOOD & t-l/TS 5960 80 ISGS 2525
001 V GEOLOGIC LNCARBONZED WOOO 1580 70 ISGS 2526
0H3 .. GEOLOGIC LNCARSONZED KJTS 6190 80 ISGS 2527
PA
.e
AACHAEOLOGIC CARSONZED WOOO? 1015 70 SETA 51300 /ETH-9416
PS

ARCHAOLOGIC CARSONZD WOOO & NJTS 7570 130 W 6268
PS

AACHAEOLOGIC
CARSONZED WOOO '" NJTS 4012 90 W 6342
SA.3 rI GEOlOGIC IN:AROONZD WOOO 2750 70 ISGS 2524
SN I GEOlOGIC LtCARBONZD WOOO 7480 80 ISGS 2582
SP

GEOlOGIC OCARSONZD WOOO '" NJTS 4170 70 ISGS 2711
SP II GEOlOGIC I.H:AR9ONZED WOOD 4230 70 ISGS 2531
SSP I GEOlOGIC L.N:AR8ONZED WOOD 9020 70 ISGS 2709
TC I GEOlOGIC CARSONZED WOOD 5420 .110 ISGS 2539
UT GEOLOGIC
I.KARBONZED WOOO '" MS 7220
70 .
ISGS 2710
VW
.e ARCHA0l0GlC CARSONZED NJTS 7600 100 W 6370
WA I GEOlOGIC ~ Z E D W O O O 18460 280 W 6497
WC3
,.
GEOlOGIC lKAROONZEO WOOD 12200 110 ISGS 2704
WC3 V GEOLOGIC lJo.CARSONZED WOOD '" NJTS 240 70 ISGS 2703
WC4 rI GEOLOGIC LN:ARSONZED WOOO 1630 70 ISGS 2705
wcs V GOlOOC t.N:ARBONZED WOOD 870 70 ISGS 2706
WI

GEOlOGIC ~ Z E D W O O O 7110 70 ISGS 2912
WO rI8 GEOlOGIC lKARSONZED WOOO 3240 70 ISGS 2528
WO rle AROW:OlOGIC CARSONZED WOOD &: t-l/TS 3140 270 ISGS 2529
YO
.e
AROW:OlOGlC
CAR90NZED WOOO '" MS 2400 90 ISGS 2532
YO
.e
ARCHAEOlOOC CARSONZED WOOO 2410 70 ISGS 2877
YO I GEOlOGIC BUJ( SOl. 3340 90 ISGS,. 2878
YO V AROW:OlOGIC CAROONito WOOO 1220 120 ISGS 2316
YO V G0l0GlC lJo.CARBONZED WOOO 1390.-,10 ISGS 2309
,contin:;;j-
= N PALEOSOl AT TOP Of p,.oro
\ L I
136
UOlUACTION
SlIT OR STRA TIGRAPHC TYP( Of' SA.I.f'L.E
DEPOS:T COtROSITION
EX? 49 IV Gc:OLOOC OCAR9ONZD I'UTS
EX? 49 IV GOLOOC OCAR9ONZD
EX? 231 III GOLOOC OCARSONZED LEA YES
EX? 530 iii GOLOOC CARBONZED WOOO
EX? 879

GOLOGIC I..toCARSClNZED WOOO
EX? 886 IV GOLOOC OCAR9ONZED WOOO
EX? 1366 I GOLOGIC
,EX? 1383 I Gc:OLOGIC OCARSONZED WOOO
EX? 1384 II GOLOGIC OCARSONZED WOOO
EX? 1385 II GOLOOC l.JCAR9ONZED WOOO
137
14C
!! BP SIGMA
1170 70
1400 70
4070 70
1280 70
8670 70
8860 90
12090 140
3830 50
5890 60
6180 80
, "
..
II..I
LAB
Ww 1 59 A SPUT SAM'lE
Ww 159B SPUT SAW'LE
ISGS 2716
ISGS 2714
BaA 77385
BaA 84022
W 6379
BaA 84019
BaA 77380
OCTA 77379
I'


}"
Copies Courtesy of the
Central U. S. Earthquake Consortium
State Geologists
Copies Courtesy of the
Central U. S. Earthquake Consortium
State Geologists
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