Fluid Machinery

Lecture notes
Csaba Hos csaba.hos@hds.bme.hu
Csaba Bazso csaba.bazso@hds.bme.hu
April 3, 2013
Contents
1 Some basic relationships of uid mechanics and thermodynamics 3
1.1 Continuity equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2 Bernoullis equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.3 Thermodynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.3.1 Specic heat capacities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.3.2 Some basic thermodynamic relationships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.3.3 Input shaft work and useful work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.3.4 Specic work for hydraulic machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.3.5 Eciency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.4 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2 Incompressible turbomachinery 9
2.1 Eulers turbine equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.2 Velocity triangles and performance curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.2.1 Radial (centrifugal) machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.2.2 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.2.3 Axial machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.2.4 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.2.5 Real performance curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.3 Losses and eciencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.3.1 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.4 Dimensionless numbers and anity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.4.1 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.5 Forces on the impeller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.5.1 Radial force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.5.2 Axial force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.6 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.7 Cavitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1
Fluid Machinery 2
2.7.1 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
3 Hydraulic Systems 22
3.1 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
4 Control 24
4.1 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
5 Positive displacement pumps 27
5.1 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
6 Hydro- and wind power 28
6.1 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Chapter 1
Some basic relationships of uid
mechanics and thermodynamics
1.1 Continuity equation
In the absence of nuclear reactions, matter can neither be created or destroyed. This is the principle of mass
conservation and gives the continuity equation. Its general form is

t
+ div(v) = 0 (1.1)
where div(v) = v = F
x
/x+F
y
/y +F
z
/z. If the ow is steady ( . . . /t = 0) and one-dimensional,
we have
div(v) = 0. (1.2)
Moreover, in many engineering applications the density can be considered to be constant, leading to
div(v) = 0. (1.3)
The above forms are so-called dierential forms of the continuity equation. However, one can derive the
so-called integral forms. For example, for the steady-state case, if we integrate (1.3) on a closed surface A,
we obtain
_
A
vdA =
_
A
v

dA. (1.4)
Note that the surface is dened by its normal unit vector dA and one has to compute the scalar product
vdA. One can resolve the velocity to a component parallel to and another perpendicular to the surface as
v = v

+v

. Thus vdA = |v| |dA| cos = v

dA.
In many engineering applications, there is an inow A
1
and an outow A
2
, between which we have rigid walls,
e.g. pumps, compressors, pipes, etc. Let us denote the average perpendicular velocities and the densities at
the inlet A
1
and outlet A
2
by v
1
,
1
and v
2
,
2
respectively. Than, we have
m =
1
v
1
A
1
=
2
v
2
A
2
= const. (1.5)
3
Fluid Machinery 4
The quantity m is called mass ow rate (kg/s) and it simply reects to the fact that under steady-state
conditions the amount of mass entering the machine per unti time has to leave it, also. If the density is
constant, we have
Q = m/ = v
1
A
1
= v
2
A
2
= const., (1.6)
where Q (m
3
/s) is the volumetric ow rate.
1.2 Bernoullis equation
In the case os steady frictionless ow, the energy of the uid along a streamline remains constant. Mostly
we deal with incompressible uids, for which the energy content per unit volume is
Energy per unit volume =
mgh +
1
2
mv
2
+pV
V
= p +

2
v
2
+gh = constant. (1.7)
Considering two points of the streamline (the ow is from 1 to 2), we have
p
1
+

2
v
2
1
+gh
1
= p
2
+

2
v
2
2
+gh
2
. (1.8)
Note that the above form can only applied if
the ow is incompressible, i.e. = const,
the ow is ideal, i.e. there are no losses (friction, separation, etc.),
points 1 and 2 refer to two points on the same streamline and
the uid is Newtonian, i.e. the stress versus strain rate curve is linear and passes through the origin.
The constant of proportionality is known as the viscosity: = . (In common terms, this means the
uid continues to ow, regardless of the forces acting on it. For example, water is Newtonian, because
it continues to exemplify uid properties no matter how fast it is stirred or mixed.)
The Bernoulli equation can be extended to include friction and unsteady eects:
p
1
+

2
v
2
1
+gh
1
= p
2
+

2
v
2
2
+gh
2
+

2
v
2
i
. .
friction
+ L
dv
dt
. .
unsteady term
. (1.9)
1.3 Thermodynamics
1.3.1 Specic heat capacities
Assume that a denite mass of gas m is heated from T
1
to T
2
at constant volume and thus its internal energy
is raised from U
1
to U
2
. We have
mc
V
T = U or c
V
T = u, (1.10)
where u is the internal energy per unit mass and c
V
(J/(kgK)) is the specic heat capacity measured at
constant volume.
Now we do the same experiment but now at constant pressure, thus its volume changes and work was done
on the uid:
mc
p
T = U +mpV, (1.11)
Fluid Machinery 5
which, after rewriting for unit mass and combining with the previous equation for constant volume process,
gives
c
p
T = u +pV = c
p
T +RT c
p
= R +c
V
. (1.12)
Thus we see that it is useful to dene a new quantity which includes both the change of the internal energy
u and the pressure work p dv = p d (1/). Some useful equations:
R = c
p
c
V
, =
c
p
c
V
, c
p
= R

1
and c
V
= R
1
1
. (1.13)
1.3.2 Some basic thermodynamic relationships
One possible form of the energy equation for a steady, open system in dierential form is
Y +q = d
_
h +
c
2
2
+gz
_
. .
e
, (1.14)
Y is the elementary shaft work, q is the elementary heat transferred towards the uid, both of them
being processes, which is emphasised by the symbol. Note that the above equation describes an elemntary
process, however, to compute the overall process (to integrate the above equation), one has to know what
kind of process takes place in the machine (adiabatic, isentropic, isotherm, etc.) ad the results depends on
it (thus, the integral is inexact).
The term enthalpy is often used in thermodynamics. It expresses the sum of the internal energy u and the
ability to do hydrodynamic work p
h = u +
p

. (1.15)
Note that h = c
p
T and u = c
V
T. There are some forms of expressing the change in enthalpy (v = 1/):
dh = d(u +pv) = q +vdp = Tds +vdp. (1.16)
The entropy
1
is for an elementary change in the equilibrium is
ds =
q
T
+ds
irrev
, (1.17)
with which, using (1.16) we obtain
dh = q +Tds
irrev
+vdp, (1.18)
with which (1.14) turns into
Y = vdp +d
_
c
2
2
+gz
_
. .
Y
u(seful)
+Tds
irrev.
. .
losses
(1.19)
1
Entropy is the only quantity in the physical sciences that seems to imply a particular direction of progress, sometimes called
an arrow of time. As time progresses, the second law of thermodynamics states that the entropy of an isolated system never
decreases. Hence, from this perspective, entropy measurement is thought of as a kind of clock.
Fluid Machinery 6
1.3.3 Input shaft work and useful work
The input shaft power is simply the work needed to change the enthalpy of the uid:
P
in
= me = m
_
h
2
h
1
+
c
2
2
c
2
1
2
+g(z
2
z
1
)
_

z
1
z
2
,v
1
v
2
= mc
p
(T
2
T
1
) (1.20)
When computing the useful work, we integrate the Y
u
part of (1.19) between points 1 and 2 (e.g. between
the suction and pressure side of a compressor). We still assume that z
1
z
2
and c
1
c
2
.
In the case of an isentropic process, we have p/ = RT (ideal gas law) and p/

=const., thus
Y
isentr.
=
p
1/
1

1
_
2
1
p
1/
dp =
p
1/
1

_
2
1
p
1/
dp =

1
p
1

1
_
_
p
2
p
1
_
1

1
_
. (1.21)
Note that the above equation gives
Y
isentr.
=

1
p
1

1
..
RT
1
_

_
_
p
2
p
1
_
1

. .
T
2
/T
1
1
_

_
=

1
R
. .
c
p
(T
2
T
1
) , (1.22)
which is exactly the input specic work dened by (1.20).
A typical compression system consists of a compressor and a pressure vessel, which stores the compressed
gas. Although the gas heats up during the compression but in the vessel it will cool back to the pressure of
the surroundings. In other words, we loose the heat energy and the useful process is isotherm. We have
p/ = RT (ideal gas law) and T =const., thus
Y
isotherm
=
p
1

1
_
2
1
1
p
dp = RT
1
ln
_
p
2
p
1
_
(1.23)
The real processes are usually described by polytropic processes but formally we use the same equations
as in the isentropic case, with the slight change of using the polytropic exponent n instead of . We have
p/ = RT (ideal gas law) and p/
n
=const., thus
_
2
1
1

dp

polytropic
=
n
n 1
p
1

1
_
_
p
2
p
1
_
n1
n
1
_
=
n
n 1
R(T
2
T
1
) . (1.24)
Polytropic processes are real, non-adiabatic processes. Note that the polytropic exponent n is typically a
result of curve t that allows the accurate computation of the outlet temperature.
Finally, if the uid is incompressible, we have
Y
incomp.
=
1

_
2
1
1 dp =
1

_
2
1
dp =
p
2
p
1

. (1.25)
1.3.4 Specic work for hydraulic machines
In the case of pumps, the uid can be considered as incompressible. However, instead of Y usually the head
is used:
H =
Y
u
g
=
p
2
p
1
g
+
c
2
2
c
2
1
2g
+z
2
z
1
. [m] =
_
J
N
_
(1.26)
Fluid Machinery 7
In the case of ventillators, the energy change due to the geodetic heigth dierence between the suction and
pressure side is neglegible (z
2
z
1
) and usually the change of total pressure is used:
p
t
= Y
u
= p
2
p
1
+
c
2
2
c
2
1
2
= p
t,2
p
t,1
. [Pa] =
_
J
m
3
_
(1.27)
In the case of compressors, the uid cannot be considered as incompressible. When neglecting the losses,
the specic work is:
Y
u,isentropic
= c
p
(T
2s
T
1
) +
c
2
2
c
2
1
2
= h
2s,t
h
1,t
. (1.28)
1.3.5 Eciency
The ratio of the useful power and the input power is eciency. For a given T
2
compression nal temperature,
we have

isentropic
=
T
2s
T
1
T
2
T
1
, (1.29)
for a polytropic process, we have

polytropic
=
n
n1
R(T
2
T
1
)
c
p
(T
2
T
1
)
=
n
n 1
1

. (1.30)
1.4 Problems
Problem 1.4.1
The turbomachines conveying air are classied usually as fans (p
2
/p
1
< 1.3), blowers (1.3 < p
2
/p
1
< 3)
and compressors (3 < p
2
/p
1
). Assuming p
1
= 1 bar inlet pressure, t
1
= 20
o
C inlet temperature and
isentropic process, nd the the relative density change (
2

1
)/
1
at the fan-blower border and the t
2
outlet temperature at the blower-compressor border. (Solution: (
2

1
)/
1
= 20.6%, t
2
= 128.1
o
C)
Problem 1.4.2
Assuming isentropic process of an ideal gas, nd the inlet cross section area and the isotherm useful power
of a compressor conveying m = 3 kg/s mass ow rate. The velocity in the inlet section is c = 180 m/s. The
surrounding air is at rest with p
0
= 1 bar and T
0
= 290 K. (Solution: A
1
= 0.016 m
2
, P
isoth,u
= 446.5 kW)
Problem 1.4.3
Gas is compressed from 1 bar absolute pressure to 3 bar relative pressure. The gas constant is 288J/kgK, the
specic heat at constant pressure is c
p
= 1005J/kgK. The exponent describing the politropic compression is
n = 1.54. Find the isentropic exponent. Find the isentropic specic useful work, the specic input work and
the isentropic eciency. The density of atmospheric air is 1.16 kg/m
3
. h
t
h is a reasonable approximation.
(Solution: = 1.402, Y
isentropic
= 146.729 kJ/kg, Y
input
= 188.289 kJ/kg,
isentropic
= 77.9%.)
Fluid Machinery 8
Problem 1.4.4
Ideal gas (gas constant R = 288 J/kgK) with 27
o
C and 1 bar pressure is compressed to 3 bar with compressor.
The exponent describing the real state of change is n = 1.5. Find the absolute temperature and density of the
air at the outlet. Find the isentropic outlet temperature, the isentropic eciency and the isentropic useful
specic work. Find the power needed to cover the losses, if the mass ow is 3 kg/s. (Solution: T
real
= 432.7K,
= 2.407 kg/m
3
, T
isentropic
= 410.6K,
isentropic
= 83.3%, Y
isentropic
= 111.48 kJ/kg, P
loss
= 66.3kW)
Problem 1.4.5
Gas is compressed from 1 bar to 5 bar. The ambient air temperature at the inlet T
1
= 22

C while at the
outlet T
2
= 231

C. Gas constant R = 288 J/kgK. Find the exponent describing the politropic compression
and the density of air at the inlet and the outlet. (Solution: n = 1.5,
1
= 1.177kg/m
3
,
2
= 3.44kg/m
3
.)
Problem 1.4.6
Along a natural gas pipeline compressor stations are installed L = 75 km distance far from each other. On
the pressure side of the compressor the pressure is p
p
= 80 bar, the density is = 85 kg/m
3
, while the
velocity of the gas is v
p
= 6.4 m/s. The diameter of the pipe is D = 600 mm the friction loss coecient is
= 0.018. Assuming that the process along the pipeline is isotherm, the pressure loss is calculated
as (p
2
beg
p
2
end
)/2 = p
beg
L/D
beg
/2v
2
beg
.
Find the pressure, the density, and the velocity at the end of pipeline.
Find the mass ow through the pipeline.
Find the needed compressor power assuming that the compression is a politropic process and n = 1.45.
Find the ratio of the compressor power and the power that could be released by the complete combustion
of the transported natural gas. The heating value of the natural gas is H = 43 MJ/kg. (Hint:
P
comb
= mH)
(Solution: p
s
= 11.54 bar,
s
= 12.26 kg/m
3
, v
s
= 44.4 m/s, m = 153.8 kg/s, P
comp
= 38.42 MW, P
comp
/P
comb
=
0.58%)
Chapter 2
Incompressible turbomachinery
We classify as turbomachines all those devices in which energy is transferred either to, or from, a continuously
owing uid by the dynamic action of one ore moving blase rows. Essentially, a rotating blade row, a rotor
or an impeller changes the stagnation enthalpy of the uid moving through it. These enthalpy changes are
initimately linked with the pressure changes in the uid.
Up to 20% relative density change, the also gases are considered to be incompressible. Assuming isentropic
process and ideal gas, this corresponds to p
2
/p
1
1.3. Thus, pumps, fans, water and wind turbines are
essentially the same machines.
2.1 Eulers turbine equation
Eulers turbine equation (sometimes called Eulers pump equation) plays a central role in turbomachinry as
it connects the specic work Y and the geometry and velocities in the impeller. In what follows, we give two
derivations of the equation.
Figure 2.1: Generalized turbomachine
Derivation 1: Moment of momentum
Let us compute the moment of the force that is applied at the inlet and outlet:
9
Fluid Machinery 10
F =
d
dt
(mc) M =
d
dt
(r mc) = m(r c) (2.1)
The power need of driving the machine is
P = mY = (M
out
M
in
) = m[ (r c)] = m[c ( r)] = m(c u)
= m(|c||u| cos ) = m(c
2u
u
2
c
1u
u
1
) (2.2)
Comparing the beginning and the end of the equation, we see that the specic work is
Y = c
2u
u
2
c
1u
u
1
. (2.3)
Derivation 2: Rotating frame and reference and rothalpy
The Bernoulli equation in a rotating frame of refernce reads
p

+
w
2
2
+U = const., (2.4)
where U is the potential associated with the conservative force eld, which is the potential of a rotating
frame fo refernce: U = r
2

2
/2. Let w stand for the relative velocity, c for the absolute velocity and u = r
for the transport velocity. We have c = u +w, thus w
2
= u
2
+c
2
2uc = u
2
+c
2
2uc
u
, which gives
p

+
w
2
2

r
2

2
2
=
p

+
c
2
+u
2
2cu
2

u
2
2
=
p

+
c
2
2
c u
..
c
u
u
= const. (2.5)
Thus we see that the above quantity is conserved in a rotating frame of reference, which we refer to as
rothalpy (abbreviation of rotational enthalpy). Let us nd now the change of energy inside the machine:
Y =
_
p

+
c
2
2
_
= (c
u
u) , (2.6)
which is exactly Eulers turbine equation. (For compressible uids, rothalpy is I = c
p
T +
c
2
2
uc
u
.)
2.2 Velocity triangles and performance curves
2.2.1 Radial (centrifugal) machines
Let us consider a centrifugal pump and the velocity triangles at the impeller inlet and outlet, see Fig. 2.2.
The theoretical ow rate is
Q
th
= c
2m
A
2
= c
2m
D
2
b
2
, (2.7)
where D
2
is the impeller outer diameter, b
2
is its ow-through width at the outlet and c
2m
is the radial
component of the outlet absolute velocity. < 1 is a constant that takes into account that the real ow
through area is smaller due to the blockage of the blade width at the outlet.
Fluid Machinery 11
Figure 2.2: Centrifugal pumps
The velocity triangle describes the relationship be-
Figure 2.3: Centrifugal impeller with outlet velocity
components.
tween the absolute velocity c, the circumferential
velocity u and the relative velocity w. Obviously,
we have c = u+ w. Moreover, we know that (a) the
circumferential velocity is u = Dn and that (b)
the relative velocity is tangent to the blade, i.e. the
angle between u and w is approximately the blade
angle .
Basic trigonometrical identities show that c
2u
=
u
2
c
2m
/ tan
2
. It is usual to assume that the
ow has no swirling (circumferential) component at
the inlet (due to Helmholtzs third theorem). In
the reality, the outlet ow angle is not exactly
2
,
thus the head is decreased, which is taken into ac-
count with the help of the slip factor (sometimes
denoted by in the literature).
If there is no prerotation (i.e. c
1u
= 0), we have
H
th
=
c
2u
u
2
g
=
_
u
2
2
g

u
2
g
w
2u
g
_
=
_
u
2
2
g

u
2
g
c
2m
tan
2
_
=
_
u
2
2
g

u
2
g tan
2
D
2
b
2

Q
th
_
. (2.8)
Thus, the theoretical performance curve H
th
(Q
th
) of a centrifugal machine is a straight line, which is (see
Figure 2.4)
decreasing as Q is increased, for backward curved blades, i.e.
2
< 90
o
,
horizontal, for radial blades (
2
= 90
o
) and
increasing (as Q is increased) for forward curved blades, i.e.
2
> 90
o
.
Fluid Machinery 12
Figure 2.4: Eect of blade shapes
2
angle on the performance curve.
2.2.2 Problems
Problem 2.2.7
A radial impeller runs at n=1440/min revolution speed and conveys Q = 40 l/s of water. The diameter of
the impeller is D = 240 mm, the outlet width is b
2
= 20 mm. The blade angle at the outlet is
2
= 25
degrees. The inlet is prerotation-free. Find the theoretical head and draw a qualitatively proper sketch of
the velocity triangle at the outlet. (Solution: H
th
= 22.9m)
Problem 2.2.8
The mean meridian velocity component of a radial impeller with D
2
= 400 mm diameter at n = 1440rpm
revolution speed is c
m
= 2.5 m/s. The angle between the relative and circumferential velocity components
is
2
= 25 degrees. With a geometrical change of the blade shape, this angle is increased to to 28 degrees,
that results in 10% drop of the meridian velocity component. The inlet is prerotation-free. Find the relative
head change. (Solution: (H
25
o H
28
o)/H
25
o = 4.6%)
2.2.3 Axial machines
In the case of axial machines the ow leaves the impeller axially, see Fig. 2.5. The ow-through area is
_
D
2
o
D
2
i
_
/4, where D
o
and D
i
stand for the outer and inner diameter of the lade, respectively. Notice
that in this case, u
1
= u
2
because it is assumed that the ow moves along a constant radius. Assuming
(again) prerotation-free inlet (c
1u
= 0), we have c
2m
= c
1
(due to continuity).
However, an important dierence between axial and centrifugal pumps (fans) is that in the case of axial
machines, the the pressure rise changes along the radial coordinate of the blade:
p
t
(r) = u(r) (c
2u
(r) c
1u
(r))|
c
1u
=0
= (2rn)
_
2rn
c
2m
tan
2
_
. (2.9)
Thus, if we wanted to obtain constant p
t
along the radial coordinate, the change of the circumferential
velocity has to be compensated by varying
2
.
Fluid Machinery 13
Figure 2.5: Axial pump (left) and fan (right)
Figure 2.6: Axial impeller with outlet velocity components.
The twisted airfoil (aerofoil) shape of modern air-
Figure 2.7: World War I wooden propeller
craft propellers was pioneered by the Wright broth-
ers. While both the blade element theory and
the momentum theory had their supporters, the
Wright brothers were able to combine both theo-
ries. They found that a propeller is essentially the
same as a wing and so were able to use data col-
lected from their earlier wind tunnel experiments
on wings. They also found that the relative angle
of attack from the forward movement of the aircraft
was dierent for all points along the length of the
blade, thus it was necessary to introduce a twist
along its length. Their original propeller blades are
only about 5% less ecient than the modern equiv-
alent, some 100 years later. (Source: Wikipedia)
Fluid Machinery 14
2.2.4 Problems
Problem 2.2.9
The outer diameter of a CPU axial cooler ventilator is D
o
= 47 mm the inner diameter is D
i
= 21.5 mm the
revolution speed is n = 2740 rpm. Due to the careful design the hydraulic eciency is
h
= 85% however
the volumetric eciency as consequence of leakage ow rate between the housing and the impeller is just

vol
= 75%. The blade angle at the suction side is
1
= 20

while at the pressure side

2
= 40

. Find the
ow rate and the total pressure rise on the impeller. The density of the air is = 1.25 kg/m
3
. Draw the
velocity triangles at the inlet and the outlet at the mean diameter.
A
ring
=
(D
2
o
D
2
i
)
4
= 0.00137 m
2
D
mean
=
D
o
+D
i
2
= 0.03425 m
u
mean
= u
1
= u
2
= D
mean
n = 4.913
m
s
c
ax
= c
1,ax
= c
2,ax
= utan
1
= 1.788
m
s
q =
vol
A
ring
c
ax
= 0.00184
m
3
s
w
2u
=
c
ax
tan
2
= 2.131
m
s
c
u
= u q
2u
= 2.782
m
s
p
total,ideal
= uc
u
= 17.1 Pa
p
total
=
h
p
total,ideal
= 14.5 Pa
Problem 2.2.10
The inner diameter of an axial impeller is D
i
= 250 mm, while the outer one is D
o
= 400mm. The revolution
number of the impeller is 1470rpm. The inlet is prerotation-free. At Q = 0.36 m
3
/s the hydraulic eciency
is 85%, the head is 6 m. The specic work along the radius is constant. Find the angles
1,2
at the inner
and outer diameter. (Solution:
1,i
= 13.7,
2,i
= 16.7,
1,o
= 8.7 and
2,o
= 9.4 degrees)
2.2.5 Real performance curves
Our analysis so far assumed that the ow inside the impeller is ideal (no losses) and that the streamlines
are following the blade shape (thus, blade angles are also the streamline angles). However neither of these
assumptions are true.
There are signicant friction losses inside the impeller, the narrower the ow passage is, the higher the
friction losses will be. Moreover, the volute also introduces friction losses. These losses are proportional to
the velocity squared, thus H

friction
Q
2
.
On the other hand, if the angle of attack deviates from the ideal one, one experiences separation on the two
sides of the blade. This is illustrated in Figure 2.8 for a constant circumferential velocity u as the ow rate
and thus the inlet velocity c is varied, the relative velocity w also varies. At the design ow rate Q
d
the
angle of attack ideal. For small ow rates, we have separation on the suction side of the blade, while for
larger ow rates the separation is on the pressure side of the blade. Thus we have H

separation
(QQ
d
)
2
.
To obtain the real performance curve, one has to subtract the above two losses from the theoretical head:
H = H
th
(Q) K
1
Q
2
K
2
(QQ
d
)
2
, which is illustrated in 2.8. Note that at the design point and close to
it, the friction losses are moderate and no separation occurs. For lower ow rates, the friction loss decreases
while separation increases. For higher ow rates, both friction and separation losses increase.
Fluid Machinery 15
Figure 2.8: Friction and separation losses in the impeller.
2.3 Losses and eciencies
Let us analyse the losses that decrease the eciency of a turbomachine (see Figure 2.9).
Let the input mechanical power transmitted by the shaft be denoted by P
input
. We have than
Mechanical losses P

m
These represent the friction loss in the bearings and the mechanical sealing losses
(if any). The remaining power is called internal power P
i
= P
input
P

m
.
Disc friction losses P

df
A signicant shear force appears in the uid entrapped between the housing and
the impeller, which is taken into account by the disc friction coecient: P

df
=
df
P
i
. The remaining
power is the theoretical power of the impeller: P
th
= P
i
P

df
= (1
df
)P
i
.
Hydraulic and volumetric losses P

h
, P

v
The theoretical head H
th
and ow rate Q
th
and is further
decreased by the leakage ow rates (Q
l(eakage)
) inside the pump (ow across the gaps between the
impeller and the housing) and the internal frictional losses h

(e.g. in the impeller and volute). We

have
P
th
= Q
th
gH
th
= (Q+Q
l
) g (H +h

) = QgH
. .
P
u
+Q
l
gH
. .
P

v
+Q
th
gh

. .
P

h
= QgH
Q+Q
l
Q
H +h

H
= QgH
Q
th
Q
..

1
v
H
th
H
..

1
h
P
u
= P
th

v
(2.10)
2.3.1 Problems
Problem 2.3.11
The revolution number of a water pump is 1470 rpm, the ow rate is Q = 0.055m
3
/s and the head is
H = 45m. The hydraulic power loss is P

h
= 2.5kW, the mechanical power loss is P

m
= 1.3kW, the disc
friction coecient is
t
= 0.065. The input power at this operating point is P
in
= 32kW. Make a complete
analysis of the losses, including leakage ow rate and the theoretical head.
Fluid Machinery 16
Figure 2.9: Losses of the pump.
Solution:
The power ow chart is: P
input
(P

m
) P
i
(P

df
) P
th
(P

v
, P

h
) P
u(seful)
P
i
= P
input
P

m
= 30.7 kW
m
= 95.9%
P
th
= (1 )P
i
= 28.7 kW
h

h
=
P

h
gQ
= 4.63 m H
th
= 45 + 4.63 = 49.63 m
hydr
= 90.6%
Q
th
=
P
th
gH
th
= 0.0589 m
3
/s Q
leakage
= 0.00395 m
3
/s
v
= 93.2%

overall
=
v

h
(1 )
m
= 75.9%
2.4 Dimensionless numbers and anity
Based on the previously obtained formulae for theoretical head, we dene dimensionless numbers as
H =
h
H
th
= 2
h
c
2u
u
2
u
2
2
2g
:=
u
2
2
2g
(2.11)
or, in the case of fans
p
t
=

2
u
2
2
, (2.12)
where is a dimensionless pressure rise. Similarly, we have
Q =
v
Q
th
=
v
D
2
b
2
c
2m
=
v
4D
2
b
2
4D
2
2
c
2m
u
2
u
2
D
2
2
:=
D
2
2

4
u
2
(2.13)
Fluid Machinery 17
These dimensionless quantities are called pressure number and ow number . What we found is that
H n
2
and Q n allowing the transformation of the performance curve given at n
1
to be computed to
another revolution number n
2
. This is called anity law:
H
1
H
2
=
_
n
1
n
2
_
2
,
Q
1
Q
2
=
n
1
n
2

P
1
P
2
=
_
n
1
n
2
_
3
(2.14)
As we have seen, both and contains two parameters, D
2
and u
2
, out of which one can be eliminated,
resulting in new dimensionless numbers. Let us start with the elimination of D
2
.
=
Q
D
2
2

4
u
2
=
4Q
D
3
2

2
n
(2.15)
=
H
u
2
2
2g
=
2gH
D
2
2

2
n
2
(2.16)
from which we have
=

1/2

3/4
=
2

Q
D
3/2
2

n
D
3/2
2

3/2
n
3/2
(2gH)
3/4
=

2g
3/4
n
Q
1/2
H
3/4
. .
n
q
(2.17)
Note that depends only on the revolution number but takes dierent values along the performance curve.
Thus when actually computing it, one takes the data of the best-eciency point. Moreover, we do not
include the constant term

2g
3/4
. Finally, by denition, the specic speed of a turbomachine is
n
q
= n[rpm]
_
Q
opt.
[m
3
/s]
_
1/2
(H
opt.
[m])
3/4
(2.18)
Specic speed denes the shape of the impeller, low specic speed means low ow rate and high pressure
rise (radial impeller) while high specic speed occurs when the ow rate is high and the pressure rise is low,
see Fig. 2.10.
Figure 2.10: Specic speed and shape of the impeller.
2.4.1 Problems
Problem 2.4.12
Fluid Machinery 18
The input mechanical power of a water pump is 25 kW, the revolution number is 1440 rpm, the ow rate
is 0.06 m
3
/s. The volumetric eciency is estimated as
v
= 0.92, the hydraulic eciency is
h
= 0.85, the
disc friction power loss is P

df
= 0.9 kW, the mechanical loss is P

m
= 1.3 kW. Find the head and the specic
speed and make a sketch of the impeller. (Solution: H=30.3m, n
q
=27.3, the impeller is a thin radial one.)
Problem 2.4.13
The revolution number of a pump is 1450 rpm, the head and ow rate at the best-eciency point are 17m
and 0.03 m
3
/s. Find the specic speed. Find the diameter of the impeller if, based on industrial experience,
the pressure number at the best-eciency point should be = 1. Find the ow number . Find the head and
ow rate at 970rpm. (Solution: n
q
= 30, D
2
= 240mm, = 0.036, Q
970rpm
= 0.02m
3
/s, H
970rpm
= 7.61m)
Problem 2.4.14
Find the specic speed of the pump given by 2.11, if the revolution number is 3000 rpm. Make a sketch of
the impeller. (Solution: n
q
= 92, mixed impeller.)
Figure 2.11: Performance chart for Problem 2.4.14.
Problem 2.4.15
The performance curve of a pump at 1450 rpm is given by H = 100 30000 Q
2
and the eciency is given
by = 78000 Q
2
+4500 Q. Find the head and ow rate of the best-eciency point. Find the performance
curve at 1740 rpm. (H
opt
= 76m, Q
opt
= 0.02855m
3
/s, eta
m
ax = 64.9%, H
1740rpm
= 144 30000 Q
2
.)
Fluid Machinery 19
2.5 Forces on the impeller
2.5.1 Radial force
TODO
2.5.2 Axial force
The axial force results from two components:
Momentum force
Pressure distribution on the hub and shroud.
The momentum force is
F
m
= mv = r
2
1
c
2
1
, (2.19)
Figure 2.12: Pressure distribution on the hub.
The pressure distribution is
p(r) =

2
r
2

2
f
+K p(R
2
) = p
2
p

2
p(r) = p
2
p

2
f
_
r
2
2
r
2
_
. (2.20)
The axial force becomes, e.g. on the hub (back of the impeller)
F
hub
=
_
r
2
r
s
2rp(r)dr = =
_
r
2
2
r
2
s
_

_
p
2
p

2
f
r
2
2
r
2
s
2
_
. (2.21)
A similar result is obtained for the shroud (front of the impeller) with replacing r
s
by r
1
. The overall axial
force is
F
ax
= F
hub
F
shroud
F
m
, (2.22)
and its direction is towards the suction side (the axial force tries to pull down the impeller from the shaft).
TODO: Extend explanations.
Fluid Machinery 20
2.6 Problems
Problem 2.6.16
Find the axial force on the back of the impeller, whose outer diameter is D
2
= 300mm, the shaft diameter
is D
s
= 50mm, the outlet pressure is 2.3bar and the revolution number is 1470rpm. The average angular
velocity of the uid is 85% of that of the impeller. (Solution: F = 9.36kN)
2.7 Cavitation
2.7.1 Problems
Problem 2.7.17
A pump delivers water from a low-pressure steam boiler as shown in the gure below. Calculate the required
geodetic height of the reservoir to avoid cavitation! The pipeline losses are to be taken into account.
mass ow rate: m = 27[kg/s], density of the hot wa-
ter: = 983[kg/m
3
]
pipe: L = 10[m], d = 100[mm], = 0.02 and the sum
of loss factors is = 5
pump: H[m] = 82 4800 Q
2
, NPSH[m] = 1.6 +
13600 Q
2
Solution:
Its easy to calculate that
Q = m/ = 0.02747[m
3
/s]
c
s
= Q/A = 3.5[m/s]
H = 82 4800 0.02747
2
= 78.38[m]
NPSH = 1.6 + 13600 0.02747
2
= 2.626[m]
Bernoullis equation between a surface point in the tank and the suction side of the pump reads:
p
t
g
+
0
2
g
+H
s
=
p
s
g
+
c
2
s
g
+ 0 +h

pipeline
From the suction side of the pump to the impeller we have:
p
s
g
+
c
2
s
2g
=
p
vapour
g
+e
s
+NPSH
(Note that e
s
= 0 as the conguration is horizontal.) Putting the above two equations together, we have
H
s
=
p
t
p
vapour
g
+h

pipe
+NPSH, where h

pipe
=
c
2
s
2g
_

H
s
+L
d
+
_
,
thus,
Fluid Machinery 21
H
s
=
_
1 +
c
2
s
2g

d
_
1
_
NPSH +
c
2
s
2g
_
L
d
+
__
= = 6.42[m]
Thomas cavitation coecient is = NPSH/H = 0.03355[].
Problem 2.7.18
Calculate the required pipe diameter to avoid cavitation, if the pump delivers Q = 30 dm
3
/s water from a
closed tank, where the pressure (above the water level) is p = 40 kPa. The equivalent pipe length on the
suction side is 5m, the friction coecient is = 0.02, the suction ange of the pump is 3 m below the water
level. The vapour pressure at the water temperature is 2.8 kPa. The required net positive suction head is
NPSH
r
= 3.2 m. (The standard pipe diameter series is: DN 40, 50, 65, 80, 90)
Solution:
The sketch of the installation is shown in Figure 2.13
Figure 2.13: Installation of the apparatus.
NPSH
a
=
p
t
p
v
g
H
s
h

s
h

s
=
p
t
p
v
g
H
s
NPSH
r
h

s
=
L
e
D
s
c
2
s
2g
=
L
e
D
s
8Q
2
D
5
s
g
2
D
s
= 0.073m D
s
= 80 mm
Problem 2.7.19
Find the required suction side height of the pump that conveys water from an open surface reservoir at
Q = 180m
3
/h ow rate the head is H = 30m the required net positive suction head NPSH
r
= 5.03m.
The temperature of the water is T = 23

the ambient pressure is p

0
= 1023mbar. The hydraulic loss of
the suction side pipe can be calculated from h

s
= 652[s
2
/m
5
]Q
2
while the vapour pressure p
v
= 1.704 +
0.107(t 15) + 0.004(t 15)
2
. Find the Thoma cavitation number. (Solution: H
s
= 3.481m, = 0.154)
Chapter 3
Hydraulic Systems
3.1 Problems
Problem 3.1.20
Calculate the head loss of the pipe depicted in the gure below as a function of the volume ow rate!
Parameters:
A
= 1.5,
B,D
= 0.26,
C
= 0.35,
F
= 0.36, = 0.0155, D
s
= D
p
= D = 0.6[m] and
Q = 0.4[m
3
/s]. Solution:
Static (geodetic) head + dynamic (friction) losses of the pipe: H
pipe
= H
stat
+H
friction
Volume ow rate: Q = c
s(uction)
A
pipe,suction
= c
p(ressure)
A
pipe,pressure
= cA
pipe
The extra 1 in the pressure side (...
D
+ 1) represents the outow losses.
H
stat
= 8 + 4 = 12[m], L
s
= 7 + 6 = 14[m], L
p
= 12 + 20 + 8 = 40[m]
H
pipe
= H
stat
+KQ
2
= H
stat
+
_
_

L
s
D
s
+
A
+
B
_
c
2
s
2g
+
_

L
p
D
p
+
F
+
C
+
D
+ 1
_
c
2
p
2g
_
=
= 12[m] + 3.25[s
2
/m
5
] Q
2
[m
3
/s]
2
22
Fluid Machinery 23
Problem 3.1.21
The articial fountain Beneath the St. Gellert is fed by two pipelines of 30m length. The height distance
between the pump and the fountain is 22m. The diameter of the pipes is D
1
= 100mm and D
2
= 70mm,
the friction coecient of the straight segments is = 0.02 and the friction coecient of the other segments
(bends, etc.) is = 0.5. Assuming that the ow velocity in the rst pipe is 1.5m/s, calculate the the
required head. Calculate the ow velocity in the second pipe and the overall ow rate of the common pump
feeding the two pipes.Assuming 65% overall (pump+motor) eciency, calculate the energy demand for 100
days and the cost of the operation if the energy tari is 32HUF/kWh. (Solution: Without the bypass line:
H = 22.826m[], Q = 0.01678[m
3
/s], P = 5.78[kW] and Cost = 443691HUF.)
Problem 3.1.22
A pump delivers Q = 1200[dm
3
/min] water from an open-surface well, whose water level is 25[m] below the
default level. The pressure side ends 5[m] above the default level and the water ows into an open-surface
swimming pool. The diameter of the pipe on the suction side is D
s
= 120[mm] and D
p
= 100[mm] on the
pressure side. The loss coecients are
s
= 3.6 and
p
= 14 (without the outow losses). Calculate the
required pump head! (Solution: H
p,req.
= 35.7[m])
Chapter 4
Control
4.1 Problems
Problem 4.1.23
A pump running at 1470[rpm] with H
pump
= 45 2781Q
2
head delivers water into a pipeline with H
pipe
=
20 + 1125Q
2
. Calculate the required revolution number for the reduced ow rate Q

= 0.05[m
3
/s].
Solution:
The actual working point is given
by the solution of H
pump
= H
pipe
,
which gives Q = 0.08[m
3
/s] and
H = 27.2[m].
Anity states that while vary-
ing the revolutionary speed, H/n
2
and Q/n remain constant. Thus,
also H/Q
2
remains constant, lets
denote this constant by a. So,
while varying the revolutionary
speed, the working point moves
along the central parabola (see g-
ure), given by H
ap
= a Q
2
.
However, as Q

is given and we also know that this point has to be located on the pipeline characteristic, we
know that H

= 20+11250.05
2
= 22.81[m]. Thus, the parameter of the ane parabola is a = H

/Q
2
= 9125.
Q

is given by the intersection of the ane parabola and the original pump characteristic: H
ap
(Q

) =
H
pump
(Q

), which gives Q

= 0.06148[m
3
/s] with H

= 34.5[m].
Now we can employ anity between Q

and Q

:
n

= n

= 1470
0.05
0.06148
= 1195.5[rpm]
and just for checking the calculation
24
Fluid Machinery 25
H

= H

_
n

_
2
= 34.5
1195.5
2
1470
2
= 22.81[m].
Problem 4.1.24
Solve the previous control problem (pump: H
pump
= 45 2781Q
2
, pipeline: H
pipe
= 20 + 1125Q
2
, desired
ow rate: Q

= 0.05[m
3
/s]) using a throttle at the pressure side of the pump and also with a bypass line.
Compare the resulting operations in terms of power loss!
Fluid Machinery 26
Problem 4.1.25
A pump, whose characteristic curve is given by H
pump
= 70 90000[s
2
/m
5
]Q
2
, works together with two
parallel pipes. The main pipe is given by H
1
= 30 + 100000[s
2
/m
5
]. Calculate the head-ow relationship
H
2
(Q) of the side pipe, whose opening results in a ow rate of 480[l/min] in the main pipe. The static head
of the second side pipe is 25[m].
Solution:
Head of the main pipe at the prescribed ow rate: Q
1
= 480[l/min] = 0.008[m
3
/s] H
1
(Q
1
) =
36.4[m]
The head is the same, so the ow rate of the pump is H
p
(Q
p
) = H
1
(Q
1
) Q
p
=
_
7036.4
90000
=
0.0193[m
3
/s]
Thus, the ow rate on the side pipe is Q
2
= Q
p
Q
1
= 0.0193 0.008 = 0.0113[m
3
/s]
The actual characteristic of the side pipe: H
2
(Q
2
) = 25 +aQ
2
2
= 36.4[m] a =
36.425
0.0113
2
= 89279
The solution is H
2
(Q
2
) = 25 + 89279Q
2
.
Chapter 5
Positive displacement pumps
5.1 Problems
Problem 5.1.26
Calculate the hydraulic power of the double-acting piston pump, which delivers water from an open-surface
tank into a closed one with 500[kPa] gauge pressure (i.e. relative pressure) located 50[m] above the suction
tank. Diameter of the piston is D = 120[mm], the stroke is 150[mm] and the driving motor runs at 120[rpm].
Solution:
Q
mean
= 2 A
piston
s n = 2
0.12
2

4
0.15
120
60
= 6.78 10
3
[
m
3
s
]
p = p
tank,abs.
p
0
+ gH = p
tank,rel.
+ gH = 991[kPa]
P = Qp = 6.72[kW]
27
Chapter 6
Hydro- and wind power
6.1 Problems
Problem 6.1.27
The cross-section of a plant water channel is given. The measured average water depth is h = 2.9 m, the
width of the channel is B = 25 m. The velocity of the water ow is measured at several locations of the cross-
section using a cup-type anemometer. The calculated average velocity is v = 0.4 m/s. The height dierence
between the upstream and downstream water depth at the dam is h
upstream
h
downstream
= 4.5 m. The
eciency of the turbine is
turbine
= 90 % the eciency of the generator is
generator
= 96 %. The input
power and useful power of the power plant are to be calculated. What is the value of the hydraulic radius?
What type of turbine is suitable for this power plant?
Solution:
A = hB = 72.5 m
2
Q = Av = 29 m
3
/s
H = h
upstream
h
downstream
= 4.5 m
P
input
= QgH = 1.28 MW
P
useful
=
turbine

generator
P
input
= 1.106 MW
R
h
=
Area
Perimeter
=
Bh
2h+B
= 2.35 m
Turbine type: Kaplan turbine.
Problem 6.1.28
The instantaneous eciency of an existing wind turbine is to be calculated. The measured average wind
speed at the level of the rotor is v
1
= 12 m/s. The average speed of the air behind the rotor is v
3
= 8 m/s.
The diameter of the rotor is D
2
= 55 m, the density of the air is
air
= 1.2 kg/m
3
. Find the calculated
eciency related to the theoretical maximum of the eciency?
Solution:
v = v
1
v
3
= 4 m/s
28
Fluid Machinery 29
A
2
=
D
2
2

4
= 2376 m
2
P
input
=
air
A
2
v
1
v
2
1
2
= 2.463 MW
P
useful
=
air
A
2
v
3
1
_
1
v
2v
1
_
2
v
v
1
= 1.140 MW
= C
P
=
P
useful
P
input
= 0.463 <
16
27
= 0.593