The Psychology of Menu Selection: Designing

Cognitive Control at the Human/Computer

Interface
by Kent L. Norman
published by Ablex Publishing Corporation, 1991, 368 pages (ISBN: 0-89391-553-X).
About the Book
Menu selection is emerging as an important mode oI
human/computer interaction. This book, the Iirst entirely
devoted to this important Iorm oI human/computer interaction,
provides detailed theoretical and empirical inIormation oI
interest to soItware designers and human/computer interaction
specialists and researchers. A new theoretical approach to menu
selection is taken by developing a psychological theory oI
cognitive control by the user. A comprehensive review oI
empirical research on menu selection is presented in an
organized Iashion to aid in the design and evaluation oI systems.
Finally, inIormation is given on how to protype and evaluate
menu selection systems using both perIormance data and user
ratings.
The volume has three parts. Part One is conceptual and
theoretical in nature. The Iirst chapter introduces the issues oI
design and Ilow oI control at the human/computer interIace. In
the next three chapters taxonomic Irameworks are proposed
concerning the type oI menu selection system being used, the
nature oI the task being perIormed by the user, and the
cognitive elements involved in perIorming the task. In Part Two,
experimental research on menu selection stemming Irom
paradigms developed in experimental psychology and more
recently human Iactors and cognitive psychology is discussed.
The last part oI the book deals with the topic oI implementation
and evaluation. Chapters discuss principles oI when and how to use menus, cover topics oI prototyping and
evaluation, and attempt to plot some oI the Iuture directions oI menu selection. Throughout, graphs and
illustrations are included. Examples oI good and bad designs are shown in a number oI illustrations while
empirical data Irom experiments are desplayed in graphs.
The reader will beneIit Irom the discussion oI the many issues, design possibilities and insights regarding
menu slection. The empirical research at times supports and at other times reIutes existing guidelines. The
reader will want to know what the current state oI knowledge is about how to design menuy selections and
why the design choices are important.
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The On-Line Copy
The complete table oI contents is listed below. You may have a peek at the book by clicking on the chapter
titles. You may use this resource Ireely; however, I would preIer that you actually buy a copy to help deIray
publishing costs. Also, I should point out that the on-line copy is Irom a pre-publication draIt and has not been
careIully prooI read Ior errors.
Order a Copy
Ablex Publishing Corporation has been acquired by other publishers.
The hard copy edition oI the book, however, is still available Irom Intellect Books
PO Box 862, Bristol BS99 1DE, UK, (telephone: 44 (0)117 955 6811), Ior $34.95.
Table of Contents
Preface
Part I: The Theory and Implementation of Menu Selection Systems
1. Introduction to the Theory oI Control at the Human/Computer InterIace
1.1 Research and Design oI the Human/Computer InterIace
1.1.1 Issues in Design
1.1.2 Three Paradigms oI Design
1.2 A Model oI the Human/Computer InterIace
1.2.1 Characteristics oI Tasks and Environments
1.2.2 Characteristics oI the Human User
1.2.3 Computer Processing
1.2.4 The Human/Computer InterIace
1.3 Research Methods
1.3.1 Observational Studies
1.3.2 Survey Studies
1.3.3 Experimental Studies
1.4 Summary
2. Types oI Menus and Cognitive Structures
2.1 Menu Structures
2.1.1 Single Menus
2.1.2 Sequential Linear Menus
2.1.3 Simultaneous Menus
2.1.4 Hierarchical Menus
2.1.5 Connected Graph Menu Structures
2.1.6 Event Trapping Menus
2.2 Menu Frames
2.2.1 Context InIormation
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2.2.2 Stem InIormation
2.2.3 LeaI InIormation
2.2.4 Response inIormation
2.2.5 InIormation Format
2.3 Response Mode
2.3.1 Standard Keyboard Input
2.3.2 Special Function Keys
2.3.3 Virtual Keypads
2.4 Summary
3. Tasks and Flow oI Control
3.1 Taxonomies oI Tasks and InIormation Structures
3.2 Human vs. Computer Control oI Flow
3.3 A Theory oI Cognitive Control
3.4 Functions oI Menu Selection
3.4.1 Pointing: Moving to a New Node
3.4.2 Command Control: Executing a Procedure
3.4.3 Output: Displaying InIormation
3.4.4 Input: Data or Parameter SpeciIication
3.5 Operation by Menu Selection: Command Menus
3.6 Decision by Menu Selection: Decision Menus
3.6.1 Decision Trees
3.6.2 Decision Matrices
3.7 InIormation Retrieval by Menu Selection: InIormation Menus
3.8 ClassiIication by Menu Selection: Category Menus
3.9 Summary
4. Cognitive Elements oI Menu Selection
4.1 The Menu Selection Process
4.1.1 InIormation Acquisition and Search
4.1.2 Choice Process and Time
4.1.3 Response Process
4.1.4 Evaluation and Error Detection
4.2 Problem Solving and Search Strategies
4.2.1 Heuristics
4.2.2 User Strategies and Styles
4.3 Cognitive Layouts oI Mental Models
4.3.1 Menu Selection as a Metaphor
4.3.2 Schemata and Scripts
4.3.3 Cognitive Layouts oI Menus
4.4 Summary
Part II: Design Guidelines from Empirical Research
5. Research Issues and Methods in Menu Selection
5.1 Intuition and Data in ConIlict
5.2 Replicability
5.3 Importance oI the Result
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5.4 Generalization oI Results
5.5 Experimental Designs
5.6 Summary
6. Formatting and Phrasing the Menu
6.1 Formatting the Menu Frame
6.1.1 Amount oI InIormation per Screen
6.1.2 Focusing Attention on the Menu
6.1.3 Perceptual Grouping
6.1.4 Menu Context
6.1.5 Ordering oI Menu Items
6.1.6 Orientation oI the List
6.1.7 Fixed vs. Variable Format
6.2 Writing the Menu
6.2.1 Titling the Frame
6.2.2 Wording the Alternatives
6.2.3 Graphic Alternatives
6.3 Selection Response
6.3.1 Response Instructions
6.3.2 Position oI Response
6.3.3 Response Compatibility
6.3.4 Response VeriIication and Feedback
6.4 Summary
7. PerIormance, Acquisition, and Training Methods
7.1 PerIormance
7.1.1 Measures oI User PerIormance
7.1.2 Overall PerIormance User ProIiciency X System Power
7.2 Acquisition and Learning
7.2.1 Components Acquired by Practice
7.2.2 Frame Search Time
7.2.3 Menu Tree Search Time
7.3 TransIer oI Training
7.4 Methods oI Training
7.4.1 Training on Content Free Menus
7.4.2 Training on MeaningIul Menus
7.4.3 Methods oI Training as a Function oI Types oI Menu Systems
7.5 Methods oI Help
7.6 Summary
8. Depth vs. Breadth oI Hierarchical Menu Trees
8.1 Depth vs. Breadth Trade-OII
8.2 The Linear Model
8.3 The Log Model
8.4 Total User Response Time in Hierarchical Data Bases
8.5 Selection Time as a Function oI Menu Depth
8.6 Factors oI System Speed and User Response Time
8.7 Summary
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9. Search Behavior in Hierarchical Menu Structures
9.1 Menu Focusing through Structure
9.1.1 Varying Menu Breadth
9.1.2 Decision Uncertainty Evidence Ior Breadth
9.1.3 Number oI Discrete Menu Frames
9.2 Patterns oI Search
9.2.1 Reposition to Breadth
9.2.2 Reposition to High Probability Paths
9.2.3 Reposition to Cognitive Landmarks
9.3 Individual DiIIerences in Search Behavior
9.3.1 Characterizing DiIIerences
9.3.2 Predictors oI Search PerIormance
9.4 Summary
10. Rapid Access Menus
10.1 Location in the Menu
10.1.1 Pull-Down Menus
10.1.2 Minimizing Distance/Maximizing Size
10.1.3 Position in the Hierarchy
10.2 Accelerating through the System
10.2.1 Alternate Command Keys
10.2.2 Direct Access vs. Type Ahead
10.3 Speed-Accuracy Trade-OII in Rapid Menu Selection
10.4 Summary
Part III: Implementation and Evaluation of Menu Systems
11. Clustering oI Menus
11.1 Knowledge Representation
11.2 Hierarchical Clustering Methods
11.3 Semantic Space
11.4 Expert vs. Novice Users
11.5 Frequency oI Use
11.5.1 Command Frequency
11.5.2 Command Transitions
11.6 Summary
12. Prototyping and Evaluation oI Menu Selection Systems
12.1 Prototyping Systems
12.2 Guidelines Ior Menu Design
12.3 User Evaluation
12.3.1 Standardized User Evaluation oI Interactive Systems
12.3.2 Evaluation oI Menu Selection
12.3.3 Menu-by-Menu Evaluation
12.4 Summary
13. The Future oI Menu Selection
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13.1 Menu Generations
13.2 Innovation in Menu Look and Feel
13.2.1 Nonlinear/Spatial Menus
13.2.2 Analog Menus
13.2.3 Power Pointing
13.2.4 Apparent Menus
13.2.5 Simultaneous/Linked Menus
13.2.6 Vast and Fast Menus
13.3 Limits to Menus
13.3.1 Early in the Learning Process
13.3.2 At Transition Points
13.3.3 At DiIIerent Mental Workloads
13.3.4 Flexibility
13.4 Research on Menus
13.5 Summary
ReIerences
Appendix: Checklist Ior Menu Design
Index
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