1.2 SUMMARIZE THE MAJOR ORGANELLES AND STRUCTURES FOUND IN CELLS (PP.

83-96) Plasma Membrane: Cell membrane, composed of a double layer of lipids (phospholipids, cholesterol etc.) and proteins that may extend entirely through bilayer or protrude on one face. Encloses cell contents, acts in transport of substances in and out of cell. External proteins are receptors. Maintains membrane potential Mitochondria: Membranous organelle. Site of ATP synthesis; powerhouse. Range from few to hundreds. enclosed by TWO membranes. Inner membrane folded into projections call cristae. Have own dna, rna and ribosomes. Can replicate Ribosomes: dense particles made of 2 subunits each made from proteins and RNAs. Can be free or attached to membrane of rough endoplasmic reticulum. Site of protein synthesis Endoplasmic reticulum: extensive system of tubes and membranes, continuous with nuclear membrane. Two parts: Rough ER Membrane system enclosing a cavity and cisternae, coiling through cytoplasm. Sugar groups attached to proteins in cisternae. External face synthesizes phospholipids. membrane factory, and studded with ribosomes so protein synthesis. Proteins are packaged in vesicles and sent to Golgi Apparatus. Smooth ER Membranous system of sacs and tubules. No ribosomes. Lipid/steroid synthesis, lipid metabolism, drug detoxification. Stores calcium for muscle contractions in muscle cells. Golgi Apparatus: Traffic director for cellular proteins. Receives proteins from rough ER, modifies them, packages in certain vesicles depending on destination. Attached to lysosomes and sends their digestive enzymes. Lysosomes: Cleaner: spherical and filled with digestive enzymes (acid hydrolases). Breaks down anything non-useful or invaders; many in phagocytes Peroxisomes: Membranous sacs of oxidase (which has H2O2 as a product, which is broken down by catalase) and other enzymes Detoxify harmful substances such as alcohol; free radicals. Microtubules: Made of cylindrical tubulin protens. Part of cytoskeleton with largest diameter. Radiate from centrosome. Other organelles hang from them. Form centrioles, cilia and flagella. Aid in intracellular and cellular movements. Microfilaments: thinnest element of cytoskeleton composed of Actin. Involved in contraction, other intracellular movements. Intermediate Filaments: Intermediate diameter. Most stable and permanent part of cytoskeleton. Made of protein fibres. Resist mechanical forces acting on cell. Centriole: Paired cylindrical bodies found near nucleus of cell made of microTUBULES; Organize a network of microtubules during mitosis to split cell. Form bases of Cilia, Flagella

Cilia: Whiplike, motile cellular extensions. Move substances in ONE direction across cell surface. Centrioles multiply and line up near plasma membrane. Then microtubules extend from the centriole, push on the plasma membrane and form the ciliary projections. Flagellum: Whiplike, motile cellular extensions created by centrioles used to propel the cell itself. Much longer than cilia. Only found on sperm cells. Microvilli: Fingerlike extensions of the plasma membrane, contain a bundle of actin filaments. These increase surface area, and so are found most often in absorbtive cells. Nucleus: Control center. Transmits genetic information, and provides instruction for almost all protein synthesis. Contains Nucleoplasm, nucleoli and chromatin. RBC is the only anucleate cell. Composed of the following 3 parts: Nuclear envelope: Double membrane barrier (like mitochondria). Outer part is continuous with rough ER. Inner nucleus maintains shape. At various points, the two connect to form nuclear pores. Encloses nucleoplasm and regulates passage of substances in and out of nucleus. Nucleoli: Dark staining, dense spherical bodies found inside nucleus composed of rRNA and proteins. No membrane. Creates ribosome subunits which combine outside of nucleus in cytoplasm. Chromatin: Granular threadlike material composed of nucleosomes. Each nucleosome is composed of 8 histone proteins wrapped twice by DNA strands. DNA constitutes genes. 1.3 CHAPTER 4 TISSUES (histology) 1.3.1 define tissue and demonstrate how the organization of cells into tissues contributes to overall homeostasis Tissue is a group of structurally similar cells which work together for a common function. This allows the separate cells in the human body to interact and form larger structures called organs, each of which performs a specific bodily function that each contribute to the maintenance of homeostasis -1.3.2 list the 4 primary types of tissues The 4 types of tissue are Epithelial (covering), Connective (support), Muscle(movement) and Nervous (control). Usually all four are used to make up an organ. - 1.3.3 define epithelial tissue; list 6 functions associated with epithelia Epithelial (means covering-Layer of tissue) tissue is the tissue that covers body surfaces and lines body cavities. Creates boundaries between different sections of the body. Nearly all substances taken in or given off by body travels through epithelial tissue. Can be Covering/Lining Epithelia (most) or Glandular Epithelium (fashions glands) 6 Functions are as follows: Protection (lines organs), Absorption, Filtration, Secretion(can be useful), Excretion and Sensory reception(contains nerve endings which respond to stimuli (ex heat on skin)

-1.3.4 list and demonstrate your understanding of 7 special structural characteristics of epithelial tissue 1. Apical-Basal Polarity: Epithelial tissue has 2 sides: Apical (upper) surface is on the top, and can have microvilli to absorb, cilia to produce movement, or be smooth. Basal surface is on the bottom and is covered by an extracellular sheet called the Basal Lamina. Difference in structure and function between on APICAL cell region (upper surface) of epithelial tissue and BASAL region (lower surface) is called Polarity. 2. Basal Lamina: Thin, non-cellular sheet lying on BASAL surface of epithelial tissue. Composed mostly of secretions of glycoproteins from the Epithelial cells, as well as fine collagen fibers. Acts as a filter to substances attempting to cross from the underlying connective tissue. 3. Specialized contacts: Epithelial cells (except glandular) fit together to form continuous sheets. This is accomplished through adjacent cells bound together at many points by lateral contacts (tight junctions, desmosomes). These specialized contacts ensure that proteins do not diffuse from apical to basal side, maintaining polarity. 4. Supported by connective tissue: All epithelial sheets rest on reticular connective tissue. This CT has Reticular lamina, which is extracellular materials and some collagen fibers attached to Basal Lamina of Epithelial cells. Together, these two laminae form the BASEMENT MEMBRANE, which anchors Ep. Tissue, reinforces the epithelial sheet and is the epithelial boundary. Therefore, epithelial tissue is reinforced and supported by connective tissue. **cancerous cells dont respect basement membrane. 5. Avascular but innervated: No veins, yes nerves. Therefore, must be nourished by RBCs in underlying CT. 6. Regeneration: High regenerative capacity, initiated by destruction of Lateral Contacts and loss of Polarity. This is because many epithelia are constantly damaged. Can replace all lost cells by cell division if properly nourished. 7. Cellularity: Simply means that the tissue is composed almost entirely of cells with very little space in between, unlike connective and other types of tissue.

-1.3.5 indicate the 2 criteria used to classify epithelial cells 1. LAYERS: Simple thin, best for absorption/secretion etc. Stratified Stacked in rows, best for protection. Usually contains many cell shapes, so name is based on the cell shape found in the apical (top) layer 2. CELL SHAPE: Squamous flattened, scale-like. Cuboidal boxlike, as tall as wide.

Columnar Taller than wide, column shaped. ***Nucleus conforms to cell shape. All cells are approx. hexagonal. -1.3.6 list the 4 types of simple epithelia; indicate primary functions associated with each & sample body locations. All do Absorption, Secretion and filtration. 1. Simple SQUAMOUS: Thinnest type; Very flat, so disc shaped nuclei and sparse cytoplasm. -Thin, often permeable, so found where filtration and RAPID diffusion of substances is required and protection is not important. Examples: kidneys glomeruli, air sacs of lungs, lining of blood vessels and heart. Two special names are given to certain simple squamous; names reflect location: Endothelium (inner covering) is the lining of lymphatic vessels and all hollow organs of Cardiovascular System. Capillaries are made entirely of endothelium. Mesothelium (middle covering) is found in serous membranes which line the ventral body cavity, and also covers ventral body organs. 2. Simple Cuboidal: Second thinnest, 1 layer, cube-like. Large, spherical, central nucleus -Absorption and secretion. Examples: smallest ducts of glands, many kidney tubules. 3. Simple Columnar: Tall cells, still thin since only one layer. Round to oval nuclei. Can display microvilli or cilia on free surfaces. -Absorption, secretion of mucous through GOBLET CELLS (1cell mucous glands) in layer. -Can also secrete enzymes and other substances.. Examples: Lines the digestive tract: Special nonciliated lining which is modified for max absorption and secretion; lining has dense microvilli on the apical side of absorbtive cells, AND has cells which secrete a protective lubricating mucous (goblet cells). Ciliated example in uterine tubes and small bronchi.

4. Pseudostratified Columnar: Single layer of cells of differing heights; some cells go from one side to other, while others do not reach free surface. Nuclei at different levels. May bear cilia or contain mucoussecreting cells. -Secretion, particularly of mucous, as well as propulsion of mucous with cilia. Examples: Nonciliated type in sperm carrying ducts, ciliated type lining trachea. -1.3.7. -1.3.6 list the 4 types of stratified epithelia; indicate primary functions associated with each & sample body locations. Stratified epithelia contain 2 or more cell layers. Regenerates by Basal cells pushing apically to replace older surface cells. More durable, protection main role. 1. Stratified Squamous ET: Most important & widespread Structure: Thick, composed of many layers Basal cells are cuboidal or columnar, and surface cells are flattened (squamous). Forms outer part of skin and extends a short distance into every opening continuous with skin. Keratinized and dead on outer layer of skin (only). Apical cells have difficulty obtaining nutrients and so are usually atrophied and flattened. Function: Protects underlying tissue. Examples: Epidermis of skin (Keratinized). Also, moist linings of mouth, esophagus, vagina (Non Keratinized) 2. Transitional ET (transitional because cells undergo transitions (ie change shape): Structure: Approximately 6 layers of cells, but when stretched it thins to about 3 layers. Apical cells appearance vary depending on how stretched the organ is; Domelike appearance when at rest, then flatten and become squamous-like as the organ becomes more and more distended. Cuboidal or columnar cells on Basal side. Function: Since cells have unique ability to change shape, Transitional ET forms lining of hollow urinary organs. This allows them to stretch and have greater storage capacity. Example: Bladder 3. Stratified Cuboidal ET and 4. Stratified Columnar ET (Not even mentioned in Slides): 3) Quite rare, mostly found in some ducts of larger glands. Has 2 layers of cuboidal cells. (not even in slides). 4) Also quite rare, found in transitional areas between 2 epithelia and in small amounts in the pharynx, male urethra, and lining some glandular ducts. (not even in slides). For both A) and B), can only have about 34 layers. More is stratified squamous.

-1.3.9 list the 5 types of CT; list the 4 main functions associated with CTs 5 Types : 1.Mesenchyme: First tissue formed from embryonic mesoderm. All CT is differentiated from this one tissue type. Contains all building blocks and undifferentiated mesenchymal cells, some of which remain and provide a source of new cells in mature CT 2.CT Proper: Subdivided into LOOSE and DENSE. All except bone, cartilage and blood are CT proper. 3.Cartilage: 4.Bone 5.Blood 2.Protection 3.Insulation 4.Transportation of substances

4 Functions: 1. Binding and Support

-1.3.10 describe the structural organization of CT in general; distinguish between collagen, elastic & reticular fibers; distinguish between blast and cyte types of CT cells General Structure: Made up of 3 main elements: ***extracellular matrix made of BOTH 1 AND 2*** 1. Ground Substance: Unstructured material, fills matrix, embedded with fibers. Consists of: A)Interstitial (tissue) fluid, B)Cell adhesion proteins (glue, allows cells to attach themselves to elements of matrix) and C)Proteoglycans (have protein core with charged polysaccharides called GAGs attached; this makes them form huge aggregates in which water is trapped, creating a fluid. The more GAGs, the more viscous the fluid. 2. Fibers: provide support. 3 Types of fibers: A) Collagen fibres: constructed mostly of collagen protein molecules that are secreted into extracellular space, then assembled into crosslinked fibers. Cross linking makes fibers very strong and support matrix. CT Can only stretch as far as its collagen fibers B) Elastic Fibers: Long, thin fibres which contain the protein elastin. When CT is stretched until the extent of the collagen fibers, ELASTIC FIBERS snap CT back into place. C) Reticular Fibers: Short, fine collagenous fibers that are continuous with Collagen fibers; form network of fine collagen protein fibers that support small blood vessels and the soft tissue of organs. 3. Cells: Each type of CT has fundamental/resident cell types. Can be immature/undifferentiated (BLAST) or mature/differentiated (CYTE) Tissue Type BLAST (immature) CYTE (Mature CT Proper Fibroblast Fibrocyte Cartilage Chondroblast Chondrocyte Bone Osteoblast Osteocyte Blood Hemocytoblast RBCs, WBCs, Platelets Blast cells are actively dividing. They synthesize and actively repair matrix. Then, when this is done, they are converted to CYTE form and maintain health of matrix

-1.3.11 Briefly describe CT Proper. list and briefly describe the 3 types of loose CT; include key functions for each type as well as sample body locations 2. CT Proper: Subdivided into LOOSE and DENSE. All except bone, cartilage and blood are CT proper. There are 3 types of LOOSE CT: 1. Areolar 2. Adipose 3.Reticular

1. Areolar CT: Viscous Gel like matrix (protects from invaders), has all 3 fiber types. Fibroblasts/fibrocytes, macrophages, some WBCs. Found widely distributed under epithelia of body. Function: Wraps, cushions organs. Loose fibers allow it to hold and convey tissue fluid almost every cell get nutrients from and release waste into this fluid. Immunity+Inflamation. 2. Adipose CT: Areolar CT modified to store nutrients. Mostly made of cells called Adipocytes (fat cells). Packed close together, scanty matrix. Full of fat, so nucleus is moved to side. Located under skin, around kidneys & eyeballs, in bones & abdomen, in breasts; 18% of average weight. Function: Protects organs, fuel reservoir, insulation 3. Reticular CT: Areolar CT with only 1 type of fiber in matrix Reticular Fibers. These fibers form a fine network along which reticular cells(fibroblast) are found. Located in lymphoid organs. Function: Forms soft skeleton which supports free blood cells. -1.3.12 list and briefly describe the 3 types of dense CT. There are 3 types of DENSE/FIBROUS (since fibers dominate) CT: 1. Regular 2. Irregular 3. Elastic 1. Regular Dense CT: Made up of Closely packed collagen fibers parallel to direction of pull + some elastic fibres. Crowded between are cells, mainly fibroblasts. Makes up tendons, most ligaments. Function: Connects muscle and muscle, muscle and bone, or bone and bone. Can withstand great tensile strength in one direction 2. Irregular Dense CT: Same elements as Regular CT, but collagen fibers are thicker and arranged irregularly. Makes up Dermis and Fibrous capsules of organs and joints. Function: Provides structural strength to withstand pulls from every direction. 3. Elastic Dense CT: Same as regular dense CT except has many more elastic fibers; Therefore, is called Elastic CT. Found in some ligaments (vertebral), walls of large arteries, walls of bronchial tubes. Function: Allows recoil of tissue after stretching; maintains blood flow in arteries; aids recoil of lungs. -1.3.13 List the other remaining types of connective tissue 3. Cartilage: Characteristics in between Dense CT and Bone. Tough but flexible. Avascular and noninnervated. ground substance contains lots of the GAGs and adhesive proteins, making it very firm. Fibers are mostly collogen, some elastic fibers. 4. Bone: Made up of hard, calcified matrix. Similar in structure to cartilage matrix but contains calcium salts and even more collagen fibers, which make it much harder. 3 cell types: Osteoblasts produce the organic part of matrix and then salts get deposited on or between fibers. This creates more bone tissue, and so is controlled by Osteoclasts, which nibble at and break down bones for resorption. An osteocyte is made when an osteoblast becomes trapped in the matrix it made in a space called a Lacuna. 5. Blood: Called CT because it is cells (RBCs, WBCs) surrounded by nonliving fluid matrix (plasma). Fiber elements are soluble proteins, and so are only seen during clotting. Located in blood vessels. Function: Transport of gases, nutrients, wastes and other substance

-1.3.8 define: gland, endocrine gland, exocrine gland Gland: one or more cells that make and secrete a particular product. Can be unicellular, scattered within an epithelial sheet. Or, Multicellular, mostly formed by invagination or evagination from an epithelial sheet. Further Classification: Endocrine Gland: Internally secreting (ie into bloodstream). Also called ductless. Produce and secrete hormones. Exocrine Gland: Numerous. Externally secreting (ie onto skin or into body cavities) Unicellular Exocrine: Ductless. Mucous cells and Goblet cells. Both secrete mucin, but goblet cells look like a cup Multicellular Exocrine: Composed of an Epithelium derived duct and secretory cells. Surrounded by CT which supplies blood vessels and nerves. -3 Types: Merocrine Glands that secrete products by exocytosis and are most common (sweat glands, salivary glands) Holocrine Glands: Accumulate products, which end up being secreted upon rupture. ONLY sebaceous (skin oil) glands Apocrine Glands: Also accumulate products, but only a small amount of cytoplasm is released along with secretory granules. The cell is then repaired and the process repeated. May not exist in humans.