1

Thepotentialofoutdoorlightingforstimulatingthehumancircadiansystem

Preparedby: MarkS.ReaPh.D.,AaronSmith,AndrewBierman,MarianaG.FigueiroPh.D.
LightingResearchCenter,RensselaerPolytechnicInstitute,Troy,NewYork

Preparedfor: AllianceforSolidStateIlluminationSystemsandTechnologies(ASSIST)

PublishDate: May13,2010

Abstract
Thepurposeofthepresentreportistoprovideaquantitativeanalysisoftheimpactoflightat
night,particularlyfromstreetlightsofdifferentspectralpowerdistributions,onthehuman
circadiansystem.TheReaetal.(2005)modelofhumancircadianphototransductionwasused
toestimatelevelsofcircadianstimulation,asmeasuredbymelatoninsuppressionbylight,from
fourtypicaloutdoorlightsourcesasmightbeexperiencedbypeopleunderdifferentrealistic
scenarios.Underthepracticalapplicationscenariosexaminedhere,threeofthefoursources
examinedwouldnotmeaningfullystimulatethehumancircadiansystemafteronehourof
exposure,whileonesource(a6900KLED)ispredictedtohaveasmallstimulatingeffectaftera
onehourexposure(correspondingto310%nocturnalmelatoninsuppression).
Theapproachtakenwastodeterminewhethersufficientlightisincidentontheretinatoreach
aworkingthresholdforstimulatingthecircadiansystemand,thereby,toascertainwhetherand
towhatdegreeoutdoorlightingmightstimulatethecircadiansystem,asmeasuredby
melatoninsuppression.Althoughtheinformationpresentedrepresentsastateoftheart
analysisoflightinducednocturnalmelatoninsuppression,thereareseverallimitationstothis
analysisduetotheuncertaincausalrelationshipbetweenretinallightexposureatnightand
humanhealth.
Introduction
Everyspeciesonearthexhibitsawiderangeofbiologicalcyclesthatrepeatapproximately
every24hours.Theseareknownascircadianrhythms(circaapproximately;diesday)and
areexhibitedateverylevelofbiologicalsystems,fromtimingofDNArepairinindividualcellsto
behavioralchanges,likethesleepwakecycle.Circadianrhythmsreflectthetightcoupling
betweentheintrinsictimingofthebrainsinternalclockinthesuprachiasmaticnucleiofthe
hypothalamus(SCN)andthenaturaltimingofthesolarlightdarkcycle.Infact,thelightdark
cycleregisteredontheretinaistheprimarystimulusforsettingthetimingofamultitudeof
circadianrhythmsexhibitedbyhumansandmostothermammals.
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Lightcanbespecifiedalongfivedimensions:quantity,spectrum,distribution,timing,and
duration(Reaetal.2002).Responsesbythevisualandcircadiansystemstochangesalong
thesedimensionsrevealfundamentaldifferencesbetweentheiroperatingcharacteristics.
Comparedwiththevisualsystem,thehumancircadiansystemisrelativelyinsensitivetolight.
Relativetothevisualsystem,lighteffectiveforthehumancircadiansystemmustbeseveral
ordersofmagnitudegreaterinquantityandprolongedformanyminutestoproducea
measurableresponse(Reaetal.2002,McIntyreetal.1989).Thevisualsystemandthehuman
circadiansystemarebothsensitivetoshortwavelengths(400500nm);however,thehuman
circadiansystemisnearlyblindtolongwavelengthradiation(>600nm)thatthevisualsystem
can,infact,seeverywell.Unlikethevisualsystem,thehumancircadiansystemisnot
concernedwithimageformation,sothelightcanbeblurredordiffuselydistributedoveralarge
portionoftheretinatoprovidestimulation.Thus,thehumancircadiansystemisbiasedagainst
falsepositiveresponsestoopticalradiationitneedstoreliablyknowwhenitisdayandwhen
itisnight.Todoso,itexhibitsahighthresholdandanarrowspectralresponsetolight,andit
needsprolongedexposuretolight,probablyoveralargeportionoftheretina.Moreover,the
systemisdifferentiallysensitivetolightoverthecourseoftheday;boththedirectionandthe
magnitudeofresponsechangedependinguponwhenlightisincidentontheretina.Light
exposureinthemorningadvancesthetimingoftheSCNclock,whereasthesamelight
exposureintheeveningdelaysthetimingoftheclockatmidday,thesystemismuchless
sensitivetolightexposure(Jewettetal.1997,Khalsaetal.2003).
Civilizationhaschangedthenaturallightdarkcyclethathumansexperience.Buildingsshieldus
fromtheweatheraswellasthebrightdaytimesky.Electriclightsourcesnotonlyprovide
illuminationatnightandthroughoutbuildinginteriors,theyalsoprovideselfluminousdisplays
suchastelevisionsandcomputermonitors.Epidemiologistsandothermedicalresearchers
haveexpressedconcernoverelectriclightingasapotentialdisruptorofthenaturallightdark
cycle(Stevensetal.2007,Stevens2009).Indeed,awiderangeofmaladiesfrominsomniato
breastcancerhavebeenstatisticallyassociatedwithdisruptionofthenatural24hourlight
darkcycle(reviewedinBlask2009).Further,animalstudieshaveshownthattumorgrowthis
fasterwhenmelatoninissuppressedbylightatnight(Blasketal.2005).Otherstudiessuggest
thatjetlaggedanimals(i.e.,subjectedtoirregularlightdarkpatterns)areathigherriskfor
cancer,cardiovasculardisease,diabetesandobesity(Filipskietal.2004,2006;FuandLee2003;
reviewedinRgerandSheer2009).Despitetheabsenceofacausalconnectionbetween
disruptedcircadianrhythmsandcompromisedhealthinhumans,continuedinvestigationsof
lightinduceddisruptionofthehumancircadiansystemareclearlywarranted(Reiteretal.
2009).
Consideringthesignificanceofthelightdarkcycleforregulatingbiologicalfunctions,andthe
accumulationofevidencefromepidemiologicalandanimalstudieslinkingcircadiandisruption
3
tocompromisedhealthandwellbeing,itissurprisingthatsolittlehasbeendonetoquantify
lightanddarkinindustrializedsocietiesastheymightaffectthehumancircadiansystem.Given
thispaucityofphotometricdata,itisperhapsnotsurprisingthatsolittlehasbeendoneto
parametricallystudytheimpactofcircadiandisruptiononhealthandwellbeinginpeople.
However,withoutproperphotometricdataitisessentiallyimpossibletodrawvalidinferences
abouttheimpactoflighting,bothnaturalandfabricated,onhumanhealthandwellbeing.
Recently,amodelofhumancircadianphototransduction(i.e.,theconversionofoptical
radiationincidentontheretinatoneuralsignalssenttotheSCN)hasbeendeveloped(Reaet
al.2005).Themodelconsidersthenecessarybiophysicalcharacteristicsofopticalradiation
incidentontheretinathatinfluencehumancircadianphototransduction,asmeasuredinterms
oflightinducednocturnalmelatoninsuppression.Morespecifically,themodeltakesinto
accountthespectralcompositionoftheopticalradiation,theabsoluteamountofradiation,the
spatialdistributionofirradianceonthecornea,andthedurationofexposurenecessaryto
evokeaparticularbiologicalresponsefromthehumancircadiansystem.Validationsofthe
modelhavebeenmade(Figueiroetal.2006a,Figueiroetal.2007,Bulloughetal.2008,Figueiro
etal.2008).
Recentconcernshavebeenraisedbyanadvocacygroup,theInternationalDarkSkyAssociation
(IDA),overlightatnightasitaffectshumanhealththroughstimulationofthecircadiansystem
(IDA2009).Thepurposeofthepresentreportistoprovideaquantitativeanalysisoftheimpact
oflightatnight,particularlyfromstreetlightsofdifferentspectralpowerdistributions,onthe
humancircadiansystem.TheReaetal.(2005)modelwasusedtoestimatelevelsofcircadian
stimulationfromfourtypicaloutdoorlightsourcesasmightbeexperiencedbypeopleunder
differentrealisticscenarios.Althoughperhapsobvious,itmustbeemphasizedthatstimulation
ofthehumancircadiansystematnightisnotnecessarilysynonymouswithhealthrisk.Fora
meaningfuldiscussionoftherelationshipbetweenlightatnightandhumanhealth,itis
neverthelessessentialtofirstdetermineifandtowhatdegreepracticallightsourcesusedfor
nighttimeilluminationstimulatethehumancircadiansystem.If,underrealisticscenarios,
outdoorlightingsystemscouldmeasurablystimulatethehumancircadiansystem,thenthe
healthconcernsraisedbytheIDAmayhavemerit.If,ontheotherhand,outdoorlighting
minimallystimulatesthehumancircadiansystem,thenIDAscautionaryadvice,whilestill
potentiallyvalid,ismorespeculativeandlessdeservingofimmediatesocialactioninthe
contextofalltheotherconcernsthatfacesociety.
Problemstatement
TheIDAhasdrawnattentiontotherelativespectralcompositionofdifferentoutdoorlight
sourcesasapossibleconcernforhumanhealth.Theconcernstemsfromtheepidemiological
studiesofrotatingshiftworkershavingincreasedcancerrisksandofanimalstudiesshowing
4
thatsuppressionofmelatoninbylightincreasestumorgrowth,aspreviouslynotedabove.
Sincethehumancircadiansystemismaximallysensitivetoshortwavelengths(440460nm)
andsincewhitelightsourcesusedforoutdoorlightingtypicallyhavestrongemissionsat
theseshortwavelengths,theIDAhasmadetheargumentthatwhitelightsourcesusedin
outdoorlightingmaynegativelyimpacthumanhealth.Itis,however,impossibletodrawany
inferencesabouttheimpactofagiventypeoflightsourceonthecircadiansystemresponse,let
aloneonhumanhealthandwellbeing,withoutfirstprovidingacompletespecificationofthe
stimulus.Inotherwords,knowingtherelativespectralcontentofasourceisonlyaverysmall
partofthewholepicture,andonethatcaneasilymisleadthenonexpert.Therefore,
discussionsofthetopicoflightatnightasitmightaffecthumanhealthandwellbeingmust
includethetemporalspatialspectraldistributionofopticalradiationincidentontheretina
togetherwithcorrespondingtemporalspatialspectralandabsolutesensitivityofthehuman
circadiansystem.
Analyticalapproach
First,andnotwithstandingthefactthatsomeopticalradiationdoesfilterthroughclosedeyelids
(Htnenetal.1999,JeanLouisetal.2000),theeyelidsmustbeopentoeffectivelystimulate
thehumancircadiansystematnight.Onlyopticalradiationincidentonthehealthy,functional
retinacanstimulateboththevisualandthecircadiansystemsofpeople.Tohaveameaningful
discussionofoutdoorlightingthen,itisnecessarytohaveamuchmoredetailedunderstanding
ofthelightexposureontheretinathantherelativespectralcontentofthesource.Indeed,any
discussionofasingleaspectofopticalradiationisadisservicetorationaldiscussionofthe
impactoflightatnightonhumanhealthandwellbeing.Forthatreason,severalscenariosof
lightexposuresthatmightbeexperiencedbypeoplearepresentedusingthebestavailable
information,recognizingagainthatthelinkbetweenlightatnightasitstimulatesthehuman
circadiansystemisnotsynonymouswithalinkbetweenlightatnightasitaffectshealthand
wellbeing.Theapproachtakenherethenissimplytodeterminewhethersufficientlightis
incidentontheretinatoreachaworkingthresholdforstimulatingthecircadiansystemand,
thereby,toascertainwhetherandtowhatdegreeoutdoorlightingmightstimulatethe
circadiansystem,asmeasuredbymelatoninsuppression.
Figure1showsthespectralirradiancesoffoursourcesat95lx,oneeachfortwocommercially
availablecoolwhiteLEDsources,asodiumscandiummetalhalide(MH)lamp,andahigh
pressuresodium(HPS)lamp.UsingthemodelofhumancircadianphototransductionbyReaet
al.(2005),itispossibletocomparetheeffectivenessofthedifferentlightsourcesatdefined
irradiancesforsuppressingacriterionamountofnocturnalmelatoninforaknownpupilarea.
Pupilareasforayoungpopulation(1725yearsofage)canbeestimated(overalimitedrange
ofirradiancelevels)fromamodelpublishedbyBermanetal.(1992)usingthespectral
irradiancedistributionsatthecornea(i.e.,lightspectrumandamount).Thespectralirradiances
5
atthecorneafromthecoolwhiteLEDs,theMH,andtheHPSlampsinFigure1canbe
thereforeadjustedusingthemodelbyBermanandcolleaguestoscalethespectralirradiance
distributionincidentontheretina,whichcanthenbeinputtothemodelofhumancircadian
phototransductiontocalculateapredictionofnocturnalmelatoninsuppression.

Fig.1.Spectralirradiancedistributionsforaphotopicilluminanceof95lx.

EstimatesofirradiancelevelsatthecorneafromthecoolwhiteLEDs,theMHandtheHPS
sourcesforthreedifferentconditionswereconsidered:areferenceconditioncomparableto
whathasbeenemployedincontrolledlaboratoryconditions,andtwopracticalscenariosthat
couldoccurwithanoutdoorlightinginstallation(Figure2).Fromthoseirradiances,and
assumingaonehourexposurewithnaturalpupils,itwaspossibletoestimatethedegreeto
whichthecircadiansystemofa20yearoldwouldbestimulated,definedoperationallyforthis
exerciseaspercentageofnocturnalmelatoninsuppression.
Foreachofthefollowingconditions,a20yearoldpersonviewseachofthefourlightsources
(Figure1).Theeyeheightoftheobserveris5ft.(1.5m)abovetheground,theluminaire
mountingheightis27ft.(8.2m),andthelightingdistributionandintensityarenominallybased
ona150W,TypeIII,fullcutoffluminaire(Figure2).
Referencecondition:Thepersondirectlyviewseachluminairefromapoint5ft.(1.5m)from
theverticalcenterlineofthemountingpole,andtheilluminanceatthecorneais95lx.
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Scenario1:Thissamepersonisnowlookingdowntheroadandis10ft.(3m)awayfromthe
verticalcenterlineofthemountingpoleatthelocationwheretheluminairewouldproducethe
maximumilluminance,27lx,atthecornea.
Scenario2:Thissamepersonis30ft.(10m)awayfromtheverticalcenterlineofthepole
lookingdirectlyattheluminaire;theilluminanceatthecorneais18lx.

Fig.2.Referenceconditionandtwolightingscenarios(seetext)usedtocalculateeffectivecircadian
lightstimulationforfourlightsources.Forcalculationpurposes,eachofthefoursourcesisnominally
150WandinstalledinaTypeIIIdistributionluminairemountedona27ft.(8.2m)pole.Theeye
heightoftheobserveris5ft.(1.5m)abovetheground.Illustratedisthehorizontalilluminance,inlux
(greenline),andtheverticalilluminance,inlux(orangeline),atdifferentdistancesfromthepole.Also
shownistherangeofIESNArecommendedhorizontalilluminancevalues,inlux(shadedarea),for
roadwaylighting(Rea,ed.,2000).

Figure3illustratestheresultsofthecalculations.Forthereferenceconditionemulatinga
laboratoryexperiment,melatoninwouldbesuppressedby6%fortheHPSsource,14%forthe
MHsource,19%forthe5200KcoolwhiteLEDsource,and30%forthe6900Kcoolwhite
LEDsource.Underthetwomorerealisticscenarios,baseduponthemodelcalculations,the20
yearoldwouldnothavesuppressednocturnalmelatoninafteronehourofexposuretothe
warmer5200KcoolwhiteLED,theMHortheHPSsources.Forbothpracticalscenarios,
somemelatoninisexpectedtobesuppressedforthecooler6900KcoolwhiteLEDsource:
10%forscenario1and3%forscenario2.Itshouldbenotedthatpeopleolderthan20yearsof
agewillhavelowerretinalirradiancesduetosenilemiosisanddensercrystallinelenses(Rea
7
andOuellette1991),somelatoninsuppressionwouldbeless,onaverage,forolderindividuals
forallfoursourcesunderthereferenceconditionandunderthetwomorerealisticscenarios.
Further,anyoneexposedtothatsamelightlevelfordurationsshorterthanonehourwillalso
likelyexhibitlessmelatoninsuppression.Finally,itisimportanttonotethatthereareonly
limiteddataavailableintheliteratureonthecharacteristicsofthecircadiansystemresponse
nearthresholdactivation,soapreciseestimateofmelatoninsuppressionnearthreshold
cannotbemade.Figueiroetal.(2006b)suggest,forexample,thatlightinducednocturnal
melatoninsuppressionlevelsmustbegreaterthan15%tobemeasuredreliably.

Fig.3.Melatoninsuppression(%)bythehumancircadiansysteminresponsetotwocoolwhite
LEDs,metalhalide(MH),andhighpressuresodium(HPS)sourcesplottedforawiderangeofcorneal
photopicilluminancelevels.Thecalculations(Reaetal.2010)
1
arebaseduponagedependentpupil
area(Bermanetal.1992)foraonehourexposureaccordingtothemodelbyReaetal.(2005).The
verticallinesindicatethephotopicilluminanceatthecorneaforareferencelaboratoryconditionand
fortwopracticalstreetlightingscenariosexplainedinthetext.

1
Thedetailedcalculationprocedureforcircadianlightandcircadianstimulus(Reaetal.2010)isavailableonline:
http://www.jcircadianrhythms.com/content/8/1/2/additional/
8
Limitations
Althoughtheinformationpresentedrepresentsastateoftheartanalysisoflightinduced
nocturnalmelatoninsuppression,thereareseverallimitationstothisanalysisduetothe
uncertaincausalrelationshipbetweenretinallightexposureatnightandhumanhealth.First,
thisanalysisdependsfundamentallyupontheassumptionthatnocturnalmelatonin
suppressionisinfactdirectlyrelatedtohumanhealth.Thiscausalrelationshiphasnotbeen
firmlyestablishedyetinhumans,althoughtheredoesappeartobeindirectevidenceforthat
linkfromanimalstudies.Lightatnightcanalsodelaythetimingofthecircadiansystem,and
therebymaypotentiallydisruptaregular24hourbiologicalrhythm,muchlikejetlagorshift
work.Lightcanalsoaffecthormonesotherthanmelatonin(e.g.,cortisol)andenzymes(e.g.,
alphaamylase)thatareimportantmarkersofcircadianregulationinvariousbiologicalsystems.
Melatoninisnotsynthesizedataconstantrateatnightbut,rather,exhibitsapulsatilenature
(Arendt1994).Lightmayaffectthispulsatilebehaviorwithunknownimplicationsfor
communicatingcircadiantimingtootherbiologicalsystemsastheymightaffecthumanhealth.
ThecalculationsreportedhereassumedthatthemodelbyBermanandcolleagues(1992)can
beusedtoscalethespectralirradiancedistributionsatthecorneatocharacterizetheeffective
retinalstimulusforthecircadiansystem,butthereareofcoursewideindividualdifferencesin
crystallinelenstransmissionandpupilresponsetolightthatwoulddirectlyaffecttheamount
oflightactuallyreachingtheretina.Individualswithinherentlyhighconcentrationsof
melatoninmaybelesssusceptibletodiseases,suchascancer,thanthosewithinherentlylow
concentrations,regardlessoftheimpactoflightatnightoncirculatingmelatonin.Apersons
lighthistoryalsoaffectsthedegreetowhichlightcansuppressmelatonin(Hbertetal.2002,
Smithetal.2004).Apersonworkingoutdoorsduringthedaywillhaveahigherthresholdto
lightinducednocturnalmelatoninsuppressionthanthosewhospendthedayindimly
illuminatedinteriors.Soafixedleveloflightmayhavedifferentialconsequencesonpeople
withdifferentlifestyles.Asalreadynoted,thereisgreatuncertaintyinthethresholdresponse
tolightatnight.Whetherasmallbutconstantsuprathresholdamountofsuppressionhasa
cumulativeeffectonhumanhealthisalsounknown.Ingeneralthen,wearecomingclosertoa
quantitativeunderstandingofhowlightaffectsthecircadiansystem,butwestilldonotfully
understandiforhowlightatnightmightaffecthumanhealththroughthecircadiansystem.
Conclusions
Baseduponthemodelpredictions,asillustratedinFigure3andaspointedoutbyFigueiroetal.
(2006b),areasonableandconservativeworkingthresholdforsuppressingnocturnalmelatonin
bylightatnightfollowinga30minuteexposurewouldbeabout30lxattheeyeforawhite
lightsource.Thisworkingthresholdisbaseduponthedeterminationofareliabledegreeof
lightinducednocturnalmelatoninsuppressionof15%orgreater.AsshowninFigure3,this
provisionalthresholdvaluewillalsodifferamongwhitelightsourcesdependingupontheir
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spectralirradiancedistributions.Withregardtonarrowband,shortwavelengthlight,the
thresholdwouldbeeitherhigherforlongwavelength(red)lightorlowerforshortwavelength
(blue)light.
Itisimportanttostressyetagainthatthisanalysisisnotspecifictoadeterminationoftherisk
tohumanhealthandwellbeingfromoutdoorlighting.Theanalysisislimitedtoestimatingthe
stimulatingeffectsoflightsourcesusedfromoutdoorlightingonthehumancircadiansystem
asmeasuredintermsofnocturnalmelatoninsuppression.Nevertheless,thecorrect
characterizationofthelightstimulusmustbemadebeforeanyinferencescanbedrawnabout
thepotentialhealtheffectsofexposuretooutdoorlighting.Indeed,providingacomplete
quantitativeestimateoftheimpactthatlightexposureatnighthasonthehumancircadian
systemisthenecessaryfirststepinresponsiblydiscussingthepotentialimpactofoutdoor
lightingonhumanhealthandwellbeing.Baseduponthisanalysisthen,itwouldappearthat
underthepracticalapplicationscenariosexaminedhere,threeofthefoursourcesexamined
wouldnotmeaningfullystimulatethehumancircadiansystemafteronehourofexposure.The
coolerofthetwocoolwhiteLEDsispredictedtohaveasmallstimulatingeffectonthe
humancircadiansystemafteronehourexposure(correspondingto310%nocturnal
melatoninsuppression).

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