Torsion (mechanics)

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In solid mechanics, torsion is the twisting of an object due to an applied torque. In circular sections, the resultant shearing stress is perpendicular to the radius. For solid or hollow shafts of uniform circular cross-section and constant wall thickness, the torsion relations are:

where:

R is the outer radius of the shaft. is the maximum shear stress at the outer surface. is the angle of twist in radians. T is the torque (Nm or ftlbf). is the length of the object the torque is being applied to or over. G is the shear modulus or more commonly the modulus of rigidity and is usually given in gigapascals (GPa), lbf/in2 (psi), or lbf/ft2. J is the torsion constant for the section. It is identical to the polar moment of inertia for a round shaft or concentric tube only. For other shapes J must be determined by other means. For solid shafts the membrane analogy is useful, and for thin walled tubes of arbitrary shape the shear flow approximation is fairly good, if the section is not reentrant. For thick walled tubes of arbitrary shape there is no simple solution, and finite element analysis (FEA) may be the best method. the product GJ is called the torsional rigidity.

The shear stress at a point within a shaft is:

where:

r is the distance from the center of rotation

Note that the highest shear stress is at the point where the radius is maximum, the surface of the shaft. High stresses at the surface may be compounded by stress concentrations such as rough spots. Thus, shafts for use in high torsion are polished to a fine surface finish to reduce the maximum stress in the shaft and increase its service life. The angle of twist can be found by using:

[edit] Polar moment of inertia

Main article: Polar moment of inertia The polar moment of inertia for a solid shaft is:

where r is the radius of the object. The polar moment of inertia for a pipe is:

where the o and i subscripts stand for the outer and inner radius of the pipe. For a thin cylinder J = 2 R3 t where R is the average of the outer and inner radius and t is the wall thickness.

[edit] Failure mode

The shear stress in the shaft may be resolved into principal stresses via Mohr's circle. If the shaft is loaded only in torsion then one of the principal stresses will be in tension and the other in compression. These stresses are oriented at a 45 degree helical angle around the shaft. If the shaft is made of brittle material then the shaft will fail by a crack initiating at the surface and propagating through to the core of the shaft fracturing in a 45 degree angle helical shape. This is often demonstrated by twisting a piece of blackboard chalk between one's fingers.

[edit] See also

Look up torsion in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. Wikibooks has a book on the topic of Solid Mechanics

Structural rigidity Torsion spring or -bar Torsion siege engine Torsional vibration Torque tester

Shear stress
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Shear stress
Expressed in (SI unit): Commonly used symbols: Expressed in other quantities: pascal =F/A

A shear stress, is applied to the top of the square while the bottom is held in place. This stress results in a strain, or deformation, changing the square into a parallelogram.

A shear stress, denoted (tau), is defined as a stress which is applied parallel or tangential to a face of a material, as opposed to a normal stress which is applied perpendicularly.

Contents
[hide]

1 General shear stress 2 Other forms of shear stress o 2.1 Beam shear o 2.2 Semi-monocoque shear o 2.3 Impact shear o 2.4 Shear stress in fluids 3 Shear Stress Sensors o 3.1 Diverging fringe shear stress sensor o 3.2 Micro-pillar shear-stress sensor 4 See also 5 References 6 External links

[edit] General shear stress

The formula to calculate average shear stress is:

where

= the shear stress

F = the force applied A = the cross sectional area

[edit] Other forms of shear stress

[edit] Beam shear
Beam shear is defined as the internal shear stress of a beam caused by the shear force applied to the beam.

where V = total shear force at the location in question Q = statical moment of area t = thickness in the material perpendicular to the shear I = Moment of Inertia of the entire cross sectional area This formula is also known as the Jourawski formula.[1]

[edit] Semi-monocoque shear

Shear stresses within a semi-monocoque structure may be calculated by idealizing the crosssection of the structure into a set of stringers (carrying only axial loads) and webs (carrying only shear flows). Dividing the shear flow by the thickness of a given portion of the semi-monocoque structure yields the shear stress. Thus, the maximum shear stress will occur either in the web of maximum shear flow or minimum thickness. Also constructions in soil can fail due to shear; e.g., the weight of an earth-filled dam or dike may cause the subsoil to collapse, like a small landslide.

[edit] Impact shear

The maximum shear stress created in a solid round bar subject to impact is given as the equation:

where U = Change in Kinetic Energy G = Shear Modulus V = Volume of Rod and

= Mass Moment of Inertia = Angular Speed

[edit] Shear stress in fluids

See also: Viscosity, Couette flow, Hagen-Poiseuille equation, and Depth-slope product

Any real fluids (liquids and gases included) moving along solid boundary will incur a shear stress on that boundary. The no-slip condition[2] dictates that the speed of the fluid at the boundary (relative to the boundary) is zero, but at some height from the boundary the flow speed must equal that of the fluid. The region between these two points is aptly named the boundary layer. For all Newtonian fluids in laminar flow the shear stress is proportional to the strain rate in the fluid where the viscosity is the constant of proportionality. However for Non Newtonian fluids, this is no longer the case as for these fluids the viscosity is not constant. The shear stress is imparted onto the boundary as a result of this loss of velocity. The shear stress, for a Newtonian fluid, at a surface element parallel to a flat plate, at the point y, is given by:

where

is the dynamic viscosity of the fluid, u is the velocity of the fluid along the boundary, and y is the height of the boundary.
Specifically, the wall shear stress is defined as:

In case of wind, the shear stress at the boundary is called wind stress.

[edit] Shear Stress Sensors

[edit] Diverging fringe shear stress sensor
This relationship can be exploited to measure the wall shear stress. If a sensor could directly measure the gradient of the velocity profile at the wall, then multiplying by the dynamic viscosity would yield the shear stress. Such a sensor was demonstrated by A. A. Naqwi and W. C. Reynolds[3]. The interference pattern generated by sending a beam of light through two parallel slits forms a network of linearly diverging fringes that seem to originate from the plane of the two slits (see double-slit experiment). As a particle in a fluid passes through the fringes, a receiver detects the reflection of the fringe pattern. The signal can be processed, and knowing the fringe angle, the height and velocity of the particle can be extrapolated.

[edit] Micro-pillar shear-stress sensor

A further technique recently proposed is that of slender wall-mounted micro-pillars made of the flexible polymer PDMS, which bend in reaction to the applying drag forces in the vicinity of the wall. The deflection of the pillar tips from a reference position is detected optically and serves as a representative of the wall-shear stress. It allows the instantaneous detection of the streamwise and spanwise wall-shear stress distribution in turbulent flow up to high Reynolds numbers.[4][5]

[edit] See also

Direct shear test Shear modulus Shear rate Shear strain Shear strength Shear and moment diagrams Stress (physics) Tensile stress Triaxial shear test

[edit] References
1. ^ Timoshenko, Stephen P. (1983), History of Strength of Material, Courier Dover Publications, p. 141, ISBN 0486611876, http://books.google.com/?id=tkScQmyhsb8C. 2. ^ Day, Michael A. (2004), The no-slip condition of fluid dynamics, Springer Netherlands, pp. 285296, ISSN (Print) 1572-8420 (Online) 0165-0106 (Print) 1572-8420 (Online), http://www.springerlink.com/content/k1m4t1p02m778u88/. 3. ^ Naqwi, A. A.; Reynolds, W. C. (jan 1987), "Dual cylindrical wave laser-Doppler method for measurement of skin friction in fluid flow", NASA STI/Recon Technical Report N 87 4. ^ Groe, S.; Schrder, W. (2009), "Two-Dimensional Visualization of Turbulent Wall Shear Stress Using Micropillars", AIAA Journal 47 (2): 314321, doi:10.2514/1.36892 5. ^ Groe, S.; Schrder, W. (2008), "Dynamic Wall-Shear Stress Measurements in Turbulent Pipe Flow using the Micro-Pillar Sensor MPS", International Journal of Heat and Fluid Flow 29 (3): 8 6. 7. 30840, doi:10.1016/j.ijheatfluidflow.2008.01.008

Shear strength
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Shear strength in engineering is a term used to describe the strength of a material or component against the type of yield or structural failure where the material or component fails in shear.

In structural and mechanical engineering the shear strength of a component is important for designing the dimensions and materials to be used for the manufacture/construction of the component (e.g. beams, plates, or bolts) In a reinforced concrete beam, the main purpose of stirrups is to increase the shear strength. For shear stress applies

where

1 is major principal stress 2 is minor principal stress

In general: ductile materials fail in shear (ex. aluminum), whereas brittle materials (ex. cast iron) fail in tension. See tensile strength. To calculate: Given failing sum of force and the force acting area, example-bolt shear strength:

As a very rough guide[1]: Material Ultimate Strength Relationship Yield Strength Relationship Steels USS = approx. 0.75*UTS SYS = approx. 0.58*TYS Ductile Iron USS = approx. 0.9*UTS SYS = approx. 0.75*TYS Malleable Iron USS = approx. 1.0*UTS Wrought Iron USS = approx. 0.83*UTS Cast Iron USS = approx. 1.3*UTS Aluminiums USS = approx. 0.65*UTS SYS = approx. 0.55*TYS
USS: Ultimate Shear Strength, UTS: Ultimate Tensile Strength, SYS: Shear Yield Stress, TYS: Tensile Yield Stress

What is the torsional strength of a 316 stainless steel bar round. say for example 5.00 diameter. Do we use yield strength or ultimate for shear stress for this equation. Thanks. desertfox (Mechanical) 16 May 03 20:29 Hi janagan I would use half the yield stress for the shaft in torsion as the failure stress.

A shaft in torsion is subject to shear stress and using the maximum shear theory which can be found in any strength of materials book states elastic failure occurs when the maximum shear stress becomes 1/2 yield stress. so if you put a safety factor on this figure and say use 40% of half the yield stress and calculate the stress in the shaft using the formula :shear stress = T*D/2*j 8 where T = torque D = shaft dia j = polar moment of inertia