Environmental protection is a practice of protecting the natural environment on individual, organizational or governmental levels, for the benefit of both

the n atural environment and humans. Due to the pressures of population and technology , the biophysical environment is being degraded, sometimes permanently. This has been recognized, and governments have begun placing restraints on activities th at cause environmental degradation. Since the 1960s, activity of environmental m ovements has created awareness of the various environmental issues. There is no agreement on the extent of the environmental impact of human activity, and prote ction measures are occasionally criticized. Academic institutions now offer courses, such as environmental studies, environm ental management and environmental engineering, that teach the history and metho ds of environment protection. Protection of the environment is needed due to var ious human activities. Waste production, air pollution, and loss of biodiversity (resulting from the introduction of invasive species and species extinction) ar e some of the issues related to environmental protection. Environmental protection is influenced by three interwoven factors: environmenta l legislation, ethics and education. Each of these factors plays its part in inf luencing national-level environmental decisions and personal-level environmental values and behaviors. For environmental protection to become a reality, it is i mportant for societies to develop each of these areas that, together, will infor m and drive environmental decisions.[1]

Contents [hide] 1 Approaches to environmental protection 1.1 Voluntary environmental a greements 1.2 Ecosystems approach 1.3 International environmental agreements 2 Public opinions 3 Government 3.1 Africa 3.1.1 Tanzania 3.1.1.1 History of environmental protect ion 3.1.1.2 Government protection 3.1.2 China 3.2 European Union 3.3 Russia 3.4 Latin America 3.4.1 Brazil 3.4.2 Mexico 3.5 Oceania 3.5.1 Australia 3.5.2 New Zealand 3.6 North America 3.6.1 United States 4 In literature 5 Challenges 6 See also 7 References Approaches to environmental protection[edit source]

Voluntary environmental agreements[edit source] In industrial countries, voluntary environmental agreements often provide a plat form for companies to be recognized for moving beyond the minimum regulatory sta ndards and, thus, support the development of best environmental practice.[2] In developing countries, such as throughout Latin America, these agreements are mor e commonly used to remedy significant levels of non-compliance with mandatory re gulation.[3] The challenges that exist with these agreements lie in establishing baseline data, targets, monitoring and reporting. Due to the difficulties inher ent in evaluating effectiveness, their use is often questioned and, indeed, the environment may well be adversely affected as a result. The key advantage of the ir use in developing countries is that their use helps to build environmental ma nagement capacity.[3] Ecosystems approach[edit source] An ecosystems approach to resource management and environmental protection aims to consider the complex interrelationships of an entire ecosystem in decision ma king rather than simply responding to specific issues and challenges. Ideally th e decision-making processes under such an approach would be a collaborative appr oach to planning and decision making that involves a broad range of stakeholders across all relevant governmental departments, as well as representatives of ind ustry, environmental groups and community. This approach ideally supports a bett er exchange of information, development of conflict-resolution strategies and im proved regional conservation.[4] International environmental agreements[edit source]

Kyoto Protocol Commitment map 2010 Many of the earth s resources are especially vulnerable because they are influence d by human impacts across many countries. As a result of this, many attempts are made by countries to develop agreements that are signed by multiple governments to prevent damage or manage the impacts of human activity on natural resources. This can include agreements that impact factors such as climate, oceans, rivers and air pollution. These international environmental agreements are sometimes l egally binding documents that have legal implications when they are not followed and, at other times, are more agreements in principle or are for use as codes o f conduct. These agreements have a long history with some multinational agreemen ts being in place from as early as 1910 in Europe, America and Africa.[5] Some o f the most well-known multinational agreements include: the Kyoto Protocol, Vien na Convention on the Protection of the Ozone Layer and Rio Declaration on Enviro nment and Development Public opinions[edit source] An international survey of 12 nations (China, Czech, Spain, Ireland, Iran, Korea , Macedonia, Noway, Portugal, Sweden, Serbia, United kingdom) found that people from those nations attach different levels of importance to environmental protec tion. The perceived importance are lower in Ireland, Iran, South Korea and Norwa y.[6] Support of environmental protection is found to be significant correlated to sup port of animal rights in Czech, Iran, South Korea, Norway and Sweden (p<0.005). [7] Government[edit source]

Discussion concerning environmental protection often focuses on the role of gove rnment, legislation and law enforcement. However, in its broadest sense, environ mental protection may be seen to be the responsibility of all people and not sim ply that of government. Decisions that impact the environment will ideally invol ve a broad range of stakeholders, including industry, indigenous groups, environ mental group and community representatives. Gradually, environmental decision-ma king processes are evolving to reflect this broad base of stakeholders and are b ecoming more collaborative in many countries.[8] Many constitutions acknowledge the fundamental right to environmental protection , and many international treaties acknowledge the right to live in a healthy env ironment.[9] Also, many countries have organizations and agencies devoted to env ironmental protection. There are international environmental protection organiza tions, as the United Nations Environment Programme. Although environmental protection is not simply the responsibility of government agencies, most people view these agencies as being of prime importance in estab lishing and maintaining basic standards that protect both the environment and th e people interacting with it. Africa[edit source] Tanzania[edit source]

Zebras, Serengeti savana plains, Tanzania Tanzania is recognised as having some of the greatest biodiversity of any Africa n country. Almost 40% of the land has been established into a network of protect ed areas, including several national parks.[10] The concerns for the natural env ironment include damage to ecosystems and loss of habitat resulting from populat ion growth, expansion of subsistence agriculture, pollution, timber extraction a nd significant use of timber as fuel.[11] History of environmental protection[edit source] Environmental protection in Tanzania began during the German occupation of East Africa (1884-1919) colonial conservation laws for the protection of game and fores ts were enacted, whereby restrictions were placed upon traditional indigenous ac tivities, such as hunting, firewood collecting and cattle grazing.[12] In 1948, Serengeti was officially established as the first national park for wild cats in East Africa. Since 1983, there has been a more broad-reaching effort to manage environmental issues at a national level, through the establishment of the Natio nal Environment Management Council (NEMC) and the development of an environmenta l act.[13] Government protection[edit source] The Division of the Environment is the main government body that oversees protec tion. It does this through formulation of policy, coordinating and monitoring en vironmental issues, environmental planning and policy-oriented environmental res earch.The National Environment Management Council (NEMC) is an institution that was initiated when the National Environment Management Act was first introduced in 1983. This council has the role to advise governments and the international c ommunity on a range of environmental issues. The NEMC has the following purposes : provide technical advice; coordinate technical activities; develop enforcement guidelines and procedures; assess, monitor and evaluate activities that impact

the environment; promote and assist environmental information and communication; and seek advancement of scientific knowledge.[14] The National Environment Policy of 1997 acts as a framework for environmental de cision making in Tanzania. The policy objectives are to: Ensure sustainable and equitable use of resources without degrading the environ ment or risking health or safety Prevent and control degradation of land, water, vegetation and air Conserve and enhance natural and man-made heritage, including biological divers ity of unique ecosystems Improve condition and productivity of degraded areas Raise awareness and understanding of the link between environment and developme nt Promote individual and community participation Promote international cooperation [14] Tanzania is a signatory to a significant number of international conventions, in cluding the Rio Declaration on Development and Environment 1992 and the Conventi on on Biological Diversity 1996. The Environmental Management Act, 2004, is the first comprehensive legal and institutional framework to guide environmental-man agement decisions. The policy tools that are parts of the act includes the use o f: environmental-impact assessments, strategics environmentals assessments and t axation on pollution for specific industries and products. The effectiveness of shifing of this act will only become clear over time as concerns regarding its i mplementation become apparent based on the fact that, historically, there has be en a lack of capacity to enforce environmental laws and a lack of working tools to bring environmental-protection objectives into practice.[13] Kutta China[edit source]

The Longwanqun National Forest Park is a nationally protected nature area in Hui nan County, Jilin, China Formal environmental protection in China House was first stimulated by the 1972 United Nations Conference on the Human Environment, held in Stockholm, Sweden. F ollowing this, they began establishing environmental protection agencies and put ting controls on some of its industrial waste. China was one of the first develo ping countries to implement a sustainable development strategy. In 1983 the Stat e Council announced that environmental protection would be one of China s basic na tional policies and in 1984 the National Environmental Protection Agency (NEPA) was established. Following severe flooding of the Yangtze River basin in 1998, N EPA was upgraded to the State Environmental Protection Agency (SEPA) meaning tha t environmental protection was now being implemented at a ministerial level. In 2008, SEPA became known by its current name of Ministry of Environmental Protect ion of the People's Republic of China (MEP).[15] Pollution control instruments in China[16]

Command-and-control Economic incentives Voluntary instruments

Public participation

Concentration-based pollution discharge controls Pollution levy fee Environmental labeling system Clean-up campaign

Mass-based controls on total provincial discharge Non-compliance fines ISO 14000 system Environmental awareness campaign

Environmental impact assessments (EIA) Discharge permit system Cleaner production Air pollution index

Three synchronization program Sulfur emission fee NGOs Water quality disclosure

Deadline transmission trading Administrative permission hearing

Centralized pollution control Subsidies for energy saving products

Two compliance policy Regulation on refuse credit to high-polluting firms

Environmental compensation fee

Environmental pollution and ecological degradation has resulted in economic loss es for China. In 2005, economic losses (mainly from air pollution) were calculat ed at 7.7% of China s GDP. This grew to 10.3% by 2002 and the economic loss from w ater pollution (6.1%) began to exceed that caused by air pollution.[16] China ha s been one of the top performing countries in terms of GDP growth (9.64% in the past ten years).[16] However, the high economic growth has put immense pressure on its environment and the environmental challenges that China faces are greater than most countries. In 2010 China was ranked 121st out of 163 countries on the Environmental Performance Index. China has taken initiatives to increase its protection of the environment and co mbat environmental degradation: China s investment in renewable energy grew 18% in 2007 to $15.6 billion, account ing for ~10% of the global investment in this area;).[17] In 2008, spending on the environment was 1.49% of GDP, up 3.4 times from 2000;[ 17] The discharge of COD (carbon monoxide) and SO2 (sulfur dioxide) decreased by 6. 61% and 8.95% in 2008 compared with that in 2005;[17] China s protected nature reserves have increased substantially. In 1978 there wer e only 34 compared with 2,538 in 2010. The protected nature reserve system now o ccupies 15.5% of the country; this is higher than the world average.[17] Rapid growth in GDP has been China s main goal during the past three decades with a dominant development model of inefficient resource use and high pollution to a chieve high GDP. For China to develop sustainably, environmental protection shou ld be treated as an integral part of its economic policies.[18] Quote from Shengxian Zhou, head of MEP (2009): Good economic policy is good envir onmental policy and the nature of environmental problem is the economic structur e, production form and develop model. [17] European Union[edit source] Environmental protection has become an important task for the institutions of th e European Community after the Maastricht Treaty for the European Union ratifica tion by all Member States. The EU is already very active in the field of environ mental policy with important directives like those on environmental impact asses sment and on the access to environmental information for citizens in the Member States. Russia[edit source] In Russia environmental protection is considered an integral part of national sa fety. There is an authorized state body - the Federal Ministry of Natural Resour ces and Ecology. However, there are a lot of environmental problems.

Latin America[edit source]

Top 5 Countries by biological diversity The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) has identified 17 megadiverse co untries. The list includes six Latin American countries: Brazil, Colombia, Ecuad or, Mexico, Peru and Venezuela. Mexico and Brazil stand out among the rest becau se they have the largest area, population and number of species. These countries represent a major concern for environmental protection because they have high r ates of deforestation, ecosystems loss, pollution, and population growth. Brazil[edit source]

Panorama of the Iguazu falls in Brazil Brazil has the largest amount of the world's tropical forests, 4,105,401 km2 (48 .1% of Brazil), concentrated in the Amazon region.[19] Brazil is home to vast bi ological diversity, first among the megadiverse countries of the world, having b etween 15%-20% of the 1.5 million globally described species.[20] The organization in charge of environment protection is the Brazilian Ministry o f the Environment (in Portuguese: Ministrio do Meio Ambiente, MMA).[21] It was fi rst created in 1973 with the name Special Secretariat for the Environment (Secre taria Especial de Meio Ambiente), changing names several times, and adopting the final name in 1999. The Ministry is responsible for addressing the following is sues: A national policy for the environment and for water resources; A policy for the preservation, conservation and sustainable use of ecosystems, biodiversity and forests; Proposing strategies, mechanisms, economic and social instruments for improving environmental quality, and sustainable use of natural resources; Policies for integrating production and the environment; Environmental policies and programs for the Legal Amazon; Ecological and economic territorial zoning. In 2011, protected areas of the Amazon covered 2,197,485 km2 (an area larger tha n Greenland), with conservation units, like national parks, accounting for just over half (50.6%), and indigenous territories representing the remaining 49.4%.[ 22] Mexico[edit source] With over 200,000 different species, Mexico is home to 10 12% of the world's biodi versity, ranking first in reptile biodiversity and second in mammals[23] one estim ate indicates that over 50% of all animal and plant species live in Mexico.[24] The history of environmental policy in Mexico started in the 1940s with the enac tment of the Law of Conservation of Soil and Water (in Spanish: Ley de Conservac in de Suelo y Agua). Three decades later, at the beginning of the 1970s, the Law to Prevent and Control Environmental Pollution was created (Ley para Prevenir y Controlar la Contaminacin Ambiental). In 1972 was the first direct response from the federal government to address emi nent health effects from environmental issues. It established the administrative

organization of the Secretariat for the Improvement of the Environment (Subsecr etara para el Mejoramiento del Ambiente) in the Department of Health and Welfare.

The axolotl is an endemic species from the central part of Mexico The Secretariat of Environment and Natural Resources (Secretara del Medio Ambient e y Recursos Naturales, SEMARNAT[25]) is Mexico's environment ministry. The Mini stry is responsible for addressing the following issues: Promote the protection, restoration and conservation of ecosystems, natural res ources, goods and environmental services, and to facilitate their use and sustai nable development. Develop and implement a national policy on natural resources Promote environmental management within the national territory, in coordination with all levels of government and the private sector. Evaluate and provide determination to the environmental impact statements for d evelopment projects and prevention of ecological damage Implement national policies on climate change and protection of the ozone layer . Direct work and studies on national meteorological, climatological, hydrologica l, and geohydrological systems, and participate in international conventions on these subjects. Regulate and monitor the conservation of waterways In November 2000 there were 127 protected areas; currently there are 174, coveri ng an area of 25,384,818 hectares, increasing federally protected areas from 8.6 % to 12.85% its land area.[26] Oceania[edit source] Australia[edit source]

The Great Barrier Reef in Australia is the largest barrier reef in the world In 2008 there was 98,487,116 ha of terrestrial protected area, covering 12.8% of the land area of Australia.[27] The 2002 figures of 10.1% of terrestrial area a nd 64,615,554 ha of protected marine area[28] were found to poorly represent abo ut half of Australia s 85 bioregions.[29] Environmental protection in Australia could be seen as starting with the formati on of the first National Park, Royal National Park, in 1879.[30] More progressiv e environmental protection had it start in the 1960s and 1970s with major intern ational programs such as the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment in 1972, the Environment Committee of the OECD in 1970, and the United Nations E nvironment Programme of 1972.[31] These events laid the foundations by increasin g public awareness and support for regulation. State environmental legislation w as irregular and deficient until the Australian Environment Council (AEC) and Co uncil of Nature Conservation Ministers (CONCOM) were established in 1972 and 197 4, creating a forum to assist in coordinating environmental and conservation pol icies between states and neighbouring countries.[32] These councils have since b een replaced by the Australian and New Zealand Environment and Conservation Coun cil (ANZECC) in 1991 and finally the Environment Protection and Heritage Council (EPHC) in 2001.[33] At a national level, the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Ac

t of 1999 is the primary environmental protection legislation for the Commonweal th of Australia. It concerns matters of national and international environmental significance regarding flora, fauna, ecological communities and cultural herita ge.[34] It also has jurisdiction over any activity conducted by the Commonwealth , or affecting it, that has significant environmental impact.[35] The act covers eight main areas:[36] National Heritage Sites World Heritage Sites RAMSAR wetlands Nationally endangered or threatened species and ecological communities Nuclear activities and actions The Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Migratory species Commonwealth Marine areas There are several Commonwealth protected lands due to partnerships with traditio nal native owners, such as Kakadu National Park, extraordinary biodiversity such as Christmas Island National Park, or managed cooperatively due to cross-state location, such as the Australian Alps National parks.[37] At a state level, the bulk of environmental protection issues are left to the re sponsibility of the state or territory.[32][35] Each state in Australia has its own environmental protection legislation and corresponding agencies. Their juris diction is similar and covers point-source pollution, such as from industry or c ommercial activities, land/water use, and waste management. Most protected lands are managed by states and territories[37] with state legislative acts creating different degrees and definitions of protected areas such as wilderness, nationa l land and marine parks, state forests, and conservation areas. States also crea te regulation to limit and provide general protection from air, water, and sound pollution. At a local level, each city or regional council has responsibility over issues n ot covered by state or national legislation. This includes non-point source, or diffuse pollution, such as sediment pollution from construction sites. Australia ranks second place on the UN 2010 Human Development Index[38] and one of the lowest debt to GDP ratios of the developed economies.[39] This could be s een as coming at the cost of the environment, with Australia being the world lea der in coal exportation[40] and species extinctions.[41][42] Some have been moti vated to proclaim it is Australia s responsibility to set the example of environme ntal reform for the rest of the world to follow.[43][44] New Zealand[edit source] At a national level the Ministry for the Environment is responsible for environm ental policy and the Department of Conservation addresses conservation issues. A t a regional level the regional councils administer the legislation and address regional environmental issues. North America[edit source] United States[edit source]

Yosemite National Park in California. One the first protected areas in the Unite d States Since 1970, the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has been wor

king to protect the environment and human health.[45] All U.S. states have their own state departments of environmental protection.[46] The EPA has drafted "Seven Priorities for EPA s Future", which are:[47] "Taking Action on Climate Change" "Improving Air Quality" "Assuring the Safety of Chemicals" "Cleaning Up Our Communities" "Protecting America s Waters" "Expanding the Conversation on Environmentalism and Working for Environmental J ustice" "Building Strong State and Tribal Partnerships"[47] In literature[edit source] There are many works of literature that contain themes of environmental protecti on but some have been fundamental to its evolution. Several pieces such as A San d County Almanac by Aldo Leopold, Tragedy of the commons by Garrett Hardin, and Silent Spring by Rachel Carson have become classics due to their far reaching in fluences. Environmental protection is present in fiction as well as non-fictiona l literature. Books such as Antarctica and Blockade have environmental protectio n as subjects whereas The Lorax has become a popular metaphor for environmental protection. "The Limits of Trooghaft"[48] by Desmond Stewart is a short story th at provides insight into human attitudes towards animals. Another book called "T he Martian Chronicles" by Ray Bradbury investigates issues such as bombs, wars, government control, and what effects these can have on the environment. Challenges[edit source] The main issues for developing countries like Brazil and Mexico are that protec ted areas suffer from encroachment and poor management.In Brazil, protected area s are increasing but there are significant challenges caused by human impacts. L ogging and mining are potentially huge threats to protected areas. Between 1998 and 2009, 12,204 km2 of forest within protected areas was cleared, with 1,338 mi ning titles being granted and 10,348 awaiting approval. Developing countries nee d to allocate more money from their budgets if they hope to address these proble ms. African governments face several challenges in implementing environmental prote ction mechanisms. In Tanzania for example these include lack of financial resour ces to manage protected areas, poor governance and corruption, and significant i llegal logging and hunting.[13] Also with such large allocations of land to nati onal parks, indigenous people have been forced to relocate what resulted in a la ck of local participation in environmental decision making processes. As a resul t of these factors recent calls have been made to allow parks with people as a mea n to encourage the support of better overall management and care of the land.[49 ] Due to the Australian climate being dominated by deserts and semi-arid regions, most of the environmental protection challenges focus on availability and manag ement of water resources.[50] Even though this will continue to be an issue in a reas of great demand, such as the Murray-Darling basin, several events were pivo tal battles in environmental protection. Case Study, Franklin River Dam: In 1979, the building of an hydroelectric dam was proposed on the Franklin Rive r in Western Tasmania. The advantages of this project would be increased power p roduction and the creation of job in a region with one of the highest unemployme nt rates in Tasmania.[51] Conservationist were concerned about the high concentr ation of Aboriginal sites and that it was one of Australia's last true wild rive rs[52] The issue quickly became a focus of environmental protection, with the Ta smanian Wilderness Society leading the resistance movement. The situation escala ted from a state referendum to a public blockade of construction, eventually lea

ding to federal legislative intervention and a state challenge in the High Court .[53] The state lost the case with the area proclaimed the Franklin-Gordon Wild Rivers National Park in 1981, part of the Tasmanian Wilderness World Heritage Ar ea.[52] See also[edit source]

Sustainable development portal

Environment portal

Ecology portal

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