Wood Cells and the Meaning of Grain Though little more than water, a clump of cellulose, lignin and

other chemicals, nature provides a structure and diversity that makes wood a classic and versatile building material. In its native state, or processed into forms that are unrecognizable, the wood fiber, or tracheid, is the basic building block of the stock with which we create chairs, cabinets, fine furniture or houses. These long, narrow cells arranged parallel to the length of the trees trunk are the grain of the wood, that characteristic which gives strength and flexibility to our medium. Grain indicates the plane of weakness of the wood but also shows us where its strength lies aspects of lumber that we use to our advantage if we know how they work. Wood cells, or fibers as we shall call them, vary in size and shape, but are always quite long and pointed at the ends. They consist of a cell wall made of cellulose, with an open interior cavity and are glued together with lignin. The fact that they are long and run parallel to the long axis of the tree is what gives wood its grain. They are more easily pried apart than cut laterally which is why a deft blow with an axe can almost effortlessly split a log vertically but chopping from the side, a straight blow will do little more than knock off some bark. The open space inside the fiber may or may not be filled with deposits of gum or resins, or tyloses. Tyloses are crystalline deposits found in the pores of some hardwoods, like white oak. They fill the pores completely making the wood water tight, which is why boat builders use white oak instead of red oak for planking. Not all wood cells are oriented vertically. Rays are horizontally oriented groups of wood fibers that move sap and water radially across the grain. They are planes of weakness along which cracking can occur but can contribute overall to the beauty and figure of the finished piece.

Tree Anatomy and Growth The fact that grain exists in forest products is not the only characteristic of significance. We also must concern ourselves with the fact that wood fibers can be very different and the patterns of these differences can work in our favor, or against us if we are not careful. As a tree grows from a sapling into a mature tree we can start to see differences in structure in the cross-section of the tree. The oldest part of the tree, at its center, is called the pith. The pith is useless to woodworkers as it tends to crack very easily. Adjacent to the pith is the heartwood - the region of the interior of the tree that is dead. Chemicals called extractives build up in these dead wood fibers and they serve to protect them from fungal decay and insect damage. It is the heartwood that woodworkers build with. Next is a lighter colored region known as the sapwood. The sapwood is alive and is resistant to decay and insect as long as the tree lives, but once the tree is cut down or dies, it loses this ability, which is why you should avoid choosing lumber with sapwood. The next layer is very thin and lies between the sapwood and the bark. It is called the cambium and is the fastest growing part of the tree. Every year a new growth ring develops at the cambium, and every year the oldest ring of sapwood dies and turns to heartwood. The years growth is evident in the form of growth rings. Each ring is composed of two distinct parts; the earlywood and the latewood. Earlywood, the inner portion, is formed in Spring and is typified by cells with larger cavities and very thin walls which grew very quickly as the tree came alive in anticipation of the summer ahead. Latewood is comprised of cells with small internal cavities and thick walls. Called Summer wood, they tend to appear darker due to the higher concentration of cellulose. In fall, the tree retreats into dormancy to repeat the process again next spring. This seasonal pattern of growth produces the distinctive growth rings we see in the cross-section of the tree. Growth rings are important as they provide visual indication of the grain of the wood. We cannot see the wood fibers themselves, but the variation in the appearance of the wood caused by growth rings allows us to quickly see the direction in which the grain runs when looking at the face of a board. When looking at the end grain, they provide us

with even more information. From the end we can tell from what part of the trunk the board was cut and use that information to anticipate how dimensionally stable, or unstable, that piece of lumber might be.

Cuts of Lumber and Effects on Stability Because fresh cut wood is two thirds it weight in moisture, as the wood dries out it will change shape. Wood will lose moisture and seek its equilibrium moisture content with the environment, and once it reaches that equilibrium, it will fluctuate seasonally with changes in the relative humidity of its surroundings. When a board is cut from a tree, its length is cut parallel to the trunk, so that the strength of the grain be aligned with the length of the board. However, the grain pattern at the end of the board can follow one of three patterns and it provides insights into its future behavior. Plainsawn lumber is sliced right off of the log. If growth rings were straight, they would appear parallel, or nearly so, to the face of the board from the end grain. It is probably the easiest and cheapest wood to produce, but it is also the least stable and is prone to cupping and warping. The grain can also be fairly wild. But how can we tell about the cupping in advance?

The easiest way to remember is that growth rings, as they dry, want to flatten out into straight lines. If you see a Ushaped growth ring pattern when looking at the end grain, you know that the edges of the face will want to cup down and straighten, thus the board will frown. However, not all lumber has to suffer this fate.

Riftsawn lumber, often found near the ends of plainsawn boards, has growth rings at a thirty to sixty degree angle to the face. It is generally clearer, has straighter grain and is much less likely to warp. It is usually found in the same pile as the flatsawn lumber and often as part of the same board. This is where creative breakdown of the rough lumber can select out the riftsawn cuttings (useable boards cut from raw lumber) so you can put its characteristics to best use. Finally, quartersawn lumber is identified by growth rings perpendicular to the face of the board. It has the straightest grain, is the least likely to warp or cup, and is the best lumber you can buy. Of course you pay for it too, as more waste is created when cutting quartersawn boards than when sawing any others. Bigger logs are also needed to get wider boards and that will add to the price per board foot. On the bright side, the rays stand out more and contribute to a high degree of figure in the finished material. Drying Lumber and Defects To get the wood to dry more evenly, and to eliminate the radial cracking that occurs around the edge of a cut log, the fresh cut trees are sawn into rough lumber before they are seasoned, or brought to their equilibrium moisture content

with the environment. Once sawn they can be air dried, kiln dried, or a combination of both (also known as accelerated air drying). Whatever the process, seasoning involves allowing the free moisture trapped inside the inner cavities of the wood fibers to leave the board by evaporation. It is dry when it is around one sixth its weight in water. The only true way to tell is by weighing it, which the sawmill does periodically to keep track of its progress. However, as the water leaves the fibers, they shrink. It is important to note that wood fibers dont change length, rather they just get fatter or thinner depending on the relative humidity of the surroundings. You will never find a board that gets longer, just wider or narrower, and thicker or thinner. These are things we have to plan for as woodworkers. We also have to consider the fact that as wood is not uniform in structure, it will not expand and contract uniformly. The early wood soaks up more water and tries to straighten out the rest of the growth ring. This process is not restricted to the seasoning of the wood, it will happen throughout the lifetime of the piece of furniture. For this reason you must watch for cup, crook, bow and twist. Cupping in plainsawn boards causes them to look like a trough or gutter. If the grain does not follow the long axis of the board perfectly, crook can turn it into a hockey stick. Bow occurs when the board bends into the shape of a ski, or a rocker from a rocking chair, and twist makes a propeller out of a board. The majority of the warp will have already happened upon seasoning but after cutting the relief of internal stresses in the board can lead to more changes in shape. Watch the face and end grain and you should be able to anticipate much of the wood movement.

Remember, although you are now ready to pick out that perfect piece of quartersawn, straight, heartwood, cherry, you must also be on the outlook for damage due to fungus, mold, insects, animals, or other things that affect the board. For example, sticker stain, or chemical or fungal discoloration where the stickers contacted the rough lumber when seasoning can affect the utility of a board greatly. Make sure you can saw around imperfections so your cuttings still fit you bill of materials. Hardwoods and Softwoods To this point we have discussed the chemical and physical makeup of trees, how they are cut and how they are dried. But the question often arises, "What is the difference between a softwood and a hardwood?" First of all, it has absolutely nothing to do with the comparative hardness of the two. Some hardwoods are softer than softwoods, and vice versa. In fact boxwood and aspen are two very soft hardwoods, while fir and longleaf line are very hard softwoods. Try saying that ten times really fast! Both hardwoods and softwoods are woody vascular plants but the characteristics of the tree itself, not the wood that is contained therein are used to make the differentiation. The difference between softwoods and hardwoods has to do with their relative biology of reproduction and some other distinctive physical attributes. Softwoods are gymnosperms; the term gymnosperm is Latin for naked seeds. This refers to the fact that their seeds are not enclosed in an ovary. They are also known as conifers or evergreens and are conebearing. They typically have waxy, needle-like leaves that stay on the tree year round, although there are exceptions to this such as the larch and cypress. The lumber produced from softwoods has no vessels or pores so the density or the wood is much more uniform. Hardwoods are angiosperms and their seeds are enclosed in the ovary of their flowers. The end grain of a hardwood contains pores, or vessels, which are wood fibers that have no top or bottom. They are stacked end on end forming pipelines for water and sap that extend from the roots to the top of the tree. This phenomenon only occurs in hardwoods. They have broad leaves that are usually lost in the winter, thus they are also known as deciduous trees. Other than the basic differences in biology, the choice of which wood to use is up to you. Most fine furniture is made of hardwoods, but there are beautiful examples of woodworking that are made from wood of all species. Know how to read the grain, stick to heartwood, and use the species you feel is best suited to the project. Lumber Grading and Selection As you select the raw lumber for your project, you need to be aware that it is available in a variety of grades. The grade is based upon the type, location and number of defects found in a board that are seen to reduce the strength, usefulness or durability of the lumber. Some of the more common visual features that affect the grade are the presence of stains, check, knots and pitch pockets. Although natural features they affect the price and utility of the board. Some grades are

virtually free of imperfections, while other grades may contain many knots or other defects. Grading allows us to have some control over the quality of lumber that goes into the project, and in many cases save a little money by using a lesser grade and strategically removing the defects to leave cuttings that will still function well as part of your project.

Grading is done at the sawmill and follows standards set usually by lumber or wood product manufacturing organizations. Hardwoods and softwoods are graded according to different rules. Hardwood is graded in three categories: dimension parts, finished market products and factory lumber. Dimension parts are partly to completely machined pieces meant to be used as delivered. Examples are laminated panels and furniture component squares. Finished market products are meant to be used as is, without further processing, like hardwood flooring, stair risers and treads, and siding. Woodworkers generally need to concern themselves with the third, factory lumber, which is sold rough cut and meant to be resized and milled. To grade factory lumber the grader decides how many clear cuttings of a minimum size, that are sound on the reverse side, can be taken out of a piece of lumber. Generally speaking, the larger, fewer, and clearer the cuttings are, the better the grade. But it isnt a simple process. There are many exceptions and guidelines to be considered. Standard lengths for grading hardwoods start at four and go to sixteen feet in increments of one foot. Hardwoods are manufactured to random widths but there are minimum widths for each grade. Here is a hardwood grading chart I came up with to help clarify the differences between grades. Softwood lumber is classified for use by species, grade and form of manufacture. It too is broken up into three categories: yard lumber, structural lumber and factory and shop lumber. Yard lumber is used for non-framing purposes as it is not stress graded. Structural lumber, what we commonly refer to as dimension lumber, is stress graded and is used for joists, studs, rafters and other house framing applications. Factory and shop lumber is used for general woodworking. Again, size and clarity of the cutting influence the grade. The best to use is called industrial clears and is available in B&BTR (B and Better), C and D grades. All grades are graded on the face side, unlike hardwoods, and B&BTR will get you clear, straight grained stock. If you prefer the knottier look you can go with lower grade. Regionally you may find variations such as ladder and pole stock, stave stock, or pencil stock depending on the needs of local industry.

Lumberyard Lingo After deciding on the type of wood, the cut, and you know what to look for and what to avoid, you need to select lumber of the correct size and condition to fit the project and your shop tooling. Here it helps to know some of the terminology used at the sawmill or lumber yard. After allowing for dressing and joinery you will require stock of a certain thickness. Raw lumber is sold based on multiples of a quarter of an inch, and usually not thinner than a full inch thick. A full inch is 4/4, pronounced four quarters, thick but lumber is available in thickness of 6/4 or inch and a half, 8/4 or two inch, or 12/4 which is three inches thick. Other combinations are available based on the mill the wood came from or how it was ordered by the lumber yard. I have seen some very quirky thickness available when a special order fell through and the lumber yard had to take what they could get. Deals can be had that way. As mentioned before most lumber is sold in random widths so you have to decide which widths will give you the cuttings you need with the least amount of waste. Generally speaking, the lower the grade of lumber you select, the wider the pieces you will need. If you are milling some smaller pieces, like drawer fronts or apron pieces for a small table, you dont need to buy the best grade of lumber. Providing the price is right you can easily find a lesser grade, hopefully at a savings, and take perfectly satisfactory cuttings from there. In this case it will pay off to have your plan with you. However, turning blanks used for table legs should be taken from the best grade. There are other considerations as well. If you want to save time surfacing the face side of your lumber, you will probably want S1S or S2S lumber which has already been run through a planer to smooth it out. S1S stands for surfaced one side while S2S stands for surfaced two sides. You can also get boards that are S1E or surfaced one edge. You can even get S2S1E, or any combination thereof up to S4S which is surfaced four sides. You have to

realize that 8/4 lumber, for example, is only 1 inches thick after surfacing the faces, as in S4S lumber. The same applies for the width if you have the edges surfaced. For dressed, or surfaced, lumber you have to know whether you are buying an actual or a nominal measurement, nominal meaning what it was before they ran it through a planer. Typically you will be paying for lumber that is two inches thick even if it is surfaced. Lumber with surfaced faces is actually a quarter inch thinner that its nominal thickness while surfaced edges remove a half inch form the nominal width. Different yards may have special prices or peculiar methods of measurement so you must familiarize yourself with these before buying. Also realize that you probably want to plane the boards to a finished thickness after you get them to your shop as you will not be guaranteed a uniform thickness with surfaced lumber from the yard. Calculating Board Feet Once you have selected boards of a certain species, cut, width, thickness and grade, it will have to be measured for sale. Lumber is generally sold by the board foot, abbreviated as BD FT. Recently I bought some top grade Honduras mahogany for carving signs. I paid $5.95 per board foot for 8/4 stock. The price will vary depending upon the thickness, which was actual as it was not surfaced. To calculate the cost of the lumber we had to measure it to find out how many board feet of mahogany were there. To do that you need to know exactly what a board foot is. One board foot of lumber is one foot long by one foot wide by one inch thick. Or it can be two feet long by 6 inches wide by one inch thick. Basically, no matter how you look at it, it is 144 cubic inches of wood. I prefer to calculate it by simplifying things and converting all my units to inches. My mahogany was just a hair over fourteen feet long which is 168 inches. It was 7 inches wide and 2 inches thick, as it was 8/4 stock. Finding the volume of a rectangular prism, or length x width x thickness, we have 168 x 7 x 2 or 2352 cubic inches. Divide that by 144, or the number of cubic inches in one BD FT, and we get 16.33 BD FT. At $5.95 per BD FT, that piece of wood cost me $97.16 to buy. Its simple. Just find the volume of the board in inches, and divide by 144. The only thing to remember is to verify with the proprietor how he measures before buying, especially if the board has an irregular shape such as a waney edge. Storing and Using Lumber So you have purchased your stash, now what? If you store it some place other than your shop, make sure that you bring it into your workspace a good two before you work it. Remember that wood needs time to acclimate, or adjust to the relative humidity in your shop, so that it will be stable as you work it. It pays to check the moisture content with a moisture meter before you buy it, but definitely check before you store it. Your moisture level should be between 610% to be at equilibrium moisture content, or it should be stacked with stickers to separate them. In any case, you should ensure that air can flow freely around your pile and that rain or other moisture cannot drip on it. I always paint the ends with old house paint to guard against checking during storage. Provided the lumber is properly seasoned, there are no other special considerations for storage. I try to keep the racks upon which mine is stored not too far apart to reduce sagging in the middle, but that is not a great problem as long as you dont stow your boat anchor on the middle of the pile. The small shop owner probably would not want to hoard great piles of lumber anyway. I generally tend to buy what I need a couple of projects in advance then store it in my shop so that it has time to acclimate before using it but I dont keep a running inventory. Frequent the lumber yards and sawmills that provide you consistently with a quality product at a reasonable price. Then just go more often. One last word of caution. When you start that project, dont dress all your lumber ahead of time. You arent doing yourself any favors. Dress only what you need, right before you need it. If you are building a table, for example, break down the lumber you purchased for the top first and work as fast as possible to get the top glued up after prepping the wood. Then set it aside to dry while you dress and square up the legs. Remember to work quickly. Milling lumber that is straight and square on all four sides is a job in itself you dont want to leave freshly milled lumber lying about to change shape at the whim of the atmosphere.