C H A P T E R T W E N T Y-F I V E

E LECTRIC G ENERATORS

n its simplest form, an electric generator consists of a loop of wire rotated in a magnetic field by an external force. As the loop rotates, an electromotive force (emf) is induced and, if an external circuit exists, a current is produced. Most electric generation systems produce three-phase power by driving an alternating current (ac) generator with a prime mover. An ac generator, or alternator, as it is commonly referred to, is an electric machine that converts rotating mechanical energy into ac power. There are two types of generators typically used for ac power production. Induction generators are used for parallel operation with an existing ac power source. Induction generators typically range in output from a few kW up to about 1,000 kW, though much larger capacity units do exist. The interconnection of the induction generator with the utility-derived power system is typically quite simple. Synchronous generators are capable of operating independently. From the largest central utility generating station to the smallest emergency or standby power system, this is the most common type of generator in service today. Interconnection with another ac power source requires careful planning and design. Protection at the interconnection point consists of at least a synchronizing device to assure that the two sources are synchronized before they are connected together. After connection, controls and protective devices are required to assure continued safe operation for the equipment and the power system. Following are descriptions of both types of generator, as well as descriptions of single-and three-phase power generation, generator selection, and control.

Where: f = Frequency in Hertz P = Number of poles

Fig. 25-1 Induction Machine. Source: United States Motors

An induction machine serves as a generator when it is driven above its synchronous speed. When it is operating below its synchronous speed, it serves as a motor. When operating as a motor (below synchronous speed), the induction machine absorbs current and produces torque (at a positive value). When operating as a generator, the machine does the opposite, absorbing torque and producing current.

INDUCTION GENERATORS
An induction generator is a comparatively simple and low-cost machine. The stator can be single- or three-phase and the rotor can be of squirrel-cage or wound design. Figures 25-1 and 25-2 are induction machines that may be used as a motor or generator. Synchronous speed is a function of frequency and the number of poles that constitute the magnetic field. It is determined as follows: Synchronous speed (RPM) = 120 f P (25-1)
Fig. 25-2 Induction Machine. Source: Tuthill Corp. Murray Turbomachinery Division

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Combined Heating, Cooling & Power Handbook: Technologies & Applications

The speed of an induction motor decreases below its synchronous speed as the load increases. The difference between synchronous speed and the motor's actual operating speed is referred to as slip, and is calculated as follows: Slip = (Synchronous speed Actual speed) Synchronous speed (25-2)

To generate power, an induction machine is driven by a prime mover above its synchronous speed. Circulating currents are induced in the rotor bars by the reactive current of the grid or other power source. The magnetic field interactions between the rotor and stator are converted into electric power that flows into the grid. The faster the generator is driven, the more power generated. Induction generators do not have exciters or voltage regulators. They require an external source of reactive power for excitation, typically provided by the electric grid. Excitation can also be provided from other external power sources, such as capacitors or local synchronous generators connected to the system bus. Induction generators are much more simple to operate and control than synchronous units. Protective devices required for a typical induction generator installation include: Over/under voltage Over/under frequency Overspeed Overload Reverse power

voltage is induced in the revolving armature winding. Ac power is supplied to an external load through slip rings and brushes that maintain a sliding electrical contact between rotating and stationary components. Figure 25-3 is a 400 kW synchronous ac generator with permanent magnet generator excitation and 12-lead reconnectable design. Figure 25-4 is a cutaway view of a 35 kW synchronous generator suitable for 50/60 Hz operation at any voltage through 480 V.

Fig. 25-3 400 kW Synchronous ac Generator. Source: Marathon Electric

An exciter supplies dc current to the field windings of the alternator, as illustrated in Figure 25-5. Static exciters are external solid state devices with no rotating parts. When the main alternator is used for exciter power, a battery or other external dc power source is usually required for initial field excitation and voltage buildup.

SYNCHRONOUS GENERATORS
A synchronous generator (or alternator) is the machine used to generate most of the ac power used today. A three-phase generator consists of a stator with a threephase winding and a salient-pole rotor, which carries a dc field. The rotor (rotating winding or element) is driven by a prime mover at synchronous speed. As the magnetic flux of the dc-field winding crosses the stator windings, a three-phase voltage and current is induced. Most synchronous generators are revolving field generators in which an armature, or assembly of coils placed in slots of a laminated steel core, is held stationary in a rotating field. Ac power is induced (generated) in the stationary winding of the machine. In a less common arrangement, the revolving armature generator, the field is held stationary and an ac

Fig. 25-4 Cutaway View of 35 kW Synchronous ac Generator. Source: Marathon Electric

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Rotating exciters are internal devices that include a stationary field and a small three-phase rotating armature on the generator shaft. The output of this armature is rectified and fed to the rotating main field of the generator.

proportional to rotational speed. Frequency can be calculated as follows: Frequency = (Speed x Number of poles) 120 (25-3)

Generator

Field

Exciter

Where: Frequency is measured in Hz (cycles per second) Speed is measured in revolutions per minute (RPM) For example, to produce a frequency of 60 Hz, a twopole alternator would be driven at 3,600 RPM, a fourpole alternator at 1,800 RPM, a six-pole alternator at 1,200 RPM, etc. To produce 50 Hz, a two-pole alternator would be driven at 3,000 RPM.
AND THREE-PHASE GENERATORS Single-phase ac power consists of either a single voltage or two voltages in series with exactly the same phase relationship. NEMA lists standard single-phase voltages for 60 Hz systems as 120 volts, 240 volts, or a combination of 120 and 240 volts. There are three basic types of single-phase generators:

Regulator Fig. 25-5 Illustration of Exciter Operation.

SINGLE-

Modern generators use solid-state rectifiers and no longer require slip rings and brushes for external excitation. There are two basic types of brushless generators. In the recent past, most generators of the brushless design depended upon residual magnetism in the main field to produce a small voltage upon initial starting. Today, many generators are permanent magnet generators (PMG) containing a separate alternator for the voltage regulator power supply. In this design, the voltage regulator is unaffected under heavy load and during transient load changes. PMGs typically provide better motor starting and short circuit performance. Precise speed control is required to match the frequency of the utility grid or to maintain the required frequency in isolated operation. The most common frequency used in North America is 60 Hertz (Hz). In Europe, 50 Hz is used. These frequencies have been selected as norms to allow economical mass production of equipment. There are, however, a number of applications for which equipment standards are based on other frequencies. The frequency produced by any ac generator is a function of two factors: 1. The number of field pole pairs. The number of pairs of poles that construct the field determines the number of electrical cycles produced by each revolution. A twopole field produces one complete cycle per revolution, a four-pole field produces two cycles per revolution, a six-pole field produces three cycles, etc. 2. Rotational speed (RPM). For a given number of field poles, the frequency produced will be directly

Single-voltage, two-lead generators. These usually have a single circuit armature with two load leads and are designed to produce a single-output voltage. Three-load lead, dual-voltage generators. These are similar to the two-load lead design, except that a center-tapped lead is brought out to allow a dual single-phase voltage output. Four-load lead reconnectable generators. These are the most versatile and commonly used single-phase generators. They have a two-circuit armature winding, with each coil group designed for 120 volt output. Low voltage is produced by connecting the coils in parallel, and high voltage is produced by connecting them in series. The series configuration allows 240 volt, two-wire service. A third output lead can be used for three-wire, 120/240 volt service. Three-phase generator armatures are constructed so there are three separate independent phase coil groups spaced 120 degrees apart. Each phase may be composed of one or two major coil groups (single or two-circuit design). There are two basic methods of connection for three-phase armatures: wye- (or star-) connected and delta-connected. In the wye method of armature connection, as illustrated in Figure 25-6, the finish leads of each of the three-phase coil groups are tied together to form a neutral

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Combined Heating, Cooling & Power Handbook: Technologies & Applications

point. This is the wye, or star, point. The start leads then become the three output load leads. Sometimes, a fourth, or neutral, lead is affixed to the neutral point and brought out for external connection.

Low voltage is found in smaller generators and is common for customer delivery. Medium voltage would usually be found in utility distribution systems and in larger generators. High voltage is usually reserved only for major transmission systems and can range anywhere from 30,000 to 1 million volts.

GENERATOR CONTROLS
Load Whenever a prime mover and generator are operated in parallel on the utility-derived power system, it is necessary to provide controls to assure that equipment is operated within its ratings. The role of the governor is to maintain the frequency within some specified range in the steady state, as load on the prime mover varies. Modern isochronous governors operate prime movers in response to load demand with no droop in frequency. Prime mover governors and controls are described in Chapter 13. Generators are designed to produce a specific voltage under fixed conditions of field excitation, speed, and load. Any change in the connected load without a change in the alternators excitation will cause the generator's voltage to change. Voltage regulation is defined as the difference between the steady-state voltage under no load and the steady-state voltage at full-load output, expressed as a percentage of the full-load voltage. Most alternators control field strength to regulate voltage and have the ability to compensate for factors that affect voltage. Figure 25-8 shows a typical digital voltage regulator. There are two types of voltage regulated generators:

Fig. 25-6 Wye (or Star) Connection.

The voltage generated in each phase of a wye-connected generator is termed line-to-neutral, or phase voltage. The voltage measured between any two output load leads is termed line-to-line, or phase-to-phase, and is equal phase voltage times the square root of three (1.732). A wye-connected 480 volt generator (480 volts phase-tophase) can also provide 277 volts (phase-to-neutral). Most generators are wound with wye connections to minimize voltage across winding insulation. Alternatively, on delta-connected generators (Figure 25-7), the phase coil groups are configured in a triangle. The delta connection is made by joining the start lead of one phase coil group to the finish lead of the phase coil group to its left, and so on. An output lead is affixed to each corner of the triangle. On a three-lead delta-connected unit, any single point can be grounded.

Load

Fig. 25-7 Delta Connection.

Wye and delta configurations are used to provide a range of output voltage combinations. Typical generator terminal voltages for 60 Hz service are shown in Table 25-1.
Low Voltage 208Y/120 240 440 480Y/277 600 600Y/347 Medium Voltage 2,400 4,160Y/2,400 12,470Y/7,200 13,200Y/7,600 13,800Y/8,000 Fig. 25-8 Typical Digital Voltage Regulator. Source: Marathon Electric

Table 25-1 Typical Generator Voltages for 60 Hz Service.

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externally regulated and self- (or inherently) regulated. Externally regulated generators include devices that sense the output voltage and adjust the exciter output to maintain output voltage at the required set point. Self-voltage-regulated generators are simpler devices that use current transformers to compensate excitation based on load current. In addition to load, the major factors affecting voltage regulation are speed and winding temperature. Rotational speed depends on the prime mover and its speed regulating system. Generators are inclined to vary voltage directly with the speed at which they are rotated and this can be problematic with self-voltage-regulated alternators. Generators equipped with external voltage regulators will provide better control due to their accuracy in compensating for speed variations. Winding temperature depends on load current. The increased resistance from no load (with cold windings) to full load causes the output voltage to drop gradually as the windings warm up. This drop in voltage is referred to as temperature drift. Externally regulated units can compensate for this drift. Load and power factor control are required for parallel operation with the utility grid. Load controllers output a proportional signal to the prime mover governor based on generator power output. A VAR/PF (or power factor) controller provides input to the voltage regulator to meet load requirements.

system. If the alternator operates in an isolated mode only (no parallel operation with the utility), then the economical choice would be to generate at the load utilization voltage. If parallel operation with the utilityderived system is contemplated, it may be desirable to operate at the delivery voltage. Other considerations could include cable and switchgear costs or line losses. Power ratings. Prime mover/generator systems are rated in terms of standby power and prime power (or continuous duty). Standby ratings are designated for a brief and infrequent operating regime and the standby power rating will usually be greater than the prime power rating. Insulating material temperature rating. This will largely depend on the operating duty. Cost is considered with respect to the type of duty and the expected operating life and reliability of the unit. Power factor (PF). Generators are rated by their total current-carrying capacity in kVA and most threephase units are rated at a minimum allowable PF of 0.8. With increased load PF, more output power will be delivered per kVA. Required kVA for a given load can be calculated as follows: kVA = kW PF (25-4)

GENERATOR SELECTION
Listed below are some of the main considerations involved in generator selection. Synchronous versus induction. Synchronous generators are slightly more efficient than induction units and may be used for any capacity application and any type of load. They can operate independently of the grid to provide power during standby or isolated operation. Induction generators are used for smaller applications (usually under 1,000 kW), where isolated operation is not required. They are less expensive than synchronous generators in smaller capacity ranges, have a more simple construction, and are easier to install and connect to the grid because they do not require synchronizing controls. Induction generators tend to place a high parasitic kVAR load on the utilityderived system and, in most cases, will require PF correction. Voltage selection. Generator voltage is determined by the voltage at the point of interconnection with the

It can be seen that when voltage is held constant as PF decreases, more current is required to produce the same value of kW. As current flow through the winding increases, voltage drop increases and more power is dissipated in the form of heat. Operation of the generator outside its PF rating can cause overheating of its rotor or stator. This is typically not a problem for isolated operation, but merits special attention during parallel operation with the utility. In this case, a PF controller is required to monitor the flow of reactive power out of the generator and to make the necessary corrections to keep the generator within its power factor rating. Transient loads. If generators operate isolated from the electric grid, and motors constitute a large percentage of the connected load, the effect of motor starting will be a large drop in voltage, which may cause light flickering and instability on equipment with limited voltage variation tolerance. For induction motors, starting current is usually about six times that of running current (for high-efficiency motors,

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this can be 8 to 10 times). Generator efficiency. The power input requirements from the prime mover will be a function of the kW output requirement of the load and the alternator efficiency. Prime-mover power output (alternator input) requirements, expressed in hp, are calculated as follows: hp = kW Generator efficiency x 0.746 (25-5)

that of continuous-duty ratings. The increased wear is less a concern for standby units due to very low hours of operation. Along with insulation type, generator cooling has a great impact on generator life. Generally, air cooling is used for small- and medium-capacity generators. Hydrogen and liquid cooling systems are used for medium- and large-capacity generators. Figures 25-9 and 25-10 illustrate two types of aircooled designs. Figure 25-9 is an open-ventilated cooling design schematic. Air is drawn through the generator by fans on the rotor and exhausted back to the surrounding space outside the frame. Figure 25-10 is a totally enclosed water-to-air cooling (TEWAC) schematic. With this design, the generator is enclosed to prevent dirt and moisture from entering and water-to-air heat exchangers are used. Hydrogen cooling has been applied to generators in a wide range of capacities, ranging from below 20 MVA to

Prime movers are sometimes rated in kW or metric hp. The SI unit of kW refers to mechanical rotating power. This is different than electric power output from the alternator. A distinction is made between kW mechanical (kWm ) and kW electrical (kWe ). The relationship is calculated as follows: kWe = kWm x Generator efficiency (25-6)

Typically, generators have efficiencies ranging from 92 to 97%.

TEMPERATURE EFFECTS, INSULATION, COOLING

AND

Heat is the primary source of wear and eventual failure of rotating electric equipment. NEMA Standard MG-1 defines ambient temperature as the temperature of the cooling air as it enters the ventilating openings of the unit. Alternators are rated for a maximum temperature rise above the NEMA ambient temperature standard of 104F (40C). Since operating temperature is the sum of ambient temperature and temperature rise, generators must be derated if ambient temperature exceeds the standard. A further distinction is made by the type of operating duty. NEMA duty-cycle ratings are based on two classifications: continuous duty and standby duty. Continuous duty. This type of duty assumes continuous full-load operation. The allowable rated temperature rise ranges from about 140 to 300F (60 to 149C), depending on the class of insulation. Units that periodically run on overload (above rated temperature limits) will experience greater wear and be subject to premature failure. Standby duty. Allowable rated temperature rise for standby alternators may exceed continuous ratings by about 75 to 95F (24 to 35C), depending on the insulation class. Operation at elevated standby temperatures causes the insulation to wear at a rate four to eight times (per NEMA, MG-1, part 22.85)

Filter

Cold Gas

Filter

Ambient Air

Air

Ambient Air

Fig. 25-9 Open-Ventilated Generator Schematic. Source: General Electric Company

Air Cooler
Cold Gas Air

Cooling Water Ambient Air Heat Exchanger

Fig. 25-10 TEWAC Generator Schematic. Source: General Electric Company

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Figure 25-12 shows a 3,500 kW, 4,160 Volt (1,800 rpm) generator featuring formed coils with mica insulation and epoxy insulation of all windings. The machine has a dualend vent design to maximize air cooling effectiveness. Figure 25-13 provides a cutaway view of a largecapacity TEWAC generator. The closed air circuit inside the generator performs all of the necessary cooling for the stator and rotor. Figure 25-14 shows a 300 MVA aircooled generator designed for application with a 360 MW gas turbine generator set. The demonstrated mechanical efficiency of greater than 98% has previously only been achieved by hydrogen-cooled machines.

Fig. 25-11 Open-Case View Showing Design of Air-Cooled SmallCapacity Generator. Source: Kato Engineering/Reliance Electric

above 1,000 MVA, though its use is more common in capacities above 100 MVA. Hydrogen is an excellent cooling medium for generators due to its low density and high thermal conductivity relative to air. Historically, hydrogen cooling has resulted in higher generator efficiency and lower size than air cooling. These advantages are achieved, however, at a higher capital cost and with more complex installation, operation, and maintenance requirements. Water cooling is only used on very large capacity utility-grade generators. While providing the advantage of a vastly superior heat removal capability, the capital cost and operating complexity requirements make water cooling prohibitive in smaller capacity units. Figure 25-11 provides an open-case view of a smallcapacity air-cooled generator, revealing the air vents.

Fig. 25-13 Cutaway View of Large-Capacity TEWAC Generator. Source: ABB

Fig. 25-14 300 MVA Air-Cooled Generator. Source: ABB

HARMONICS
Harmonics are the multiples of the fundamental waveform frequency being produced by the generator and the load. Normally, since generators are magnetically symmetrical, only odd harmonics are significant. For example, a 60 Hz generated waveform will contain the 60 Hz fundamental, and may contain a 180 Hz 3rd harmonic,

Fig. 25-12 3,500 kW Air-Cooled Generator with Dual Vent Design. Source: Kato Engineering/Reliance Electric

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Combined Heating, Cooling & Power Handbook: Technologies & Applications

a 300 Hz 5th harmonic, a 420 Hz 7th harmonic, etc. Generally, the magnitude of the harmonic decreases with increasing harmonic order. Harmonics of lower order (i.e. the 3rd, 5th, and 7th, are the most significant). As with motors, harmonics produce undesirable effects in the generator. Harmonic currents cause heat to be generated in the winding, core, and rotor and essentially act as derating factors since generator ratings are limited by allowable temperature rise. Harmonics also cause sine wave distortion. The distortion increases with increased harmonic content in the generated wave and, when severe, can cause voltage regulator sensing difficulties and inaccurate instrument readings. The choice of coil pitch significantly impacts

harmonic generation. As noted previously, in a generator, the magnetic field induces voltage in coils placed in slots in the armature. Maximum voltage is produced when the span of each of these coils is exactly equal to the span of the north and south field poles. This positioning is referred to as full pitch. Most generators are fractional pitch windings. For example, a 2/3 pitch eliminates most 3rd harmonics, while a 4/5 pitch eliminates most 5th harmonics. An example of a design that minimizes harmonics of lower order is a 5/6 pitch and a three-wire Delta connection. With a 5/6 pitch, 5th and 7th harmonics are low and, with the three-wire Delta connection, 3rd harmonic currents have no path.

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