Elastic and Elasto-Plastic Finite Element Analysis of a Tension Test Specimen With and Without Voids

by Nicholas Szwaja Engineering Project Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the degree of MASTER OF ENGINEERING IN MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Approved: _________________________________________ Professor Ernesto Guitierrez-Miravete, Project Adviser

Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute Hartford, Connecticut August, 2012 For Graduation December 2012

 Copyright 2012 by Nicholas Szwaja All Rights Reserved

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CONTENTS
LIST OF TABLES ............................................................................................................. v LIST OF FIGURES .......................................................................................................... vi ACKNOWLEDGMENT ................................................................................................ viii ABSTRACT ..................................................................................................................... ix 1.0 INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................... 1 1.1PURPOSE .............................................................................................................. 1 1.2 BACKGROUND .................................................................................................. 1 1.3 FULLY ELASTIC ................................................................................................ 4 1.4 ELASTIC-PLASTIC ............................................................................................ 6 1.5 FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS (FEA) ABAQUS ............................................ 7 2.0 METHODOLOGY AND APPROACH ...................................................................... 8 2.1 METHODOLGOY ................................................................................................ 8 2.2 APPROACH .......................................................................................................... 8 2.2.1 MODELING ....................................................................................................... 9 2.2.1.1 CREATING TEST SPECIMEN IN FEA ........................................................ 9 2.2.1.2 MATERIAL PROPERTIES .......................................................................... 12 2.2.1.3 MESH ............................................................................................................ 14 2.2.1.4 BOUNDARY CONDITIONS AND LOADING .......................................... 15 3.0 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION, ............................................................................... 18 3.1 FEA RESULTS ................................................................................................... 18 3.1.1 FULLY ELASTIC FEA RESULTS ................................................................. 18 3.1.2 ELASTIC-PLASTIC FEA RESULTS ............................................................. 25 3.1.3 ELASTIC-PLASTIC REVERSE LOADING .................................................. 29 3.1.4 ACTUAL TEST RESULTS ............................................................................. 33 3.1.5 ELASTIC-PLASTIC CAVITY ........................................................................ 34 3.1.6 ELASTIC-PLASTIC PORES INVESTIGATION ........................................... 40 3.2 DISCUSSION ...................................................................................................... 43 3.2.1 FULLY ELASTIC FEA DISCUSSION ........................................................... 44 3.2.2 ELASTIC-PLASTIC FEA DISCUSSION ....................................................... 45

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3.2.3 ELASTIC-PLASTIC REVERSE LOADING FEA RESULTS ....................... 47 4.0 CONCLUSION.......................................................................................................... 49 5.0 REFERENCES .......................................................................................................... 51

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LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: MECHANICAL PROPERTIES ........................................................................ 12

LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE 1: Tensile Pull Test Results of High Strength Steel ........................................... 3 FIGURE 2: Metallic Bonds at the Atomic Level .............................................................. 5 FIGURE 3: Test Specimen 1 dimensions for standard tensile pull test .......................... 10 FIGURE 4: Sketch of Test Specimen .............................................................................. 11 FIGURE 5: Created part revolved around center line ..................................................... 12 FIGURE 6: Fully elastic material properties inserted into ABAQUS ............................. 13 FIGURE 7: Yield Stress - Plastic Strain .......................................................................... 14 FIGURE 8: Mesh ............................................................................................................. 15 FIGURE 9: Fixed boundary conditions ........................................................................... 16 FIGURE 10: Applied force of 15,000 lbs at Reference Point ......................................... 17 FIGURE 11: Von Mises Stress ........................................................................................ 18 FIGURE 12: Stress shown high in the smaller area ........................................................ 21 FIGURE 13: Forces in all three directions ...................................................................... 22 FIGURE 14: Deflection of 0.00836 inches at center of test specimen ............................ 23 FIGURE 15: Center node stress-strain curve of the fully elastic deformation ................ 25 FIGURE 16: Elastic-Plastic Tensile Test Maximum Stress ............................................ 26 FIGURE 17: Maximum deflection of 0.05072 inches at center of test specimen ........... 27 FIGURE 18: Elastic-Plastic Stress-Strain Curve at center of test specimen ................... 28 FIGURE 19: Reverse Loading under the Tensile Load................................................... 29 FIGURE 20: Reverse Loading Elongation for Tensile Load .......................................... 30 FIGURE 21: Reverse Loading Compressive Load ......................................................... 31 FIGURE 22: Reverse Loading Compressive Elongation ................................................ 32 FIGURE 23: Elastic-Plastic Stress-Strain Curve 1 .......................................................... 33 FIGURE 24: Test Specimen with Cavity ........................................................................ 35 FIGURE 25: Von Mises Stress with Cavity .................................................................... 36 FIGURE 26: Max Deflection at center of test specimen ................................................. 37 FIGURE 27: Cavity stress-strain curve at center of test specimen ................................. 38 FIGURE 28: Reverse Loading: Cavity Test Specimen ................................................... 39 FIGURE 29: Test Specimen with Pores .......................................................................... 40 FIGURE 30: Mesh with Pores ......................................................................................... 41 vi

FIGURE 31: Stress with Pores ........................................................................................ 42 FIGURE 32: Cross Section Cut of Stress ........................................................................ 42 FIGURE 33: High Stress Center of Pores ....................................................................... 43 FIGURE 34: Test Specimen Necking.............................................................................. 45 FIGURE 35: Reverse Loading Stress-Strain Curve at center of test specimen ............... 48

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ACKNOWLEDGMENT
I would like to thank Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute for the resources, professionalism, and providing me with the opportunity to obtain a Masters in Mechanical Engineering. I would like to give a special thanks to Dr. Ernesto Guiterrez-Miravete for all his help, mentoring, and patience he provided throughout the completion of this project. Also, I would like to give thanks to my family and friends whom continue to provide unconditional support throughout my educational program at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute.

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ABSTRACT
Finite Element Analysis (FEA) is an important engineering tool used to assist in approximating and verifying how a component will react under various external and internal loading conditions. The purpose of this master of engineering project is to investigate and analyze fully elastic and elastic-plastic deformation of a High Strength Steel (HSS) tensile test specimen in FEA ABAQUS under various conditions. In general, material selection is a key component to engineering analysis. If the material selection is performed incorrectly and does not have the strength, ductility, or physical features to withstand the load then failure will become a realistic result. There are many conditions where the stress applied could extend beyond the yield point of the material but FEA does not necessarily provide visual indication that the part has yielded. The initial results showed that the fully elastic material property has a linear stress-strain relationship regardless of the load applied while the elastic-plastic has a linear relationship up to yield point and then becomes nonlinear beyond yield point. This FEA investigation will also include elastic-plastic analysis on reverse loading, cavity geometry, and random pores within the HSS tensile test specimen. This will be accomplished by using different modeling techniques to investigate how FEA ABAQUS analyzes elastic-plastic material deformation under various loading conditions and material conditions. The reverse

loading condition resulted in tensile and compressive stresses that were equal and opposite even in the plastic range. Work hardening should have increased the strength of the test specimen so the compressive stress should have been smaller than the tensile loading. The plastic data from the tensile test was not cyclic and only applied tensile force so FEA ABAQUS did not know how to interpret the plastic range for compression. FEA ABAQUS simply applied a negative force which resulted in an equal and opposite stress. The cavity model had higher stress than the tensile and reverse loading conditions with the elastic-plastic data. FEA showed significant visual deformation within the cavity of the specimen. The high stress and deformation were due to the reduction in cross sectional area because stress is a function of force over the area. The pores modeled within the test specimen had minimal effect on the overall stress, strain or deflection compared to the theoretical HSS test specimen that had no imperfections. The pores had high stress because the pores were a source of high stress concentrations but the stress ix

and strains not within the pores did not change.

The fully elastic and elastic-plastic

material selections each play a vital role in FEA ABAQUS while both can contain their sources of errors. In the fully elastic model, regardless of the amount of stress applied, the stress-strain curve acted linear for the fully elastic properties even beyond yield point. The elastic-plastic model applies actual stress strain test data beyond the yield point and applies it to the part being analyzed. The results showed nonlinear stress but when stresses outside the uploaded values were applied FEA ABAQUS analysis resorted back to a linear stress-strain relationship.

1. Introduction 1.1 Purpose

The objective of this master of engineering final project is to investigate and analyze Finite Element Analysis (FEA) ABAQUS when it is used to evaluate fully elastic and elastic-plastic deformation on a High Strength Steel (HSS) tensile test specimen. A tensile test specimen will be modeled in FEA ABAQUS as if it was being loaded in a tensile test apparatus to validate the material properties. Multiple analyses will be investigated including:

1. Fully elastic material properties under high tensile load 2. Elastic-plastic material properties under high tensile load 3. Reverse loading with elastic-plastic material properties 4 Cavity simulations with elastic-plastic material properties 5 Reverse loading of the elastic-plastic cavity model 6 Pores analysis using elastic-plastic material properties

The objective of this analysis is to obtain a better understanding how FEA ABAQUS analyzes fully elastic and elastic-plastic material properties under various loading and material conditions. By placing different conditions on a simple geometry (Cavity and Pores analysis), it is easier to obtain a better understanding how FEA ABAQUS analyzes the different models and how changing conditions affects the overall strength of the component. The objective of the cavity is to gain more knowledge on how the HSS test specimen will react to a different internal geometry. The objective of the pores analysis it to verify the overall strength of the HSS test specimen when imperfections are present within the material.

1.2 Background
One of the major topics within Finite Element Analysis (FEA) is how to interpreter results and verify whether the results accurately depict the loading condition. Inaccuracies within the FEA results can stem from various sources including modeling, input of

material properties (fully elastic, elastic-plastic, thermal, fluid, etc.), mesh density, unrealistic stress concentrations, loading conditions, environment, etc. Engineers

understand FEA is an approximation tool and the analysis has to be validated by hand calculations, test results, or inspection to confirm the validity of the results. Hand calculations are sufficient for calculating theoretical solutions for a piece part component under a single or simple loading condition. But as the design increases in complexity, as various loads are applied, and as the environment complexity increases, the engineer requires assurance that the FEA results are correct. Multiple loading and environment conditions make hand calculations complex, where multiple assumptions have to be made to simplify the solution which could lead to inaccurate results. The more assumptions made will lead to questionable results.

Material selection and understanding how material properties interact within FEA ABAQUS is a major factor in confirming the results. This project will analyze the use of fully elastic material properties in FEA ABAQUS and elastic-plastic material properties to investigate how FEA ABAQUS analyzes fully elastic and elastic-plastic deformation under a high loading condition of High Strength Steel (HSS). The predicted FEA results will look like Figure 1 that shows a stress-strain curve for HSS from actual test data. Hand calculations are used to verify the linear geometry to obtain a better understanding how hand calculations compare to FEA results. Figure 1 depicts the fully elastic range and the transition into the plastic range for HSS from lab testing. Another method to validate the FEA results is by hand calculations. Hand calculations are simpler in the elastic range because of the linear relationships that can be developed between stress, strains, and deflections. Hand calculations can be used in the plastic range but nonlinear analysis is not simple and typically requires numerous assumptions.

Figure 1 shows various engineering stress vs engineering strain curves because the test specimen was pulled at different strain rates. Various strain rates has its advantages for work hardening of materials. The curve means a lot of different things too many people depending on the information they are trying to extract. The materials elastic behavior in tension (Youngs modulus, yield stress) will determine the stiffness and load bearing capability while the plastic behavior (Ultimate strength, breaking strain) will give a first indication about brittleness and notch sensitivity [1]. In compression (not shown in Figure 1), the shape of the curve, especially near the yield stress is important with respect to buckling resistance and other stability related behaviors [1]. For stability

calculations, more information is needed about the precise shape of the curve near and past the yield point to determine the plasticity corrections [1]. In FEA, modulus and plastic strains are required to be manually loaded into the system to ensure the model is precise and an accurate result can be obtained. The values typically come from graphs to accurately represent a curve.

1.3 Fully Elastic

Fully elastic deformation is defined as reversible alteration of the form or dimensions of a solid body under stress or strain [2]. From Figure 1, the fully elastic range is the linear portion of the curve up to 51,000 psi. In the elastic range, when the HSS tensile specimen is put under a load (tensile or compressive), the part will be stressed but will maintain its ability to return to its original shape. At the atomic level, there is not enough strain energy to break the metallic bonds [3]. As shown in Figure 2, under pure axial load, the shear in the bonding has to be great enough to break the bonds between the atoms or the atoms will return to their original form [3]. The stability of the bonds will ensure the material will not plastically deform but once the internal energy is enough to break the bonds there will be permanent deformation [3]. For a theoretical analysis, a perfect test specimen has no defects or dislocations. Metals will have a significant number of dislocations that will reduce the strength of the test specimen that will decrease the amount of load that can be applied as shown in Figure 2. The molecular bonds will shift and form new bonds where there are defects within the material. A

material that has dislocations demonstrates that the bonds will slip and the specimen will permanently deform at lower stress [3].

Figure 2: Metallic Bonds at the Atomic Level

Fully elastic deformation is typically governed by Hookes Law [ 4] that states:

= E
Where: = Stress E = Modulus of Elasticity = Strain

Hookes law is a linear relationship that relates stress to strain by using the modulus of elasticity of the material [4]. Fully elastic analysis only pertains to stress and strain up to the yield point. Past yield point, the HSS should start to plastically deform.

In FEA, to analyze items within the fully elastic range only the modulus of elasticity and material density are required to perform a structural analysis. The analysis is assumed to be accurate up to yield point but will continue to act linearly beyond the yield point. The linear relationship past the yield point will result in an inaccurate result for high stresses and high strains.

1.4 Elastic-Plastic
Plastic deformation is defined as permanent change in shape or size of a solid body without fracture resulting from the application of sustained stress beyond the elastic limit [5].

Prior to looking at the physical defects of elastic-plastic analysis, it is important to review the plastic stress-strain relationship at the atomic / crystal level. Plasticity in metals is usually a consequence of dislocations within the structure [5]. Plasticity will occur beyond the yield point of the material. For HSS the yield point is 54,000 psi which is found in MIL-S-22698, Rev C, and condition AH-36. For many ductile metals, including HSS, tensile loading applied to a test specimen will cause it to behave in an elastic manner [6]. Once the load exceeds the yield strength threshold, there is more of a rapid increase in stress than in the elastic range, and when the load is removed some amount of the extensions still exists which results in permanent deformation [6].

Plastic deformation in practice typically means the component was under designed and was not capable of handling the environment for which it was meant to operate in. This will require additional rework or in a worse case scenario a complete redesign to ensure that the component does not plastically deform and still has enough strength to support the operational loading conditions. A change in material to increase the strength would be the simplest solution to this problem but the engineer must take into consideration availability of the metal, cost, and the other physical properties such as ductility, brittleness, ultimate strengths, etc. options. There is cost increase associated with both redesign

Plastic deformation can be beneficial as when used to produce work strain hardening by metal working, also known as strain hardening or cold working [7]. Work hardening increases the number of dislocations [7] forming new, stronger crystal bonds. Energy is almost always applied fast enough and in large enough magnitude to not only move existing dislocations, but also produce a great number of new dislocations by jarring or working the material sufficiently enough [7]. 6

Elastic-plastic analysis uses the Modulus of Elasticity from the elastic material properties but FEA ABAQUS requires yield stress and plastic strains of the material in the plastic range to be manually loaded into the material properties. If the plasticity data has not been entered into FEA ABAQUS, the stress/strain relationship will continue to be linear. This will not provide an accurate result of stress in the plastic range. The concern with mathematically analyzing plastic deformation is that the existing theories are constructed largely on the basis of mathematical considerations and involve a number of arbitrary assumptions of uncertain validity [6]. More experimental data needs to be obtained to validate the numerical solutions. FEA is a method of using the experimental data from plastic deformation (yield stress and plastic strain) and analyzing the deformation in the plastic range [6]. As a result, this reduces the number of assumptions and leads to a more accurate result. Significant work has been done to provide a more analytical method for calculating stress in the plastic range [6] [8] but a significant number of assumptions would have to be made that will lead to an inaccurate mode of comparison. Each of the stress-strain curves will be provided within their respective sections. The curves will look like Figure 1, page 3 and will start to obtain nonlinearity after the yield point of 51,000 psi.

1.5 Finite Element Analysis (FEA) ABAQUS

FEA ABAQUS is an approximation tool and is only as accurate as the operator allows it to be. The operator has to input all of the material technical data that can be found in various material science books, military and commercial specifications, and various published works. If the material data is not manual uploaded, the program will not know it exists, i.e. density, thermal conductivity, plasticity. Defects and dislocations have to be modeled into the program or FEA ABAQUS will assume a theoretical perfect metal with no defects.

This project will use FEA to run an analysis mimicking a tensile test on High Strength Steel (HSS). The tensile test will be place under various loading conditions to investigate how FEA analyzes the results. Test Specimen 1 from ASME E8, Figure 3 will be 7

modeled in FEA ABAQUS and pulled using fully elastic material properties and then using elastic-plastic material properties from HSS. The results will demonstrate how FEA ABAQUS analyzed elastic and plastic deformation at a high load.

This analysis will also include how FEA analyzes reverse loading, cavity model, and imperfections in the form of pores using the elastic- plastic material properties. The elastic-plastic data is only for a tensile loading condition and does not include other variations as this FEA investigation will produce.

2. Methodology and Approach 2.1 Methodology

The method for investigating the various materials and loading conditions is to model a HSS test specimen in FEA ABAQUS. Once modeled the test specimen will be put under various material conditions and loading. The first portion of the investigation will involve a HSS tensile test sample (Figure 3), modeling it in ABAQUS, and applying a large tensile load on the sample. The first analysis will only focus on fully elastic material properties up to the yield point and then investigate how FEA performs with large loads beyond the elastic range. The second portion of this investigation will be to use the elastic-plastic material properties to perform the same tensile test under various conditions including reverse loading, cavity simulation, and pores analysis. Once the analysis is complete, a comprehensive comparison will be performed to derive a conclusion on the fully elastic versus elastic-plastic deformation in FEA.

2.2 Approach
This project will provide step by step direction to model a tensile test specimen in FEA ABAQUS and investigate various loading and material conditions. The fully elastic and elastic-plastic material properties are loaded into FEA ABAQUS and the HSS test specimen is loaded in tension, compression, modeled with pores and a cavity. The end results of this project will investigate how FEA ABAQUS reacts to high loading conditions for fully elastic and elastic-plastic deformation, especially beyond yield point.

2.2.1 Modeling: 2.2.1.1 Created Test Specimen in FEA

Perhaps one of the most important tests performed on a material is the tensile test. In a tensile test, one end of a rod is clamped in a loading frame while the other end is subjected to a controlled displacement [9]. A transducer is typically connected in series with the specimen to provide an electronic reading of the load corresponding to the displacement [9]. The analysis included in this report will model a cylindrical test specimen from ASTM E8 as shown in Figure 3 and Figure 4.

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The dimensions from Figure 3, test specimen 1 from ASME E8 were then modeled into FEA ABAQUS. Because this is a cylindrical specimen, the revolve function was used in FEA. Half of the longitudinal cross section was modeled as shown in Figure 4 and revolved around the y-axis (centerline).

Figure 4: Sketch of Test Specimen

With the sketch complete, the part is revolved around the centerline to develop the final solid shape that will be analyzed as shown in Figure 5. Radii have been applied to all sharp corners because sharp corners on any component are a source of high stress concentrations. To alleviate this, radii are applied to the edges and this will provide a more accurate result.

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Figure 5: Created part revolved around center line

2.2.1.2 Material Properties

The material properties for High Strength Steel (HSS) came from MIL-S-22698, Revision C, and condition AH-36. Table 1 provides the mechanical properties found in MILS-22698:

Tensile Strength Yield Strength (min) Density Poissons ratio Youngs modulus

71,000 90,000 psi 51,000 psi 0.283 lb/in3 0.3 29,500,000 psi

Table 1: Mechanical Properties MIL-S-22698

To perform the fully elastic analysis one material had to be created. This material has three physical properties that need to be applied to the test specimen which are Youngs Modulus, Density, and Poissons Ratio.

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Figure 6: Fully elastic material properties inserted into ABAQUS

To perform the elastic-plastic analysis, the elastic mechanical properties are still required because this will provide the stress-strain relationship up to the yield point but additional information is required to ensure the plastic range is accurately developed. To develop the plastic range in FEA, the yield stress and plastic strain need to be manually loaded into the material properties. Figure 7 shows a small portion of the yield stress and plastic strain that was manually loaded from the excel file from Figure 1. To perform this analysis 283 yield stresses and plastic strains points were manually loaded into the plastic material properties module. between each stress-strain point. This is sufficient because of the small change

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Figure 7: Yield Stress - Plastic Strain

Note that the fully elastic material properties are also present in the material properties to ensure that stress applied up to the yield point is elastic. The way ABAQUS analyzes an elastic-plastic problem is by using the fully elastic material properties until the yield point is achieved and then it starts to apply the plastic material properties. FEA

ABAQUS will abort its analysis if there is too large of a gap in stress between the yield point and the start of the plastic stress values.

2.2.1.3 Mesh
The mesh of the HSS test specimen is an important element to modeling the test specimen because a poorly meshed component could show stresses that are not realistic. If the elements are too large then the stresses between each element can be magnified but if 14

the mesh is too fine then the part might take up too much memory space within the computer and will take too long to run. A really fine mesh will not produce a more accurate result than if the mesh density was correct. A mesh density study was performed by changing the seed size of each element, running the analysis and viewing the results to see if the stresses changed with the change in seed size. This was done until there was no significant change in stress. The final element size for meshing the test specimen is 0.15 inches.

Figure 8: Mesh

2.2.1.4 Boundary Conditions and Loading

To best simulate the tensile test apparatus, one end of the test specimen is fixed in the test fixture and does not move. The other end of the test specimen is slowly pulled in tension to simulate the stress-strain curve of the HSS metal. For FEA to simulate this test, one end of the test specimen is fixed from displacing or rotating in the x, y, and z direction. This simulates the test specimen being threaded into the test apparatus where it would not be able to deflect, rotate, or translate. The boundary conditions are applied

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in Figure 9 that show the end of the test specimen is fixed from displacement and rotation.

Figure 9: Fixed boundary conditions

A tensile load is then applied to the opposite end of the test specimen. To apply the load, a reference was created at the top surface of the test specimen. A reference point provides a point on the surface of the test specimen to apply the load. The load was then applied to the reference point and pulled a positive 15,000 lbf in the y-direction. The load is shown in Figure 10. The load was selected at 15,000 lbf because the calculate force to yield the test specimen was 10,014 lbf. To ensure test specimen goes well beyond the yield stress, a load of 15,000 lbf was applied. This same force can be applied to the fully elastic and elastic-plastic model to determine how ABAQUS analyzes these results. The minimum force is calculated next and is a screen shot from MATHCAD:

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Figure 10: Applied force of 15,000 lbs at Reference Point 1

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3. Results, Discussions, Conclusion 3.1 FEA Results

The FEA results include Von Mises stress, displacement, and stress-strain curves from the FEA ABAQUS program. The results will include analysis for the fully elastic tensile loading condition, elastic-plastic material properties under the various loading conditions.

3.1.1 Fully Elastic FEA Results

Figure 11 is the Von Mises stress as calculated in FEA ABAQUS. As shown in Figure 11, there is high stress in the center of the test specimen while the highest stress is due to a notch which is due to the change in section areas. Stress is a function of force over the area so as the area is increased the stress will decrease. The maximum stress is located towards the 0.375 fillet and is not located at the center of the test specimen.

Figure 11: Von Mises Stress

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Hand calculations were performed to validate the maximum stress. Calculation performed in MATHCAD.

The calculated Von Mises stress is slightly less than FEA ABAQUS Von Mises stress. The stress at the center at the test specimen according to the hand calculation is 54,019 psi. When comparing the calculated Von Mises stress to the ABAQUS Von Mises stress at the center there is an error of 2.7 percent. This is fairly accurate and the hand calculation validates the stress at the center of the test specimen. 19

But ABAQUS is showing a maximum stress of 67,503 psi. This is caused by a notch effect from the changing of areas. Whenever there is a change in area along a continuous part, there are areas of stress concentrations. The stress concentration factor, kt is calculated from Reference [10]. Any discontinuity in a machine part (i.e. fillets) alters the stress distribution in the neighborhood of the discontinuity so that the elementary stress equations no longer describe the state of stress in that part of these locations [10]. The next set of equations from Reference [10] calculates out the stress concentration factor, kt, then applies that to the Von Mises calculated value.

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With a stress concentration factor of 1.25 applied to the calculated Von Mises stress the high stress in this part is 67,524 psi while the FEA ABAQUS Von Mises stress was 67,507 psi. This is a percent error of approximately 0.03 percent. If the kt value went to more decimal places and was more exact, the percent error would be slightly smaller.

Figure 12: Stress shown high in the smaller area

Figure 12 shows stresses under the pure axial force. A majority of the stress in the axis of the applied load are residual stresses that can be shown in the x and z directions. Figure 13 shows the forces in each direction. The high stresses in Figure 12 are ex-

pected to be in the area with the smallest diameter or where there are stress concentrations. When the test specimen is subject to higher loads, the cross sectional area should be reduced in diameter and necking should start to take place which occurs when the stress exceeds yield stress and reaches the plastic limit prior to reaching the ultimate stress [10].

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Figure 13: Forces in all three directions

Figure 13 shows the forces in all three directions. Considering this is only a uni-axial loading condition, there are small stresses in the z-axis and x-axis that do not contribute to calculating the Von Mises stress in FEA ABAQUS. The small stress is due to the nodal bonds between each element. The link transmits load in all three direction and applies a small load in areas where force may not be acting in that direction. This is a source of error between the hand calculations and ABAQUS.

The maximum deflection was taken from the center of the test specimen that is 0.00836 inches as shown in Figure 14. The highest deflection is at the end of the test specimen that is pulled with the tensile force. The portion with no deflection has all of the boundary conditions applied that keeps the specimen from rotating or deforming at the base.

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Figure 14: Deflection of 0.00836 inches at center of test specimen

The following hand calculation developed in MATHCAD verifies the FEA results at the center of the test specimen for elongation. ABAQUS has a deflection of 0.00836 inches while the hand calculation is showing 0.00916 inches. This is different because

ABAQUS uses the Von Mises stress that takes into consideration all three directions while the hand calculation only assumed stress in the y-direction. Stress in all three directions will result in a change in cross sectional area and does not affect the ydirection deflection by much. The difference in elongation in the y-direction is 9.5%.

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Figure 15 shows the stress-strain curve of the test specimen using the fully elastic material properties. The stress-strain curve is taken from a node at the center of the test specimen. The stress-strain curve is calculated by ABAQUS and is from the input data used to run the model, force applied and material properties. The stress-strain curve is linear, goes to a maximum stress slightly under 80,000 psi, and has a strain as high as 0.002. The yield point of this material is 51,000 psi and from this graph the linear relationship continues through the yield point. Only putting the modulus of elasticity, density and poissons ratio in the material properties provides a linear relationship even when the material should plastically be deforming. Discussion section 3.2.1 will provide further rationale on why this takes place in FEA and what this graphically does to the outcome of the FEA results.

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Figure 15: Center node stress-strain curve of the fully elastic deformation

3.1.2 Elastic-Plastic FEA Results

The maximum stress in the FEA model is located in the center of the test specimen at 59,692 psi as shown in Figure 16. For this analysis, fully elastic material properties (youngs modulus, density, and poissons ratio) are used until the yield point is reached. The plastic material properties are then applied by ABAQUS beyond the yield point, 51,000 psi. This provides a maximum FEA ABAQUS stress of the test specimen of 59,692 psi.

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Figure 16: Elastic-Plastic Tensile Test Maximum Stress

For the fully elastic analysis, the maximum stress was at the stress concentration where there was a change in cross sectional area while the elastic-plastic analysis shows the maximum stress to be in the center of the HSS test specimen. The stress between the fully elastic and the elastic-plastic analysis is directly related to the material properties loaded into each model. The fully elastic material property does not allow for nonlinear interactions beyond the yield point and would continue to show invalid results. The elastic-plastic analysis manually loaded the plastic strain and stress to obtain realistic results beyond the yield point.

Maximum deflection in FEA ABAQUS is 0.007853 inches as shown in Figure 17. With the plastic data, the model can react nonlinearly beyond the yield point which allows for work hardening and will reduce elongation. The stress-strain curve in section 3.1.2.3 will no longer increase as more force is applied. At this point the ultimate stress has been surpassed, material can no longer withstand a high load, and the test specimen will continue to deflect at a high rate until the rupture point is reached. Without defining a rupture point in FEA ABAQUS, the test specimen will continue to deflect and stretch to an infinitesimal small diameter. 26

Figure 17: Maximum deflection of 0.05072 inches at center of test specimen

Compared to the fully elastic that had a deflection of 0.00863 inches, the elastic-plastic deflection is 0.05072 taken at the center of the test specimen. As force is applied in the plastic range and the strain is increased, the deflection will be nonlinear. Work hardening will reduce the deflection and that is why the deflection is much lower than in the fully elastic model. As the part is continuously placed in tension, nonlinear deflection will increase at a different rate as shown in Figure 17.

The stress-strain curve for the elastic-plastic case is shown in Figure 18. The elastic range of the curve is linear until it reaches the yield point of 51,000 psi. At this point the strain is approximately 0.005. Beyond the 51,000 psi stress, the plastic material properties that were manually loaded govern the shape of the curve. From inspection, the curve on Figure 18 has a slight curve to it but only reads up to a strain of 0.10. This happens because the maximum plastic strain that was manually loaded was up to 0.10.

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Figure 18: Elastic-Plastic Stress-Strain Curve at center of test specimen

The fully elastic curve, Figure 15 shows a linear relationship past the yield stress with strains that are not comparable to the elastic-plastic curve. An engineer reviewing the results and checking the model must determine which analysis is more reliable if plastic deformation is acceptable. A factor of safety calculation would assist in determining if the results are reasonable based on a ratio between the maximum calculated stress and the yield stress. By taking the yield stress and dividing it by the maximum stress obtain from ABAQUS, the engineer can validate his design. Other methods will be discussed in Section 3.2.2.

The stress-strain curve in Figure 15 is similar to the values loaded in that material selection for plastic deflection but not exact. The amount of force applied during the lab tests is gradual and increases over time while the FEA ABAQUS results has the large load applied throughout the whole step. This would account for the different curves.

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3.1.3 Elastic-Plastic Reverse Loading

The purpose of this analysis is to investigate how FEA ABAQUS analyzes reverse loading of the HSS test specimen. To perform this analysis, two steps were created in ABAQUS. The first step is the tensile condition where a 15,000 lbf load is positively placed on the HSS test specimen until it plastically deformed. While the test specimen is plastically deformed, step two applied a negative 15,000 lbf load to the same point to compress the HSS test specimen.

Figure 19: Reverse Loading under the Tensile Load

Figure 19 shows the first step where the tensile load is applied. The center of the smaller cross sectional area sees a stress of approximately 54,000 psi which is consistent with the elastic-plastic FEA analysis. The highest stress shown reads approximately 59,692 psi which is consistent with the elastic-plastic model.

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Figure 20 shows the change in length due to the tensile load. The deflection in the ydirection is 0.008403 inches which is also consistent with the elastic FEA analysis.

Figure 20: Reverse Loading Elongation for Tensile Load

Figure 20 shows the deformed and non deformed shape of the HSS test specimen. There is significant change in elongation in the y-direction where as in the x and z-direction there is minimal change to the cross sectional area.

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The next step was the compressive step that reverse loaded the HSS test specimen while the test specimen was plastically deformed.

Figure 21: Reverse Loading Compressive Load

Figure 21 shows the stress in compression due to the reverse loading. The maximum stress is at the stress concentrations during the compression loading while the maximum stress is at the center of the test specimen during tension.

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Figure 22 shows the second step of the reverse loading. The second step applies the 15,000 lbf load in the negative y-direction, compressing the HSS test specimen. Just as in the first step, the maximum compressive stress is 54,000 psi stress and the maximum stress at the stress concentrations around the fillet.

Figure 22: Reverse Loading Compressive Elongation

FEA has the change in length to be 0.008403 inches. The stress and elongation is equivalent to the tensile loading which means FEA ABAQUS analyzed the tensile and compressive loading as being equal and opposite. Upon reverse loading, the stress

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returned to zero while the strain did not return to zero as shown in Figure 35. This will be further discussed in Section 3.2.3.

3.1.4 Actual Test Results

Actual test results can be provided and obtained by various material testing companies that provides various industries with physical material properties. The test data provided in Figures 23 is excel data that depict various curves for different strain rates at the center of the test specimen. A slower strain rate provides many benefits especially when obtaining strain hardening data because more stress can be applied increasing the ultimate strength and rupture point. Strain hardening is also dependent on the ductility of the material and HSS is a moderate ductile material.

Figure 23: Elastic-Plastic Stress-Strain Curve at various strain rates

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Figure 23 only shows a small portion of the total curve but these curves best represent what was loaded into FEA ABAQUS to obtain an accurate stress and strain relationship during periods of high stress. The linear portion (fully elastic) occurs during very low strains for High Strength Steel (HSS). The nonlinear portion used in FEA ABAQUS for the elastic-plastic analysis contained in this report is at Rate_1 that has a sharp transition into the plastic range. The transition is sharp based on the Modulus of Elasticity because of HSS ductility and its ability to deform under higher stresses.

The plastic range appears to have a slight curve but almost acts linear which occurs because of the strain increments. The smaller the increment, the more linear the curve looks because of the small steps between strains in the plastic range. This small range was chosen for the FEA analysis to obtain a more accurate method for comparing the values FEA values to the graphs. With just reviewing a small section of the graph, more imperfections can be viewed. The fully elastic range is difficult to evaluate based on Figure 23 due to the small strain for the elastic range. To evaluate the fully elastic range hand calculations were performed but for the elastic-plastic analysis, for any discussion on accuracy, the FEA results would have to be compared to Figure 23. Nonlinear calculations require several assumptions that could create discrepancies between the two methods of evaluations.

3.1.5 ELASTIC-PLASTIC CAVITY

Now that there is a general understanding on how the elastic-plastic analysis works in FEA ABAQUS, the next topic investigates the same test specimen with a cavity inside the middle of the geometry as shown in Figure 24. The cavity represents a casting where the piece being created could have a large void or cavity in the middle. This would be done for a majority of reasons especially to save weight.

Figure 24 shows a cut in the test specimen along the y-axis to show how the cavity was machined into the part. A square section was removed from the part module and re-

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volved around the y-axis. Once the HSS test specimen was revolve, the cut out created a cylindrical void within the center of the piece. The result is as shown in Figure 26.

Figure 24: Test Specimen with cavity

The cut out to create the cavity is centered within the test specimen and reduces the weight by approximately 25%.

The part was re-meshed with the elastic-plastic material properties applied and pulled in tension to replicate a tensile test.

Figure 25 is the Von Mises stress as calculated by FEA ABAQUS. The maximum stress is 70,792 psi which is significantly larger than the Von Mises stress with no cavity in the test specimen (59,692 psi). The increase in stress is due to the reduction in surface area. Stress is a function of force over area so as the area decreases the stress will increase.

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Figure 25: Von Mises Stress with Cavity

The stress concentrations at the fillets are showing minimal stress and the high stresses are more concentrated at the center of the test specimen. The reduction in cross sectional area at the center cavity created a large stress that is significantly larger than the fillet area, which is approximately at 54,000 psi.

Figure 26 shows the deflection of the test specimen with the cavity taken from a node at the center of the test specimen. The deflection of the test specimen is 0.2733 inches. Compared to the no cavity deflection at 0.05092 inches the deflection is significantly larger. Because elongation is a function of strain, the larger strains at the center of the test specimen will induce a larger deflection.

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Figure 26: Max Deflection at center of test specimen

The stress-strain curve in Figure 27 is linear up to 51,000 psi (yield point) and then becomes nonlinear. The stress goes up to 89,000 psi and the strain is approximately 0.13 which is a significant change from the solid test specimen that went up to 60,000 psi with a strain of 0.10. The shape of the curve is different than the solid test specimen and the cavity test specimen has a smoother nonlinear curve. Again, this is not exact to what was loaded for the plastic stress-strain in the material selection. This is due to the different ways the load is applied between the actual test and FEA. FEA ABAQUS did not allow for a higher load over 15,000 lbf because the elements strains were too high. The elements were being pulled past their plastic limits and to obtain the full curve the strains had to be below the values loaded.

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Figure 27: Cavity stress-strain curve at center of test specimen

In the plastic region, the curve appears to start off linear but then transitions to an arching curve. The elastic-plastic material data loaded had a fairly flat transition into the plastic range which is demonstrated in Figure 27. After the test specimen was pulled a little further, the curve started to develop into a parabolic shape. With only a small portion of the complete stress-strain curve loaded into FEA ABAQUS, the transition from elastic to plastic deformation was not a smooth curve.

The test specimen with the cavity was then subjected to the reverse loading condition to investigate if the test specimen would react differently under compression. Figure 28 shows the complete cycle from tensile stress to compressive stress.

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Figure 28: Reverse Loading: Cavity test specimen

The stress in the reverse loading cycle with the cavity was slightly smaller than the tensile test at 70,490 psi. Figure 28 is an illustration on how the test specimens cross sectional area changes dimensions, first a reduction and then an expansion. Again, the highest stress is in the center where the cavity is located but the stress is equivalent in tension and compression. No material values were loaded into the material selection for compressive stress or strains so ABAQUS did its best effort to analyze the compressive strengths that is to reverse load the force. This would make the stress-strain equal and opposite based on the direction of the force.

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3.1.6 Elastic-Plastic Pores Investigation

Materials are not perfect and imperfections affect the quality of the steel. HSS and similar steels have pores, cracks, cavities, and other imperfections that affect the final results of the stress-strain tests. This portion of the report will investigate the elasticplastic material property with pores modeled randomly throughout the specimen. Figure 29 shows the cross sectional area of a single plane cut of the test specimen.

Figure 29: Test Specimen with Pores

To create the spherical pores, the test specimen had random size small circular spheres cut into within the center of the test specimen. This created a complete circle and that acted like a small void or imperfection within the test specimen. Two planes, y-z and yx and the pores were randomly placed within the test specimen at different diameters.

The mesh, as shown in Figure 30 is different than the previous test specimens. A complete hex mesh around the whole test specimen did not work because of all the pores. The pores created a disturbance in the hex mesh and distorted the element shape so another method was chosen to mesh the center section. The hex mesh was used at

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both ends and where the pores were modeled, a partition was implemented and a tetrahedral (tet) mesh was generated for the center portion. The test mesh is extremely dense to ensure the stress or any other analysis can be accurately shown. Due to the density increase of the tet mesh, the time to run the analysis increased significantly (10 minutes compared to 1 minute for the hex mesh).

Figure 30: Mesh with Pores

Now that the part is meshed, the model is now ready to be analyzed. The stress, as shown in Figure 31 is not much higher than 59,000 psi which is consistent with the solid model with no pores, theoretically perfect.

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Figure 31: Stress with pores

The high stress is located at the pores, which act as stress concentrations throughout the whole test specimen. Figures 31 and 32 show a cross sectional cut of the test specimen. The tet mesh is extremely dense and this is evident in Figure 33 around the pores.

Figure 32: Cross Section Cut of Stress

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Figures 31 and 32 also illustrates how the tet and hex mesh meet up. They are connected by a series of nodes but the transition between tet and hex is not smooth which could lead to inaccuracies of the stress at those nodes. The high stress, as shown in Figure 33 is located on the outer circumference of the pores. The pores circular shape allows for high concentrations around 0 and 180 degree of the centerlines of the pores.

Figure 33: High Stress Center of Pores

The circular pores show distortion as they went from circular to oblong. The deflection of the model is the same as the elastic-plastic with no pores at 0.00783 inches. If more pores were created then this could have affected the elongation but there were no changes to elongation. The same is true for the stress-strain curve.

3.2 Discussion
This discussion section will further investigate the FEA ABAQUS analysis for fully elastic and elastic-plastic material properties for a HSS tensile test specimen. Simple calculations verified the fully elastic material properties while actual test data ensured accurate results in the elastic-plastic range for tensile loading. The reverse loading condition with the elastic plastic material properties is an investigative study to analyze how FEA analyzes a component being extended into the plastic range then immediately

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compressed. Additionally the cavity and pores models demonstrated that the cavity has significant effects on the stress-strain of the test specimen while the pores model showed no change in the overall stress-strain that would cause the part to fail.

3.2.1 Fully Elastic FEA Discussion

As shown in the FEA results of Figure 11, the stress-strain relationship is linear regardless of the amount of force is applied. FEA accuracy is based on the amount of fidelity incorporated into the design. By only adding material properties that pertain to elastic mechanical properties, the model will react linearly, even beyond the yield point. The hand calculations show there is a 2.9% variance in the Von Mises stress when compared to the FEA and a deflection of 9.5% different. Calculating the percentile difference in strength and deflection past the yield point is not practical because Figure 23 shows the test specimen going into the plastic range and nonlinearly deforming. Linear stress as a function of strain is not applicable in the plastic region and should be discarded in an engineering analysis.

When comparing the stresses in ABAQUS, two sections of the HSS test specimen were reviewed. The center section of the test specimen because it had a smaller cross sectional area and the fillet radius because this is an area identified by FEA as having a high concentration of stress. The smaller cross section of the test specimen shows the FEA ABAQUS model and the hand calculations are consistent with one another. There is a 2.9% difference in strength with the hand calculations which is fairly consistent with each other.

The stress concentration around the fillet is an expected location for a high stress but not a predicted failure mode. Based on Figure 23, the failure mode seems to be within the center of the test specimen and is not around the fillet. When performing the elasticplastic deformation the highest Von Mises stress was located at the center of the test specimen. Fully elastic material properties did not allow for realist failure results

beyond the yield point and high stresses were shown in the wrong locations. Figure 34, provided by www.mse.mtu.edu. 44

Figure 34: Test Specimen Necking

One of the limitations of FEA ABQUS is with the fully elastic analysis, showed no visual distortion of the model. As the test specimen is pulled beyond the yield point and into the plastic range, there is a reduction in the cross sectional area as the strain is increased [4]. The fully elastic analysis is only accurate up to the yield point and past the yield point the results are not representative of what actually occurs. Engineering redesign of the component should take place to ensure the part does not yield.

3.2.2 Elastic-Plastic FEA Discussion

Performing an elastic-plastic FEA ABAQUS model requires manual input the modulus of elasticity and plastic strain values from actual test data. The rate at which the load is applied and the amount of force applied plays a role in the final shape of the stress-strain curve in the elastic-plastic regions.

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Non time dependent analysis does not allow the operator to control the strain rate. FEA ABAQUS will apply the force based on the step but will do it at a set rate. To vary the strain rate, a time dependent problem needs to be modeled which increases the difficulty of the FEA analysis and was not part of the scope of this investigation. For optimal results, the operator should select a strain rate that best suits the application and the environment from which the component is operated. Material selection catalogues and other material documents provide the metal in various conditions including hardening properties, yield strengths, ultimate strengths, and ductility.

FEA ABAQUS results only show the HSS test specimen elongating and does not show the HSS test specimen necking or rupturing. This occurs because of the element structure within FEA. The elements are structured in such a way that true necking will not occur but will continue to show a decrease in cross sectional area based on the element geometry. Figure 23 shows the results from a real pull test that failed. The area within the center of the HSS test specimen physically changed in diameter and reduced in size creating the necking. Ultimately the test specimen failed at this location. FEA ABAQUS does not show necking or the fracture point. The elastic-plastic result shows the area does decrease in size but that decrease in size is constant throughout the whole test specimen. Compared to the fully elastic results that show no change in cross sectional area, the elastic-plastic results are more accurate but do not accurately depict the point of failure of the test specimen. Typically in a structural design, any stress over yield is undesirable and will require a redesign but in some applications plastic deformation is desirable, example forgings. During a forging, the operator wants the piece of metal to plastically deform to obtain a new shape but if too much force is applied the shape could be distorted and unusable. Strain rates play a vital role in obtaining the final shape of a forging and assist in developing the final ultimate strength of the forging.

The FEA ABAQUS stress-strain curve is not 100% accurate to the actual test data because the force applied in ABAQUS is not gradual but instant which is different from the actual test results. Because the material values loaded into the ABAQUS analysis are from actual test results, it is difficult to manipulate the results or the loading condi-

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tions. Strain rates play a vital role in determining the final material properties and which could affect the analysis. Selection of which test results would vary based on the application and environment. If the applied load is applied at a quicker rate then a higher strain late curve should be selected to run the analysis.

What if the operator selects the wrong stress-strain curves from Figure 23? As shown, a faster strain rate does affect the yield point. Once stress is applied beyond the yield point, the HSS tensile test specimen will continue to plastically deform until failure. If the operator does not understand this then the part could be under designed or over designed which could yield negative results.

3.2.3 Elastic-Plastic Reverse Loading FEA Results

The reverse loading condition utilized the elastic-plastic material properties and graphs from Figure 23. Plastically deforming the test specimen in pure tension and then reverses loading the test specimen into compression was investigated to see how ABAQUS applied plastic strain properties under high compressive stress.

The elastic-plastic data was for the tensile range and did not contain negative stress or plastic strains values. FEA ABAQUS results show the stress and strain acted linearly during compression and the compressive strengths/elongations were directly proportional to each other as shown in Figure 22.

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Figure 35: Reverse Loading Stress-Strain Curve at center of test specimen

Figure 35 shows the stress-strain curve for the elastic-plastic reverse loading model. Step 1 is the tensile loading on the test specimen which is consistent with Figure 18. Step 2 applies the compressive force and the stress-strain curve changes direction and the negative force creates a decrease in stress. Again, just like in the elastic-plastic tensile analysis there is not a smooth transition between the elastic and plastic range in step 1 and in between step 1 and 2.

The stress in step 2 does not reach negative stress but acts linearly until the stress reaches zero. After the part was plastically deformed in step 1, the assumption was the part would remain nonlinear. From the plot, step 2 is linear and never shows signs of nonlinear plastic deformation. Since the elastic-plastic stress-strain values were provided for the tensile range, ABAQUS did not have values for plastic stress and strain on compressive values. Just like the fully elastic model, if no plastic data is loaded into the material selection, the stress will act linearly. This is what occurred in the reverse loading condition.

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The elastic-plastic test specimen with the cavity showed a large increase in stress and strain throughout the cavity. The reduced cross sectional area caused an increase in stress because as the area decreases in diameter, the stress increases. The expected results would be the part would fail sooner because the cavity reduced the robustness of the test specimen. The higher stress is well beyond the yield point and the factor of safety is well below 1.0. Figure 30 is a visual representation on what happens to the part as it is pulled in tension and compressed in compression. The stress-strain curve produced the same plot except the stress was much higher, by 20,000 psi within the cavity. Although it was able to withstand higher stress, the part will rupture earlier and will not be able to withstand the higher stresses.

The elastic-plastic model with the pores demonstrated that with imperfections within the HSS test specimen does not greatly affect the stress when compared to the model with no imperfections. The stresses were identical as the specimen with no pores and high stresses existed within the pores themselves but these are isolated to small areas. The strain was not affect by the pores because there was no change in elongation. Implementing the mesh was a key component to the design of the HSS test specimen. Hex mesh did not work due to the pores so a combination of hex and tet mesh was utilized. The tet mesh was significantly denser than a hex mesh and created more elements within the center of the test specimen because they were not uniform in size. From inspection, the stress distribution did not seem out of the ordinary between the hex and tet mesh although the transition from hex to tet was not a smooth transition.

With no increase in stress for the overall test specimen it validates the tensile tests as a repeatable test. Imperfections will exist but as long as there are no significant cavities, the tensile test will provide accurate, repeatable data points.

4.0 Conclusion
FEA ABAQUS is an approximation tool that provides representative values to complicated problems. FEA is only as accurate as the fidelity implemented by the operator. The full elastic model showed a slight variation in stress and elongation, 2.3% and 9.5% 49

respectfully when compared to hand calculations. The fully elastic stress-strain curve is a linear relationship which is not accurate past yield point. The elastic-plastic material properties showed that for pure tension, the plastic strains and stress governs the shape of the stress-strain curve. Also, the Von Mises stress and elongation was reduced when compared to the fully elastic analysis because of the nonlinear properties. The reverse loading of the elastic-plastic material properties demonstrated nonlinear deformation through the tensile loading condition but under the compressive load, the stress-strain relationship was linear and never fell below zero stress. Two additional cases were analyzed with the elastic-plastic material properties. The first analysis included a large cavity within the center of the test specimen. The cavity showed extremely high stress due to the reduction in area. The stress-strain curve was equivalent to the plot with no cavity except for the increase in stress values. The second investigation included the HSS test specimen with random pores imbedded within the body of the specimen that represented imperfections. The stress, strain and elongation did not change for the part and the only significant increase in stress was within the pores. The pores showed visual elongation but the stress-strain curve was the same as plot with no pores. The few pores did not affect the overall strength of the test specimen.

This investigation demonstrated FEA ABAQUSs ability to solve problems using elastic and elastic-plastic material properties. In general, the results showed similar results as that predicted but certain cases in the plastic range, especially compression in the reverse loading did not react as expected.

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5.0 References:
[1] C Van Hengel, Fiber Metal Laminates: An Introduction, 2001 Kluwer Academic Publisher, Volume 1, Issue 1, pp 15-16 [2] Chao Isaac, A simple geometric model for elastic deformations, Caltech, TU Munchen Germany, Volume 29, Issue 4 [3] George E. Dieter, Mechanical Metallurgy, McGraw-Hill Inc, New York New York, 1986 [4] Karlsruhe - Allemagne, Tensile, Charpy, Creep and Structural Tests, 2003, vol. 6911, Issue 1, pp 5 [5] Yang, Qiang, Mechanical basis and engineering significance of deformation reinforcement theory, State Key Laboratory of Hydroscience and Hydraulic Engineering, Tsinghua University, Bejing 100084, China, 2008 [6] Batdorf, S B; Budiansky, Bernard, A mathematical Theory of Plasticity Based on the Concept of Slip, Science Reviews 2000 Ltd, London UK, 1980 [7] Gil Sevillan, Large Strain Work Hardening and Texture, Progress in Materials Science Volume 24, Issue 2, pp 87-89 [8] Robert D. Cook. Concepts and Applications of Finite Element Analysis, New York New York, University of Wisconsin Madison, 1974 [9] David Roylance, Stress-Strain Curves, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge 2011 [10] Joseph E. Shigley, Mechanical Engineering Design, Seventh Edition, McGrawHill, New York New York, 2004

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