fractures were identified and characterized in two good quality borehole image logs acquired in recently drilled wells.

Production data showed improved production rate and cumulative production from wells drilled on the limbs of the FBF structure. However, exceptions occurred in crestal wells. A brief discussion of the findings from various monodisciplinary and interdisciplinary studies follows. Geology Six unconformity-bounded supersequences (Supersequences A-E of Parnaud et al.9 ) are present within the MesozoicCenozoic history of extension and several episodes of compression in the Maracaibo basin as the Pacific, Caribbean, and South American plates were periodically interacting. These six unconformity-bound supersequences form the stratigraphic framework of the Maracaibo basin, including the Coln Block. Although tectonism was responsible for the unconformities bounding supersequences, unconformities due to eustatic sea-level fluctuations, as well as tectonism, bound lower-order sequences within the supersequences. The major reservoir and source rocks in the Coln Block were deposited during Jurassic rifting and fault-related subsidence prior to and during the initial separation of South America from Africa and during Early to Late Cretaceous on a passive margin as the continents continued to separate. The Ro Negro, Apon, Aguardiente, Maraca, Capacho, and La Luna formations are part of the Early to Late Cretaceous supersequence shown in the upper diagram in Figure 9. Extension and thermal subsidence continued and subsidence during passive-margin development was episodic. Cretaceousage uplift of the Mrida arch, perhaps due to reactivation of older Precambrian or Paleozoic structural trends, controlled the distribution of the mixed carbonate-clastic, passivemargin sedimentary facies of the Maracaibo basin. The lower diagram illustrates the Late Cretaceous to Early Paleocene deposition representing a change from an extensional to a compressional. The Cretaceous structures (or older) in some Coln Block prospect areas formed during this time. While the structural framework provides a means for predicting and characterizing natural fractures, the stratigraphic framework enables prediction of sufficient porosity for a commercial prospect. The transition from carbonates to sandy limestones to calcareous sandstones signals a likelihood of considerable heterogeneity in the reservoir facies that is challenging to evaluate with conventional logs and with very few cores available for log calibration. Geophysics Although some of the fields in the Coln Block were discovered based on oil seeps and the presence of structural crests on surface, all of the productive fields and most of the exploration prospects have 2D seismic coverage. A 3D seismic survey designed to image Tertiary sediments was acquired for the Los Manueles Field in 1995. A technique developed by Shaw et al.10 was used to map polygons outlining the boundaries of the FBF fore and back limb structures defined by the axial surfaces identified on 2D seismic lines. The axial surface maps were used to determine

whether observed production was correlated with wells located on structural limbs. The maps developed for remaining prospects will be used to recommend drilling locations for future exploration wells. Observations based on seismic cross sections through prospect locations provided several key factors for ranking exploratory drilling locations. Petrophysics The approaches for detecting natural fractures from logs are listed below in order of importance. (1) Rt /Rxo (RATIODS) (2) Resistivity vs Gamma Ray (Ductile-Brittle) (3) Youngs Modulus (E, E1, E2, and E3) (4) Shear Wave Birefringence (5) Litho-Porosity Crossplot No correlation with production was found for any of the above approaches. The ductile brittle analysis was based on a technique by Bartok, et al.11 This technique was skewed by uranium presence detected by the spectral gamma-ray log acquired in the 2 most recently drilled wells. The Uranium content may be attributed to Uranium on the faces of natural fracture planes or in the hydrocarbon. This phenomenon has been observed in other naturally fractured reservoirs, and is a reason to be cautious in the use of the gamma ray log response without a Uranium correction. Borehole image logs provided the most reliable means for identifying and characterizing fractures. However, two factors bias our fracture sampling: 1) spacing of fractures relative to borehole diameter, and 2) orientations of fractures relative to the deviation of boreholes. Special care must be taken when differentiating between high angle (subvertical) natural fractures and drilling induced fractures in vertical holes. Attempts to identify facies on the logs were frustrated by the lack of core data. Production Data Analysis With matrix permeability ranging from less than 0.1 md to at best a few 10s of md, significant production rate was a signal of the presence of natural fractures. Figure 11 shows a presentation of the observed production data that highlights the correlation between production rate and structural style. Figure 11 also shows that variations in production data seemed to follow trends within a particular field, but different trends were observed for different fields. Surface Geology Outcrop studies of structures similar to those observed in the Coln Block were designed to characterize natural fractures observed in the outcrops which provide a reasonable support to fracture prediction in the sub-surface based on FBF models. Both outcrop and borehole image observations suggested a need to refine the fracture model in Figure 4 to incorporate additional fracture families predicted by classical rock mechanics, as shown in Figure 10. The rose diagrams and stereograms shown in the two figures, when oriented to the axis of a given structure, serve as a guide for classifying natural fractures. Comparisons with diagrams of the observed fractures confirmed that the FBF structural style was

consistent with the type and orientations of the observed natural fractures Major trends in the natural fracture occurrence (structural and lithological indicators) and geometry (orientation, extent, spacing) were used in well location and trajectory design recommendations. Integration An effective presentation of the integration of various disciplinary analyses is shown in Figure 12. Depth contours in the figure are for the tops of the Aguardiente Formation, the most prolific of the Cretaceous formations in the Coln Block. Subsurface depths range from a few hundred feet to several thousand feet. The axial surfaces are outlined as well as the mapped closures for the developed fields and the exploration prospects, and the 2D seismic lines show the control for these features. Color coded bubble presentations indicate the observed cumulative production and its correlation to FBF limbs. With only one exception, the developed and exploration structural axes run N-S. The orientation of the axis of the FBF structural style provides a guide for planning the deviated well trajectory recommended for exploratory and development drilling. The current maximum stress direction is believed to be predominantly E-W. Drilling and Completion Recommendations Although there was little evidence of drilling or completion based damage in the Coln Block wells, the importance of avoiding damage natural fractures is always paramount. The key recommendations in this case, though, were related to the well location on the structure and the trajectory. Unlike for the anticlinal structure of the Caranda Field, in the FBF structures of the Coln Block, drilling at the top of the structural limbs is recommended. A small deviation, even as gentle as 5 degrees, will greatly increase the number of fractures to be encountered. This recommendation is essential in the crest. For wells drilled in the limb, the slope of the beds is already helpful, since the natural fractures will be at high angles to the beds, and thus, no longer strictly vertical. Even in this case, a small deviation would help the driller avoid letting the trajectory drift into a direction normal to the bedding plane. Finally, the recommended azimuth is designed to maximize intersections between the borehole and the 3 key sets of fractures illustrated in Figure 10. For a FBF structure with a N-S axis direction, drilling at an angle about 45 degrees from the N-S direction is recommended. Conclusions For naturally fractured reservoirs, it is imperative to take a holistic approach to the recommendations suggested in this paper. Commercially successful production depends on the ability to drill through productive natural fractures and to complete the naturally fractured intervals with minimal damage. Careful attention to the drilling fluid properties is crucial including compatibility with subsequent acid, if necessary, for cleanup and solids control; underbalanced drilling is recommended if possible. An openhole completion could be recommended instead of cementing and perforating. Upper intervals should be cemented above and below the

productive interval so that an upper interval can eventually be produced or commingled by perforating the casing. In buckling structures, drilling the crest is recommended, but in FBF structures, the limb is preferred. In both cases, the borehole trajectory should avoid a direction normal to the bedding plane being traversed because the most open natural fractures are expected to be at high angles with the bedding plane. The borehole azimuth should be designed to intersect the effective fracture network. Once the fractured intervals have been located, high angle wells can be drilled from the main borehole to intersect a greater number of natural fractures. Hydraulic fracturing in naturally fractured reservoirs is not recommended because the created fracture will propagate parallel to the open fractures in the reservoir instead of intersecting them. If a hydraulic fracture propagated normal to open natural fractures, it would probably be plagued by excessive and damaging leakoff. 3D seismic data is helpful for defining the structure configuration and setting the precise trajectory planning. 2D data was sufficient for identifying FBF structures and mapping the axial surfaces in the Coln Block. In both studies, fracture identification from conventional logs was inconclusive, and borehole image logs are recommended as the direct way to identify the presence of natural fractures. Production intervals should be tested in openhole conditions to avoid excessive damage by cement as well as other completion and stimulation fluids. Acknowledgements The authors which to thank Perez Companc, Bolivia, the Tecpetrol de Venezuela, Coparex Latina & NOMECO Consortium, and Schlumberger for permission to publish this paper. References
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Brookey, Tom: "'Micro-Bubbles': New Aphron Drill-In Fluid Technique Reduces Formation Damage in Horizontal Wells", paper no. SPE 39589 (1998). Gilmour, A. and Hore, N.: A Novel Cure for Lost Circulation Using a Unique Fluid Rheology," AADC Forum paper, Houston, TX, 1999. Suppe J. Geometry and Kinematics of Fualt-bend Folding, American Journal of Science, 283 (1983) 684-721. Taha, M.A.: Fractures and Fractured Reservoirs, Search No. 6, Schlumberger Surenco C.A (1998) 6-25 Stearns, D.W. Certain aspects of fractures in naturally deformed rocks; in R.E., Riecker, ed., NSF Advanced Science Seminar in Rock Mechanics, Bedford, Massachusetts, Air Force Cambridge Research Lab., Spec. Report (1967) 97118. Apotria, T.G., Wilkerson, M.S., and Knewtson, S.L.: 3D geometry and controls on fracturing in a natural fault-bend fold: Rosario field, Maracaibo basin, Venezuela (abstract): AAPG Bulletin , 80 (1996) 1268. Salvani F and Storti F. Spatial distribution of fracture panels in Thrust-related Folds, Thrust Tectonics 99 , Royal Holloway University of London (1999) 96. Strayer Luther and Hudleston, P.J. Numerical modeling of folding initiation at thrust ramps, Journal of Structural Geology, 19 (1997) 551-566.

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Parnaud, Francois, Gou, Yves, Pascual, Jean-Claude, Capello, M.A., Truskowski, Irene, and Passalacqua, Herminio, Stratigraphic synthesis of western Venezuela, in Tankard, A.M., Suarez S, R., and Welsink, H.J., Petroleum basins of South America , American Association of Petroleum Geologists Memoir 62 (1995) 681-698. 10. Shaw, J.H.; Hook S.C. Suppe and J., "Structural trend analysis by axial surface mapping", AAPG Bulletin, 78 (1994) 700-721. 11. Bartok P., Reijers T.J.A., and Juhasz I., "Lower Cretaceous Cogollo Group, Maracaibo Basin, Venezuela: Sedimentology, Diagenesis, and Petrophysics", AAPG Bulletin (1981) 11101133