JAMAICA THEOLOGICAL SEMINARY DEPARTMENT OF BEHAVIOURAL SCIENCES

That I may know Him that I might make Him known COURSE: EDUCATIONAL AND PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTING AND

MEASUREMENT LECTURER: KIRK FRANKSON E-MAIL: Kirk.Frankson@jts.edu.jm

THE DECISION MAKING PROCESS IN COUNSELLING

Corsini (2000), Gladdin ( 2002), James and Gilliland (2010) and Parrott (2012) define counselling as a formal process of interaction between two or more parties for the purpose of relieving distress in thinking (cognitive) disorders, emotional (affective) discomforts or behavioral functions where the helper has theoretical knowledge and a LOGICALLY RELATED TREATMENT approach which is professionally recognized. Kofman and Young (2012) define teaching as the activities of educating or instructing; the activities should impart knowledge or skill which was carefully programmed. In both professions it is recognized that decisions will have to be made in a logical manner, based on the issues that are confronted. 1. Counselors will face of host of issues, which include but are not limited to (Parrott , 2012): Anxiety Being yourself Avoiding perfectionism Being honest with yourself and others about your limitations Difficult clients - demanding, uncommitted Establishing realistic goals Defining your role Giving advise Techniques Developing your own style Avoiding burnout

2. The effective counselor is one who ( Parrott , 2003): Avoids exploiting clients Is open to new thoughts and ideas (expanding their own self-awareness) Learns to recognize own areas of prejudice and vulnerability Is aware of their own needs, areas of unfinished business, potential personal conflicts, and defenses. Avoids projecting own needs on the client

THE DECISION-MAKING PROCESS IN COUNSELING Goals for counselors may be subdivided into three main categories (Corsini, 2000; Gladdin, 2002; James and Gilliland, 2003 and Parrott, 2003) : 1. Preventive Goals 2. Developmental goals 3. Remedial goals

Preventive goals include anticipating environmental stressors that may negatively influence welfare and initiating interventions that will neutralize such stressors ( James and Gilliland, 2003) . By initiating prevention efforts, predictable stressors can be reduced. Developmental goals are to encourage realistic self-appraisal, intellectual development, appropriate personal choices, promote the ability to relate meaningfully and effectively with others, and support the capacity to engage in a satisfying and productive lifestyle (James and Gilliland, 2003). This aspect of counseling is designed to foster growth in the client as they face the maturational tasks of life, such as: interpersonal competence, life/career planning, values clarification, a broadening capacity for emotional intimacy, and coping with diversity (Corsini, 2010). Developmental tasks are tasks which all people face at various stages of their lifespan: raising children, adjusting to old age. Developmental tasks involve both containing negative qualities and fostering positive qualities (Gladdin, 2002). Remedial goals include evaluating and assisting clients in overcoming current specific personal problems, inappropriate decision-making styles, and other factors that could negatively impact the client (James and Gilliland, 2012). . Maslow (1970) elucidated that counseling's major focus is on psychological wellness or on positive mental health. Thus counseling emphasizes increasing the individual's personal responsibility for creating and making their lives. Underlying this definition is a number of issues: 1. Resources or the factors of production are limited or scarce 2. A choice has to be made in relation to the use of these resources, given certain objectives and goals 3. Choice involves making a decision (i.e., a final outcome of a thinking process).

Decision-Making is therefore fundamental in the analysis of social issues and problems (Downes, 2012). In educational and psychological testing environments the, the policy-maker ( Example- Principal, Counselor, Elders in the Church ) has to make a decision relating to a particular situation (Example- Let a student remain behind , fund a new outreach programme designed for AIDs victims and discontinue the Church's premarital counseling programme ). You also have to make decisions daily and have made the decision to pursue a degree at the Jamaica Theological Seminary, and weighed several factors before undertaking this sojourn . In making the decision to , the policy-maker and his/her advisers will use both qualitative (Political and Social) and quantitative (Financial and Economic) data. Decision Making involves four (4) basic steps (Downes, 2002):

1. CREATIVE STEP -Finding an opening through a barrier of limitations, where limitations change according to the needs and wants of people and physical limitations are moved by developments in science and technology. New situations are constantly arising. 2. DEFINITION STEP- Alternatives that have originated in the creative step, or that have been selected for comparison in some other way, are defined. Alternatives are assessed according to different criteria.

3. CONVERSION STEP- This involves converting all the alternatives to a common measure so that they can be sensibly compared. This step involves the formulation of a decision model to aid the decision-maker.

4. DECISION STEP- Qualitative and quantitative information are brought together in making the final decision. Evaluation of alternatives is undertaken and a decision is taken using intuition but informed by good quantitative analysis.

Given uncertainty about the future, one of the objectives of testing and measurement is to find the best opportunity for the employment of limited resources (Friedenberg, 1995). Decisions made today relate to what happens in the future, hence there is an element of risk associated with decision-making. The use of Quantitative and Qualitative techniques helps to minimize this risk (Downes, 2002).

THE ROLE OF QUANTITATIVE TECHNIQUES IN DECISION MAKING As indicated earlier, counseling is a discipline concerned with the process and consequences of rational decision-making. The methods used by the decision-maker must play a central role in the process of decision-making and in the outcome of the process ( Downes, 2002). The analysis made by the counselor relies heavily on a range of quantitative techniques which will be introduced in this course. Each technique has been devised to answer a specific question so that the analyst must know the nature of the problem and the specifics of the techniques in order to make the correct choice.

A Social Decision Model therefore consists of the following steps (Downes, 2002): 1. Define the problem to be analyzed and solved. 2. Formulate the model 3. Acquire the data 4. Manipulate the model and develop the solution 5. Test the solution and analyze the results 6. Make the decision and implement the results. The use of tests and measurements has its advantages and disadvantages (Downes, 2002).
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ADVANTAGES 1. Forces the analyst (counselor or educator ) to be explicit in the formulation of the problem. 2. Identifies how variables are related in the chosen model 3. Helps to identify data needs and deficiencies 4. Provides benchmark solutions which can be used in the final decision process (combined with intuition) 5. Permits the analysis of alternative approaches and scenarios 6. Helps to clarify complex situations DISADVANTAGES 1. Can be difficult to explain to some decision-makers 2. Can be data-intensive 3. The optimal solutions may not be practical for implementation, hence qualitative analysis is needed as supplementation group that prepares an individual for social life and society

Example 1 The Government of Jamaica has been considering legalizing casino gambling and has asked the United Church of Jamaica and Grand Cayman to provide some feedback . What response should the Church make? Problem: What effects would legalizing gambling have on the Jamaican public and on traditional values ? Model: Model linking pleasure, use of financial resources and other control variables to casino gambling . Data: Time Series Data on a monthly/quarterly basis. Solution: Use time series computer program to estimate the model. Undertake simulations to check results under different scenarios. Decision: Use the results to determine the impact of changes on the policy of casino gambling on the Jamaican population and the extent of the impact. Example 2 You are the Guidance Counselor at Wolmer's Boys High School, which has decided to change its admittance policy to exclude all physically challenged and visually impaired students. Mr. Myrie the Principal has asked you, to determine what impact the decision would have on students . Problem: What is the impact changing the policy on all students ? Model: Create an Input-Output model. Data: Input-Output table and data, with the relevant policy variables. Solution: Use computer program to determine the impact on variables. Decision: The solution will indicate to the School how it should respond.